the influence of personality traits on career choice among secondary school students
TRANSCRIPT
THE INFLUENCE OF PERSONALITY TRAITS ON CAREER
CHOICE AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS
IN TANZANIA
Vincent Jalang’o Cosmas
M A (Applied Social Psychology) Dissertation
University of Dar es Salaam,
November, 2010
THE INFLUENCE OF PERSONALITY TRAITS ON CAREER
CHOICE AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS
IN TANZANIA
By
Vincent Jalang’o Cosmas
A Dissertation Submitted in (Partial) Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree
of Master of Arts (Applied Social Psychology) of the University of
Dar es Salaam
The University of Dar es Salaam,
November, 2010
i
CERTIFICATION
The undersigned certifies that he has read, and hereby recommends, for acceptance by the
University of Dar es Salaam, a dissertation with the title: “The Influence of Personality
Traits on Career Choice among Secondary School Students in Tanzania”, in partial
fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (Applied Social
Psychology) of the University of Dar es Salaam.
……………………………..
Professor Issa Mcholo Omari
(Supervisor)
Date:……………………..
ii
DECLARATION
AND
COPYRIGHT
I, Vincent Jalang’o Cosmas, declare that this dissertation is my own original work, and
that it has not been presented, and will not be presented, to any other University for a
similar or any other degree award.
Signature:………………………………...
This dissertation is copyright material protected under the Berne Convention, the
Copyright Act of 1999 and other international and national enactments, in that behalf, on
intellectual property. It may not be reproduced by any means, in full or in part, except for
short extracts in fair dealing, for research or private study, critical scholarly review or
discourse with an acknowledgement, without the written permission of the Directorate of
Postgraduate Studies, on behalf of both the author and the University of Dar es Salaam.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I owe special thanks to the Almighty God, whose power and protection was over me
throughout the time I worked on this dissertation. I am grateful to different people who in
one way or another contributed to the production of this dissertation, with my sincere
gratitude being expressed to my supervisor, Professor Issa Mcholo Omari, for his
academic support, intellectual guidance and great tolerance during my study, without
which, this study could not have been successfully produced.
I am also grateful to Mkwawa University College of Education (MUCE) for the financial
support they gave me that made my M.A study possible and affordable.
Special thanks go for my father, Mzee Cosmas, and my mother Regina for their parental
love, care, moral, and material support they gave me that made me become a person of
my own. Great thanks are also extended to my beloved daughter, Omach and my son
Marere and to my beloved wife Kissa, and to my friend Olisa Maina for their constant
prayers and moral support they gave me throughout my study. Lastly, I am grateful to my
fellow M.A students whose academic, social, and moral support was of great value during
the period of my study.
iv
DEDICATION
For the loving memory of my father, Mzee Cosmas Jalang’o, Uncle John Marere, sister
Devota, and brother Amani. May God rest their souls in peace. Amen.
v
ABSTRACT
Human differences and how these differences affect people’s daily lives have been, for a
long time, the subject of interest among personality psychologists. Thus, an understanding
of the relationship between personality traits and career interest is very important. The
objectives of the current study were: First, to investigate the relationship between
personality traits of extraversion and agreeableness and career choices, secondly, to find
out if within a personality trait, there were variations by levels of academic ability in
career choices, and finally, to find out whether career choices differed between boys and
girls of the same personality trait. A sample of 369 Form IV students, of whom 161 were
males, and 208 were females completed Extravert-Introvert Personality Scale, Agreeable-
Less Agreeable Personality Scale, and Career Check List.
The data were subjected to statistical analysis using Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS), Version 15.0. The findings showed that 62% of the introverts, 61.9% of
the agreeables, and 55.6% of the extraverts chose computation skills occupations. The
findings further revealed that, high academic ability subjects chose occupations in science
related fields by 67.4% of the introverts, 66.3% of agreeables, 62.0% of less agreeables,
and 59.8% of the extraverts. Low academic ability respondents chose occupations within
social services, by about 59.4% of extraverts, 56.5% of introverts, and 54.7% of the less
agreeables. On the other hand, about 63.5% of the agreeables with low academic abilities
chose computation skills occupations. It was further revealed that there were no sex
differences within extraversion personality trait in career preferences, while the study
showed sex differences within agreeableness personality trait.
It has been recommended that the best way to make students choose occupations which
match their personality traits, sex, and academic ability, was through the establishment of
a proper occupational and educational guidance and counselling services in school
environments.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Certification………………………………………………………………....... i
Declaration and Copyright…………………………………………………… ii
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………….. iii
Dedication…………………………………………………………………… iv
Abstract………………………………………………………………………. v
List of Tables..................................................................................................... xi
List of Figures................................................................................................... xii
CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM
1
1.0 Introduction........................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background to the Research Problem………………………………. 1
1.2 The Variety of Personality Typologies……………………………… 1
1.3 The Concept of Career Choice……………………………………… 4
1.4 Personality and Career Choices…………………………………….. 5
1.5 Structure of the Occupations available at Form IV and VI…………. 6
1.6 Statement of the Research Problem…………………………………. 7
1.7 Purpose of the Study………………………………………………… 8
1.8 Objectives of the Study…………………………………………… 8
1.9 Research Hypotheses……………………………………………… 8
1.10 Research Tasks and Questions……………………………………… 9
1.11 Conceptual Framework for the Study……………………………… 10
vii
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
13
2.0 Introduction......................................................................................... 13
2.1 Conceptualising Personality………………………………………… 13
2.2 Personality Typologies……………………………………………… 14
2.2.1 Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model of Personality………………………. 15
2.2.2 The Sixteen Personality Factor System…………………………....... 15
2.2.3 The Big Five Personality Traits Model…………………………....... 16
2.3 The Development of Personality in Individuals…………………..... 18
2.4 Schooling and Career Choices………………………………………. 20
2.5 Determinants of Career Choices…………………………………… 22
2.5.1 Available Opportunities and the Probability of Careers…………… 22
2.5.2 Social Economic Status of Parents and Career Choices…………… 22
2.5.3 Gender and Career Choices…………………………………………. 23
2.5.4 Culture and Career Choices…………………………………………. 24
2.5.5 Significant Others and Career Choices…………………………........ 24
2.6 The Formal Secondary School Education in Tanzania…………… 25
2.7 Available Careers and Career Choices in Tanzania………………… 26
2.8 Theories of Career Choices…………………………………………. 27
2.8.1 Trait and Factor Theory/Person-Environment Fit Theory………....... 28
2.8.2 Personality Based Theory………………………………………........ 29
2.8.3 Social Cognitive Theory of Career Choices…………........................ 30
2.8.4 Social Learning Theory and Career Choices………………………. 32
2.9 Personality Traits and Career Choices……………………………… 33
viii
2.9.1 Extraversion Personality Trait and Career Choices…………………. 34
2.9.2 Agreeableness Personality Trait and Career Choices……………..... 35
2.10 Academic Ability and Career Choices……………………………… 35
2.11 Sex Differences in Career Choices…………………………………. 37
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
39
3.0 Introduction...................................................................................... 39
3.1 The Study Area……………………………………………………. 39
3.1.1 Geographical Location of Iringa Urban District………………...... 40
3.1.2 Population of the District………………………………………….. 40
3.1.3 Economic Activities in the Districts………………………………. 40
3.1.4 Literacy Level in the Catchment Area…………………………… 41
3.2 Research Design………………………………………………….. 41
3.3 The Population and Sample of the Study…………………………. 42
3.4 Target Population…………………………………………………. 42
3.5 Sampling Procedures……………………………………………… 42
3.5.1 Selection of the Schools………………………………………....... 42
3.5.2 Selection of the Grade Level……………………………………… 44
3.5.3 Selection of the Streams………………………………………....... 44
3.6 The Sample Size………………………………………………….. 44
3.7 Data Collection Instruments………………………………………. 45
3.7.1 Student’s Career Check List………………………………………. 45
3.7.2 Personality Scales…………………………………………………. 46
3.7.2.1 Extravert-Introvert Personality Scale…………………………....... 46
ix
3.7.2.2 Agreeable-Less Agreeable Personality Scale…………………....... 47
3.7.3 Students’ Achievement Scores Sheet…..…………………………. 47
3.8 Pilot Study and Validation of the Instruments…………………..... 48
3.9 Administration of the Instruments………………………………… 49
3.10 Data Analysis Procedures………………………………………… 49
3.11 Ethical Considerations……………………………………………. 49
CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF THE
FINDINGS
51
4.0 Introduction...................................................................................... 51
4.1 Data Analysis Procedures…………………………………………. 51
4.2 Nature of the Subjects of the Study………………………………. 52
4.3 Personality Traits and Career Choices…………………………… 54
4.3.1 Extraversion Personality Trait and Career Choices……………… 54
4.3.2 Agreeableness Personality Trait and Career Choices…………....... 57
4.4 Personality Traits and Specific Occupation Choices……………… 59
4.4.1 Extraversion Personality Trait and Specific Occupational
Choices…………………………………………………………….
59
4.4.2 Agreeableness Personality Trait and Specific Occupational
Choices.……………………………………………………………
61
4.5 Academic Ability, Personality Traits, and Career Choices………. 63
4.5.1 Academic Ability, Extraversion, and Career Choices……………. 63
4.5.2 Academic Ability, Agreeableness, and Career Choices………….. 66
4.6 Sex, Personality Traits, and Career Choices……………………… 69
x
4.6.1 Sex, Extraversion, and Major Occupational Choices…………....... 68
4.6.2 Sex, Agreeableness, and Major Occupational Choices…………… 71
4.6.3 Sex, Extraversion, and Specific Occupational Choices…………… 73
4.6.4 Sex, Agreeableness, and Specific Occupational Choices…………. 75
4.7 Occupational Choices of Students by Science and Art Streams...... 77
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS
79
5.0 Introduction...................................................................................... 79
5.1 Determinants of Career Choices………………………………….. 79
5.2 Personality Traits and Career Choices……………………………. 80
5.3 Academic Ability, Personality Traits, and Career Choices………. 84
5.4 Sex, Personality Traits, and Career Choices……………………… 88
CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
92
6.0 Introduction...................................................................................... 92
6.1 Summary of the Study…………………………………………...... 92
6.2 Conclusions of the Study…………………………………………. 94
6.3 Recommendations from the Findings…………………………….. 95
6.3.1 Recommendations for Administrative Actions…………………… 95
6.3.2 Recommendations for Future Research…………………………… 96
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………….. 97
APPENDICES………………………………………………………………. 103
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Selection of Form IV Graduates in Form V in 2007 and 2008… 7
Table 2: Eligible Form VI Graduates for Selection for Higher Education
in 2008 and 2009………………………………………………..
7
Table 3: Characteristics of Sample Schools……………………………... 43
Table 4: Distributions of the Respondents by Schools…………............... 45
Table 5: Parental Education Backgrounds……………….……………… 53
Table 6: Parental Occupational Backgrounds…………………………… 53
Table 7: Pattern of Career Choices for Extraversion.…….……………… 56
Table 8: Agreeableness and Major Occupational Choices………………. 58
Table 9: Extraversion and Specific Occupational Choices……………… 60
Table 10: Agreeableness and Specific Occupational Choices……………. 62
Table 11: Academic Ability, Extraversion, and Career Choices………….. 65
Table 12: Academic Ability, Agreeableness, and Career Choices………... 67
Table 13: Sex, Extraversion, and Major Occupational Choices…………... 70
Table 14: Sex, Agreeableness, and Major Occupational Choices………… 72
Table 15: Sex, Extraversion, and Specific Occupational Choices………... 74
Table 16: Sex, Agreeableness, and Specific Occupational Choices……… 76
Table 17: Science and Art Students Occupational Choices………………. 78
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: The Six Major Occupational Categories………………………... 6
Figure 2: Conceptual Framework for the Study…………………………... 12
Figure 3: Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model of Personality…………………... 15
Figure 4: Sixteen Personality Trait Model………………………………… 16
Figure 5: The Big Five Personality Traits Model…………………………. 17
Figure 6: The Influence of the Self-efficacy on Career Choices………….. 33
xiii
1
CHAPTER ONE
BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
1.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the background to the research problem, the concept of personality,
types of careers, and the statement of the research problem. It also gives the research
objectives, hypotheses, research tasks, and questions, and conceptual framework for the
study.
1.1 Background to the Research Problem
It is an indisputable fact that human beings are quite different. The differences range from
psychological to physical appearances. These differences have great influence on how
people behave, think, and feel. Such differences have made psychologists to set out for a
search of what shapes individual characteristics.
Career choice among secondary school students is a very important process of which
students have to go through during their course of studies (Idd, 2007). The process is not
an easy one, as it is influenced by many factors, such as personality, learning experiences,
self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and interests (Levine, 1976), and personal goals
(Taasoobshirazi, 2007). Sometimes, it becomes a difficult process due to unemployment
and underemployment, which are very big challenges in developing countries, Tanzania
included.
1.2 The Variety of Personality Typologies
The concept of personality arises from the fascinating spectrum of human individuality
(Passer & Smith, 2004). It has been observed that people differ meaningfully, and have
distinctive behaviour patterns that help to define one’s identity as a person. Personality
2
has been described as the distinctive and relatively enduring ways of thinking, feeling,
and acting that characterises a person’s responses to life situations (Passer & Smith,
2004). Phares (1991), as cited in HeinstrÖm (2004) describes it as a pattern of
characteristics, thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that distinguishes one person from
another. These thoughts, feelings, and actions reflect an individual’s personality, and they
have the following characteristics. Firstly, they are seen as behavioural components of
identity that distinguishes individuals. Secondly, the behaviours are viewed as being
caused primarily by internal rather than environmental factors. Thirdly, a person’s
behaviours have an organisation as well as structure (Passer & Smith, 2004).
While it seems intuitive that the personality characteristics of individuals should relate to
job and career outcomes, empirically establishing these relationships has proved difficult
(Guthrie, Coate, & Schwoerer, 1998). The high level of research activity on industrial
applications of personality assessment during the 1950s and early 1960s was followed by
a period of prolonged dormancy. This was primarily due to inadequate psychometric
evidence on the reliability and validity of available personality instruments (Guion, 1965,
as cited in Guthrie et al., 1998). A fundamental problem was the absence of an accepted
taxonomy for normal personality. Recent years have witnessed a rebirth of interest in the
utility of personality testing in work settings. Thus, after fifty years of personality
research, there is a common agreement in the field that, five core personality dimensions
form the basis of personality (HeinstrÖm, 2004; Larsen & Buss, 2005; McAdams, 1994).
The five core personality dimensions are (1). Extraversion (for example, being sociable,
gregarious, assertive); (2). Agreeableness (for example, being empathic, good-natured,
cooperative); (3). Emotional Stability (viewed from the negative pole, for example, being
anxious, depressed, emotional, nervous); (4). Conscientiousness (for example being
3
dependable, reliable, careful, thorough); and (5). Openness to Experience (for example:
Being imaginative, curious, original, and broadminded). These have been given various
labels such as the “Five Factors Model”, the “Big Five” and the “High Five” (Costa &
McCrae, 1995; Goldberg, 1981; and McCrae & John, 1992 as cited in Larsen & Buss,
2005).
The big five personality traits have overtaken those traits proposed by earlier personality
psychologists who proposed extraversion-introversion personality (Boeree, 2006). It also
dominated the work of Eysenck (1952, 1967, and 1990), as cited in McAdams (1994),
who insisted on the existence of three traits only: Extraversion/introversion, neuroticism
and psychoticism. Furthermore, the big five dimensions have also overtaken the popular
work of Allport (1961) on the trait theory. For him, the structure of personality was
characterised by traits (Allport, 1961; McAdams, 1992). Allport’s traits theory proposed
that human personality is made of three types of traits. These, include cardinal traits,
central traits, and secondary traits (Allport, 1961; Boeree, 2006).
The greater degree of consensus, which the Big Five Personality Traits Model has
received over other trait taxonomies in the history of personality trait psychology, is due
to its empirical evidences. They include its replicability in studies using English language
trait words as items as in Goldberg (1981, 1990); John (1990), as cited in Larsen and Buss
(2005), and replicability in different languages and in different item formats, and its
easiness to measure through self-rating (Goldberg, 1990 as cited in Larsen & Buss, 2005).
However, the Big Five Personality Traits Model has been criticised by Larsen and Buss
(2005) and McAdams (1992). They argued that, the model fails to capture underlying
causal personality processes in which researchers are interested. For example, describing
4
someone as high on neuroticism may be useful in social communication or global
character descriptions, but it does not capture the underlying psychological processes
involved in things like feeling of guilty and being obsessed over worst case scenarios.
1.3 The Concept of Career Choice
The term career means an individual’s lifelong aspirations work patterns (Isaacson, 1985).
The World Book Encyclopaedia (1976) as cited in Idd (2007) defines career as a choice.
Thus, it encompasses the work history of an individual. Furthermore, Super (1957) in
Gelso and Fretz (2001) promoted the use of career to cover the sequences of major
positions held by a person throughout his or her preoccupation years, working years, and
retirement years. However, the term has been used interchangeably with the concept of
occupation, vocation, and job (Idd, 2007; Husein & Postlethwaite, 1985). Thus, career
can be taken to mean whatever legal occupational path taken by an individual for the sake
of earning life. Therefore, occupation, vocation, job, and career are used interchangeably.
Career choice, according to Ferry (2006) in Idd (2007), entails an individual life long
process of engaging the work world through choosing among employment opportunities
made available for him or her. Therefore, it is all about the process by which individuals
choose occupations or career paths to enter and develop throughout their life. Isaacson
(1985), asserted that throughout history, career choice and development has been
subjected to powerful pressures and influences that are caused by factors such as social
status, family, tradition, and societal views among others. Sometimes, the process
becomes difficult when there is either too many or too few job openings of which a
student has to choose.
5
Research in the fields of counselling and vocational psychology calls for an
understanding of the process by which individuals make career decisions. Since when
Parsons (1909) proposed the concept of person–job fit, psychologists have attempted to
identify how decisions are made and the optimal way to make them. Traditionally, career
researchers have attributed career decision making to a variety of variables, with
particular importance being placed on vocational interests, skills, personality, values,
available opportunities, and perceived abilities (Duffy & Sedlacek, 2007). Career choice
remains a critical decision that has obvious impact on the future life pattern of an
individual (Orenuga & Da Costa, 2006). Hence, an individual needs to make a wise
vocational choice. He or she should considers factors like clear understanding of the self,
attitude, ability, interests, ambition, resources and limitations, knowledge of requirements,
and conditions of work aspired for.
