U.S. Department of Justice

Office of Justice Programs

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

John J. Wilson, Acting Administrator

From the Administrator

A growing number of children areexperiencing conduct problems—aggression, noncompliance, anddefiance—and at earlier ages.Because these problems may bepredictive of delinquency, violence,and other antisocial behavior, esca-lating aggression in preschool andelementary school children is aparticular cause for concern.

The Incredible Years Parents, Teach-ers, and Children Training Series,described in this Bulletin, is designedto prevent, reduce, and treat conductproblems among children ages 2 to10 and to increase their socialcompetence.

OJJDP’s Family Strengthening Projecthas designated the Incredible YearsTraining Series as an exemplary bestpractices program. As such, the serieshas been subject to a quality evalua-tion, evidenced excellent effectiveness,and attained high overall ratings.

The Bulletin provides an overview ofthe Incredible Years Training Series,describes its methodologies, andsummarizes program effectiveness,noting pertinent evaluations.

The programs in the Incredible YearsTraining Series have been adopted byhundreds of youth-serving agenciesin 43 States. The information that thisBulletin provides will assist you inassessing their potential for yourcommunity.

John J. WilsonActing Administrator

June 2000

form of high rates of oppositional defiantaggression and noncompliance, is predic-tive of substance abuse, depression, juve-nile delinquency, antisocial behavior, andviolence in adolescence and adulthood(Loeber, 1985). People with histories ofchronic aggression beginning in childhoodare more likely than others to commit mur-der, rape, robbery, arson, and driving un-der the influence (DUI) offenses and to en-gage in substance abuse (Kazdin, 1995).The problem of escalating aggression inyoung children is thus a universal concern.

The Incredible Years Parents, Teachers, andChildren Training Series, developed by Dr.Carolyn Webster-Stratton, uses group dis-cussion, videotape modeling, and rehearsalintervention techniques to assist adultsliving and working with children ages 2 to10. The series is designed to prevent, re-duce, and treat conduct problems amongthese children and to increase their socialcompetence. This Bulletin presents an over-view of the series’ program designs, goals,and target populations; an extended discus-sion of each program’s rationale, content,process, and methods; the findings of sev-eral research evaluations of the programs;and a summary of the series’ effectiveness.The Incredible Years Training Series wasselected as the 1997 winner of the UnitedStates Leila Rowland National MentalHealth Award for outstanding preventionprograms and has been identified as an

The IncredibleYears TrainingSeriesCarolyn Webster-Stratton

The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin-quency Prevention (OJJDP) is dedicated topreventing and reversing trends of increaseddelinquency and violence among adoles-cents. These trends have alarmed the pub-lic during the past decade and challengedthe juvenile justice system. It is widely ac-cepted that increases in delinquency andviolence over the past decade are rooted ina number of interrelated social problems—child abuse and neglect, alcohol and drugabuse, youth conflict and aggression, andearly sexual involvement—that may origi-nate within the family structure. The focusof OJJDP’s Family Strengthening Series is toprovide assistance to ongoing efforts acrossthe country to strengthen the family unit bydiscussing the effectiveness of family inter-vention programs and providing resourcesto families and communities.

Research points out that aggression inchildren is escalating—and at youngerages (Campbell, 1990; Webster-Stratton,1991). These studies also indicate that any-where from 7 to 25 percent of preschooland early school-age children meet thediagnostic criteria for oppositional defiantdisorder (ODD) and/or conduct disorder(CD), referred to generically in this paperas “conduct problems” (defined as highrates of aggression, noncompliance, anddefiance). These trends have disturbingimplications because the early onset ofthese problems in young children, in the

Fam

ilyStrengthening Series

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childhood and school-age components.The Incredible Years Early Childhood BA-SIC Parent Training Program (ages 2–7),the original 12-week program for parents,involves group discussion of a series of250 video vignettes. The program, whosedevelopment was guided by cognitive so-cial learning literature, teaches parentsinteractive play and reinforcement skills(Hanf, 1970; Eyberg and Matarazzo, 1980);nonviolent discipline techniques, includ-ing “timeout” and “ignore” (Patterson,1982; Forehand and McMahon, 1981);logical and natural consequences; andproblem-solving strategies (D’Zurilla andGoldfried, 1971; D’Zurilla and Nezu, 1982).

