International Journal of

Environmental Research

and Public Health

Article

The Influence of Emotional Intelligence on Resilience,Test Anxiety, Academic Stress and the MediterraneanDiet. A Study with University Students

Rubén Trigueros 1, Ana M. Padilla 2, José M. Aguilar-Parra 3,*, Patricia Rocamora 4,*,María J. Morales-Gázquez 5 and Remedios López-Liria 4

1 Department of Language and Education, University of Antonio de Nebrija, 28015 Madrid, Spain;rtrigueros@nebrija.es

2 Research Center Hablame, 04005 Almeria, Spain; anapadilla@centrohablame.com3 Health Research Centre, Department of Psychology, Hum-878 Research Team, University of Almería,

04120 Almería, Spain4 Health Research Centre, Department of Nursing, Physiotherapy and Medicine, University of Almería,

04120 Almería, Spain; rll040@ual.es5 Department of Psychology, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria,

35001 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain; mariajose.morales@ulpgc.es* Correspondence: jmaguilar@ual.es (J.M.A.-P.); rocamora@ual.es (P.R.)

Received: 6 March 2020; Accepted: 18 March 2020; Published: 20 March 2020�����������������

Abstract: The academic transition to university is a turning point in young people’s lifestyles.However, studies to date have focused on student behaviour within the classroom context, ratherthan on the consequences it may have on their lifestyle. This study aims to analyze the influenceof emotional intelligence of university students on their resilience, academic stress, exam anxiety,and eating habits related to the Mediterranean diet at the university stage. This study was carriedout with the participation of 733 male and 614 female students from the University of Almeria, agedbetween 19 and 27. A structural equation model was made to explain the causal relationships betweenthe variables. The results showed emotional intelligence positively predicted resilience. In turn,test anxiety and academic stress were negatively predicted by resilience. Finally, test anxiety andacademic stress were negatively predicted by the Mediterranean diet. In short, the results of thepresent study have shown that academic transfer to university and grading pressure can generatemaladaptive consequences for food consumption.

Keywords: emotional intelligence; resilience; academic stress; test anxiety; mediterranean diet

1. Introduction

University studies are often experienced by students as a time of great change on a personal level,representing the peak of academic stress due to high workloads, but also because they coincide witha stage of life in which the student must face many changes [1]. Specifically, it coincides with theprocess of separation from the family, incorporation into the labor market, adaptation to new teachersand colleagues, learning new content that is constantly being updated, curricular reorganizations,and demanding and selective assessments [2]. This situation causes a change in the habits of youngpeople related to the practice of physical activity and food, which can produce a decrease and evenabandonment of those behaviors related to healthy habits. However, there are a series of internalmechanisms related to adaptive habits that are essential to overcome the possible vicissitudes that mayoccur, such as the recognition of emotions and resilience [3–5]. Therefore, this study aims to analyze

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the influence of emotional intelligence on resilience, exam anxiety, academic stress, and academicperformance of university students.

1.1. Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence (EI) is a relatively recent term, being understood as the ability to perceive,value, and express emotions accurately; to access and/or generate feelings that facilitate thinking;to understand emotions and emotional knowledge; and to regulate emotions by promoting emotionaland intellectual growth [6]. Thus, Mayer, Salovey, Salovey, and Sluyter [7] assume that the componentsof emotional intelligence are (a) the adequate perception of emotional states; (b) the understanding oftheir nature; (c) the regulation of them; and (d) all of this in one’s own emotions as well as in thoseof others.