1.4 Personality and Career Choices
The interaction of personality and career is a subject, which has appealed to researchers
for many years (Guthrie et al., 1998). Holland (1997) in Guthrie et al. (1998) contends
that people gravitate towards occupations and work environment congruent with their
personal orientations. As a result, the choice of career is interpreted as an attempt to fulfil
a desired way of life through one’s work. In addition, Guthrie et al. (1998) argued that,
career choice reflects a person’s self-perception regarding his or her abilities, values and
personality along with assessments of how these individual aspects fit with a particular
occupation.
Moreover, Santrock (2006), basing his argument on Holland’s personality theory,
contends that individuals are more likely to enjoy the work and stay in the job longer
6
when they find careers that fit their personality. Therefore, a good match between
personality and career aspirations is very important in developing and maintaining
individuality.
1.5 Structure of Occupations Available at Form IV and Form VI
Occupation remains the most important activity in the life of all health human beings.
However, even though there are various occupational opportunities in the world of work,
some people, especially young adolescents are facing challenges in the process of
selecting, processing, and maintaining their careers (Biswalo, 1996). In the study of
career choices, the major initial task is that of classifying occupations into meaningful
categories. In educational and career guidance and counselling Biswalo (1996) classified
occupations into six categories as presented in Figure 1. These occupational categories are
also reflected in the work of Omari (1976) and Zacharia (2008). Given the complexities
of transformations and changes taking place in the world of work, there might be different
classifications that give occupational categories appropriate for different societies. Yet
this menu is comprehensive and all-inclusive such that it can give students the array of
choices to be made.
S/N Occupation Categories Examples of Occupations in Each Category
1 Outdoor Occupations Agriculture, forestry, fishery, sailing, flying, and hunting
2 Social Services
Occupations
Teaching, medicine, law, army, police, social work, and
nursing
3 Scientific Occupations Research, mathematics, chemistry, physics, biology, and
laboratory technician.
4 Computation Skills
Occupations
Bookkeeping, banking, accountancy, shop keeping, and
investment, computerization.
5 Mechanical Occupations Building, manufacturing, repairing, and mining
6 Artistic Occupations Drawing, sketching, painting, carving, music, and
architecture.
Figure 1: The Six Major Occupational Categories.
Source: Biswalo (1996).
7
1.6 Statement of the Research Problem
Secondary school education is a very important educational stage that prepares youths,
either to enter the world of work, or to go for further studies and professional training in
Tanzania.
In Tanzania, not all candidates finishing their Ordinary Level Secondary Education can
enrol to higher levels of formal education, such as university and other tertiary
institutions. This means that a majority of Form IV graduates are left out as portrayed in
Table 1. The same phenomenon applies to Form VI. Not all students are selected for
higher education as can be seen in Table 2. Therefore, one can ask such questions; where
do those students who do not get a chance for further education go? What career paths do
they take? Moreover, what factors guide their career choices?
Table 1: Selection of Form IV Graduates into Form V in 2007 and 2008
Year
Selected Not selected
Total
Percentage Frequencies Percentage Frequencies Percentage
2007 37,816 30.2 87,472 69.8 125,288 100
2008 43,052 26.4 119,803 73.6 162,855 100
Source: URT (2009a).
Table 2: Eligible Form VI Graduates for Selection for Higher Education in
2008 and 2009
Year
Eligible Ineligible
Total
Percentage
Frequencies Percentage Frequencies Percentage
2008 23415 51.97 21639 48.03 45054 100
2009 37790 73.29 13773 26.71 51563 100
Source: URT (2009b).
NB: Form VI graduates considered eligible for selection to higher education were
those with Divisions I, II, and III.
8
In Tanzania, little attention has been focussed on how personality traits influence career
choices. This has lead to little understanding of the influence of personality on the career
choices and development among secondary school adolescents in Tanzanian context. It
has also lead to poor understanding of what type of personality traits exist among
students. Indeed little is known of what occupation is associated with specific personality
trait, and how sex and academic ability shape career choices of ordinary level secondary
school students in Tanzania.
1.7 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between personality traits
and career choices among ordinary level secondary school students in Tanzania.
1.8 Objectives of the Study
The following specific objectives guided the present study;
1. To investigate the relationship between personality traits of extraversion and
agreeableness with career choices.
2. To find out if within a personality trait, there were variations by levels of
academic ability in career choices.
3. To find out whether career choices of boys differed from career choices of
girls within a personality trait.
1.9 Research Hypotheses
The following research hypotheses guided this study;
1. There is a relationship between personality traits of extraversion and
agreeableness and career choices.
9
2. There are no variations by levels of academic ability within a personality trait in
career choices.
3. There are no differences in career choices between boys and girls of the same
personality trait.
1.10 Research Tasks and Questions
The following tasks and questions guided the present study
Research Task One
1. Establish that there is a relationship between personality traits and career choices.
Research Questions for Research Task One
Which personality trait is common?
Which careers do extraverts mostly prefer?
What careers do introverts mostly prefer?
What careers are mostly preferred by agreeables?
What careers are mostly preferred by less agreeables?
Research Task Two
2. Find out if within a personality trait there were variations by levels of academic
ability in career choices.
Research Question for Research Task Two
Is there variability by levels of academic ability in career choices within a
personality trait?
Research Task Three
3. Find out whether career choices vary between boys and girls of the same personality trait
10
Research Questions for Research Task Three
Which occupations do boys mostly prefer?
Which occupations do girls mostly prefer?
1.11 Conceptual Framework for the Study
Conceptually, career interests and choices vary greatly from one individual to another,
depending on the dominant personality traits. According to Gelso and Fretz (2001), the
basic premise made by Holland was that people choose occupations as an expression of
their personalities. Therefore, the main idea is the degree of congruence or
correspondence between workers and their environment, which has been the main
framework for understanding occupational choice and career decision making over the
last century (Kidd, 2006). Congruence is the fit between an individual’s personality trait
and the environment in which he or she works or will work. The research challenge is that
of developing realistic models for studying how career choices are made, with personality
being a central variable.
One model that can form the conceptual framework for this study is given in Figure 2. It
comprises contextual variables such as culture, poverty, structure of the economy,
available job openings, and careers information. The predictor variables were personality
traits. The mediating variables include factors like peers influence, gender, academic
ability, grade level, social economic status (SES), and interest. The outcome variables,
which are the result of the interaction between contextual, predictor, and mediating
variables, are the career preferences and career choices. The directions of the arrows in
the figure show possible relationship between the variables as they interact as the person
11
struggles towards career decision making as well as career choosing process that reflects
his or her personality trait.
12
Figure 2: Conceptual Framework for the Study.
Contextual Variables
Culture
Poverty
Structure of
the Economy
Available Job
Openings
Careers
Information
Mediating Variables
Peers Influence
Sex
Academic Ability
Interests
Grade Level
Social Economic
Status
Outcome
Variables
Career
Prefere
nces
Career
Choices
Predictor Variables
Personality Traits that
include:
• Extravers
ion
• Agreeabl
eness
13
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the reviewed literatures related to the objectives of the study,
concept of personality, and its development, and career choices. It also presents a
synthesis of theories of career choices.
2.1 Conceptualising Personality
The field of personality psychology is concerned with the study of the total individual,
and with individual differences. To personality psychologists, the main concern is on the
way people differ from one another. For example, why people like and choose different
careers? Therefore, the study of personality focuses on a particular psychological process
as well as the relationships between different processes (Pervin, 1984). Some personality
theorists attempt to understand the complex relationships between the different aspects of
an individual’s functioning, including learning, perception, interests, and motivation.
Basing on the complexity in understanding human personality, some personality
psychologists study the biochemical and physiological aspects of how individuals
function. Others look at individuals and observe their overt behaviours (Pervin, 1984).
Still others define personality in terms of characteristics like unconscious processes that
are inferred from behaviours. Thus, various definitions of personality range from
processes internal to the person (covert behaviours) to overt behaviours in an
interpersonal context.
14
Yet, the working definition of personality remains that which represent those
characteristics of a person or of people generally, that accounts for consistent patterns of
behaviour. Allport (1961) describes it as the dynamic organisation within the individual
of those psychophysical systems that determine his or her characteristic behaviours and
thoughts. Thus, personality comprises the important, relatively stable characteristics that
may be observable, unobservable, and conscious or unconscious (Ewen, 1998 as cited in
Gibbons, 2007; Passer & Smith, 2004). However, Hall and Lindzey (1965), argued that
personality is better be defined by particular concepts contained within a given theory that
is considered adequate for the complete description or understanding of human
behaviours.
2.2 Personality Typologies
In trying to understand human personality, dozens of taxonomies of personality traits
have been proposed. Some of them have been mere lists of traits often based on the
intuitions of personality psychologists (Larsen & Buss, 2005). Over the past century,
there has been a lack of agreement about a common taxonomy of traits. The classification
based on the work of Allport, Cattell, Eysenck, and Wiggins represent taxonomies that
have solid empirical and theoretical justification. With such diverse classifications, the
most popular personality models include the Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model of
personality, The Sixteen Personality Factor System of Cattell, and the Five Factor Model
of personality by McCrae and Costa.
15
2.2.1 Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model of Personality
This model is more strongly rooted in biology (Larsen & Buss, 2005). Eysenck model is
based on traits that were said to be highly heritable and had a likely psychophysiological
foundation in which the included traits were Extraversion-Introversion (E), Neuroticism-
Emotional Stability (N), and Psychoticism (P) (Larsen & Buss, 2005; McAdams, 1994;
Pervin, 1984). These traits are summarised as given in Figure 3.
Trait Descriptors of the Personality
E Extraversion-
Introversion
Sociable, active, lively, venturesome, dominant, aloof and distant
N Neuroticism Anxiousness, irritability, guilty, lack self esteem, tense, shy, and
moody
P Psychoticism Aggressive, egocentrism, creativity, impulsiveness, lack empathy,
and antisocial
Figure 3: Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model of Personality
Source: Larsen and Buss (2005)
Eysenck’s personality classification has distinctive features from others as it is
hierarchical, starting with broad traits, which subsume narrower traits which in turn
subsume specific actions. However, this classification has been challenged to have
limitations. One limitation is that, many other personality traits also show moderate
heritability other than extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism. The second limitation
is that some of the important traits are missing in this taxonomy (Larsen & Buss, 2005).
2.2.2 The Sixteen Personality Factor Systems
Cattell, whose goal was to define, describe, explain, and predict all the important ways in
which people differ, developed this taxonomy. In trying to understand these differences,
Pervin (1984) argued that, for Cattell, it was the factor-analytic model that leads to
16
understanding of personality. The summary of the traits in the sixteen personality factor
system are presented in Figure 4.
Factor Trait Characteristic Manifestations
A Interpersonal
Warmth
Warm hearted, easy to get along with, personable, like being with
other people.
B Intelligence A rough indicator of intellectual functioning or efficiency of
processing information.
C Emotional
Stability
Able to work towards goals, good emotional control.
E Dominance Self-assertive, aggressive, competitive, forceful, and directive.
F Impulsivity Lively, enthusiastic, has many friends, prefer jobs that offer
variety and change, enjoy parties.
G Conformity Persistent, respectful to authority, rigid, conforming, likes rules
and orders, dislikes novelty and surprises.
H Boldness Like to be centre of attention, adventurous, confident, outgoing,
move easily into new social groups.
I Sensitivity Artistic, insecure, dependent, overprotected, prefers reason to
force in getting things done
L Suspiciousness Suspecting, jealous, dogmatic, critical, irritable, tend to be critical
of others e.g. accountants.
M Imagination Unconventional, impractical, unconcerned about everyday
matters, forget trivial things, e.g. mechanics
N Shrewdness Polite, diplomatic, reserved, socially poised and sophisticated,
have good control of their own behaviours.
O Insecurity Tends to worry, feels guilty, moody, sensitive to criticism,
anxious, lonely, feels dejected.
Q1 Radicalism Liberal attitude, innovative, analytic, prefer to break with
established ways of doing things.
Q2 Self-sufficiency Prefer to be alone, avoids group work and support from others.
Q3 Self-discipline Prefer being organised, thinks before acting/talking, neat, and
does not like to leave anything to chance.
Q4 Tension Anxious, frustrated, irritated by small things, gets angry with
others easily, often has trouble sleeping.
Figure 4: Sixteen Personality Factor System
Source: Krug (1981) in Larsen and Buss (2005).
2.2.3 The Big Five Personality Model
The Big Five personality model was originally based on a combination of a lexical and
statistical approach, which started in 1930s being pioneered by the work of Allport and
Odbert (1936) as cited in Larsen and Buss (2005). They identified 17,953 trait terms,
17
which contained roughly 550,000 separate entries (Larsen & Buss, 2005; McAdams,
1994). Allport and Odbert, divided the original set of trait terms into stable traits like
secure and intelligence; temporary states, moods, and activities such as agitated and
excited; social evaluations such as charming and irritating, and metaphorical, physical,
and doubtful terms like prolific and leaning (Larsen & Buss, 2005).
Later, Cattell reduced the personality traits list to 171 by grouping similar descriptors and
eliminating rare and metaphorical usage (Larsen & Buss, 2005; McAdams 1994). The
subsequent factor analyses of these personality trait clusters yielded the five large,
underlying factors (Fiske, 1949; Norman, 1963; Tupes & Christal, 1961 in Larsen &
Buss, 2005; McAdams, 1994), with Fiske (1949) being noted as the first person to
discover a version of the Five Factor Model of personality. Following the influential work
of McCrae and Costa (1987), in McAdams (1994), the popular version of the Big Five
Personality Traits are as presented in Figure 5.
Trait Factor Characteristic Manifestations
E Extraversion Sociable, fun loving, affectionate, friendly, spontaneous and talkative,
withdrawn, quiet, shy, inhibited, reserved, unaggressive, passive and
pessimistic.
N Neuroticism Sadness, anger, fear, anxiety, and guiltiness, worried, nervous and
insecure, low opinion of themselves, calm, hardy, secure, self-satisfied
and unemotional.
O Openness to
Experience
Original, imaginative, creative, complex, curious, daring, independent,
analytical, untraditional, artistic, liberal and have broad interests,
conventional, down-to-earth, uncreative, simple, incurious, and non
adventurous, conforming, traditional, inartistic, conservative, and
narrow interests.
C Conscientiousness Well organised, efficient and dependable, disorganised, messy,
inefficient, careless, negligent and undependable.
A Agreeableness Warm, cooperative, accommodating, helpful, patient, cordial,
empathic, kind, understanding, natural and sincere, antagonistic,
aggressive, harsh, unsympathetic, manipulative, scornful, crude and
cruel.
Figure 5: The Big Five Personality Model
Source: McAdams (1994)
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2.3 The Development of Personality in Individuals
Human development is broken down into stages of development. Stages explained by
theories like psychosexual development of Freud and Psychosocial theory of Erikson are
good examples (Papalia & Olds, 1990). Freud and Erickson maintained that human
beings pass through one stage to another in the course of their development. Personality
development is shaped by the interaction between heredity and the environmental factors.
Thus, it is believed that both genes and life experiences have a great role in shaping
human personality (Santrock, 2006). Genes create predispositions towards the traits that
are triggered by the experiences in the environment. They further maintain that, each
stage of development is characterised by a crisis that influences ego development. Each
crisis has either a good or a bad resolution, depending on the person’s ability to strike a
healthy balance of opposite quality.
Massam (2006) maintained that, from the time of birth, every individual is biologically,
and therefore genetically predisposed to approach the world with a possibility of varieties
of personality styles. Infant studies suggest that some variability in human behaviour is
the result of direct or indirect genetic differences. Thus, psychologists today agree that
both heredity and environment play a big role in human personality development as well
as influencing personality itself as the two interact. Therefore, it is the interaction and the
influence of heredity and environment with each other that shapes a person’s personality.
Hence, behaviour is a result of the struggles and compromises among motives, drives,
needs, and conflicts (Pervin, 1984).
The trait theory of personality development championed by Allport, Eysenck, and Cattell
assumes that people possess broad predisposition to respond in particular ways called
19
traits such as being outgoing, friendly, dominant, and assertive (Pervin, 1984). Traits are
ranges of possible behaviours to be activated at varying points within the range,
depending on the demand of the situation (Allport, 1961).
The trait theorists agree that traits are the fundamental building blocks of human
personality. They maintain that the personality development is a function of inherited
biological component of an individual trait (Pervin, 1984). However, the trait theory has
been criticised that, it focuses attention on individual differences and personality as a
central part of psychological investigation, while neglecting the concern with the
environmental variables and emphasising more on the behaviour consistency across
situations (Pervin, 1984).
On the other hand, the behaviourists’ view of personality development is quite different.
Behaviourists like Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner put more emphasis on the external
environmental determinants of the behaviour, which shape personality. Behaviourism
theory assumes that, behaviour is situational specific (Pervin, 1984). Their main principle
is learning. The theory maintains that human behaviour is the result of learning, which
depends on the reward variables from the environment. Pavlov’s classical conditioning
theory and Skinner’s operant conditioning works are the best model in explaining how
personality is moulded and shaped using environmental variables. This largely depends
on how a person is rewarded or punished.
Although behaviourism has grown out of research with animals, considerable efforts have
been made to relate it to principles of human development and growth (Pervin, 1984).
Personality development therefore, is considered natural since the socialisation of a
person is basically a learning process. Hence, it is believed, personality development is
20
the result of the use of materials and psychological rewards, which shape the behaviour.
However, the behaviourism theory has some pitfalls. Pervin (1984) argued that it has
oversimplified the behaviour, as the principles of learning used are derived from animal
research and other subhuman animals. The question is, are those principles involved in
human learning too?
Furthermore, Social Cognitive Theory of personality advocated by Bandura and Mischel
(1965) in Pervin (1984), view a person as active, using symbolic (cognitive) processes to
represent events and communicate with others, and capable of choices and self regulation.
The theory rejects the view that the person is either passive victim of the unconscious
impulses and past history or a passive respondent to environment. Thus, behaviour and
thereafter personality development is a result of the reciprocity between personal and
environmental determinants. Hence, cognitive process and the interplay between the
external and internal sources of influences are very important in personality development.
Moreover, the processes of observational learning (modelling) and self regulation are
prime to personality development.
2.4 Schooling and Career Choices
Career choice is a subject that has attracted academic, professional, as well as public
attention due to its multifaceted nature. Since a career is a result of the interplay between
individuals within organizational and social structures, it yields well to analysis from
diverse perspectives ranging from occupational psychology to organizational sociology
(Özbilgin et al., 2005). Research on career choice is common for occupational groups
such as accountants and health care professionals (Agarwala, 2008; Malach-Pines et al.,
2008; Orenuga & Da Costa, 2006; Özbilgin et al., 2005). The aim of such research has
21
often been to predict career choices behaviours based on personality as well as
demographic distributive factors.
Career is an evolving term, but can be defined as the evolving sequence of a person’s
work perceptions and experiences over time (Arnold, 1997, as cited in Gibbons, 2007).
