THE INFLUENCE OF FACEBOOK AND TWITTER ON

FOOTBALL FANATICISM: A STUDY OF ARAB MALE

STUDENTS IN INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC

UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

BY

ABDELRAHMAN T A ASHOUR

A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for

the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Communication)

Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human

Sciences

International Islamic University Malaysia

OCTOBER 2020

ii

ABSTRACT

This study explores the influence of Facebook and Twitter on football fanaticism

among Arab male students of International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM). This

study is based on Media Dependency Theory (MDT), which assumes that individuals

depend on the media for the information they need. In this study, Arab male students

of IIUM who are interested in watching football offer their views on the effects of

dependence on Facebook and Twitter as a source of information on the phenomenon

of football fanaticism, based on the fact that they are football fans who use these sites

to obtain information and watch football matches. This study adopted a qualitative

research methodology. In-depth interviews were conducted with nine Arab male

students of IIUM. The study sample was chosen based on specific criteria: (1) they

must be Arab students at IIUM, (2) they must be football fans, and (3) they must be

active users of Facebook and Twitter and comment, post, follow, and disseminate

football news. The study attempted to answer three research questions: (1) Why do

football fans among IIUM Arab students use Facebook and Twitter to watch football

matches? (2) How does the use of Facebook and Twitter lead to football fanaticism?

(3) What individual factors lead to football fanaticism? The results of this study show

that the football fans among Arab male students of IIUM use Facebook and Twitter

because these sites are considered as sources of football news and as platforms for

watching football matches. Further, these sites allow football fans to connect with

others and provide their users with multiple features. The results also indicate that the

use of Facebook and Twitter leads to football fanaticism due to negative

communication, abuse of freedom, and lack of control. Furthermore, the respondents

of this study pointed out two individual factors influencing football fanaticism through

Facebook and Twitter, namely the absence of sportsmanship and over-reliance on

Facebook and Twitter as sources of information.

iii

خلاصة البحث Arabic Abstract

معرفة تأثير استخدام فيسبوك وتويتر على ظاهرة التعصب الكروي بين لىإ ا البحثى هذيسعلى نظرية إستند يو ، سلامية العالمية ماليزياالعرب في الجامعة الإ ب من الطلاالقدم جماهير كرة

على وسائل الاعلام للحصول على ونفراد يعتمدن الأأتفترض علام التيالاعتماد على الإ ن بمتابعة كرة القدم مو المهت - العرب الطلاب يقُدم ا البحثهذ فيو ، تاجونهايح المعلومات التي

ظاهرة في للمعلومات اتأثير الاعتماد على فيسبوك وتويتر مصدر نظرهم في ات وجه -ل على المعلومات نهم مشجعون يستخدمون هذه المواقع للحصو أبناء على ؛التعصب الكروي

جريت مقابلات متعمقة أ ، فقدنهج النوعيالبحث العتمد وي ،ومشاهدة مباريات كرة القدم ؛ هي: سئلة بحثيةأثلاثة البحث وقد اقترح المعنية، امعة الجعرب في الطلاب تسعة من المع

ية الإسلامامعة الجكرة القدم من الطلاب العرب في جمهورُ يستخدم فيسبوك وتويتر لماذا ما العوامل و كروي؟ التعصب اللى إاستخدام فيسبوك وتويتر يؤدي كيف و ؟ العالمية ماليزيا

؟ ويكر التعصب ال مناقشة وتويتر في التي تؤثر على استخدام المستجيبين لفيسبوكالفردية الطلاب العرب من ن جمهور كرة القدم أنتائج ال تبينقد و البحث، عينة ت اختير وهكذا

انسمحولأنهما ي، امبارياته ةخبار كرة القدم ومشاهدلأ افيسبوك وتويتر مصدر يستخدم ن استخدام أكما أُخرى،مزايا علاوة على باريات الملجماهير كرة القدم بالتواصل ومناقشة

، حرية التعبير وانتهاك ، السلبي بسبب التواصل ويكر التعصب اللى إفيسبوك وتويتر يؤدي أشار المشاركون إلى عاملين فرديين يشجعان المستجيبين على التعبير وقد ،الى الرقابة ارفتقالاو

فيسبوك وتويتر، تعصب القدم من خلال العن آرائهم ووجهات نظرهم التي تؤثر على عند استخدامها فيسبوك وتويتروالاعتماد المفرط على ،غياب الروح الرياضيةوالعاملان هما:

.للمعلومات امصدر

iv

APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion; it conforms

to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and

quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences

(Communication).