Recent studies in the field of social psychology have shown a positive relationship between highscores in emotional intelligence and greater psychological well-being, stating that people with greateremotional and behavioral self-control perceive that they have greater control over the demands of theirenvironment and also greater self-esteem. From an educational perspective, emotional intelligencehas been positively associated with greater psychological well-being in secondary school students [8],as well as self-efficacy and empathy [9], emotional well-being [10], and academic performance [11].On the other hand, emotional intelligence has been negatively linked to stress [8], depression [12], andnegative emotions [13], elements that lead to the generation of maladaptive behaviors [14]. Even whentaking into account the previous studies, studies that relate emotional intelligence and resilienceare still quite scarce despite the fact that both factors are related to the successful adaptation of theindividual to environmental circumstances [15]. For this reason, negative mood, deregulation ofemotions, alterations in routines, and lack of self-esteem are implicated in the multifactorial ethiologyof the abandonment of the healthy diet or even eating disorders [16]. The association between moodand eating attitudes has rarely been investigated in university populations. One study with collegestudents found that depressed mood was a predictor of unhealthy eating attitudes. Thus, severalstudies have shown that increased emotional intelligence leads to more positive attitudes, higherself-esteem, an orientation towards positive values, and greater adaptability [17]; conversely, low levelsof emotional intelligence in subjects lead to disordered eating attitudes [18].

1.2. Resilence

Resilience is one of the main psychological factors linked to an individual’s adaptation to adversecircumstances. This requires the use of positive reinforcement strategies that help personal well-being.Resilience plays an important role in the academic field as promoting it leads to the development ofsocial, academic, and personal skills, allowing the student to overcome adverse situations [19].

The meta-theory of the resilience affirms the existence of three stages [20]. The first is characterizedby the presence of a situation where the individual in physical and mental homeostasis lacks resourcesor skills to cope with it. In the second stage, the individual tries to readjust to regain the lost balance.Finally, the individual regains balance by acquiring new skills and learning the process. Nevertheless,the meta-theory has a series of limitations that must be taken into consideration. The main limitationis the linearity of the model, that is, in a single event it is the one that opposes the individual [21].In addition, it does not take into account the protective role that emotions play in the behavior ofindividuals [22] and as facilitators when dealing with the problem [23]. Fletcher and Sarkar [24]reconceptualized the definition of resilience due to the limitations presented by the meta-theory.They proposed it as a multidimensional psychological capacity that facilitates positive adaptation todanger, thanks to the possession and presence of protective and vulnerable factors outside and insidethe individual.

Resilience studies in the educational field have been explored from multiple perspectives, (e.g., [25])focusing mainly on the external aspects of students and not on what happens during classes or theinfluence it exerts on adaptive behavior patterns. Despite this, resilience has been found to be

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positively linked to motivation [26], performance [27], and positive emotions [28]. However, despitethe existing studies in the educational field, research is still scarce, focused mainly on the externalaspects of students, and not on what happens during classes and the influence it exerts in an academicenvironment, with respect to other negative psychological variables present in students.

1.3. Test Anxiety and Academic Stress

On some occasions, students present a series of emotional reactions that can trigger disinhibitionin the face of an exam, damaging their performance during the exam [29]. This negative emotionalreaction is understood as anxiety, which is an unpleasant emotional reaction produced by an externalstimulus, and is considered by the individual as threatening and thus producing physiological andbehavioral changes in the subject before the exams [30]. Tuma and Maser [31] define anxiety as a statethat is characterized by the presence of feelings of apprehension, where uncertainty and tension arisesas a result of the subject anticipating a real or imaginary threat. We must also distinguish betweennormal anxiety, which we all have when faced with any major situation (being more physically andmentally active and more prepared to respond), and anxiety that appears continuously and excessively(making behaviors and thoughts uncontrollable) [32].

In this way, exam anxiety can be considered a personality trait or a state. Some people are moreprone to exam anxiety, therefore exam anxiety is conceptualized as a specific personality trait in thatsituation [33]. In contrast, other people perceive the exam situation as potentially threatening due tothe fact that failing the exam can interfere with achieving important goals. This generates a state ofanxiety that disappears once the exam is passed, and is only present in those exams that the subjectperceives as very difficult [34].