The key aspects of this definition are an individual subjective perspective, a dynamic
view, and inclusion of all work experiences. The term career is usually used
interchangeably with occupation, work, vocation, and job.
Choice is a simple everyday word. It might normally pass without definition. Yet various
connotations suggest different degrees of rationality, or agency. Choice can connote a
rational decision making process, or it can connote unconscious decision making
processes (Gibbons, 2007). The dictionary definition of choice is the voluntary act of
selecting or separating from two or more things that, which is preferred, and the
determination of the mind in preferring one thing to another (Webster’s Dictionary,
1999). The definition incorporates two components: First, is the availability of
alternatives, which presents an objective reality, and the second is the act of preference,
which involves a subjective process. If a reference to career choice is made, availability
of career choices, and the dynamics of choosing a career should be examined. Hence, in
order for career choice to take place there should be alternative career routes available as
well as individual preferences between these career options. On the other hand, Gibbons
(2007) contended that occupational choice was used to connote a singular event, but now
a day can refer to a series of work-related decisions.
22
2.5 Determinants of Career Choices
Many researches have indicated that factors like Available opportunities and probability,
social economic status of parents, perceived competence, Culture, gender and significant
others have a greater influence on career choices of the individuals.
2.5.1 Available Opportunities and the Probability of Careers
Available opportunity, which is more associated with the economic situation of a specific
state, has a great influence on the individual’s career choice as it controls the availability
of jobs. Salami (2008), in his study on secondary school adolescents in South Western
Nigeria found that the economic situation shapes career choice of the youths. Agarwala
(2008), in his research on factors influencing career choice of management students in
India also contended that, the numbers of career options available to individual at a time
are influenced by external factors like labour market and the state of the economy.
Furthermore, Bai (1998) in Agarwala (2008) found that market economy had changed the
values of university students who put self-interest before the societal interests. Thus, the
degree of choosing a career can be attributed to the number of careers being offered by
the market. At the same time, probability of choosing certain career will also depend on
competition forces, level of skills, and rate of return.
2.5.2 Social Economic Status of Parents and Career Choices
Research by Agarwala (2008) concluded that, among other factors, education and family
background (Idowu & Dere, 1980) had a bigger influence on the career choice. For
example, Idowu and Dere found a significant relationship between SES and occupational
aspiration (2=26.36, p<.001). Moreover, studies by Blau et al. (1956) and Hollingsheed
(1949) as cited in Isaacson (1985) revealed almost the same findings. For example,
23
Hollingsheed showed that more than three-fourths of upper and middle class youngsters
hopped to attain professional or business, careers while less than ten percent of lower
working class youths held such a goal. On the other hand, Blau and his colleagues showed
the influence of social and cultural structure on the occupational choice as having an
effect due to their impact on individual’s personality development and on the economic
and social conditions in which occupational choices are made.
2.5.3 Gender and Career Choices
Researches show that gender has some great impact on the career choices among
individuals. Malach-Pines et al. (2008), analysed the articles that were focused on how
cultural values and beliefs as well as gender, differentially influence the career choices of
students toward managerial or entrepreneurial careers in six countries: Cyprus, Hungary,
Israel, Turkey, UK, and the USA. Findings revealed differences in influences on career
choice and development between women and men. In all six countries, women had a
more societal value orientation and tended to undertake more charity work, while men
were more likely to believe that competition was the law of nature and they were
choosing entrepreneurial career routes. Such findings were similar to those of Duffy and
Sedlacek (2007). Additionally, Metz et al. (2009) exposed the gender differences in the
aspirations and expectations of Mexican-American and European-American college
students, which followed traditional gender patterns. For example, more women than men
expected to work in social and conventional occupations, while more men than women
expected to work in realistic and investigative occupations.
Furthermore, Bourne and Özbilgin in their study on strategies for combating gendered
perceptions of careers noted that earlier work on career choice had identified gendered
24
processes that lead to differentiated career outcomes for women and men (Malach-Pine et
al., 2008). Thus, career choice between men and women vary greatly.
2.5.4 Culture and Career Choices
Malach-Pines et al. (2008) analysed the article titled, “the role of culture and gender in
the choice of a career in management” written by Malach-Pines and Kaspi-Baruch from
Israel. The article addresses the influence of culture and gender on the choice of a
management career among men and women MBA students. Findings showed large cross-
cultural differences in the influences and aspirations associated with career choices.
Therefore, it can be argued that the influence of culture on career choice and development
is immeasurable, depending on what value is put over the specific career to be chosen.
Likewise, Zacharia (2008) demonstrated that culture was a very strong determinant in
choosing military career among the Kuria youths in Tanzania.
2.5.5 Significant Others and Career Choices
Significant others are those people around an individual whom he or she considers very
important and can have an impact on her or his behaviours. They include parents, models
and others whom are highly respected. The work of Agarwala (2008) revealed that father
was the most significant individual influencing the career choice of Indian students. On
the other hand, teachers had a unique opportunity to influence their charges, who come to
be taught, and it is likely that the teachers' values are passed on as much unconsciously as
deliberately (Peil, 1973). In contrary, Mugonzibwa et al. (2000), showed that direct gain
and advice from important persons were perceived as least important in career choices
among high school students in Tanzania.
25
Moreover, Orenuga and Da Costa (2006) found that, influencing factors among the sixty
four students with dentistry as first choice were parents (Jodl, Michael, Malanchuk,
Eccles, & Sameroff, 2001) and other family members influencing 50% of the students.
Other influencing factors were friends (14.1%), dentists (12.5%), and teachers and
counsellors (4.7 %), and only 12 (18.8%) of the students reported that their choices were
out of personal interest.
2.6 The Formal Secondary School Education in Tanzania
In Tanzania, the formal secondary education consists of two sequential cycles- a four
years ordinary level (O-Level) and a two years programme of advanced level (A-Level)
secondary education (United Republic of Tanzania [URT], 2009a). The selection and
enrolment in O-Level secondary schools is made based on a pre-set national standard cut-
off points of performance in National Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE).
Whereas, the selection and enrolment in advanced level secondary education is based on
prescribed performance level in relevant A-level subject combination after attainment of
the appropriate credits in the certificate of secondary education (CSEE).
The form IV and VI examinations mark completion of secondary education cycles of
which the results of these examinations are used for selection of students for further
formal education and training (URT, 2009a). Since completion of secondary education
marks a transition period in which the youths are either, enter directly to the world of
work or go for further training, it is important to understand factors that guide these
young people in career choices and development.
In most African countries, Tanzania inclusive, secondary education is a springboard into
the world of work or into tertiary institutions for further preparation for gainful living
26
(Biswalo, 1996). This being the case, the key objective of secondary school education,
therefore, is to equip students with knowledge about careers and information about the
world of work especially those in forms III and IV.
In Tanzania for example, form III and IV students are placed in specific subject
disciplines, which are perceived to match with their interests and abilities. For example,
students are placed in art, science, and commerce disciplines. This placement makes most
of the students to determine their career path on the pursued disciplines. Hence, they
become more occupied with issues relating to their future career dreams (Zacharia, 2008).
2.7 Available Careers and Career Choices in Tanzania
Idd (2007) commented that career choice in formal sector in Tanzania as in other
developing countries is a current practice since it emerged during colonialism when
Western formal education system was first introduced by the missionaries and colonial
administrators. Thus, missionaries and colonial administrators (Omari, 1977) controlled
provision of education and job placement as well as job opportunities (available careers)
and number of posts.
After the independence of Tanganyika, the country faced acute shortage of work force to
take over the vacancies left by colonial expatriates. Secondary education was expanded to
train more people to fill these vacancies (Omari, 1977). Following the expansion, some
careers were given more weight as they were in need of the experts. Some of them
included teaching occupation, health service occupations, engineering; administrators,
executives, managers and directors; miscellaneous professional occupation (for example,
27
accountants, auditors, chemists, lawyers, social welfare workers, and librarians.) (URT,
1964).
Today there are more jobs opening in the world of work than before. The jobs range from
formal to non-formal ones. In Tanzania, for instance, this is more evident than it was
immediately after the independence in early 1960s. According to URT (1964), careers
listed for secondary school students were: Teaching occupation, health service
occupations, engineering, administrators, executives, managers, and directors. Others
were miscellaneous professional occupation (for example, accountants, auditors,
chemists, lawyers, and social welfare workers librarians.); skilled manual occupations
(mechanics, general electricians, printing presspersons, radio communication operators,
and sheet metal workers.), and skilled office occupations (for example, bookkeepers,
cashier, clerks, secretary and typists, skilled office machine operators, and bank tellers).
However, it precautioned that many occupations existed, which were not listed and which
were of equal importance to both the country as well as to the individuals. Therefore, the
intention was to inform secondary school students in respect of the occupations in which
by then, the shortage existed, and of which were important to the development and
progress of the country (URT, 1964). With such a broad field of choices that goes hand in
hand with the increased competition in the world of work, career choice has become a
very difficult one as so many pressures surround the youths.
2.8 Theories of Career Choices
There are many individuals, who for various reasons, view involvement with work in a
passive and accepting way. They take whatever job comes their way. In contrary, many
28
others feel a desire for self directions. They want to make choices about what they want to
do, how they live, and who they are (Isaacson, 1985). An important developmental task of
adolescents is to begin the process of making career decisions, and so decide what
occupations they wish to pursue. It has long been realized that students have difficulties in
making career decisions. If these difficulties are not addressed, students may make less
than optimal career and academic choices, which can have significant implications for
their future (Fouad, Cotter, & Kantamneni, 2009). Therefore, it is of necessity to
understand theoretical framework that explain how and why individuals make their
choices especially with regard to career.
2.8.1 Trait and Factor Theory/Person-Environmental Fit Theory
The essence of trait and factor theory is based on the individual unique set of
characteristics or traits. Parsons (1909) maintained that, people are different from each
other so do jobs. Thus, there should be congruence or correspondence between a person
and the career aspired. Basing on the early work of Parsons, it was suggested that a wise
vocational choice require a clear understanding of self, including attitudes, abilities,
interests, ambitions, resources, and limitations; a knowledge of requirement and
conditions in various line of work as well as true reasoning to discover the relationship
between these two sets of data (Isaacson, 1985).
Furthermore, Stefflre and Stewart (1970) in Isaacson (1985) listed five assumptions that
are basic to the theory. The assumptions are: (1). Vocational development is largely a
cognitive process, in which individual uses reasoning to arrive at his/her decision, (2).
Occupational choice is a single event, (3). There is a single right goal for every one
making decisions about work, (4). A single type of person works in each job, and (5).
29
There is an occupational choice available to each individual. It can be argued that
individuals are supposed to choose career basing on their clear understanding of
themselves as well as the application of knowledge (cognition) they have about that
particular occupation.
2.8.2 Personality Based Theories
Isaacson (1985) summarised the idea of Roe and Holland who suggested that the
appropriateness of an occupation for an individual depends upon that individual’s
personality, which is a product of early life experiences. Roe’s work is based on the idea
of Maslow, who proposed that there is a hierarchy of psychological need (Isaacson,
1985). The idea maintains that lower order needs are so strong, take precedence over the
other needs, and prevent their appearance until the former are reasonably satisfied.
Roe, after several studies on personality characteristics of several groups of scientists,
concluded that, experiences in early childhood have a greater influence on individual
vocational choice and career development later in life (Isaacson, 1985). However, Roe’s
theory is challenged by observations that children are subjected to many other influences
even within the earliest years of their childhood. In any case, that work remains very
important in explaining career choices made by people.
On the other hand, Holland suggests that earlier life history, self-perceptions, and values
are among the factors that have been influencing career choices (Isaacson, 1985).
Holland’s theory assumes that people have developed a set of behaviours, or personality
that is characteristic, persistent, and relatively permanent. He also assumes that people
express their personalities through the choice of vocation. Holland (1966, 1973) in
30
Isaacson (1985) asserted that there are six types of personalities, which converge with six
types of environments. His six personality and environment types include realistic,
investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional (RIASEC). Thus, a person’s
behaviour is determined by an interaction between his/her personality and the
characteristics of the environment. Therefore, personality based theories of career choice
express that an individual will choose and enter the occupation that reflects his or her
basic nature (Isaacson, 1985).
Nevertheless, Holland’s theory has been criticised as being too simplistic, sexist, and that
it has failed to recognise social changes of recent years, as well as failure to deal
adequately with how people develop their personality types.
2.8.3 Social Cognitive Theory of Career Choices
The Social Cognition Career Theory (SCCT) (Lent, Brown, and Hackett, 1994 in Kidd,
2005) attempts to explain the development of interests, educational and career choices,
and performance and persistence in education and work. The SCCT grew out of Albert
Bandura’s social cognitive theory. It attempts to address issues of culture, gender, genetic
endowment, social context, and unexpected life events that may interact with, and
supersede the effects of career-related choices.
The SCCT focuses on the connection between self-efficacy belief, outcome expectations,
and personal goals that influence an individual’s career choices. Bandura (1986), in Kidd
(2005), defines self-efficacy belief as people’s judgements of their capabilities to organise
and execute courses of action required to attain designated levels of performance. SCCT
proposes that career choice is influenced by the beliefs the individual develops and refines
31
through four major sources: (a) personal performance accomplishments (b) vicarious
learning (c) social persuasion, and (d) physiological states and reactions (Bandura, 1997
as cited in Kidd, 2005). As elaborated in Figure 6, these aspects work together in the
career development process through a process in which an individual develops the ability
for a particular venture and meets with success. This process reinforces one’s self-
efficacy or belief in future continued success in the use of an acquired expertise. As a
result, an individual is likely to develop goals that involve continuing involvement in that
activity. Through an evolutionary process, beginning in early childhood and continuing
throughout adulthood, one narrows the scope to successful occupation to focus on and
form a career goal and choice.
The interesting aspect of the SCCT is that it influences career related goals, which
thereafter, influence selection and practice of career related activities. At the same time,
self-efficacy remains an independent predictor of goals, career choice, and attainment
(Kidd, 2005). The SCCT differs from career theories in its dynamic nature. Through its
focus upon the role of the self-system, and the individual’s beliefs, the inherent influences
of the social and economic contexts are addressed.
32
Figure 6: The Influence of the Self-efficacy on Career Choices
2.8.4 Social Learning Theory and Career Choices
Krumboltz, in 1976 (Isaacson, 1985) developed a theory of career decision making
based on social learning. Career decisions are the product of an uncountable number of
learning experiences encountered by individuals in a particular environment of which, is
followed by rewards or punishments that produce the uniqueness of the individual
(Isaacson, 1985). In other words, people choose their careers based on what they have
learned.
Krumboltz proposed that career choice is influenced by four main factors that include
genetic influences, environmental conditions and events, learning experiences, and task
approach skills, for example, performance standards and values, and information
seeking and processing (Isaacson, 1985).
The theory sees an individual as the one who encounters environmental, economic,
social, and cultural events and conditions of which he or she learns from and become
Personal
Performance
Accomplishment
Vicarious Learning
Social Persuasion
Physiological
States & Reactions
Self-efficacy Career Choices
33
able to build self-observations and task approach skills that are applied to new events
and encounters. The aspect of instability, however, complicates the process, since the
individual changes as a result of the continuous series of learning, experiences as well as
changes in the environment, culture, and social conditions (Isaacson, 1985). The
consequences of these factors and most particularly learning experiences lead people to
develop beliefs about the nature of careers and their role in life (self-observational
generalizations). These beliefs, whether realistic or not, influence career choices and
work related behaviours.
In sum, how one forms an initial career choice is a multidimensional process of
development that is very inclusive. It can be argued that people play an active role in the
formation process of initial career choices through participation in activities in their
environment. Some key factors that can influence career choices include: Competency in
planning, attitudes, consistency of choice, crystallization of traits, the person’s
individuality, socioeconomic status, faulty beliefs, self-knowledge, self-efficacy,
freedom of choice, prestige of career, interests, career gender types, and personality
types. The career choice process is thought to be a learned skill and a problem-solving
activity (Zunker, 2008).
2.9 Personality Traits and Career Choices
Personality, among other factors is the most important career determinant factors. Holland
(1997) as cited in Guthrie et al. (1998) contended that people gravitate towards
occupations and work environment congruent with their personal orientations. As a result,
the choice of career is interpreted as an attempt to fulfil a desired way of life through
one’s work. According to Guthrie et al. (1998), career choice, reflects a person’s self-
34
perception regarding his or her abilities, values, and personality along with assessments of
how these individual aspects fit with a particular occupation.
Furthermore, Santrock (2006), basing his argument on Holland’s personality theory
argued that, individuals are more likely to enjoy the work and stay in the job longer when
they find careers that fit their personality. Furnham (1992) maintained that people tend to
be attracted to tasks and abilities that they do well, suit their temperament arousal needs,
and skills. Therefore, a good match between personality and career aspiration is very
important in developing and maintaining a career.
2.9.1 Extraversion Personality Trait and Career Choices
Personality psychologists appreciate human differences as well as occupational interests.
The information relating to introverts’ vocational choices seems clearer than that for
extraverts (Furnham, 1992). Due to reasons like aptitude differences, school, college or
university achievement differences, and/or vocational interests, introverts are more
likely to choose task oriented, and technical professions, than the extraverts are. An
introvert orientation seem to be towards ideas and structured, detailed work as opposed
to the less well ordered and more practical person oriented occupations. This clear
picture, is because, introverts are consistent in stating their occupational interest, values,
and aspirations than are extraverts (Furnham, 1992).
Pillai (1975), in Furnham (1992), investigated more than 400 high school students in
India. The finding showed that more introverted students, both valued and aspired for
the traditional, high status professional vocations. Whereas, more extraverted students
35
stated more liberal, less socially conforming values, and their actual aspirations were
governed more by the immediate status and monetary considerations.
2.9.2 Agreeableness Personality Trait and Career Choices
Agreeableness personality trait is a continuum from agreeable in one end of the scale to
less agreeable on the other end. Agreeableness trait incorporates expressive qualities of
love and empathy, friendliness, cooperation and the like (McAdams, 1994). Their motto
is let us all get along. On the other hand, Wu and Clark (2003) in Larsen and Buss
(2005) strongly linked less agreeableness to a host of everyday behaviours such as,
slamming doors, yelling, hitting someone in anger, blowing up when things do not work
properly, raising voices, and being intentionally rude as well as destructive. The cardinal
goal of agreeable person is harmonious social interaction and cooperative family life
(Larsen & Buss, 2005).
In career choice, agreeable persons selectively prefer occupations that their likeability is
an asset (Larsen & Buss, 2005). Study by Caprara et al. (2003) as cited in Larsen and
Buss (2005) showed that politicians tend to score high on scales of agreeableness.