……………………………………

Wan Norshira Wan Mohd Ghazali

Supervisor

……………………………………

Harmi Taazim Bin Mohamad

Co-Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable

standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a

dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (Communication).

……………………………………

Nerawi Sedu

Examiner

……………………………………

Che Mahzan Ahmad

Examiner

This dissertation was submitted to the Department of Communication and is accepted

as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences

(Communication).

……………………………………

Zeti Azreen Ahmad

Head, Department of

Communication

This dissertation was submitted to the Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and

Human Sciences and is accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of

Master of Human Sciences (Communication).

……………………………………

Shukran Abd. Rahman

Dean, Kulliyyah of Islamic

Revealed Knowledge and Human

Sciences

v

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except

where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently

submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Abdelrahman T A Ashour

Signature ........................................................... Date .........................................

vi

Copyright Page

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF

FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

THE INFLUENCE OF FACEBOOK AND TWITTER ON

FOOTBALL FANATICISM: A STUDY OF ARAB MALE

STUDENTS IN INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

MALAYSIA

I declare that the copyright holders of this dissertation are jointly owned by the

student and IIUM.

Copyright © 2020 Abdelrahman T A Ashour and International Islamic University Malaysia. All

rights reserved.

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval

system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,

photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the

copyright holder except as provided below

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research

may only be used by others in their writing with due

acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies

(print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieved

system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by

other universities and research libraries.

By signing this form, I acknowledged that I have read and understand the IIUM

Intellectual Property Right and Commercialization policy.

Affirmed by Abdelrahman T A Ashour

……..…………………….. ………………………..

Signature Date

vii

Dedication

This dissertation is dedicated to

my beloved parents, my elder brother and my three sisters.

To the martyrs in my home country; Palestine.

To teachers and friends who have supported me during my study trip in Malaysia.

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Alhamdulillah, praise to Allah S.W.T. for giving me the courage to complete this

work, for taking me from where I was to where I am, for guiding me with mercy and

generosity throughout the challenges of life. Alhamdulillah for the countless blessings

and support. Blessing upon Prophet Muhammad S.A.W., who delivered to us the

noblest message in the world; Islam that motivates us as human beings to understand

each other hence we can collaborate to establish a better life for humanity.

I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my Main Supervisor, Dr.

Wan Norshira Wan Mohd Ghazali and Co-supervisor, Dr. Harmi Taazim Bin

Mohamad for their guidance and encouragement; for that, I will forever be grateful to

them. I must also offer my profound gratitude to all the lecturers who have taught,

helped and motivated me throughout this journey, particularly, Prof. Dr. Syed Arabi,

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Norbaiduri Bt Ruslan, Dr. Mazni Binti Buyong, Dr. Mohammed

Farid Ali, and Dr. Noor Harun Bin Abdul Karim.

Most importantly, none of this could have happened without my family. There

are no suitable words to express the most profound appreciation to my beloved parents

Tayseer and Kamilia who have been supportive to me and never waver in their belief

that I can finish my dissertation even when I felt I could not.

Millions of thanks to my lovely colleagues who were always there to support

and help me emotionally and practically. Also, to my beloved brother Mahmoud and

my sisters Alyaa, Shymaa and Alaa, my brother-in-law Mohammed and my beautiful

sister’s baby girl Leen who gave me the hope and motivation to do my best. Finally, to

my friends who granted me a place in their pure hearts.

Thank you and may Allah S.W.T bless all of you.

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract .................................................................................................................... ii Arabic Abstract ........................................................................................................ iii Approval page .......................................................................................................... iv Declaration ............................................................................................................... v

Copyright Page ......................................................................................................... vi Dedication ................................................................................................................ vii

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. viii Table of Contents ..................................................................................................... ix List of Tables ........................................................................................................... xi List of abbreviations ................................................................................................ xii

CHAPTER ONE:INTRODUCTION ................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 1 1.2 Background of the Study ......................................................................... 1 1.3 Problem Statement ................................................................................... 3

1.4 Significance Of The Study...................................................................... 5 1.5 Research Objectives................................................................................ 6 1.6 Research Questions ................................................................................. 6