Various studies in the academic field have shown that exam anxiety is negatively relatedto academic performance [35], psychological well-being [36], social relations [37], and physicalwell-being [38]. In contrast, exam anxiety has been positively related to stress [39], frustration [40],dropping out of school [41], and depression [40].

One of the main triggers of exam anxiety is family and social pressure, in addition to personalpressure focused on obtaining a high academic performance that allows a better future outlook [42].This continuous pressure can cause the exhaustion of the individual’s reserves and translates intoa series of problems, seeing the student unable to react and adapt to the demands of the universityenvironment. When this happens, academic stress appears. In this sense, academic stress is notsomething proper of the university environment but is present in each one of the stages (e.g., infantile,primary, and secondary), although this stress reaches its zenith during the university period [43].

Different studies in the educational field have shown that stress has been positively associatedwith depression [44], chronic diseases [45], heart disease [46], with dropping school [47], and in pooracademic performance [48].

1.4. Objectives and Hypothesis

Considering the aforementioned, this study aimed to analyze the influence of emotional intelligenceof university students on their resilience, academic stress, exam anxiety, and eating habits related tothe Mediterranean diet at the university stage. The hypotheses are: (a) emotional intelligence willpositively predict resilience; (b) resilience will negatively predict exam anxiety and academic stress;(c) anxiety will negatively predict the Mediterranean diet adherence; (d) academic stress will negativelypredict the Mediterranean diet adherence.

2. Method

2.1. Participants

The present study was carried out with the participation of students belonging to the Universityof Almeria (Figure 1), 733 male and 614 female students aged between 19 and 27 (M = 23.58; SD = 2.85).

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Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph

2. Method

2.1. Participants

The present study was carried out with the participation of students belonging to the University of Almeria (Figure 1), 733 male and 614 female students aged between 19 and 27 (M = 23.58; SD = 2.85).

Figure 1. Sample flowchart. N: total; n: subtotal

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Emotional Intelligence

The Trait Meta Mood Scale 24 (TMMS-24) by Fernández-Berrocal, Extremera, and Ramos [49] was used. The scale is made up of 24 items, distributed equally among three factors: emotional attention (e.g., I usually worry a lot about how I feel), emotional clarity (e.g., I almost always know how I feel), and emotional repair (e.g., I try to think positive thoughts even if I feel bad). The students had to assess the degree to which they agreed with each of the items on a 5-point Likert type scale that varied from 1 (very much in agreement) to 5 (very much in disagreement).

2.2.2. Resilience

The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale [50] was used, validated, and adapted in the Spanish context by Notario-Pacheco, Solera-Martínez, Serrano-Parra, Bartolomé-Gutiérrez, García-Campayo, and Martínez-Vizcaíno [51]. This scale is made up of 10 items (e.g., fate or God helps me) that measure a single factor called resilience. Students had to assess the degree to which they agreed with each of the items on a 5-point Likert scale that varied from 0 (never) to 4 (always). The Spanish version of this scale has been previously used to evaluate university students, presenting adequate reliability [52].

Figure 1. Sample flowchart. N: total; n: subtotal.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Emotional Intelligence

The Trait Meta Mood Scale 24 (TMMS-24) by Fernández-Berrocal, Extremera, and Ramos [49] wasused. The scale is made up of 24 items, distributed equally among three factors: emotional attention(e.g., I usually worry a lot about how I feel), emotional clarity (e.g., I almost always know how I feel),and emotional repair (e.g., I try to think positive thoughts even if I feel bad). The students had to assessthe degree to which they agreed with each of the items on a 5-point Likert type scale that varied from 1(very much in agreement) to 5 (very much in disagreement).

2.2.2. Resilience

The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale [50] was used, validated, and adapted in the Spanishcontext by Notario-Pacheco, Solera-Martínez, Serrano-Parra, Bartolomé-Gutiérrez, García-Campayo,and Martínez-Vizcaíno [51]. This scale is made up of 10 items (e.g., fate or God helps me) that measurea single factor called resilience. Students had to assess the degree to which they agreed with each ofthe items on a 5-point Likert scale that varied from 0 (never) to 4 (always). The Spanish version of thisscale has been previously used to evaluate university students, presenting adequate reliability [52].