Furthermore, meta analyses of the relationships of RIASEC interests to the Big Five
have strongly supported the relationships between agreeableness and social related
occupational interests (Betz, 2007).
2.10 Academic Ability and Career Choices
Eckland (1965), argued that academic ability contributes to achievement at all levels of
education. Thus, location in class structure is an important determinant of achievement
in both primary and secondary schools as well as a strong determinant of who goes to
36
college. He also maintained that, observations showed that ability is perhaps the
dominant factors that influence mobility and that it accounts for occupational
achievement quite independently of the amount of formal education attained.
Furthermore, Pinquart, Juang, and Silbereisen (2004) in their study in Germany,
concluded that beliefs in ones capabilities and high academic abilities were the
important resources in vocational reorientation in times of social change.
In addition, it has been argued that men and women show varied cognitive abilities, so
they perform differently in different academic subjects. Maccoby and Jacklins (1974) in
Archer and Lloyd (2002) argued that, on average, men perform better, especially on tests
related with spatial and mathematical ability, although women may perform better than
men on tests of verbal abilities. Thus, men tend to follow occupations that require
exceptional skills and abilities. Therefore, a great concentration of males in science and
technology might have resulted from their higher overall spatial and mathematical
abilities (Archer & Lloyd, 2002). In contrary, Marshall and Simpson (1943) found that
possession of high intelligence was associated with making tentative occupational
choices.
However, Farmer (1985), in Furnham (1992), noted that inevitable background
demographic factors like age, race, and schooling; environmental factors like parental
and teachers support as well as personal factors like self-esteem, competitiveness, and
co-cooperativeness all combine to affect various dimensions of individual achievement
in various ways. Ackerman and Beier (2003) through their process, personality, interests
and knowledge (PPIK) theory, emphasised the importance of individual differences in
ability interests and personality traits in the acquisition of knowledge throughout life
37
span. They proposed that ability (intelligence-as-process), is directed by personality and
interest traits towards specific domains.
2.11 Sex Differences in Career Choices
There is a well established body of knowledge on sex differences. This has been used to
explain why men dominate some occupations than women in the world of work. Thus,
women and men have different career aspirations. Hence, they find themselves in
different occupations. As a result, males dominate scientific and technological
occupations (Archer & Lloyd, 2002).
Traditionally, women are associated with the domestic sphere, and their assumed
characteristics tend to be those that fit them for this rather than the world of work. As a
result, women prefer occupations that require feminine qualities while men prefer those
which require masculine characteristics (Archer & Lloyd, 2002). Since men and women
posses different abilities and skills, they find themselves suited in different occupations
when it comes to the career choices. Hence, many low-status occupations consists
mainly females than males.
In trying to establish sex differences in career choices among English secondary school
students, Archer & Lloyd (2002) found that, boys and girls begin to follow stereotyped
careers when they choose modern apprenticeships. Such sex differences were also
evident in the work of Archer and McCrae (1991), Archer and Freedman (1989) in
Archer and Lloyd (2002) who studied UK secondary school curriculum and British
further-education college students respectively. They found that subjects like social
education, religious and home economics, sociology, French and biology, were viewed
38
as feminine. Whereas, craft, design and technology, physics, engineering and
mathematics were viewed as masculine, hence for men. Sprey (1962), studied sex
differences in occupational choices among Negroes. The findings showed that more
Negro boys wished to become skilled workers, while girls wished to become white
collar workers. According to Lipa (2008), men and women show very large differences
in their gender related interests. Men are more interested in things oriented activities and
occupations like mechanics and engineering (realistic occupations), whereas, women are
more interested in people oriented activities and occupations like teaching and nursing
(social occupations) (Lipa, 2008; Patton & Creed, 2007).
The causes for sex differences in occupational choices are theorised to be associated
with social structure, social roles, and gender ideologies (Lipa, 2008; Owuamanam,
1982) that accompany and sustain patriarchal social structures and social roles. These
factors subject girls and boys to different socialization pressures and practices that result
in sex differentiated patterns of behaviours, which encourage different interests as well
as activity levels, differentiated personality traits, and social skills. As a result, men
always prefer more male-typical occupations than women do (Lipa, 2008).
39
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter describes the research methods and procedures that were employed in the
study. It describes the study area, the study design, target population, sample and
sampling procedures. It also provides a description of the instruments used for data
collection, pilot study, and validation of the instruments, ethical considerations, and
administration of the instruments, as well as data analysis and statistical procedures.
3.1 The Study Area
This study was conducted in Iringa urban district in Iringa region, in southern highlands
in Tanzania. The area was purposively selected due to the following reasons; one, the area
had been experiencing a sprout of universities like Mkwawa University College of
Education (MUCE), St Augustine Ruaha University College (RUCO), and Tumaini
University. Thus, educationally, the area was experiencing a new turn in educational
expansion and increased awareness of opportunities in the world of work. Two, there was
no similar study focussing on secondary school students which had been conducted in the
area. Therefore, the researcher thought that secondary school students in the area could
give relevant information to suit the study. Three, since the area is a growing urban
environment, it drew students from both urban and rural areas, and from different socio-
economic backgrounds, hence the researcher expected to get data which could be truly
reflecting the nature of Tanzania’s secondary school students towards career choices.
40
3.1.1 Geographical Location of Iringa Urban
Iringa urban district extends along a hilltop overlooking the Ruaha River to the south, and
spreads along the ridges and valleys to the north. It is situated on a plateau that ranges
from 1,500 to 2,500 metres above the sea level. It also lies along latitudes 70
S of equator
and longitudes 340
E of the Greenwich Meridian with an area of 162 square kilometres
(REDET, 2007). The District is bordered to the North, East, and West by Iringa Rural
District and to the South by Kilolo District.
3.1.2 Population of the District
Iringa municipality had a population of 134,831 people (Iringa Municipality Council
Development Report, 2007). The annual population increase rate is 1.6 percent. With the
coverage of an area of 162 square kilometres, the area had a population density of 832.3
persons per square kilometre. The indigenous inhabitants are Wahehe, Wabena, and
Wakinga. However, the population also consists of smaller groups of people from
different districts in Iringa region as well as from other regions of Tanzania.
3.1.3 Economic Activities in the District
The area’s economy depends on agriculture and livestock production, which is carried out
in the fringes of the municipality. About 40 percent of the population involve themselves
in agriculture and livestock production (Iringa Municipality Council Development
Report, 2007; REDET, 2007). Other activities include both small scale and medium scale
industrial activities, which is occupied by 20 percent of the population; commercial
activities is occupied by 30 percent of the total population, and other economic activities
including formal employment and tourism taking the 10 percent of the total population.
The average Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was 25,559,432,600/= Tanzanian Shillings
41
in 2006 with an average Per Capital Income of 183,309/= Shillings per year per individual
(Iringa Municipality Council Development Report, 2007).
3.1.4 Literacy Level in the Catchment Area
The overall adult literacy level of Iringa region is about 86.2 percent for the population
aged 15-24 years old (EFA, 2000). The rate has been increasing. For Iringa Municipality,
literacy rate for the population aged 5 years old and above was 87 percent in 2003 (NBS,
2003). Currently, the overall literacy rate in the district reaches 90 percent due to
increased accessibility in education.
3.2 Research Design
This study employed a survey research design. The design was considered more
appropriate than others due to the following reasons. Firstly, since the intention was to
generate large sets of descriptive data, the design was appropriate, since, it has a power of
generating numerical data that could be used to describe the variables in the study
(Creswell, 2009; McMillan & Schumacher, 2006). Secondly, the design served as a
means of verifying the relationship or associations that exists between the study variables
(Gable, 1994). Since it has a verification power, it gains support from McMillan and
Schumacher (2006), who argued that it is the best way of obtaining a representative
description of traits, beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours of a population. This was possible,
since the design provided an opportunity to respondents to complete the questionnaires by
themselves.
42
3.3 The Population and Sample of the Study
A population is any group of units which have one or more characteristics in common and
that are of interest to the researcher (Best & Kahn, 2006; Creswell, 2005). The population
of this study included all secondary schools in Tanzania. From these schools, all Form IV
students were included in the population of the study.
3.4 Target Population
The target population for this study was all secondary schools in Iringa urban district. The
district has 23 secondary schools with about 12,430 students enrolled in them. The
schools are divided into government, private, and community secondary schools. They
included Mwembe Togwa, Highlands, Mlamke, Lugalo, Spring Valley, Kitwiru,
Consolata, Kweru, Retco, and Cagliero. Other schools were Iringa girls’, Isimila, Kleruu,
Mawelewele, Ruaha, Kihesa, Mtwivila, Miyomboni, Mkwawa, Kwakilosa, Mlandege,
Ipogoro, and Tagamenda. From these schools a representative sample of schools, and
grade level for the study were selected.
3.5 Sampling Procedures
This study employed the sampling procedures described hereunder as far as the selection
of the schools, grade level, streams, and students were concerned.
3.5.1 Selection of the Schools
The purposeful sampling procedure was employed in the selection of the sample schools.
Four schools: Lugalo, Highlands, Iringa girls, and Kleruu were selected due to the
following reasons. Firstly, it was assumed that the schools had all the characteristics
observed in other secondary schools. This was because these schools have been operating
43
for a long time so that students admitted to them were considered to have a well
established determination towards success in education and towards establishment of a
stable career path. Secondly, they were purposively selected due to their geographical
location, which made it convenient for the researcher to access them as they were easily
reached. This saved both time and costs. Thirdly, the schools are situated at the centre of
the town, and therefore, it was believed that students from these schools had a great
contact with the outside world through the interaction with sources of information like
radio, televisions, and newspapers. This made them being updated with social, economic,
and political issues as well as career information. Fourth, the purposive sampling was
considered appropriate basing on the characteristics of the schools as in Table 3. Such
characteristics were considered very important, as the students sample was heterogeneous
in nature, hence the focussed information was obtained. The purposive selection of these
schools is in line with McMillan and Schumacher (2006), who argued that in a
quantitative study the emphasis is more on relying on the judgement of the researcher to
select a sample that is representative of population or that includes subjects with needed
characteristics or information rich people.
Table 3: Characteristics of the Sample Schools
School School Characteristics Students by Sex
Total Boys Girls
Lugalo Day & Boarding, Co-education 90 99 189
Highlands Day School, Co-education 121 141 262
Iringa Girls’ Boarding School, Single Sex
Education
00 91 91
Kleruu Day School, Co-education 109 72 181
Total 320 403 723
44
3.5.2 Selection of the Grade Level
From each sample school, Form IV classes were purposively selected. The reason for
selecting Form IV classes was that, they were in their final year of completing ordinary
level secondary education cycle, which determines either, their direct entrance into the
world of work, or their further education. Biswalo (1996) and Kidd (2006), studies
indicated that individuals at age 17 or 18 years, who in Tanzania’s context are in Form
IV, are in a realistic stage of career development. Their career choices are more focused
and made integrating individual interest, capacity, values, and realities in the world of
work than those in lower grades.
3.5.3 Selection of the Streams
Simple random sampling technique was used to select the streams for the schools that had
many Form IV streams, while for some schools, the whole class was included in the
study. The streams were identified by being assigned alphabetical letters, which were
written on pieces of papers, mixed up in a container, and then researcher picked one paper
at a time until the required numbers of the streams were obtained. The procedure was
repeated to every sample school. Thus, two Form IV streams C and D from Lugalo, A and
C from Highlands, and B and C from Kleruu were selected. Whereas, the whole Form IV
class from Iringa girls’ was included in the study as there were only two streams with
reasonable number of students. From the randomly selected streams, in each sample
school, all students who were available were included in the study.
3.6 The Sample Size
Sample is the smaller set of respondents, usually studied by researcher for generalizing
about the characteristics of target population (Borg & Gall, 2003; Creswell, 2005). The
45
sample size of this study included 369 Form IV students. The sample size of this study
was obtained basing on the Cohen et al. (2000) sample table. The sample was carefully
selected with close observations of characteristics like age, gender, and grade level. Table
4 summarises the students sample for the study.
Table 4: Distribution of the Respondents by Schools
School Students
Total
Percentage
% Boys Girls
1 Highlands 48 39 87 23.6
2 Iringa Girls - 82 82 22.2
3 Kleruu 61 47 108 29.3
4 Lugalo 46 46 92 24.9
Total 161(43.6%) 208 (56.4%) 369 100
3.7 Data Collection Instruments
A questionnaire (Appendix 1), which combined three instruments, was used to obtain data
for this study. Part one of the instruments included, Student’s Career Check List, part two
covered Extravert-Introvert Personality Scale (EIPS), and part three included Agreeable-
Less Agreeable Personality Scale (ALPS). Additionally, annual examination results were
used to represent academic performance for the current study.
3.7.1 Student’s Career Check List
The Career Checklist reflected the occupational categories of Biswalo (1996). Eight
major occupational categories with three examples in each category were presented to
students (Appendix B). They were asked to rank the eight (8) occupational categories in
order of their preferences, starting with number one (1) as an indication of the most
highly preferred occupations. From each of the eight ranked occupational categories,
respondents were again required to rank the three (3) examples of occupations in order of
46
preferences, from 1 to 3, with number 1 indicating the most preferred career, followed by
2, and 3. Later during data analysis, the eight (8) ranking of the major occupational
categories were collapsed into three groups, that is, first, second, and third ranking. This
was done with the assumption that first, second, and third rankings could indicate the
most highly preferred first choice of occupations, while fourth and fifth were considered
to mark the most preferred second choices, and sixth, seventh, and eighth were regarded
as the representative of the mostly preferred third choices.
3.7.2 Personality Scales
The two personality scales of Extravert-Introvert and Agreeable-Less Agreeable were
originally adopted from Shepherd (1994). Thereafter, some of the statements were
modified to suit the Tanzanian environment, as they were not culturally and socially
appropriate. For example, a statement like “Do you or would you like to fire guns?” was
modified to read as: “Do you or would you like to fire arrows, stones or machetes to your
fellow students?” However, the researcher was also able to review the Personality Scale
designed by Costa and McCrae (1998) but the decision was made to adopt and use that of
Shepherd based on the reasons that it had simple items of which many were truly
reflecting the Tanzanian cultural environment and were easy to score.
3.7.2.1 Extravert-Introvert Personality Scale
This scale contained 30 statements (Appendix C). The student was to mark the most
appropriate level of agreement on a three point scale. The highest score in this scale was
90 points, while the lowest score was 30 points. The student had to respond to the
statements by ticking the appropriate answer, which he/she thought was truly describing
47
his or her feelings. The scale options carried weights as follows: Always=3, Sometimes=2,
and Never=1. Some examples of the statements in the scale included:
At work or at play, do other people find it hard to keep up with your pace?
Always Sometimes Never
Do you enjoy spending most of your time alone?
Always Sometimes Never
3.7.2.2 Agreeable-Less Agreeable Personality Scale
This scale contained 30 statements (Appendix D). The student was to mark the most
appropriate level of agreement on a three point scale. The highest score in this scale was
90 points while the lowest score was 30 points. The student had to respond to the
statements by ticking the appropriate answer, which he/she thought was truly describing
his or her feelings. The scale options carried weights as follows: Yes=3, Sometimes=2,
and Never =1. Some examples of the statements in the scale included:
Do you think most peace lovers are just cowards?
Yes Sometimes Never
In your class, are you considered a gentle person?
Yes Sometimes Never
3.7.3 Students’ Achievement Scores Sheet
Student’s achievement score sheet was a form used by the researcher to record the end of
Form III annual examination results (Appendix E). In filling this form, the school
academic performance record books were reviewed in order to obtain information on
students’ academic performance in the compulsory academic subjects that were Basic
Mathematics, History, English, Geography, Civics, Kiswahili, and Biology. The end of
48
Form III annual examination results were opted for as they form part of the continuous
assessment marks and they were the most current students’ examination results available
as the study was conducted earlier at the beginning of the Form IV year. Therefore, they
were considered to reflect the academic ability of the students in order to meet the
purpose of the study.
3.8 Pilot Study and Validation of the Instruments
Originally, the instruments were written in English Language, and then translated in
Kiswahili Language. Given the nature of the respondents, this was very important, as
most of them were likely to understand better in Kiswahili than in English. The
instruments were then back translated to English. The translation and back- translation
were done to ensure the environmental validity of the instruments.
Furthermore, the instruments were subjected to the pilot study at Pugu Secondary School
in Dar es Salaam region. A group of 38 Form IV students responded to the instruments.
The analysis of the pilot study results and the discussion and guidance from the
supervisor provided an opportunity for the researcher to assess the appropriateness and
practicality of the instruments. It also, allowed the researcher to amend, and refine the
instruments in order to improve their accuracy and correctness before the actual fieldwork
was carried out.
3.9 Administration of the Instruments.
The instruments were administered by the researcher with the help of the academic master
in each school. The researcher introduced himself, explained the objective of the study
and assured the respondents confidentiality. Thereafter, the instruments were distributed
49
to respondents who sat as a whole class during the arranged meeting time. The
respondents were told to read each statement in the instrument carefully and respond to it
appropriately by finishing one set of scale before switching to another. They were further
told to answer the questions independently and honestly, as there were no wrong answers.
Enough time, about 35 to 45 minutes were provided to allow the respondents to complete
the instruments properly. The researcher was around in order to give assistance to the
respondents whenever they faced any difficult with the instruments.
Moreover, the researcher had to make a list of the respondents after they had completed
filling in the instruments in order to obtain their names for the purpose of getting their
annual examination results. The marks were then recorded in the student’s achievement
scores sheet by the researcher in person.
3.10 Data Analysis Procedures
The data obtained from the field were coded and subjected to the Statistical Package for
the Social Sciences (SPSS), Version 15.0 for analysis. The data were analysed by
descriptive statistical techniques, in which frequency distribution and percentages among
the variables were computed (Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 1996), and cross tabulations were
run. In addition, the data are presented using tables.
3.11 Ethical Considerations
The present study was carried out under the strict observation of the ethical issues. As
observed by Cohen et al. (2000), informed consent of the participants was sought before
the research commenced. Privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality of the research
participants were highly respected. Students were informed that the information to be
50
provided by them was to be kept confidential and was only to be used for the purpose of
this study. Hence, they willingly participated in the study.
Additionally, all necessary research procedures like research clearance letters from
different authorities and institutions like the University of Dar es Salaam, Regional
Administrative Secretary (RAS) of Iringa region, and permission from the heads of the
targeted schools were sought.
51
CHAPTER FOUR
ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF THE FINDINGS
4.0 Introduction
This study focussed on investigating the relationship between personality traits and career
choice among Form IV students. Specifically, two continuums of personality traits were
used. These were extravert-introvert personality trait and agreeable-less agreeable
personality trait. The test was to find out how these were related to career choices and
academic performance and sex. Form III annual examination results in the core secondary
school subjects, which are Civics, History, Basic Mathematics, Biology, Kiswahili,
English, and Geography, represented the academic performance. This chapter presents the
findings of the study in the context of the specific objectives.