1.7 Overview Of The Chapters ..................................................................... 7

1.8 Summary ................................................................................................. 7

CHAPTER TWO:LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................... 9

2.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 9 2.2 Social Media ........................................................................................... 9

2.2.1 Facebook ...................................................................................... 11 2.2.2 Twitter .......................................................................................... 12

2.3 Football Fanaticism ................................................................................ 14

2.4 Facebook, Twitter, and Football Fanaticism .......................................... 16 2.5 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................... 18

2.6 Summary ................................................................................................. 21

CHAPTER THREE:METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE ......................... 22 3.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 22 3.2 Data Collection ....................................................................................... 23 3.3 Sampling ................................................................................................. 26 3.4 Data Analysis .......................................................................................... 27

3.5 Ensuring Credibility................................................................................ 30 3.6 Summary ................................................................................................. 31

CHAPTER FOUR:DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS .................................. 32 4.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 32

4.2 Respondents’ Demographic Information ................................................ 33

4.3 The Use of Facebook and Twitter by Fans o Watch Football ................ 34 4.3.1 A source of football news and to watch football matches ........... 35

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4.3.2 Connecting ................................................................................... 37 4.3.3 Multiple features that support usage ............................................ 39

4.4 Facebook and Twitter Lead to Football Fanaticism ............................... 41 4.4.1 Negative communication ............................................................. 41 4.4.2 Abuse of freedom ......................................................................... 43 4.4.3 Lack of control ............................................................................. 44

4.5 Individual Factors that Influence Football Fanaticism Among Fans...... 46

4.5.1 Absence of sportsmanship............................................................ 47 4.5.2 Over-reliance on Facebook and Twitter ....................................... 50

4.6 Summary ................................................................................................. 51

CHAPTER FIVE:DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION .................................... 53

5.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 53 5.2 Discussion ............................................................................................... 54

5.3 Limitations of the Study ......................................................................... 60 5.4 Suggestions for Future Research ............................................................ 60

REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 61

APPENDICES ........................................................................................................ 71

Appendix I:Participation Consent Sheet ....................................................... 71 Appendix II:Interview Guideline .................................................................. 73

xi

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Demographic information of the respondents 34

Table 4.2 The use of Facebook and Twitter to watch football matches 34

Table 4.3 Facebook and Twitter lead to football fanaticism 41

Table 4.4 Individual factors leading to football fanaticism 47

xii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

SNS Social Networking Sites

IBF Institute of Islamic Banking and Finance

IIUM International Islamic University Malaysia

IRKHS Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Science

MDT Media Dependency Theory

KICT Kulliyyah of Information and Communication Technology

KOE Kulliyyah of Engineering

KENMS Kulliyyah of Economics and Management Sciences

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides a general overview of the study. First, it will explain the

background of the study, followed by the problem statement of the study. Next, it will

present the significance of the study and finally, a discussion of the research

objectives and research questions.

1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Millions of people around the world are using social media, which has become the

leading platform for interacting with the public at large. The number of people around

the world using social media such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Instagram, Skype,

and WhatsApp reached 3.5 billion in July 2019 (Kemp, 2019). It means that more than

46% of the total world population uses social media. The development and

advancement of social media technology have significant impacts on how people, in

general, communicate with each other (Zinn, 2015). The use of social media,

however, could have both positive and negative impacts on social communication

processes, society, and youth (Siddiqui & Singh, 2016).

Social media is one of the tools that help to spread various phenomena—

including the phenomenon of sports fanaticism—by satisfying and supporting

different psychological needs, values, and beliefs and trying to influence football fans

through the adoption of some ideas and orientations (Fadel, 2011). Sports fanaticism

is an old phenomenon that continues to thrive in the modern era and is associated with

2

other concepts including racial, religious, and political discrimination, which help in

understanding social reality (Marimaa, 2011). Based on historical conflicts, the

phenomenon of sports fanaticism is renewed and varied constantly, “as the

phenomenon of sports fanaticism in football is a clear phenomenon and concrete

widespread in contemporary sports societies and around the world” (Hafez, 2015, p.

29).

This study is interested in looking at how social media platforms such as

Facebook and Twitter influence football fanaticism among football fans. As stated by

Zinn (2015), Facebook and Twitter have impacts on football fans and teams, changing

the way professional sports leagues communicate with football fans worldwide and

remain in touch with them. Facebook and Twitter allow football teams to increase fan

involvement and brand awareness. These sites have become platforms for football

fans who share the same interests to stay connected with their favourite football teams

and athletes. The use of Facebook and Twitter in sports is noteworthy since it has

increased fans’ access to their favourite football teams and interactions with them. At

the same time, fans can contribute their opinions and maintain connections with

others.