2.2.3. Exam anxiety

The Test Anxiety Inventory [34] was used, validated, and adapted to the Spanish context bySesé, Palmer, and Pérez-Pareja [53]. The scale is made up of 30 items, distributed among 4 factors:emotionality (8 items; e.g., I feel anxious), worry (10 items; e.g., I’m worried about my exam score),interference (6 items; e.g., I think about anything and get distracted), and lack of confidence (6 items;e.g., I have confidence in my capacity). The students had to assess the degree to which they agreed witheach of the items on a 5-point Likert type scale that varied from 1 (almost never) to 4 (almost always).

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2.2.4. Academic stress

We used the Student Stress Inventory Stress Manifestations [54], validated and adapted to theSpanish context by Escobar, Blanca, Fernández-Baena, and Trianes [55]. This scale is made up of 22 items,distributed among three factors: emotional (10 items; e.g., I feel worried), physiological (6 items; e.g.,I feel a cold sweat), and behavioral (6 items; e.g., I answer the teachers wrong). The students had toassess the degree to which they agreed with each of the items on a 5-point Likert type scale that variedfrom 1 (not at all) to 5 (totally agree).

2.2.5. Mediterranean diet

The kidmed scale [56] was used, which measures eating patterns related to the Mediterraneandiet. This scale is made up of 16 items (e.g., eat a cereal or derivative for breakfast), whose indexranges from 0 to 12. The questions with a negative connotation regarding the Mediterranean diet wereevaluated with −1 and those with a positive connotation had a value of +1.

2.3. Procedure

Figure 2 shows a schematic summary of the study design. Initially, the selection of the participantswas non-probabilistically incidental. Furthermore, the criteria for participation in the study wereinformed consent, voluntary participation and having to take a midterm exam in December.

Later, the permission was sought from various teachers in order to gain access to students andexplain the objectives of the study. Later, they were asked to participate voluntarily, giving us theirinformed consent. The questionnaires were completed in the third week of December 2019, immediatelyprior to the start of the mid-term examination period. The students completed the questionnairesanonymously and respected all ethical procedures, with a member of the research group present toresolve any doubts that arose. The estimated time to complete the questionnaire was around 20 min.

The study was approved by the bioethics committee of the University of Almeria (Ref. UALBIO2019/014) and respected all the procedures established by the Declaration of Helsinki.Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph

Figure 2. Graphical scheme of design of study

2.4. Data Analysis

The statistical program SPSS version 25 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA) was used to perform the descriptive statistical analyses, reliability analyses and bivariate correlations. In addition, AMOS version 20 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA) statistical program was used to perform the structural equation model (SEM) to analyze the relationships established in the hypothesized model.

The bootstrapping procedure was used together with the maximum likelihood method to analyze the hypothesized model (see Figure 3). The estimators were not affected by the lack of normality and were therefore considered robust [57]. The following adjustment rates were taken into account in order to accept or reject the hypothesized model [58]: Incremental rates (IFI, Incremental Fit Index; CFI, Comparative Fit Index; and TLI, Tucker Lewis Index) must show a score above 0.95; the error rates Root Mean Square error of Approximation (RMSEA) and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMSR), are considered acceptable values equal to or less than 0.06 and 0.08 respectively; and finally a value χ2/df, being considered acceptable values lower than 3.

3. Results

3.1. Preliminary Analysis

The mean, standard deviation, and bivariate correlations are shown in Table 1. Correlation analyses showed a positive correlation between emotional intelligence, resilience, and the Mediterranean diet, while a negative correlation was found for academic stress and exam anxiety. On the other hand, academic stress and exam anxiety reflected a positive correlation. In addition, Table 1 shows the reliability analyses through Cronbach’s α for each of the factors, reflecting scores above 0.70 [59].