4.1 Data Analysis Procedure
In order to easily obtain extraversion and agreeableness personality traits, the test items
were coded and entered in the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Programme,
Version 15.0, together with career choices and Form III annual examination results. The
total scores for extraversion-introversion personality trait were obtained by adding all the
items in the scale. The minimum scores one was expected to get in the extravert-introvert
scale was 30, while the highest score was 90. This implied that, if one scored 1 point in
each item, one could get 1 point times 30 items, making 30 scores. On the other side, if
one scored 3 points in each item, one could get 3 points times 30 items making 90 scores.
The higher one scored in extraversion-introversion scale, the more extravert one was, and
the lower one scored in the scale, the more introvert one was. The cut point for
categorisation in extraversion-introversion scale was set around the group mean of the
total scores in the scale ( X = 62).
52
The procedure was repeated to obtain the total score for agreeable-less agreeable
personality trait scale. All scores were added. The minimum score one was expected to
get in Agreeable-Less Agreeable Personality Scale was 30, implying that, if one scored 1
point in each item, one could get 1 point times 30 items making a total of 30 scores.
Similarly, the highest score one was expected to get in Agreeable-Less Agreeable
Personality Scale was 90. This implied that, if one scored 3 points in each item, one could
get 3 points times 30 items making 90 scores. The cut point for categorisation into
agreeable and less agreeable personality trait was set around the group mean of the total
scores in the scale, which was 48. The higher one scored in agreeable-less agreeable
personality scale, the less agreeable one was, and the lower one scored (below the mean),
the more agreeable one was.
Furthermore, the raw scores data for the academic subjects were entered along with the
career choices which were scored in order of preferences, ranging from first preference to
third preference. Statistical analyses were employed to explore the relationship between
the total scores in personality traits and career choices as well as academic performance
and sex.
4.2 Nature of the Subjects of the Study
The subjects of this study comprised males and females, with age range between the
minimum of 15 to the maximum of 24 years. The mean age was 18.1 years (SD=1.87).
About 161 (43.6 %) of the respondents were males, while 208 (56.4%) were females. In
terms of personality traits, about 198 (53.7%) were extraverts, and 171 (46.3%) were
53
introverts, whereas, 160 (43.4%) were agreeable, and 209 (56.6%) were less agreeable.
Table 5 shows parental education background of the subjects.
The majority of the respondents, about 88 (23.8%), reported that their fathers had
completed Form IV educational level, whereas, a majority of the respondents, about 119
(32.2%), reported that their mothers had completed class VII. Table 6 shows occupational
backgrounds for the parents of the respondents.
Table 5: Parental Education Backgrounds
Educational Level
Parental Education
Father Mother
F % F %
Degree + 43 11.7 8 2.2
Degree 30 8.1 20 5.4
Form VI 59 16 33 8.9
Form IV 88 23.8 101 27.4
Form II 2 0.5 10 2.7
Class VII 62 16.8 119 32.2
Less Class VII 10 2.7 14 3.8
No Formal Education 6 1.7 10 2.7
Table 6: Parental Occupational Backgrounds
Occupations
Parental Occupation
Father Mother
F % F %
Teacher 45 12.2 45 12.5
Farmer 80 21.7 119 32.2
Medical Doctor 8 2.2 3 0.8
Lawyer 7 1.9 7 1.9
Soldier 9 2.4 2 0.5
Police 11 3.0 4 1.1
Nurse - - 12 3.3
Banker 03 0.8 1 0.3
Accountant 10 2.7 5 1.4
Business 86 23.3 100 27.1
Other Jobs 42 11.4 54 14.6
With regard to the occupational backgrounds, the majority of the respondents, about 86
(23.3%), reported that their fathers were businessmen, whereas, about 119 (32.2%) of
54
respondents reported that their mothers were farmers besides doing other jobs. Parental
education and occupation backgrounds of the respondents were considered important as
they could have an influence on career choosing behaviours.
4.3 Personality Traits and Career Choices
The first objective of the current study was set out to investigate the relationship between
personality trait of extravert-introvert, and agreeable-less agreeable and career choices.
The association was explored using descriptive statistics technique whereby distribution
of extraverts and introverts, and agreeable and less agreeable in terms of frequencies and
percentage across occupational categories in order of respondents’ preferences were
observed and presented.
4.3.1 Extraversion Personality Trait and Career Choices
Table 7 shows the findings. It was observed that, a majority of the extraverts, 110
(55.6%), indicated computation skills occupations as their most preferred first choice, and
about 63 (31.8%) of them chosen social services occupations as their most preferred
second choice, and 166 (83.8%) indicated mechanical occupations as their most preferred
third choice. On the other hand, a majority of introverts, about 106 (62%), indicated
computation skills occupations as their most preferred first choice, and about 54 (31.6%)
indicated communication occupations as their most preferred second choice, while 143
(83.6%) of them indicated mechanical occupations as their most preferred third choice.
Furthermore, the findings revealed that career choices of extraverts and introverts were
the same as the majority in both groups indicated computation skills occupations, and
mechanical occupations to be their most preferred first and third choices respectively. The
55
divergence between extraverts and introverts was observed in their second choices, where
about 31.8% of extraverts indicated social services occupations, while 31.6% of the
introverts indicating communication occupations.
Thus, the findings suggested that extraversion personality trait was associated with the
choice of occupations in computation skills occupations, social services occupations, and
mechanical occupations. Similarly, introversion personality trait was associated with the
choice of computation skills occupations, communication occupations, and mechanical
occupations.
56
Table 7: Pattern of Career Choices for Extraversion (N=369)
Occupations
Personality Trait
Extraverts (n=198) Introverts (n=171)
1 2 3 Missing 1 2 3 Missing
F % F % F % F % F % F % F % F %
1 Outdoor Occupations 38 19.2 53 26.8 104 52.5 3 1.5 30 17.5 37 21.6 96 56.1 8 4.7
2 Social Services
Occupations
98 49.5 63 31.8 33 16.7 4 2.0 86 50.3 49 28.7 28 16.4 8 4.7
3 Scientific Occupations 94 47.5 48 24.2 52 26.3 4 2.0 85 49.7 41 24.0 36 21.1 9 5.3
4 Computation Skills
Occupations
110 55.6 46 23.2 38 19.2 4 2.0 106 62.0 30 17.5 29 17.0 6 3.5
5 Mechanical
Occupations
8 4.0 19 9.6 166 83.8 5 2.5 6 3.5 13 7.6 143 83.6 9 5.3
6 Health Services
Occupations
88 44.4 56 28.3 49 24.7 5 2.5 72 42.1 53 31.0 38 22.2 8 4.7
7 Communication
Occupations
104 52.5 52 26.3 37 18.7 5 2.5 84 49.1 54 31.6 26 15.2 7 4.1
8 Artistic Occupations 45 22.7 50 25.3 97 49.0 6 3.0 26 15.2 49 28.7 90 52.6 6 3.5
57
4.3.2 Agreeableness Personality Trait and Career Choices
The pattern of career choices was explored using descriptive statistics technique, where
distributions of agreeable and less agreeable in terms of frequencies and percentage
across occupational categories were computed. Table 8 presents the findings. The results
indicate that the majority of the agreeables, about 99 (61.9%), indicated computation
skills occupations as their most preferred first choice, 50 (31.3%) of them indicated social
services occupations as their most preferred second choice, and 139 (86.9%) chosen
mechanical occupations as their most preferred third choice.
The results also showed that, about 117 (56%) of less agreeables indicated computation
skills occupations as their most highly preferred first choice, and about 66 (31.6%),
indicated health science occupations as their most preferred second choice, whereas about
170 (81.3%) indicated mechanical occupations as their most preferred third choice.
The observations in Table 8 suggest that, there is an association between agreeableness
personality trait and career choices in computation skills occupations, social services
occupations, and mechanical occupations. Likewise, the findings suggest that there is an
association between less agreeableness personality trait and career choices in computation
skills occupations, health science occupations, and mechanical occupations.
58
Table 8: Agreeableness and Major Occupational Choices (N=369)
Occupations
Personality Trait
Agreeable (n=160) Less Agreeable (n=209)
1 2 3 Missing 1 2 3 Missing
F % F % F % F % F % F % F % F %
1 Outdoor Occupations 23 14.4 39 24.4 93 58.1 5 3.1 45 21.5 51 24.4 107 51.2 6 2.9
2 Social Services
Occupations
81 50.6 50 31.3 25 15.6 4 2.5 103 49.3 62 29.7 36 17.2 8 3.8
3 Scientific Occupations 87 54.4 36 22.5 31 19.4 6 3.8 92 44.0 53 25.4 57 27.3 7 3.3
4 Computation Skills
Occupations
99
61.9
36
22.5
21
13.1
4
2.5
117
56.0
40
19.1
46
22.0
6
2.9
5 Mechanical
Occupations
5 3.1 10 6.3 139 86.9 6 3.8 9 4.3 22 10.5 170 81.3 8 3.8
6 Health Services
Occupations
78 48.8 43 26.9 34 21.3 5 3.1 82 39.2 66 31.6 53 25.4 8 3.8
7 Communication
Occupations
74 46.3 47 29.4 33 20.6 6 3.8 114 54.5 59 28.2 30 14.4 6 2.9
8 Artistic Occupations 21 13.1 49 30.6 86 53.8 4 2.5 50 23.9 50 23.9 101 48.3 8 3.8
59
4.4 Personality Traits and Specific Occupation Choices
The respondents were presented with eight occupational categories and three examples of
jobs within each category, of which they had to indicate their career choices in order of
their preferences. Statistical analyses were carried out to explore what jobs within each
major occupational category were mostly ranked number one, two, and three. Findings
are presented in Tables 9 and 10.
4.4.1 Extraversion Personality Trait and Specific Occupational Choices
The results in Table 9 show the highly ranked number one job sub categories as an
indication of first choices by extraverts within their highly rated first, second, and third
choices of the major occupational categories as follows; within computation skills
occupations, banking was the mostly rated occupation by about 81 (40.9%) of the
extraverts. Within social services occupations, law was the highly rated occupation by
about 117 (59.1%) of extraverts, whereas manufacturing was the most preferred first
choice within mechanical occupations by about 127 (64.1%) of extraverts.
For the introverts, banking was the most preferred first choice within computation skills
occupations by about 64 (37.4%), and within the communication occupations, the most
preferred first choice occupation was information technology by about 78 (45.6%), while
manufacturing was chosen by about 102 (59.6%) of the introverts as the most preferred
first choice within mechanical occupations.
60
Table 9: Extraversion and Specific Occupational Choices
Occupations
Personality Trait
Extraverts (n=198) Introverts (n=171)
Ranking Ranking
Occupational Categories Sub Categories 1 2 3 Missing 1 2 3 Missing
F % F % F % F % F % F % F % F %
Outdoor Occupations Agriculture 42 21.2 107 54 33 16.7 16 8.1 31 18.1 91 53.2 33 19.3 16 9.4
Fishery 3 1.5 43 21.7 136 68.7 16 8.1 2 1.2 40 23.4 113 66.1 16 9.4
Flying/Pilot 138 69.7 32 16.2 13 6.6 15 7.6 122 71.3 24 14.0 9 5.3 16 9.4
Social Services
Occupations
Teaching 30 15.2 71 35.9 80 40.4 17 8.6 32 18.7 64 37.4 59 34.5 16 9.4
Law 117 59.1 42 21.2 22 11.1 17 8.6 99 57.9 43 25.1 13 7.6 16 9.4
Army 34 17.2 68 34.3 79 39.9 17 8.6 24 14.0 48 28.1 83 48.5 16 9.4
Scientific Occupations Laboratory Technician 47 23.7 92 46.5 42 21.2 17 8.6 47 27.5 72 42.1 36 21.1 16 9.4
Physics 29 14.6 41 20.7 111 56.1 17 8.6 23 13.5 41 24.0 91 53.2 16 9.4
Medical Doctor 105 53.0 48 24.2 28 14.1 17 8.6 85 49.7 42 24.6 28 16.4 16 9.4
Computation Skills
Occupations
Book Keeping 41 20.7 25 12.6 116 58.6 16 9.4 27 15.8 27 15.8 101 59.1 16 9.4
Banking 81 40.9 80 40.4 21 10.6 16 9.4 72 42.1 64 37.4 19 11.1 16 9.4
Accountancy 61 30.8 77 38.9 44 22.2 16 9.4 56 32.7 64 37.4 35 20.5 16 9.4
Mechanical Occupations Building 13 6.6 69 34.8 99 50.0 17 8.6 20 11.7 64 37.4 70 40.9 17 10.0
Manufacturing 127 64.1 42 21.2 12 6.1 17 8.6 102 59.6 46 26.9 6 3.5 17 10.0
Mining 41 20.7 70 35.4 70 35.4 17 8.6 33 19.3 44 25.7 78 45.6 16 9.4
Health Services
Occupations
Dentistry 69 34.8 70 35.4 42 21.2 17 8.6 74 43.3 50 29.2 31 18.1 16 9.4
Pharmacy 56 28.3 63 31.8 62 31.3 17 8.6 41 24.0 57 33.3 57 33.3 16 9.4
Veterinary 56 28.3 48 24.2 77 38.9 17 8.6 39 22.8 49 28.7 67 39.2 16 9.4
Communication
Occupations
Editing & Publishing 15 7.6 75 37.9 92 46.5 16 9.4 9 5.3 53 31.0 92 53.8 17 10.0
Journalism 68 34.3 58 29.3 56 28.3 16 9.4 67 39.2 55 32.2 32 18.7 17 10.0
Information
Technology
99 50.0 49 24.7 34 17.2 16 8.1 78 45.6 46 26.9 30 17.5 17 10.0
Artistic Occupations Drawing 49 24.7 100 50.5 31 15.7 18 9.1 56 32.7 67 39.2 32 18.7 16 9.4
Painting 17 8.6 54 27.3 109 55.1 18 9.1 26 15.2 64 37.4 65 38.0 16 9.4
Music 114 57.6 26 13.1 40 20.2 18 9.1 72 42.1 25 14.6 58 33.9 16 9.4
61
4.4.2 Agreeableness Personality Trait and Specific Occupational Choices
Table 10 shows occupational preferences by the agreeables and less agreeables. the most
preferred first choice occupation within computation skills occupations was banking by
about 68 (42.5%) of the agreeables, and within social services occupations, law was the
most preferred first choice by about 100 (62.5%) of agreeable, while manufacturing was
the most preferred first choice by about 106 (66.3%) of the agreeable within mechanical
occupations.
Lastly, for the less agreeable, about 85 (40.7%) of them had banking as their most
preferred first choice occupation within computation skills occupations. Furthermore,
about 73 (34.9%) of them indicated dentistry as their most preferred first choice within
health sciences occupations, while within mechanical occupations, the most preferred first
choice occupation was manufacturing by about 123 (58.9%) of the less agreeables.
62
Table 10: Agreeableness and Specific Occupational Choices
Occupations
Personality Trait
Agreeable Less Agreeable
Ranking Ranking
Major Occupational
Categories
Some Sub Categories 1 2 3 Missing 1 2 3 Missing
F % F % F % F % F % F % F % F %
Outdoor Occupations Agriculture 31 19.4 97 60.6 23 14.4 9 5.6 42 20.1 101 48.3 43 20.6 23 11.0
Fishery 1 0.6 28 17.5 122 76.3 9 5.6 4 1.9 55 26.3 127 60.8 23 11.0
Flying/Pilot 120 75.0 26 16.3 6 3.8 8 5.0 140 67.0 30 14.4 16 7.7 23 11.0
Social Services
Occupations
Teaching 30 18.8 62 38.8 59 36.9 9 5.6 32 15.3 73 34.9 80 38.3 24 11.5
Law 100 62.5 35 21.9 16 10.0 9 5.6 116 55.5 50 23.9 19 9.1 24 11.5
Army 21 13.1 54 33.8 76 47.5 9 5.6 37 17.7 62 29.7 86 41.1 24 11.5
Scientific Occupations Laboratory Technician 36 22.5 78 48.8 37 23.1 9 5.6 58 27.8 86 41.1 41 19.6 24 11.5
Physics 22 13.8 37 23.1 92 57.5 9 5.6 30 14.4 45 21.5 110 52.6 24 11.5
Medical Doctor 93 58.1 36 22.5 22 13.8 9 5.6 97 46.4 54 25.8 34 16.3 24 11.5
Computation Skills
Occupations
Book Keeping 28 17.5 20 12.5 103 64.4 9 5.6 40 19.1 32 15.3 114 54.5 23 11.0
Banking 68 42.5 64 11.9 19 11.9 9 5.6 85 40.7 80 38.3 21 10.0 23 11.0
Accountancy 56 35.0 67 41.9 28 17.5 9 5.6 61 29.2 74 35.4 51 24.4 23 11.0
Mechanical Occupations Building 9 5.6 70 43.8 71 44.4 10 6.3 24 11.5 63 30.1 98 46.9 24 11.5
Manufacturing 106 66.3 35 21.9 9 5.6 10 6.3 123 58.9 53 25.4 9 4.3 24 11.5
Mining 36 22.5 45 28.1 70 43.8 9 5.6 38 18.2 69 33.0 78 37.3 24 11.5
Health Services
Occupations
Dentistry 70 43.8 50 31.3 31 19.4 9 5.6 73 34.9 70 33.5 42 20.1 24 11.5
Pharmacy 41 25.6 56 35.0 54 33.8 9 5.6 56 26.8 64 30.6 65 31.1 24 11.5
Veterinary 39 24.4 46 28.8 66 41.3 9 5.6 56 26.8 51 24.4 78 37.3 24 11.5
Communication
Occupations
Editing & Publishing 10 6.3 53 33.1 87 54.4 10 6.3 14 6.7 75 35.9 97 46.4 23 11.0
Journalism 64 40.0 52 32.5 34 21.3 10 6.3 71 34.0 61 29.2 54 25.8 23 11.0
Information Technology 76 47.5 45 28.1 29 18.1 10 6.3 101 48.3 50 23.9 35 16.7 23 11.0
Artistic Occupations Drawing 49 30.6 72 45.0 30 18.8 9 5.6 56 26.8 95 45.5 33 15.8 25 12.0
Painting 17 10.6 56 35.0 78 48.8 9 5.6 26 12.4 62 29.7 96 45.9 25 12.0
Music 85 53.1 23 14.4 43 26.9 9 5.6 101 48.3 28 13.4 55 26.3 25 12.0
63
4.5 Academic Ability, Personality Traits, and Career Choices
The second objective of the current study was set to find out if within a personality trait
there are variations by levels of academic ability in career choices. The objective was
explored using statistical analyses technique whereby frequencies and percentages of
respondents within personality trait according to academic ability and patterns of career
choices were calculated. The aim was to reveal how extraverts, introverts, agreeables, and
less agreeables were distributed across various occupations by order of their preferences
based on their academic ability. Tables 11 and 12 present the findings.