Facebook and Twitter drive sports talk and shape the way fans interact with

teams, players, personalities, and other fans (Abd-Yameen, 2011; Al-Awneh, 1996).

Both communication platforms are powerful sources of news for topical discussions.

Besides giving football teams, leagues, sports associations, and players more

opportunities to connect with fans, Facebook and Twitter allow them to gain more

fans and followers (Abd-Yameen, 2011; Al-Awneh, 1996). As proposed by Al-Ateeq

(2013), sports is an integral part of the modern social life and has become a social

phenomenon that occupies a large part of the print, radio, visual, and electronic media.

3

Facebook and Twitter have been found to be among the primary causes of

football fanaticism (Shafey, Abd-Qadir, & Alsherbini, 2011). Football fans’

participation in these platforms can have significant impacts on members and football

fans in society, thus contributing to football fanaticism.

Football fanaticism involves aggressive behaviour, insults, and violence.

Facebook and Twitter influence the actions and behaviour of individuals pertaining to

football activities, which could lead to violation of laws (Higham, 1999; Massoud,

2004; Al-Quraini, 1995; Sawyer, 2011). However, the answers to the questions of how

and why Facebook and Twitter influence sports fanaticism remain unsatisfactory. For

these reasons, this research aims to explore the influence of Facebook and Twitter on

football fanaticism among Arab male students of International Islamic University

Malaysia (IIUM). In this study, Media Dependency Theory (MDT) is applied to

explain how activities on Facebook and Twitter could affect fanaticism among Arab

male students of IIUM to understand the phenomenon of football fanaticism.

1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Many students from various Arab countries use Facebook and Twitter as sources of

football news and to watch matches involving Arab and international football teams.

These sites allow football fans to follow their favourite football teams’ pages, photos,

and videos. Further, they enable users to express feelings on issues surrounding

football matches and teams. The growing popularity of football and the increasing

competition among football clubs, in line with the development of social media, have

paved the way to fanaticism and violence in Arab countries (Allawi, 2004). The use of

these platforms to follow football matches has opened up doors to senseless

arguments, quarrels, and debates among online football fans. This phenomenon has

4

led to the deepening of fanaticism and violence, especially in Egypt, Palestine, and

Saudi Arabia (de Aquino, 2002). Fanaticism occurs when users express abusive and

offensive language towards other football fans and teams in showing support towards

their favourite football teams and players (Shafey et al., 2011).

The growing popularity of football and the intense competition among football

clubs have generated enthusiasm in encouraging and promoting a fanaticism among

football fans on Facebook and Twitter. These sites have assisted in increasing the

competition among football fans, leading to the emergence of social problems in the

forms of riots and violence in stadiums in Arab countries during football matches.

Based on this discussion, the researcher found that there is a need to understand why

Arab students depend on Facebook and Twitter to watch football matches and obtain

football updates. The researcher also found it is crucial to understand why Facebook

and Twitter are popular among Arab students for following updates on football news

and watching their favourite football matches since a number of studies have related

the use of Facebook and Twitter with Arab fans (e.g., Hafez, 2015; Al-Ateeq, 2013;

Alshehri, 2016).

As indicated above, Facebook and Twitter play a substantial role in promoting

violence and riots among football fans. This phenomenon, according to Shafey et al.

(2011), will have negative impacts on their thinking, behaviour, and life. Another

interest of the study is to know why users of Facebook and Twitter express their

feelings and emotions freely and abusively when discussing football matches and their

favourite football teams and players. This study adopts Media Dependency Theory

(MDT) to answer these questions since the model could be used to explore when,

why, and how audiences develop a dependency on the mass media system (Ball-

Rokeach, 1985).

5

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study adopts Media Dependency Theory to examine the influence of Facebook

and Twitter on football fanaticism among Arab male students studying in IIUM. This

study is significant given the scant existing literature regarding these aspects to the

knowledge of the researcher. The few studies by previous researchers in this area

focused on other countries or scopes, such as on how increased awareness of the use

of social media affects sports fanaticism among Saudi soccer fans (Al-Shehri, 2016),

on football fanaticism and the effect of new information means and other issues (Al-

Sulami, 2014), the factors affecting excitement and violence in football (Jelodar,

Jelodar, Malmir, & Ziapour, 2016). Therefore, this study is expected to fill the gap in

the literature by examining the influence of Facebook and Twitter on football

fanaticism among Arab male students of IIUM.