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations between all variables. Factors M SD α 1 2 3 4 5

1. Emotional Intelligence

4.11 0.68 0.81 - 0.66 *** −0.45 *** −0.37 *** 0.23 *

2. Resilience 1.36 1.00 0.86 - −0.49** −0.71** 0.35 ** 3. Exam Anxiety 5.82 1.08 0.83 - 0.53*** −0.54 ***

4. Academic Stress 4.67 1.43 0.85 - −0.61 *** 5. Mediterranean Diet 5.23 1.97 - -

Note: *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001

Figure 2. Graphical scheme of design of study.

2.4. Data Analysis

The statistical program SPSS version 25 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA) was used to perform thedescriptive statistical analyses, reliability analyses and bivariate correlations. In addition, AMOSversion 20 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA) statistical program was used to perform the structural equationmodel (SEM) to analyze the relationships established in the hypothesized model.

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The bootstrapping procedure was used together with the maximum likelihood method to analyzethe hypothesized model (see Figure 3). The estimators were not affected by the lack of normality andwere therefore considered robust [57]. The following adjustment rates were taken into account in orderto accept or reject the hypothesized model [58]: Incremental rates (IFI, Incremental Fit Index; CFI,Comparative Fit Index; and TLI, Tucker Lewis Index) must show a score above 0.95; the error ratesRoot Mean Square error of Approximation (RMSEA) and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual(SRMSR), are considered acceptable values equal to or less than 0.06 and 0.08 respectively; and finallya value χ2/df, being considered acceptable values lower than 3.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph

3.2. Structural Equation Model Analysis

In view of the complexity of the hypothesized model, the number of latent variables was reduced by at least two indicators [60]. In this way, a SEM was carried out to analyze the relationships between each of the study’s variables. The latent variables used were: emotional intelligence included three indicators [49]; exam anxiety included four indicators [53]; academic stress [55]; and finally, resilience was necessary to divide the 10 items of the scale into two indicators, as suggested by McDonald and Ho [60].

The hypothesized predictive relationship model (Figure 3) showed that the adjustment rates were adequate: χ2 (61, N = 1347) = 186.34, χ2/df = 3.05, p < 0.001, IFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.96, CFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.049 (CI 90% = 0.045–0.053), SRMSR = 0.039. These results were in line with the established parameters, therefore the proposed model was accepted as adequate. Similarly, the contribution of each of the factors to the prediction of other variables was examined through standardized regression weights.

Following this, the relationships obtained between the different factors integrated in the model were described (Figure 3): (a) Emotional Intelligence positively predicted resilience (β = 0.56, p < 0.001). (b) Resilience negatively predicted anxiety exam (β = −0.48, p < 0.001) and academic stress (β = −0.58,

p < 0.01). (c) Anxiety exam negatively predicted Mediterranean diet (β = -.37, p < 0.001). (d) Academic stress negatively predicted Mediterranean diet (β = -.49, p < 0.01).

Figure 3. Relationship between variables through a structural equation model (SEM). All the relationships are significant, showing the variance on the small arrows. Note: ***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01.

Figure 3. Relationship between variables through a structural equation model (SEM). All therelationships are significant, showing the variance on the small arrows. Note: *** p < 0.001; ** p < 0.01.

3. Results

3.1. Preliminary Analysis

The mean, standard deviation, and bivariate correlations are shown in Table 1. Correlation analysesshowed a positive correlation between emotional intelligence, resilience, and the Mediterranean diet,while a negative correlation was found for academic stress and exam anxiety. On the other hand,academic stress and exam anxiety reflected a positive correlation. In addition, Table 1 shows thereliability analyses through Cronbach’s α for each of the factors, reflecting scores above 0.70 [59].

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Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations between all variables.