4.5.1 Academic Ability, Extraversion, and Career Choices
Findings in Table 11 show that, about 55 (59.8%) of the extraverts with high academic
ability ranked scientific occupations their most preferred first choice occupations, about
37 (40.2%) ranked social services occupations as their most preferred second choice
occupations, and 79 (85.9%) of them ranked mechanical occupations as their most
preferred third choice occupations. Whereas, about 63 (59.4%) of the extraverts with low
academic ability ranked social services occupations as their most preferred first choice
occupations, and about 33 (31.1%), ranked health sciences occupations as their most
preferred second choice, while about 87 (82.1%) of them ranked mechanical occupations
as their most preferred third choice occupations.
For the introverts with high academic ability, about 58 (67.4%) of them ranked
computation skills occupations as their most preferred first choice occupations, and about
30 (34.9%) ranked both social services and communication occupations their most
preferred second choice occupations, while about 78 (90.7%) ranked mechanical
occupations as their most preferred third choice. On the other hand, about 48 (56.5%) of
64
the introverts with low academic ability ranked social services occupations as well as
computation skills occupations as their most preferred first choices, and about 29 (34.1%)
ranked scientific occupations as their most preferred second choice, while about 65
(76.5%) of them had mechanical occupations as their most preferred third choice.
65
Table 11: Academic Ability, Extraversion, and Career Choices
Occupations
Academic
Ability
Personality Trait
Extraverts Introverts
Ranking Ranking
1 2 3 Missing 1 2 3 Missing
F % F % F % F % F % F % F % F %
Outdoor Occupations High 16 17.4 25 27.2 50 54.3 1 1.1 10 11.6 20 23.3 53 61.6 3 3.5
Low 22 20.8 28 26.4 54 50.9 2 1.9 20 23.5 17 20.0 43 50.6 5 5.9
Social Services
Occupations
High 35 38.0 37 40.2 19 20.7 1 1.1 38 44.2 30 34.9 16 18.6 2 2.3
Low 63 59.4 26 24.5 14 13.2 3 2.8 48 56.5 19 22.4 12 14.1 6 7.1
Scientific Occupations High 55 59.8 16 17.4 20 21.7 1 1.1 57 66.3 12 14.0 14 16.3 3 3.5
Low 39 36.8 32 30.2 32 30.2 3 2.8 28 32.9 29 34.1 22 25.9 6 7.1
Computation Skills
Occupations
High 51 55.4 20 21.7 20 21.7 1 1.1 58 67.4 20 23.3 7 8.1 1 1.2
Low 59 55.7 26 24.5 18 17.0 3 2.8 48 56.5 10 11.8 22 25.9 5 5.9
Mechanical
Occupations
High 2 2.2 10 10.9 79 85.9 1 1.1 1 1.2 3 3.5 78 90.7 4 4.7
Low 6 5.7 9 8.5 87 82.1 4 3.8 5 5.9 10 11.8 65 76.5 5 5.9
Health Services
Occupations
High 51 55.4 23 25.0 17 18.5 1 1.1 42 48.8 29 33.7 12 14.0 3 3.5
Low 37 34.9 33 31.1 32 30.2 4 3.8 30 35.3 24 28.2 26 30.6 5 5.9
Communication
Occupations
High 48 52.2 25 27.2 17 18.5 2 2.2 40 46.5 30 34.9 14 16.3 2 2.3
Low 56 52.8 27 25.5 20 18.9 3 2.8 44 51.8 24 28.2 12 14.1 5 5.9
Artistic Occupations High 15 16.3 26 28.3 49 53.3 2 2.2 9 10.5 22 25.6 54 62.8 1 1.2
Low 30 28.3 24 22.6 48 45.3 4 3.8 17 20.0 27 31.8 36 42.4 5 5.9
66
4.5.2 Academic Ability, Agreeableness, and Career Choices
Findings in Table 12 indicate that, about 57 (66.3%) of the agreeable subjects with high
academic ability ranked scientific occupations as their most preferred first choice, and
about 32 (37.2%), ranked social services occupations as their most preferred second
choice, whereas, about 76 (88.4%) ranked mechanical occupations as their most preferred
third choice occupations. On the other hand, about 47 (63.5%) of agreeable with low
academic ability ranked computation skills occupations their most preferred first choice,
about 26 (35.1%) of them ranked artistic activities as their most preferred second choice
occupations, and about 63 (85.1%) of agreeable with low academic ability ranked
mechanical occupations as their most preferred third choice.
Moreover, about 56 (62.0%) of less agreeable with high academic ability indicated
computation skills occupations as their most preferred first choice, and about 35 (38.0%)
of them had social services occupation as the most preferred second choice, while about
81 (88.0%) indicated mechanical occupations as their most preferred third choice.
Findings indicated further that about 64 (54.7%) of less-agreeable with low academic
ability ranked social services occupations as their most preferred first choice occupations,
and about 39 (33.3%) ranked scientific occupations as their most preferred second choice,
while about 89 (76.1%) of them, ranked mechanical occupations as their most preferred
third choice. Generally, some variations in career choices within personality trait based on
academic ability were observed in the first and second choices.
67
Table 12: Academic Ability, Agreeableness, and Career Choices
Occupations
Academic
Ability
Trait
Agreeable Less Agreeable
Ranking Ranking
1 2 3 Missing 1 2 3 Missing
F % F % F % F % F % F % F % F %
Outdoor Occupations High 10 11.6 21 24.4 52 60.5 3 3.5 16 17.4 24 26.1 51 55.4 1 1.1
Low 13 17.6 18 24.3 41 55.4 2 2.7 29 24.8 27 23.1 56 47.9 5 4.3
Social Services
Occupations
High 34 39.5 32 37.2 18 20.9 2 2.3 39 42.4 35 38.0 17 18.5 1 1.1
Low 47 63.5 18 24.3 7 9.5 2 2.7 64 54.7 27 23.1 19 16.2 7 6.0
Scientific
Occupations
High 57 66.3 14 16.3 12 14.0 3 3.5 55 59.8 14 15.2 22 23.9 1 1.1
Low 30 40.5 22 29.7 19 25.7 3 4.1 37 31.6 39 33.3 35 29.9 6 5.1
Computation Skills
Occupations
High 52 60.5 24 27.9 8 9.3 2 2.3 57 62.0 16 17.4 19 20.7 0 0.0
Low 47 63.5 12 16.2 13 17.6 2 2.7 60 51.3 24 20.5 27 23.1 6 5.1
Mechanical
Occupations
High 2 2.3 4 4.7 76 88.4 4 4.7 1 1.1 9 9.8 81 88.0 1 1.1
Low 3 4.1 6 8.1 63 85.1 2 2.7 8 6.8 13 11.1 89 76.1 7 6.0
Health Services
Occupations
High 53 61.6 20 23.3 10 11.6 3 3.5 40 43.5 32 34.8 19 20.7 1 1.1
Low 25 33.8 23 31.1 24 32.4 2 2.7 42 35.9 34 29.1 34 29.1 7 6.0
Communication
Occupations
High 34 39.5 28 32.6 20 23.3 4 4.7 54 58.7 27 29.3 11 12.0 0 0.0
Low 40 54.1 19 25.7 13 17.6 2 2.7 60 51.3 32 27.4 19 16.2 6 5.1
Artistic Occupations High 10 11.6 23 26.7 51 59.3 2 2.3 14 15.2 25 27.2 52 56.5 1 1.1
Low 11 14.9 26 35.1 35 47.3 2 2.7 36 30.8 25 21.4 49 41.9 7 6.0
68
4.6 Sex, Personality Trait, and Career Choices
The third objective was set out to find whether career choices differed between boys and
girls of the same personality trait. From this objective, it was hypothesised that there was
no differences in career choices between boys and girls of the same personality trait. The
data are presented in forms of frequencies and percentages in Tables 13, 14, 15, and 16.
4.6.1 Sex, Extraversion, and Major Occupational Choices
The findings in Table 13 show that the most preferred first occupation choice was
computation skills occupations, by about 49 (52.1%) of extravert boys, and the most
preferred second choice was social services occupations, by about 28 (29.8%), and
mechanical occupations was the most preferred third choice for 72 (76.6%) of extravert
boys. For extravert girls, computation skills occupation was the most preferred first
choice, by about 61 (58.7%), social services occupations was the most preferred second
choice, by about 35 (33.7%), while about 94 (90.4%) of the extravert girls made
mechanical occupations their most preferred third choice.
On the other hand, the findings showed that, for the introvert boys, the most preferred
first choice was computation skills occupations, preferred by about 40 (59.7%), and
communication occupations was ranked by about 23 (34.3%) as their most preferred
second choice, while, about 48 (71.6%) of the introvert boys, ranked mechanical
occupations as their most preferred third choice. For girls, about 66 (63.5%) of the
introvert girls made computation occupations their most preferred first choice, while 34
(32.7%), made health services occupations their most preferred second choice, and
mechanical occupations were the most preferred third choice for about 95 (91.3%) of
introvert girls. Findings therefore suggest that there are no significant differences in
69
career choices between extravert boys and girls, and between introvert boys and girls in
terms of occupational preferences.
70
Table 13: Sex, Extraversion, and Major Occupational Choices
Occupations
Sex
Personality Trait
Extraverts Introverts
Frequencies in Ranking Frequencies in Ranking
1 2 3 Missing 1 2 3 Missing
F % F % F % F % F % F % F % F %
Outdoor Occupations Male 22 23.4 27 28.7 42 44.7 3 3.2 15 22.4 14 20.9 31 46.3 7 10.4
Female 16 15.4 26 25.0 62 59.6 0 0.0 15 14.4 23 22.1 65 62.5 1 1.0
Social Services
Occupations
Male 44 46.8 28 29.8 18 19.1 4 4.3 24 35.8 17 25.4 20 29.9 6 9.0
Female 54 51.9 35 33.7 15 14.4 0 0.0 62 59.6 32 30.8 8 7.7 2 1.9
Scientific Occupations Male 48 51.1 17 18.1 25 26.6 4 4.3 37 55.2 13 19.4 10 14.9 7 10.4
Female 46 44.2 31 29.8 27 26.0 0 0.0 48 46.2 28 26.9 26 25.0 2 1.9
Computation Skills
Occupations
Male 49 52.1 19 20.2 22 23.4 4 4.3 40 59.7 10 14.9 12 17.9 5 7.5
Female 61 58.7 27 26.0 16 15.4 0 0.0 66 63.5 20 19.2 17 16.3 1 1.0
Mechanical Occupations Male 7 7.4 10 10.6 72 76.6 5 5.3 4 6.0 8 11.9 48 71.6 7 10.4
Female 1 1.0 9 8.7 94 90.4 0 0.0 2 1.9 5 4.8 95 91.3 2 1.9
Health Services
Occupations
Male 37 39.4 25 26.6 27 28.7 5 5.3 29 43.3 19 28.4 12 17.9 7 10.4
Female 51 49.0 31 29.8 22 21.2 0 0.0 43 41.3 34 32.7 26 25.0 1 1.0
Communication
Occupations
Male 45 47.9 28 29.8 17 18.1 4 4.3 27 40.3 23 34.3 11 16.4 6 9.0
Female 59 56.7 24 23.1 20 19.2 1 1.0 59 54.8 31 29.8 15 14.4 1 1.0
Artistic Occupations Male 21 22.3 24 25.5 44 46.8 5 5.3 10 14.9 16 23.9 36 53.7 5 7.5
Female 24 23.1 26 25.0 53 51.0 1 1.0 16 15.4 33 31.7 54 51.9 1 1.0
71
4.6.2 Sex, Agreeableness, and Major Occupational Choices
Findings in Table 14 reveal that, about 39 (62.9%) of agreeable boys ranked scientific
occupations their most first choice, 23 (37.1%) of them ranked communication
occupations as the most preferred second choice, and about 50 (80.6%) of agreeable boys
ranked mechanical occupations their most preferred third choice. For the agreeable girls,
about 63 (64.3%) ranked computation skills occupations their most preferred first choice,
and social services occupations was ranked the most preferred second choice by about 35
(35.7%), while about 89 (90.8%) of agreeable girls ranked mechanical occupations as
their most preferred third choice occupation.
Furthermore, about 53 (53.5%) of the less agreeable boys ranked computation skills
occupations as the most preferred first choice, while about 30 (30.3%) ranked social
services occupations as their most preferred second choice, and about 70 (70.7%) of less
agreeable boys chosen mechanical occupations as their most preferred third choice
occupations. On the other hand, about 65 (59.1%) of the less agreeable girls indicated
social services occupations as their most preferred first choice, and about 39 (35.5%),
ranked health services occupations as their most preferred second choice, while about 100
(90.9%) of the less agreeable girls had chosen mechanical occupations as their most
preferred third choice. Overall, the results suggest that there are some variations in
occupational choices between boys and girls of same personality trait.
72
Table 14: Sex, Agreeableness, and Major Occupational Choices
Occupations
Sex
Personality Trait
Agreeable Less Agreeable
Ranking Ranking
1 2 3 Missing 1 2 3 Missing
F % F % F % F % F % F % F % F %
Outdoor Occupations Male 10 16.1 18 29.0 30 48.4 4 6.5 27 27.3 23 23.2 43 43.4 6 6.1
Female 13 13.3 21 21.4 63 64.3 1 1.0 18 16.4 28 25.5 64 58.2 0 0.0
Social Services
Occupations
Male 30 48.4 15 24.2 14 22.6 3 4.8 38 38.4 30 30.3 24 24.2 7 77.1
Female 51 52.0 35 35.7 11 11.2 1 1.0 65 59.1 32 29.1 12 10.9 1 0.9
Scientific Occupations Male 39 62.9 10 16.1 9 14.5 4 6.5 46 46.5 20 20.2 26 26.3 7 7.1
Female 48 49.0 26 26.5 22 22.4 2 2.0 46 41.8 33 30.0 31 28.2 0 0.0
Computation Skills
Occupations
Male 36 58.1 13 21.0 10 16.1 3 4.8 53 53.5 16 16.2 24 24.2 6 6.1
Female 63 64.3 23 23.5 11 11.2 1 1.0 64 58.2 24 21.8 22 20.0 0 0.0
Mechanical Occupations Male 3 4.8 5 8.1 50 80.6 4 6.5 8 8.1 13 13.1 70 70.7 8 8.1
Female 2 2.0 5 5.1 89 90.8 2 2.0 1 0.9 9 8.2 100 90.9 0 0.0
Health Services
Occupations
Male 30 48.4 17 27.4 11 17.7 4 6.5 36 36.4 27 27.3 28 28.3 8 8.1
Female 48 49.0 26 26.5 23 23.5 1 1.0 46 41.8 39 35.5 25 22.7 0 0.0
Communication
Occupations
Male 22 35.5 23 37.1 13 21.0 4 6.5 50 50.5 28 28.3 15 15.2 6 6.1
Female 52 53.1 24 24.5 20 20.4 2 2.0 64 58.2 31 28.2 15 13.6 0 0.0
Artistic Occupations Male 7 11.3 15 24.2 37 59.7 3 4.8 24 24.2 25 25.3 43 43.4 7 7.1
Female 14 14.3 34 34.7 49 50.0 1 1.0 26 23.6 25 22.7 58 52.7 1 0.9
73
4.6.3 Sex, Extraversion, and Specific Occupational Choices
When it came to specific occupations within each major occupational category, the
findings in Table 15 show that, 66 (70.2%) of the extravert boys highly rated flying/ pilot,
and 52 (55.3%) extravert boys indicated agriculture as their most preferred second choice,
while about 65 (69.1%) extravert boys had chosen fishery as their most preferred third
choice. About 75 (72.1%) of extravert girls showed that manufacturing was their most
preferred first choice occupation, and about 55 (53.0%) of them indicated agriculture as
their most preferred second choice occupation, while about 72 (69.2%) extravert girls had
chosen book keeping as their most preferred third occupational choice.
For introverts, the results showed that about 43 (64.1%) introvert boys indicated
flying/pilot as their most preferred first choice occupation, while 29 (43.2%) of them
showed agriculture to be their most preferred second choice, and about 37 (55.2%)
introvert boys had fishery as their most preferred third choice occupation. On the other
side, about 79 (76.0%) of introvert girls indicated flying/pilot as their most preferred first
choice occupation, and about 62 (69.6%) of them indicated agriculture as their most
preferred second choice, while fishery was ranked the most preferred third choice
occupation by about 76 (73.0%) of introvert girls.
74
Table 15: Sex, Extraversion, and Specific Occupational Choices
Occupations
Personality Trait
Extraverts Introverts
Frequencies in Ranking Frequencies in Ranking
Occupational Categories
Sub Categories
1 2 3 Missing 1 2 3 Missing
Ma
les
Fem
ale
s
Ma
les
Fem
ale
s
Ma
les
Fem
ale
s
Ma
les
Fem
ale
s
Ma
les
Fem
ale
s
Ma
les
Fem
ale
s
Ma
les
Fem
ale
s
Ma
les
Fem
ale
s
Outdoor Occupations Agriculture 17 25 52 55 15 18 10 6 11 20 29 62 14 19 13 3
Fishery 2 1 17 26 65 71 10 6 0 2 17 23 37 76 13 3
Flying/Pilot 66 72 15 17 4 9 9 6 43 79 8 16 3 6 13 3
Social Services
Occupations
Teaching 12 18 29 42 42 38 11 6 9 23 15 49 30 29 13 3
Law 52 65 22 20 9 13 11 6 28 71 19 24 7 6 13 3
Army 19 15 32 36 32 47 11 6 17 7 20 28 17 66 13 3
Scientific Occupations Laboratory
Technician
20 27 38 54 25 17 11 6 19 28 21 51 14 22 13 3
Physics 22 7 18 23 43 68 11 6 12 11 14 27 28 63 13 3
Medical Doctor 41 64 27 21 15 13 11 6 23 62 19 23 12 16 13 3
Computation Skills
Occupations
Book keeping 28 13 12 13 44 72 10 6 15 12 11 16 28 73 13 3
Banking 34 47 38 42 12 9 10 6 22 50 24 40 8 11 13 3
Accountancy 23 38 34 43 27 17 10 6 17 39 19 45 18 17 13 3
Mechanical Occupations Building 4 9 31 38 48 51 11 6 9 11 19 45 25 45 14 3
Manufacturing 52 75 25 17 6 6 11 6 30 72 21 25 2 4 14 3
Mining 27 14 27 43 29 41 11 6 15 18 13 31 26 52 13 3
Health Services
Occupations
Dentistry 31 38 31 39 21 21 11 6 28 46 15 35 11 20 13 3
Pharmacy 29 27 30 33 24 38 11 6 10 31 27 30 17 40 13 3
Veterinary 23 33 22 26 38 39 11 6 15 24 13 36 26 41 13 3
Communication
Occupations
Editing & Publishing 6 9 36 39 42 50 10 6 3 6 18 35 33 59 13 4
Journalism 21 47 30 28 33 23 10 6 15 52 25 30 14 18 13 4
Information
Technology
57 42 18 31 9 25 10 6 36 42 11 35 7 23 13 4
Artistic Occupations Drawing 21 28 48 52 14 17 11 7 27 29 19 48 8 24 13 3
Painting 9 8 24 30 50 59 11 7 8 18 27 37 19 46 13 3
Music 53 61 11 15 19 21 11 7 19 53 8 17 27 31 13 3
75
4.6.4 Sex, Agreeableness, and Specific Occupational Choices
The data in Table 16 show that, about 46 (74.1%) of the agreeable boys indicated
flying/pilot as their most preferred first choice occupation, followed by agriculture as the
most preferred second choice, ranked by about 36 (58.0%) of the agreeable boys, and
fishery was ranked the most preferred third choice occupation by about 47 (56.0%) of
agreeable boys. On the other hand, about 69 (70.4%) of the agreeable girls indicated
manufacturing occupations as their most preferred first choice, and about 61 (62.2%) of
the agreeable girls indicated agriculture as their most preferred second choice occupation,
while fishery was the most ranked third choice occupation by about 75 (76.5%) of the
agreeable girls.