Moreover, this study is expected to contribute towards a better understanding

of why football fans among Arab male students of IIUM use Facebook and Twitter to

watch football and obtain updates on football news. By examining these reasons using

Media Dependency Theory (MDT), this study is expected to provide insights into the

influence of Facebook and Twitter on football fanaticism and the role of these sites in

spreading this phenomenon among Arab students in IIUM. Hence, future researchers

may refer to the findings of this study to gain a better understanding of the factors

influencing football fanaticism among Arab male students living abroad who are

Facebook and Twitter users.

The problems of football fanaticism, violence, and football fans require

studying their dimensions and contributing factors in order to determine the treatment

methods (Al-Thunayan & Hamad, 2014). Consequently, this research is significant

because it seeks to ascertain the determinants of football fanaticism. Facebook and

6

Twitter have led to the promotion of competition among football fans, culminating in

football fanaticism among those fans. Hence, the results of this study are expected to

help football fans and society in assessing treatment methods that could reduce the

phenomenon of football fanaticism.

1.5 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this study is to analyse the influence of Facebook and Twitter

on football fanaticism among Arab male students of IIUM. To achieve this main

objective, three specific research objectives have been developed, as follows:

1. To understand the use of Facebook and Twitter among the Arab male

football fans in IIUM.

2. To explore whether the use of Facebook and Twitter leads to football

fanaticism.

3. To identify the individual factors leading to football fanaticism.

1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Based on the research objectives, this study posed the following research questions:

1. Why do football fans among IIUM’s Arab male students use Facebook

and Twitter to watch football matches?

2. How does the use of Facebook and Twitter lead to football fanaticism?

3. What are the individual factors leading to football fanaticism?

7

1.7 OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTERS

This thesis consists of five chapters, which are:

1. Chapter 1 - Introduction: This chapter provides an overview of the study,

problem statement, significance of the study, research objectives, and

research questions.

2. Chapter 2 - Literature Review: This chapter offers a review of previous

research works related to this study. It covers the following: 1) social

media, 2) football fanaticism, 3) Facebook, Twitter, and football

fanaticism, and 4) Media Dependency Theory.

3. Chapter 3 - Methodology and Procedure: This chapter explains the

methods and procedures of the research, including the methods for data

collection and data analysis.

4. Chapter 4 - Data Analysis and Findings: This chapter presents the results

of the study.

5. Chapter 5 - Discussion and Conclusion: This final chapter explains the

limitations of the study and the conclusions drawn from the study, as well

as providing recommendations for further research.

1.8 SUMMARY

This chapter provides an overview of the study, which focuses on the power of social

media in influencing the ways fans talk and interact with teams, players, personalities,

and other fans. The aim of the study is to analyse the influence of Facebook and

Twitter on football fanaticism. The significance of the study lies in the fact that it adds

to the current body of literature regarding the impact of social media on football

8

fanaticism from the perspective of Arab students studying in IIUM. This study is

structured into the three research objectives and three main research questions.

9

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter offers a review of previous literature related to this study. The areas

covered are 1) social media, 2) football fanaticism, 3) Facebook, Twitter, and football

fanaticism, and 4) Media Dependency Theory (MDT). This chapter further highlights

the previous studies on why people use Facebook and Twitter and how the use of

these sites leads to football fanaticism. The last section explains how the study is

approached using Media Dependency Theory to ascertain how the use of Facebook

and Twitter among Arab male students of International Islamic University Malaysia

(IIUM) to discuss and watch football matches and to obtain information about football

influences football fanaticism.

2.2 SOCIAL MEDIA

The Social Networking Site (SNS) or social media has grown in popularity following

the improvements in internet access over the years. The number of people using social

media from different age groups, levels of education, and genders has increased

exponentially in recent years (Greenwood, Perrin, & Duggan, 2016). Around 2.95

billion people worldwide are expected to use Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Instagram,

Skype, and WhatsApp by 2020 (Yelina, 2016). According to Clement (2020), this

number is expected to increase to 3.43 billion by 2023.