Factors M SD α 1 2 3 4 5

1. EmotionalIntelligence 4.11 0.68 0.81 - 0.66 *** −0.45 *** −0.37 *** 0.23 *

2. Resilience 1.36 1.00 0.86 - −0.49 ** −0.71 ** 0.35 **3. Exam Anxiety 5.82 1.08 0.83 - 0.53 *** −0.54 ***

4. Academic Stress 4.67 1.43 0.85 - −0.61 ***5. Mediterranean Diet 5.23 1.97 - -

Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001

3.2. Structural Equation Model Analysis

In view of the complexity of the hypothesized model, the number of latent variables was reducedby at least two indicators [60]. In this way, a SEM was carried out to analyze the relationships betweeneach of the study’s variables. The latent variables used were: emotional intelligence included threeindicators [49]; exam anxiety included four indicators [53]; academic stress [55]; and finally, resiliencewas necessary to divide the 10 items of the scale into two indicators, as suggested by McDonald andHo [60].

The hypothesized predictive relationship model (Figure 3) showed that the adjustment rates wereadequate: χ2 (61, N = 1347) = 186.34, χ2/df = 3.05, p < 0.001, IFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.96, CFI = 0.96, RMSEA =

0.049 (CI 90% = 0.045–0.053), SRMSR = 0.039. These results were in line with the established parameters,therefore the proposed model was accepted as adequate. Similarly, the contribution of each of thefactors to the prediction of other variables was examined through standardized regression weights.

Following this, the relationships obtained between the different factors integrated in the modelwere described (Figure 3):

(a) Emotional Intelligence positively predicted resilience (β = 0.56, p < 0.001).(b) Resilience negatively predicted anxiety exam (β = −0.48, p < 0.001) and academic stress (β =

−0.58, p < 0.01).(c) Anxiety exam negatively predicted Mediterranean diet (β = −0.37, p < 0.001).(d) Academic stress negatively predicted Mediterranean diet (β = −0.49, p < 0.01).

4. Discussion

The aim of this study was to analyze how emotional intelligence influences resilience, academicstress, exam anxiety, and the balanced diet represented by the Mediterranean diet in university students.This study does not focus mainly on the motivational processes and/or the academic performanceof university students, as is the case in the various studies to date. This study focuses mainly onemotional intelligence and resilience of students. In this sense, if university students are capable ofovercoming adversity and recognizing their own and other people’s emotions, controlling them andprojecting them in an appropriate way can give rise to a series of adaptive behaviors that can favor theadoption of healthy life habits and higher academic performance [61].

The results of this study show how emotional intelligence positively predicted resilience. However,these results are not comparable to similar studies in the university context, although they are insimilar contexts such as teaching. In this sense, a study carried out by Trapp [62] with secondary schooleducation teachers, showed that those who possessed high levels of emotional intelligence had highlevels of resilience. Similarly, a study conducted with secondary school students showed that thosestudents who possessed high levels of emotional repair and clarity were associated with high levels ofresilience [63]. Thus, the results of the present study are similar to the results shown in previous studies,as emotional intelligence can contribute to the satisfactory adaptation to the different contingencies oflife and to the development of a set of meta-qualities that can be practiced, learned, and applied to thecapacity for recovery [15]. Therefore, both factors can be considered as a characteristics or features of

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the individual’s personality, which can help him/her to successfully adapt to all the pressures to whichstudents are subjected during that stage.