The data further showed that, about 63 (64.0%) of the less agreeable boys indicated
flying/pilot as their most preferred first choice occupation. Agriculture was the most
preferred second choice, ranked by about 45 (45.4%) of the less agreeable boys, and
fishery was the most ranked third choice occupation by about 55 (55.5%) of the less
agreeable boys. About 78 (71.0%) of the less agreeable girls indicated manufacturing
occupations as their most preferred first choice, while agriculture and drawing were
indicated the most preferred second choices by about 56 (51.0%), and book keeping was
the most preferred third choice occupation by 74 (67.2%) of the less agreeable girls.
Overall, the findings suggest the existence of some differences between agreeable boys
and girls in their preferred first choices.
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Table 16: Sex, Agreeableness, and Specific Occupational Choices
Occupations
Personality Trait
Agreeable Less Agreeable
Frequencies in Ranking Frequencies in Ranking
Occupational Categories
Sub Categories
1 2 3 Missing 1 2 3 Missing
Ma
les
Fem
ale
s
Ma
les
Fem
ale
s
Ma
les
Fem
ale
s
Ma
les
Fem
ale
s
Ma
les
Fem
ale
s
Ma
les
Fem
ale
s
Ma
les
Fem
ale
s
Ma
les
Fem
ale
s
Outdoor Occupations Agriculture 11 20 36 61 9 14 6 3 17 25 45 56 20 23 17 6
Fishery 0 1 9 19 47 75 6 3 2 2 25 30 55 72 17 6
Flying/Pilot 46 74 11 15 0 6 5 3 63 77 12 18 7 9 17 6
Social Services
Occupations
Teaching 9 21 16 46 31 28 6 3 12 20 28 45 41 39 18 6
Law 36 64 14 21 6 10 6 3 44 72 27 23 10 9 18 6
Army 11 10 26 28 19 57 6 3 25 12 26 36 30 56 18 6
Scientific Occupations Laboratory
Technician
13 23 25 53 18 19 6 3 26 32 34 52 21 20 18 6
Physics 15 7 13 24 28 64 6 3 19 11 19 26 43 67 18 6
Medical Doctor 28 65 18 18 10 12 6 3 36 61 28 26 17 17 18 6
Computation Skills
Occupations
Book keeping 19 9 5 15 32 71 6 3 24 16 18 14 40 74 17 6
Banking 20 48 27 37 9 10 6 3 36 49 35 45 11 10 17 6
Accountancy 18 38 24 43 14 14 6 3 22 39 29 45 31 20 17 6
Mechanical Occupations Building 2 7 29 41 24 47 7 3 11 13 21 42 49 49 18 6
Manufacturing 37 69 14 21 4 5 7 3 45 78 32 21 4 5 18 6
Mining 17 19 12 33 27 43 6 3 25 13 28 41 28 50 18 6
Health Services
Occupations
Dentistry 28 42 14 36 14 17 6 3 31 42 32 38 18 24 18 6
Pharmacy 15 26 26 30 15 39 6 3 24 32 31 33 26 39 18 6
Veterinary 12 27 17 29 27 39 6 3 26 30 18 33 37 41 18 6
Communication
Occupations
Editing & Publishing 4 6 20 33 32 55 6 4 5 9 34 41 43 54 17 6
Journalism 17 47 22 30 17 17 6 4 19 52 33 28 30 24 17 6
Information
Technology
35 41 14 31 7 22 6 4 58 43 15 35 9 26 17 6
Artistic Occupations Drawing 18 31 28 44 10 20 6 3 30 26 39 56 12 21 18 7
Painting 7 10 20 36 29 49 6 3 10 16 31 31 40 56 18 7
Music 31 54 8 15 17 26 6 3 41 60 11 17 29 26 18 7
77
4.7 Occupational Choices of Students by Science and Art Streams
It was noted that students start specialisation in either science or arts subjects by the
beginning of Form III. Science students take physics and mathematics, which arts
students do not. They take subjects like literature and commerce. It was instructive to find
out if the occupational choices differed between the two streams.
The results in Table 17 show the occupation ratings by the students in science and art
streams. The highly rated occupations among the science streams students were, in that
order scientific occupations, with 67.4 percent, followed by computation skills
occupations, with 57.0 percent. Health services occupations got 52.3 percent of the
respondents in the science streams. On the other hand, 68.4 percent of art students, rated
social services occupations as their first choices, followed by communication
occupations, with 64.2 percent, and computation skills occupations with 54.7 percent of
the students in the art streams.
It therefore seems that the occupational rating of the students in the science streams and
those in art streams were quite different. While a majority of the respondents in science
streams were rating scientific occupations highly, those in art streams were naturally,
more attracted towards social services occupations.
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Table 17: Science and Art Students Occupational Choices
Occupation Categories
STREAMS
SCIENCE ART
RANKING RANKING
1 2 3 Missing 1 2 3 Missing
F % F % F % F % F % F % F % F %
Outdoor Occupations 27 15.7 37 21.5 104 60.5 4 2.3 21 22.1 28 29.5 40 42.1 6 6.3
Social Services Occupations 67 39.0 69 40.1 32 18.6 4 2.3 65 68.4 15 15.8 9 9.5 6 6.3
Scientific Occupations 116 67.4 27 15.7 25 14.5 4 2.3 14 14.7 39 41.1 36 37.9 6 6.3
Computation Skills
Occupations
98 57.0 37 21.5 32 18.6 5 2.9 52 54.7 18 18.9 21 22.1 4 4.2
Mechanical Occupations 6 3.5 13 7.6 147 85.5 6 3.5 5 5.3 9 9.5 75 78.9 6 6.3
Health Services Occupations 90 52.3 55 32.0 22 12.8 5 2.9 24 25.3 25 26.3 40 42.1 6 6.3
Communication Occupations 75 43.6 60 34.9 32 18.6 5 2.9 61 64.2 17 17.9 12 12.6 5 5.3
Artistic Occupations 25 14.5 36 20.9 106 61.6 5 2.9 31 32.6 27 28.4 33 34.7 4 4.2
79
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS
5.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the discussion of the findings of the study, as analysed and
presented in the previous chapter. The discussion mainly relates the results obtained in
this study to those obtained in similar studies, and is based on the specific objectives of
the current study.
5.1 Determinants of Career Choices
Career choice process is influenced by many factors, which put many pressures around
the individual at a time of making such a very important decision in life. Besides
personality traits as a factor that contribute to career choices of individuals, many other
factors have been pinpointed out to have a great influence on career choices. For example,
Onyilo (1999), conducted a study on factors affecting career choices among secondary
school students. The findings showed that the salary attached to the occupation,
occupational prestige, peer influence, and parents were the main factors that influenced
career choices.
According to Levine (1976), the four most influential factors in career choices were social
economic status, student’s intelligence (Dick & Rallis, 1991), sex (Archer & Lloyd,
2002), and race. Other factors mentioned were family and student’s interest. Furthermore,
findings of Orenuga and Da Costa (2006) showed that parents and other family members
had a significant influence on career choices of students in a Nigerian university,
followed by friends, teachers and counsellors (Agarwala, 2008; Mariño et al., 2005; Peil,
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1973). Therefore, personality traits by themselves should not be taken as the only major
factor on its own that influences career choices of individuals. Likewise, it should not be
ignored when discussing factors that contribute to the occupational choices. In the current
study, the interest was to examine the influence of personality traits on career choices in
relation to academic ability and sex.
5.2 Personality Traits and Career Choices
The first objective of the study focussed on investigating the relationship between
personality traits, specifically extraversion and agreeableness and career choices. The
current study revealed that the majority of extraverts had indicated computation skills
occupations as their most preferred first choice occupations, followed by social services,
and mechanical occupations as their most preferred second and third choices respectively.
Whereas, majority of introverts indicated computation skills occupations, communication
occupations and mechanical occupations as their most preferred first, second, and third
occupational choices consecutively. These findings are quite similar with the previous
findings in which extraversion was found to have a high correlation with social and
enterprising occupations (Costa et al., 1984 in Hammond, 2001). Thus, extraversion had
shown to be a predictor for success in training activities and in sales and management
occupations (Hammond, 2001), with the extraverts showing likeability to succeed in
training activities. On the other hand, many introverts showed more interest in social
and/or enterprising occupations. Though findings showed that introverts had more interest
in social and enterprising occupations, they had a tendency to verbalise less and greater
difficulties in expressing themselves in social situations, unlike their counterparts, the
extraverts, who were socially oriented and feel more comfortable in social situations
(Hammond, 2001).
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Furthermore, the study of Salami (2008), on the role of personality, vocational interests,
academic interests, academic achievement, and socio-cultural factors in educational
aspirations of secondary school adolescents in South-Western Nigeria found that,
extraversion personality trait had a significant positive, but low correlation with artistic
occupations (r=0.21, p<0.05), with musical occupations (r=0.38, p<0.05), and with social
services occupations (r=0.37, p<0.05).
Moreover, the current study revealed that, agreeableness personality trait was associated
with the choice of occupations in computational skills occupations, social services
occupations, health services occupations, and mechanical occupations. These findings are
quite different from previous studies. For instance, Salami (2008) found a significant and
negative but low correlation of r=-0.27, p<0.05 between agreeableness and outdoor
occupations. However, Salami found a significant and positive, but low correlation of
r=0.23, p<0.05 between agreeableness and clerical occupations. The present study
indicates that the highly rated occupation by those in agreeable category was computation
skills occupations, of which clerical job is a sub-category.
In addition, the findings showed that a good number of agreeable and less agreeable
persons similarly preferred more computation skills occupations than other occupations.
From such findings, it was exciting to note that extraverts and introverts as well as
agreeables and less agreeables were showing interest into similar occupations. The
expectations were that different personalities could choose different occupations as they
have different interest orientations. Therefore, it could be thought that, probably, the
respondents were confusing computation skills occupations with computer knowledge, or
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the implication might be that the career choices were being influenced by other factors
rather than personality trait of an individual.
When it came to specific occupational categories, the most highly rated jobs across the
two personality traits were banking, law, information technology, dentistry, and
manufacturing. Majority of the extravert, introvert, agreeable, and less agreeable were
attracted towards banking as their most preferred occupation to enter and develop upon
the completion of their studies. Such rating of occupations is very different from those
obtained by Owuamanam (1982), in his study on occupational prestige and occupational
aspirations among Nigerian adolescent students. The findings showed that the most
highly rated occupations were engineering ( X =4.51), university lecturing ( X =4.34), and
medicine ( X =4.27). The results are also different from findings of Mariño et al. (2005),
who found that dentistry was placed as first occupational choice by 65.3% followed by
medicine (24.8%), while other occupations, mostly in biology and health sciences, by
about 9.9% of the respondents. Omari (1976), also found that law and medicine were
more attractive than other occupations among the university candidates.
From the findings in the present study, it can be argued that, to some extent, there is a
mismatch between personality traits and career choices, especially in the specific
occupational choices. This mismatch might be due to the fact that, the study has been
conducted in a different environment from those in other countries, especially the
developed ones, where students demonstrate awareness of different occupations due to
well established career guidance and counselling and other necessary services which
equip students with proper information on various occupations.
83
In developing countries like Tanzania, proper career choice might be hindered by a lack
of proper information and lack of career guidance in school environments. Such situations
may make students to have unrealistic occupational choices. Mutie and Ndambuki (1999)
argued that, for a student to have an intelligent matching between him or her and the job,
he or she should have enough information and knowledge of the occupations, industrial,
and labour structure of the country, occupational classifications, entry requirements,
entrance procedures, occupational distribution, training opportunities, and employment
prospects. Similarly, Petters and Asuquo (2009), reasoned that when youths are not
formally provided with occupational information, which is the basis for realistic
occupational choice, some often accept any job for which they are not well prepared for.
This results in inefficiency, low productivity and frustration. Therefore, career choice
among secondary school students in Tanzania might be reflecting unrealistic occupational
choices since there is no well established occupational guidance and counselling as
stipulated in the education policy of the country. From such experiences, Sima (2006)
commented that;
“We have already pointed out that counselling is still a very new field in Tanzania
in general and in our schools in particular. At the same time, we admit that our
schools badly need guidance and counselling services…the students need
counselling to help them work out their problems. The biggest challenge ahead is
to make sure that counselling services in schools are put in place with well
qualified counsellors, adequate equipments, and a free environment to allow
counselling to proceed effectively (p. 312).”
Another challenge that might be facing Tanzanian secondary school students when it
comes to the question of occupational choice is the lack of documented occupational lists.
It is important that this type of information be available, up to date, relevant, easily
accessible, and reflective of the nature of the world of work and current possibilities for
students. This kind of a system allows individuals to expand their options when they are
84
researching job possibilities (UNESCO, 2002). In Tanzania, such system of classification
of occupations, where specific jobs that are related have been grouped together is not well
established and is unknown to many students, and those, which are available, are not
current enough and not easily accessible to the clients. Orenuga and Da Costa (2006), cite
a number of studies of how individuals select careers which demonstrated that many
individuals find themselves in occupations not really knowing why they were propelled in
that particular direction. Others make career decisions by taking the path of least
resistance. For example, following a career path advocated by their parents or following
in the footsteps of an older sibling. Therefore, occupational guidance and counselling
remains of immense importance in Tanzanian schools and elsewhere for the realistic
occupational choices among the students.
5.3 Academic Ability, Personality Traits, and Career Choice
The findings of the current study suggest that the variations in levels of ability within a
personality trait may influence career choices. It revealed that, the majority of extraverts
and agreeable with high academic ability highly rated scientific occupations than other
occupations. The majority of extraverts with low academic ability indicated social
services occupations to be their most preferred occupations. On the other hand, majority
of introverts with high academic ability, and majority of agreeable with low academic
ability seemed to prefer computation skills occupations than other occupations, while the
majority of introverts with low academic ability preferred more social services
occupations.
Furthermore, results showed that a majority of less agreeable with high academic ability
had computation skills occupations as their most preferred first choice, whilst a majority
85
of less agreeable with low academic ability ranked social services as their most preferred
first choice occupations.
The findings in the current study show that high academic ability within personality traits
is related to the choice of scientific occupations and computation skills occupations more
than other occupations. Such observations are in line with Omari (1976), who found that
engineering, which is a scientific occupation, was attracting the majority of the talented
candidates. On the other hand, low academic ability seemed to be associated with the
choice of social services occupations. However, mechanical occupations did not show
discrimination as it was the most highly rated third choice within high and low academic
ability. Therefore, from these findings it can be concluded that, to some extent, academic
ability of an individual may contribute to the choice of occupational path to enter and
develop. Dick and Rallis (1991) who contended that students’ intellectual abilities
contribute more to their career selection support this idea. This is also evidenced in
subject placing in secondary schools in Tanzania where at Form III, students are required
to major in science or art. Thus, students who perform better in academic subjects,
especially in physics, biology, and chemistry are usually placed in science streams that
prepare them for science related occupations, while those with low academic performance
are usually placed in art streams, which prepare them for social related occupations.
Rowjeski (1996), examined adolescent’s academic performance in relation to
occupational aspirations and expectations. The findings showed that adolescents who
experienced minimal risk of academic failure expected occupations of greater prestige,
whereas, those who experienced substantial risk were more likely to report lower
occupational aspirations. Academic ability that is highly related to intelligence is the
86
differential ability of people to answer questions requiring manipulations of abstract
concepts (Levine, 1976). Thus, a number of studies have concluded that intelligence is
related to educational and occupational aspirations and to academic performance which
makes further educational and occupational choices possible.
Previous study by Agarwala (2008) also indicated that, skills, competence, and abilities
are a function of intelligence, and were the most important factors influencing career
choices of Indian students. It was also found that high school seniors who preferred
scientific occupations were more creative and intelligent than those who preferred social
services occupations (Perrone, 1964 in Perrone, 1966). The findings in this current study
are also in line with those of Perrone (1966), who found that high achieving students
preferred medical and other professions, which were more science related occupations,
while low achieving students preferred skilled trades among other occupations.
Omari (1976), argued that career choice might depend on the perceived cognitive
complexity of the job. Therefore, the talented students may choose more complex
occupations than the less talented ones. Basing on such argument, it could be argued that
in the present study, students with high academic ability choose complex occupations
than those with low academic ability. However, generalisation of the findings should be
taken with caution as the data were only descriptively analysed with no test of statistical
significance.
5.4 Sex, Personality Traits, and Career Choices
The third objective of the current study was set out to find whether career choices differed
between boys and girls of the same personality trait. From the current study, important
findings were that, there were no sex differences in career choices of extravert boys and
87
girls in major occupational categories. The majority of both extravert boys and extravert
girls indicated that their most preferred occupations were computation skills, followed by
social services, and mechanical occupations. However, when extravert boys and girls
were compared in specific occupational categories, the majority extravert boys were
found to prefer more flying/pilot occupations, while the majority extravert girls preferred
more manufacturing occupations.