Social media platforms help users to receive news, communicate, learn about

social and cultural aspects, and watch football matches from other places around the

10

world (Grudin, 2006; McAfee, 2006). The definition of social media differs among

researchers. For Karlin (2007), social media is used for social communication,

learning, social interaction, and educational and cultural exchange. Boyd and Ellison

(2008) defined social media as an online communication tool that allows people to use

private and public profiles to interact. Social media consists of many groups of social

network programs for exchanging information and discussions among people from

around the world (Sheedy, 2011). It is a universal way of helping people communicate

more comfortably and quickly (Boyd & Ellison, 2008).

People express themselves to the public through social media and engage in

virtual discussions through a default medium (Sawyer, 2011). Social media enables

people to present their lives and provides space for individuals and groups to express

their views. Therefore, social media has a role in maintaining relationships among

those who use it for this purpose (Wigley & Zhang, 2011). According to Lin and Lu

(2011), social media as an online service focuses on facilitating the building of social

relationships between individuals who share the same activities and interests. It

provides information about the users and enables them to exchange ideas and organise

events and activities.

Based on these definitions of social media, the researcher deduced that social

media is used for social communication, learning, social interaction, and educational

and cultural exchange. It also allows people to interact via private and public profiles

and to express themselves to the public. Additionally, people use it to exchange

information and hold discussions with other people across the world, as social media

allows them to communicate more comfortably and quickly. Besides, it provides

space for individuals and groups to express their opinions. As a result, social media

11

enables the building of social relationships between individuals who share the same

interests.

Among the most popular social media sites are Facebook and Twitter, as these

sites are attractive for teens, young people, and people working in various fields such

as media professionals and other interest groups. They use Facebook and Twitter to

exchange views, conduct business dealings, and maintain relationships. Furthermore,

Facebook and Twitter play a significant role in boosting the popularity of sports

(Hussein, 2010; Abu-Ayed, 2006). Since Facebook and Twitter are the main focus of

this research, these two platforms will be explained in the following subsections.

2.2.1 Facebook

Facebook was created in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg, whose mission was to bring many

people together and encourage them to interact with people of similar interests and

different backgrounds (Facebook.com, 2010). The number of Facebook users in 2019

reached 2.32 billion worldwide, with almost 156 million based in the Arab world

(Clement, 2019). In December 2019, the number of Facebook users in Arab countries

increased to nearly 226 million users (Internet World Stats, 2020).

Egypt leads the Facebook penetration rate in the Arab region with around 39

million users, of which 64% are male, because of the country’s high population in

comparison to the rest of the Arab countries. This is followed by Saudi Arabia with 18

million users (78% of them are males), the United Arab Emirates with 8.8 million

users (74% are males), Algeria with 22 million users (62% are males), and Palestine

with 2.2 million users (67% are males) (StatCounter, 2019; Mohamed, 2020).

As Mark Zuckerberg said, “If Facebook was a country, it would be the sixth

most populated country in the world” (Facebook.com, 2019). Facebook virtually

12

shortens the distance between people, keeps them in touch, and saves money as it does

not charge for usage and allows people to contact each other on the Facebook app for

free. Despite users’ different backgrounds and cultures, Facebook encourages

interactions and activities among them (Sawyer, 2011).

Facebook offers users many features such as a free Facebook account, allowing

users to keep their friends list, to choose privacy settings to customise who can see

their profile content, to upload photos, and to select photo albums that they want to

share with friends (Haigh, 2010; Hart, 2010). It also supports interactive online

conversations and allows users to comment on friends’ pages to maintain contact and

share information with other users. It gives users the ability to create pages whether

they are fans, groups, or companies. Besides, Facebook allows users to broadcast live

videos using the “Facebook Live” feature.

Football fans can watch high-quality football matches for free on their

Facebook accounts by using the new live map tool. The site provides users with the

ability to view all games and transfer all live matches, allowing them to follow the

matches through their personal accounts without the need for television sets

(Facebook.com, 2016).

2.2.2 Twitter

Twitter was founded in March 2006 and launched in July 2006. It is a social

networking site that allows people to communicate with others, express views through

publications, comment, talk about daily activities, and share information and ideas

with a great number of people (Java, Song, Finin, & Tseng, 2007). Many people have

a Twitter account to follow friends, family, celebrities and their fans, and see their

public life and news on this site (Kim & Song, 2016).