In addition, the results have shown that resilience negatively predicted exam anxiety and academicstress. These results are been similar to several studies in the field of clinical psychology, where ithas been found that resilience has a protective effect on anxiety and depression in adolescents (e.g.,Hjemdal, Vogel, Solem, Hagen, and Stiles, [64]). Similarly, a study by Bonanno, Kennedy, Galatzer-Levy,Lude, and Elfström [65] in patients who have suffered a spinal cord injury showed that those withhigh levels of resilience were less likely to suffer from anxiety or depression. Furthermore, the resultsof the present study have shown resilience negatively predicted academic stress. These results aresimilar to studies in the field of medicine, where research conducted by Fang et al., [66] with humanimmunodeficiency virus infected patients with high levels of resilience were more likely to cope withthe disease, have lower levels of stress and a higher quality of life. Similarly, in a study conductedby Dumont and Provost [67] from the field of social psychology with adolescents, it was observedthat those who had high levels of resilience showed social activity and less chance of suffering stressand/or depression. However, as with the relationship between resilience and exam anxiety, we haveno evidence from previous studies relating resilience to academic stress in the university setting.Thus, the present study shows the importance of promoting the adaptability of university studentsto the multiple challenges they have to face in this new academic stage. To this end, it is essential tointroduce courses and activities aimed at promoting intrapersonal and interpersonal skills, competence,optimism, self-concept, and autonomy into educational programs [19,68].

Finally, the results of the study have shown exam anxiety and academic stress negatively predictedthe Mediterranean diet. However, we have very little evidence from studies that have analyzed thisrelationship in the university academic environment, or in other areas such as medicine or clinical andsocial psychology. In this sense, studies related to anxiety and eating habits with young people andadolescents between 8 and 18 years, such as the study conducted by Bektas, Ugur, Gençtürk, Aysev,Sireli and Deda [69], have shown that those who had high levels of anxiety manifested maladaptivebehaviors such as sedentary, unbalanced diet, or even eating disorders. Similarly, a study by Pastore,Fisher, and Friedman [70] of high school students showed that those with high levels of self-esteem hadbalanced eating habits and a lower risk of eating disorder-related illnesses compared to high schoolstudents with high levels of anxiety. On the other hand, studies that have explored the relationshipbetween stress and eating in children, such as the research conducted by Kim and Lee [71], have shownthat high levels of stress were a predictor of high consumption of foods that were also related to highcaloric value. Similarly, a study conducted in the adult population by Kim and Kim [72] showed thatthose with high levels of stress were related to poor or excessive eating and could even be the cause ofvarious eating disorders, such as bulimia or anorexia. Thus, the results of this work suggest that theacademic environment can also have maladaptive effects contrary to personal progress and quality oflife. Therefore it is essential to have psychological intervention programs aimed at prevention andeducation of young university students, where many of them live the experience of emancipation forthe first time. These circumstances may require them to make constant adjustments in their day-to-daylife, which together with academic stress and the pressure of exam grades can cause them to abandonthe balanced diet typical of the Mediterranean diet [73].

Despite the results obtained in this study, a number of limitations should be noted. First, thestudy is largely based on self-reported questionnaires. Second, the selection of the participants wasnon-probabilistically incidental. Third, this was a relational study, which did not permit causalrelationships to be identified. In this way, the results can be interpreted according to each individual’sperspective. Future studies should analyze the influence of the social context on the development ofemotional intelligence and resilience, in addition to analyzing the incidence on academic stress andexam anxiety.

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5. Conclusions

The present study analyses for the first time the influence of emotional intelligence on resilience,test anxiety, academic stress, and adherence to the Mediterranean diet.

The results obtained in the present study show the positive association of emotional intelligencewith respect to resilience, and how this was negatively related to test anxiety and academic stress.Finally, test anxiety and academic stress were negatively related to the Mediterranean diet.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.T.; Data curation, P.R. and R.L.-L.; Formal analysis, J.M.A.-P.; Fundingacquisition, R.L.-L.; Investigation, M.J.M.-G.; Methodology, R.T.; Project administration, R.L.-L.; Resources,M.J.M.-G., J.M.A.-P. and P.R.; Software, R.L.-L.; Visualization, R.T.; Writing—original draft, R.T. and A.M.P.;Writing—review & editing, J.M.A.-P. and P.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version ofthe manuscript.

Funding: This research received no external funding

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest

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