Furthermore, the findings indicated that there were no sex differences in career choice
between introvert boys and girls as they both showed a preference mostly for computation
skills occupations. The results were the same in the specific occupational categories in
which the highly rated job was flying/pilot, followed by agriculture, and fishery for both
sexes. These findings suggest that boys and girls were aspiring for same occupations. The
findings corroborated those of Owuamanam (1982), who asserted that boys and girls rank
occupations in the same order. His findings showed a very high and positive statistical
significance of r=0.92, p<0.05. However, the findings in the present study are quite
controversial to many existing body of knowledge that has ruled out that men and women
have different taste and therefore, they choose different occupations. In reality, in
developing countries, Tanzania inclusive, occupations like flying/pilot, doctor,
engineering, and fishery among others are considered masculine in nature, hence are male
dominated and very few females aspire for them. However, a very interesting result
showed that adolescent girls had interest in male dominated occupations. Therefore, the
questions remain that, why few females are found in such fields, while they show interest
at secondary school level? Is something wrong with the education system in the country?
Such questions call for further empirical studies to bridge the gap.
88
Most probably, the reason why males dominate in science related occupations while
females are associated with social related occupations is a function of personal
compromises and lack of career encouragement among females in pursuit of gender
neutral occupations. Women are said to often adjust to career aspirations to provide a
compatible match with marriage and family responsibilities (Whitmarsh, Brown, Cooper,
Hawkins-Rodgers, & Wentworth, 2007). The study by Whitmarsh et al. (2007), showed
that women who had chosen female dominated careers noted that in their early education
years, their parents sent strong messages that teaching and social work were excellent
careers for them. The findings further revealed that, several women in female dominated
careers indicated that they had been discouraged from pursuing gender neutral
occupations because of significant others perception that women could not achieve
success in these areas and successfully manage career and family responsibilities at the
same time. Therefore, from such observations, it is obvious that girls find themselves in
female dominated occupations just because they are being discouraged and at the same
time, they have to make personal compromises as they often play double roles of both
production and reproduction.
In trying to substantiate sex differences in occupational choices, Archer and Lloyd (2002)
contended that women had traditionally been associated with domestic sphere, and their
assumed characteristics tend to be those that fit them for this rather than the world of
work or for occupations that are seen as requiring domestic skills. Therefore, Archer and
Lloyd concluded that women prefer occupations, which require feminine quality, whereas
men prefer those occupations requiring masculine qualities. Nevertheless, this can be a
gender stereotype used to make attributions about the reasons why men and women do
well or poorly in specific occupations.
89
However, the similarity between boys and girls in career choices might suggest the
following interpretations. That is, girls have a well developed sense of self-efficacy. Self-
efficacy is used to describe the beliefs concerning the ability to perform the behaviours
needed to achieve desired outcome (Passer & Smith, 2004). People whose self-efficacy is
high have self-confidence in their ability to do what it takes to overcome obstacles and
achieve their goals. Thus, women seemed to possess a more developed sense of self-
efficacy, which enable them to follow through and attain the career which have been
categorised to be for men. The study conducted by Whitmarsh et al. (2007) showed that
women in gender neutral careers were better able to conceptualise and execute plans for
career outsides of the norms. This means that, they were able to see the possibility of
becoming what they want at some points in their lives. Furthermore, a longitudinal study
of career development, carried out to examine how several career development concepts
changed for students from Grade Two through Grade Twelve and in adulthood in the
United States of America showed that in Grade Six and Eight, girls were switching
significantly away from feminine occupations to masculine ones like doctor, scientist,
engineer, and astronaut (Helwig, 2008). Paying attention to the diminishing sex
differences in career choices, Owuamanam (1982) noted that, the concept of women’s
liberation and equity of men and women has cut deep into the traditional social sexual
roles in many cultures around the world. As a result, women today consider themselves
capable of taking up variety of jobs previously occupied by men alone.
On the other hand, sex differences in career choices were observed within agreeable
personality trait. Agreeable boys had more preferences in scientific and communication
occupations, while agreeable girls and less agreeable boys had more interest in
computation, and social services occupations. Furthermore, less agreeable girls seemed to
90
be more interested in social services occupations, followed by health services
occupations. Such trend showed that less agreeable girls were more attracted towards the
traditional occupations for females. Within specific occupational categories, both
agreeable and less agreeable boys, mostly preferred flying/pilot occupation, while both
agreeable and less agreeable girls preferred manufacturing occupation.
The findings suggest that, boys in agreeableness personality trait aspire for occupations
that require exceptional abilities than do girls of the same personality trait. This was
because most preferred occupations for boys were science oriented activities. Archer and
Lloyd (2002) cite a body of research that establish the superiority of average male
performance on tests of mathematical and spatial abilities and higher female performance
on verbal tests. From such a body of knowledge, they concluded that, perhaps a greater
concentration of males in science and technology might have resulted from their higher
overall spatial and mathematical abilities. Therefore, boys preferring flying/piloting can
be thought of having reasonable mathematical and spatial abilities that are the most
prerequisites in that field.
By the way, the findings show that both female and male respondents had shown interest
in similar occupations. For example, boys and girls showed similar interest in choosing
computational skills occupations. This should be taken to mean that the respondents were
expressing their genuine feelings and preferences towards different occupations as the
occupations in the instrument administered to them were clearly expressed in Swahili
language, which is a well understood language among the respondents. For instance, the
category of computation skills occupations was expressed as those occupations which
91
require someone to have mathematical skills, and not computer skills, thus there were no
misleading items which could have made them confuse the occupations.
However, when other factors were controlled, the streams were found to yield a good
match with career choices. A majority of students in science streams were highly rating
scientific occupations. On the other hand, a majority of students in art streams were more
choosing social services occupations. This could be due to the fact that students are
starting specialisation at the beginning of the year of Form III. At this stage, they are
placed in respective streams depending on the national Form II examinations results. For
those students specialising in science streams, their subject combinations are quite
different from those in art streams. Therefore, career choices are supposed to reflect the
subject combinations one is taking. This is because all careers have their subjects
combinations requirements of which every student is supposed to specialise. These
subject combinations, later qualify students either to aspire for higher education or join a
specific occupation of interest.
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CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the summary of the findings of the present study, the conclusions
reached based on the findings and the recommendations for future actions and research.
6.1 Summary of the Study
The current study explored the relationship between personality traits and career choices
among ordinary level secondary school students in Tanzania. Specifically, the study was
focussed, firstly on investigating the relationship between personality traits, specifically,
extraversion and agreeableness, and career choices, secondly, to find out if within a
personality trait there were variations by levels of academic ability in career choices, and
lastly, to find out whether career choices differed between boys and girls of the same
personality trait.
The data collection was carried out using Career Check List, Extravert-Introvert
Personality Scale, Agreeable-Less Agreeable Personality Scale, and Form III annual
examination results. The target population was Form IV students estimated to be 723 in
Iringa Urban District. About 369 respondents were involved in the study of which 161
were males, and 208 were females drawn from four secondary schools, which were
strategically selected to include characteristics such as day and boarding with co-
education; day school with co-education; boarding school with single sex education, and
day school with co-education.
93
From the first objective, it was hypothesised that, there could be a relationship between
personality traits of extraversion and agreeableness and career choices. The findings
suggested that extravert personality was highly associated with the choice of occupations
in computation skills occupations, social services occupations, and mechanical
occupations, and introvert personality was associated with the choice of careers in
computation skills, communication, and mechanical occupations. Whereas, agreeableness
personality was mostly associated with the choice of careers in computation skills
occupations, followed by social services, health services, and mechanical occupations.
The study further revealed that the two personality traits were mostly associated with the
choice of specific occupations of banking, law, information technology, and
manufacturing.
The second hypothesis was to establish variations by levels of academic ability within a
personality trait in career choices. The present study showed that variations in career
choices existed between students with high academic ability and those with low academic
ability. The findings revealed that high academic ability respondents were mostly
choosing scientific and computation skills occupations, while low academic ability
subjects were mostly choosing careers in social services and mechanical occupations.
Thus, the hypothesis was confirmed and it was concluded that career choices varied a lot
between students with high academic ability and those with low academic ability.
Furthermore, the exploration of sex differences in career choices within a personality trait
revealed that there were no sex differences between extravert boys and girls and between
introvert boys and girls in career choices. The two groups indicated to prefer mostly
computation skills occupations. However, some differences were observed in the choices
94
of the specific occupations in which many extravert boys indicated flying/pilot, while a
majority of extravert girls indicated manufacturing occupation. For the introverts, both
boys and girls seemed to be interested in flying/pilot occupation. Therefore, it was
concluded that both boys and girls within extraversion personality were equally interested
in the similar occupations.
On the other hand, the study suggested some sex differences within agreeableness
personality trait. Boys of this category seemed to prefer more scientific and
communication occupations as opposed to girls who seemed to prefer computation and
social services occupations within major occupational categories. Within specific
occupations, flying/pilot was the most popular occupation among boys in agreeableness
personality trait, while manufacturing was the most preferred by girls of the same
personality trait.
6.2 Conclusions of the Study
Basing on the findings in the present study, the conclusion that has been drawn is that,
many students are still ignorant of the type of their personality and occupations that fit
them as well as the subject combinations that may lead them towards appropriate careers.
This might be the reason why a majority of them showed interest in the occupations that
somehow did not reflect their personality traits, sex and academic ability. Such ignorance
might have been due to the lack of proper occupational and academic guidance and
counselling services in Tanzania’s schools, and lack of occupational list available in the
state and nature of qualifications required in such occupations. Furthermore, the
occupational choices might be influenced by other factors rather than personality traits,
95
especially in developing countries like Tanzania where people pick what career is
available regardless whether they are interested or not.
6.3 Recommendations from the Findings
Based on the findings of the present study, the following recommendations were made for
administrative actions, as well as for further research in the similar topic.
6.3.1 Recommendations for Administrative Actions
In view of the findings of the present study, the following recommendations were made
for the administrative actions:
The Tanzania’s government through the Ministry of Education and Vocational
Training (MoEVT) should step up efforts to train and post qualified occupational
and academic guidance counsellors to secondary schools whose main duty should
be that of providing guidance and counselling services to students only.
Students should be educated and thereafter become aware of their personality
traits and type of occupations which fit them so that they can organise themselves
along desirable personality traits so that they can make a well informed career
choices which match their personalities, sex, and academic ability. Such education
can be organised on a regular basis through occupation and academic guidance
and counselling, career days, and career visits.
The government through the Ministry of Labour, Youth Development and Sports,
the Department of Labour Exchange Centre, in collaboration with MoEVT should
compile the list of available occupations in the country with the qualifications
required for one to join them. Such document should be disseminated to all levels
of education so that students become well informed about various job
96
opportunities in the country. This will help them to make a well sought out career
choices.
6.3.2 Recommendations for Further Research
Since it has been very difficult to locate any previous study that relate personality
traits and occupational choices among secondary school students in Tanzania,
more empirical studies are required in the area for more knowledge on how these
two variables are related.
More research need to be done on how best secondary school students can be
assisted to choose and develop career paths which fit their personality traits so that
findings from such research could be made part of the occupational and academic
guidance and counselling programmes in schools.
There is a need to conduct more research on sex and career choices to validate
whether sex differences in career choices is still significant by this time where
gender sensitization and women liberalisation is a major talk of the day.
97
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1: The Research Instruments.
Introduction
Dear Student;
My name is Vincent J. Cosmas. I am pursuing Master of Art in Applied Social
Psychology (MAASP) at the University of Dare es Salaam (UDSM). I am doing my
research on personality traits and career choices among ordinary level secondary school
students. The aim is to understand how personality relates to the career one chooses. Your
participation in this research is very important.
Career choice is very important to everyone for his/her own welfare. However, many
people find it difficult to choose career. Therefore, the results of this research will be
useful in improving career and educational guidance, especially in secondary schools
where there are many youths who are about to choose and develop their career which they
will join upon the completion of their studies.
Thus, you are requested to carefully read and respond to the questions independently.
Please, DO NOT ask your fellow what to answer as all responses are considered correct.
You are also requested to write your full name on this questionnaire. Remember that all
information provided will remain confidential.
Thank you for your cooperation!
A: Back Ground Information
Please indicate the following required information by either filling in the blanks or putting
a tick (√) in the boxes provided
1. Name of your school: a) Lugalo b) Kleruu c) Highlands
d) Iringa Girls
2. Student’s Name…………………………………………………………..
3. Age: Years………………...
4. Gender: Male Female
5. Indicate your stream by putting a tick against it:
a) Science b) Art c) Commerce d) General
104
6. Please put a tick (√) to indicate the occupations of your parents/guardians, oldest
brother, and oldest sister.
No. Occupations Father Mother Guardian Oldest
Brother
Oldest
Sister
1 Teacher
2 Farmer
3 Medical Doctor
4 Lawyer
5 Soldier
6 Police
7 Nurse
8 Banker
9 Accountant
10 Business
11 Journalist
12 Musician
13 Editor and Publisher
14 Painter
15 Laboratory Technician
16 Other jobs (mention).
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
7. Please put a tick (√) next to the educational level to indicate the level of education of
your parents/guardian, oldest brother, and oldest sister if you have them, if you do not
have them put an X
No. Educational level Father Mother Guardian Oldest
brother
Oldest
sister
1 Degree +
2 Degree
3 Form VI
4 Form IV
5 Form II
6 Class VII
7 Less than class VII
8 None
105
B: Students’ Career Checklist.
8. In the Table below, there are eight (8) occupational categories (A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and
H) with some examples of occupations within each category. Please, rank them by putting
numbers 1-8 in order of your preferences by inserting number 1, 2… up to 8 next to the
major occupational categories. Number 1 should indicate your first preference. Then in
each major occupational category, rank the examples 1-3, again in order of your
preferences.
S/N Occupational Categories Insert
Number
Example in Occupational
Categories
Insert
Number
A Outdoor Occupations a) Agriculture
b) Fishery
c) Flying/ Pilot
B Social Services
Occupations
a) Teaching
b) Law
c) Army
C Scientific Occupations a) Laboratory Technician
b) Physician
c) Medical Doctor
D Computation Skills
Occupations
a) Book Keeping,
b) Banking
c) Accountancy
E Mechanical Occupations a) Building
b) Manufacturing
c) Mining
F Health Services
Occupations
b) Dentistry
c) Pharmacy
d) Veterinary
G Communication
Occupations
a) Editing and Publishing
b) Journalism
c) Information Technology
H Artistic Occupations a) Drawing
b) Painting
c) Music
106
C: Extravert-Introvert Personality Scale
9. Please read the following statements carefully. The responses are “ALWAYS”,
“SOME TIMES”, and “NEVER”. Respond to each statement the way you feel it
describes you by putting a tick (√) against the response, which truly portrays your
feelings. Tick ONLY one response for every statement.
S/N Statement Always Sometimes Never
1 Do you become restless when working at something and little
action is occurring?
2 When climbing stairs do you take them two at a time?
3 Do you usually finish your meals before other people?
4 Do you like organizing and initiating leisure activities?
5 When you are walking with other people, do they often have
difficulty keeping up with your pace?
6 At work or at play, do other people find it hard to keep up with
your pace?
7 Are you inclined to rush from one activity to another without a
rest?
8 Do you often find yourself hurrying to get to places, even when
there is plenty of time?
9 Are you frequently lacking energy and motivation to do things?
10 Do you like to lie in bed late at the weekends?
11 Do you like to have a lot of things to do all the time?
12 Do other people seem to get more done in a day than you?
13 Would you rather watch sports than play them?
14 Do you get agitated if you have to wait for someone?
15 Do you tend to do things as quickly as you can?
16 Do you like going out a lot?
17 Generally, do you prefer reading to meeting people?
18 Are you talkative when you are with a group of people?
19 Do you like talking to people so much that you never miss a
chance of talking to a stranger?
20 Do you enjoy spending most of your time alone?
21 Are you relaxed and self confident in the company of other
people?
22 Do you easily make new friends with members of your own sex?
23 Do you like to tell jokes and stories to groups of friends?
24 Do you enjoy talking and playing with young children?
25 Is it important to you to be liked by many people?
26 Would you rather spend an evening talking to one interesting
person of your own sex than being with a large crowd of friends?
27 Do you enjoy solitary activities such as reading or watching TV
when you are alone?
28 Are you inclined to avoid people whenever possible?
29 Would you be unhappy if you were prevented from making
many friends?
30 Do you often feel unease in the company of other people?
107
D: Agreeable-Less Agreeable Personality Scale
10. Please read the following statements carefully. The responses are “YES”, “SOME
TIMES”, and “NEVER”. Respond to each statement by putting a tick (√) against the
response the way you feel it describes your feelings. Tick ONLY one response for every
statement.
S/N Statement Yes Sometimes Never
1 If someone does you a bad turn do you feel obliged to do something
about it?
2 Would you like to watch an execution of a person if given an
opportunity?
3 Do you think that if someone is rude to you it is best to let it pass?
4 Have you ever felt as though you would like to kill somebody?
5 Do you get very angry when you read what certain politicians have said
in the newspaper?
6 Do you like to watch boxing matches?
7 Do you ever get so angry with other people that you shout at them?
8 Do you forgive people who let you down?
9 Did you avoid fights or rough games when you were a child?
10 Do you think most peace lover are just cowards?
11 Do you often grind your teeth unconsciously?
12 Would you say that you lose your temper less often than most people
do?
13 Do you sometimes get so annoyed that you slam doors or smash things
around the house?
14 Do you like to play at bowing people when you are having a swim?
15 Do you tend to blame other people when things go wrong?
16 Do you often prefer to avoid expressing your irritation?
17 If people behave stupidly, do you usually tell them so?
18 Would you rather say you agree with somebody or start an argument?
19 Do you stamp your feet and kick things when you are angry?
20 Do you usually manage to be patient, even with silly colleagues?
21 Do you often make biting or sarcastic remarks about people?
22 Do you sometimes pick a fight with somebody just for pleasure?
23 Do you or would you like to fire arrows, stones or machetes to your
fellow students?
24 In your class, are you considered a gentle person?
25 If you meet a person who is dominant, are you inclined to shut him
down?
26 Do you enjoy scenes of violence in movies?
27 In general, are you satisfied with the way your country is being run?
28 Are you often furious with other people even though you refrain from
letting them know?
29 In an argument, would you hold back from destroying the other
person's self-esteem?
30 Do you avoid personal conflicts if you possibly can?
Thank you for your cooperation!
108
E: Achievement Scores Sheet
Region…………………………….District……………..Date ………………
Name of the School…………………………….Form………Stream……………..
S/N Student’s Name S
e
x
Scores in Core Subjects GPA
M
a
t
G
e
o
E
n
g
B
i
o
K
i
s
C
i
v
H
i
s
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
NB. From the table: Mat = Mathematics; Geo = Geography; Eng = English; Bio = Biology; Kis =
Kiswahili; Civ = Civics; His = History; and GPA = Graded Point Average.