The Incredible Years School-Age BASICParent Training Program (ages 5–12) is amulticultural program similar to the earlychildhood program in content but aimedat a somewhat older age group. It givesgreater emphasis to strategies for older

exemplary “best practices” program byOJJDP’s Family Strengthening Project.

OverviewFor the past 20 years, Dr. Webster-Strattonand her colleagues at the University ofWashington’s Parenting Clinic have workedto develop and evaluate training programsfor parents, teachers, children, and familieswith children ages 3 to 8 with conduct prob-lems. These programs, which have beenadapted for use with children ages 2 to 10,are briefly described in this overview andexpanded upon throughout this Bulletin.Table 1 provides an overview of the Incred-ible Years Parent, Teacher, and Child Train-ing Programs.

Program DesignsParent Training. The Incredible YearsBASIC Parent Training Program has early

children, including logical consequences,monitoring, problem solving with children,and family problem solving. Approximately40 percent of the people featured on thevideotapes for this version of the BASICprogram are people of color.

The Incredible Years ADVANCE ParentTraining Program (ages 4–10) is a 10- to12-week supplement to the BASIC programthat addresses other family risk factorssuch as depression, marital discord, poorcoping skills, poor anger management, andlack of support.

Finally, the Incredible Years EDUCATIONParent Training Program (SupportingYour Child’s Education) supplements ei-ther the early childhood or school-ageBASIC program by focusing on ways tofoster children’s academic competence. Itwas designed to teach parents to strength-en their children’s reading and academic

OJJDP’s Family Strengthening Project’s Evaluation Criteria

The Incredible Years Parents, Teachers,and Children Training Series was iden-tified as an exemplary “best practices”program by OJJDP’s Family Strength-ening Project. A panel of national ex-perts selected the OJJDP-identified“best practices” programs based prima-rily on the programs’ focus on family,strength of theoretical foundation, pro-gram content, capacity for dissemina-tion (e.g., availability of curriculummanuals, etc.), and the training capac-ity of the program developer. Criticalto selection was the quality of the pro-gram evaluation, research design, andoutcome results in relation to familyand youth change. There were threecategories of programs: exemplary,model, and promising approaches. Theexemplary category indicates the pro-gram has an evaluation of the highestquality (experimental with random as-signment, quasi-experimental designwith matched controls, etc.), excellenteffectiveness results, and overall highratings by the national review commit-tee for its category. Reviewers indepen-dently rated the 14 dimensions listedand then were required to come to con-sensus regarding the quality of the pro-gram in question. Programs rated as“exemplary” were those that were wellimplemented, were rigorously evalu-ated, and had consistently positive find-

ings (integrity ratings of “A4” or “A5” onthe assessment scale):

◆ Theory. The degree to which theproject findings are based in clearand well-articulated theory, clearlystated hypotheses, and clear opera-tional relevance.

◆ Fidelity of interventions. The degreeto which there is clear evidence of highfidelity implementation, which mayinclude dosage data.

◆ Sampling strategy and implemen-tation. The quality of sampling designand implementation.

◆ Attrition. Evidence of sample qualitybased on information about attrition.

◆ Measures. The operational relevanceand psychometric quality of measuresused in the evaluation and the qualityof supporting evidence.

◆ Missing data. The quality of imple-mentation of data collection (e.g.,amount of missing data).

◆ Data collection. The method(s) bywhich data were collected (in termsof bias or demand characteristics andhaphazard manner).

◆ Analysis. The appropriateness andtechnical adequacy of techniques ofanalysis, primarily statistical.

◆ Other plausible threats to validity(excluding attrition). The degree towhich the evaluation design and imple-mentation address and eliminateplausible alternative hypotheses con-cerning program effects. The degreeto which the study design and imple-mentation warrant strong causal attri-butions concerning program effects.

◆ Replications. The exact or con-ceptual reproduction of both theintervention implementation andevaluation.

◆ Dissemination capability. Programmaterials developed including trainingin program implementation, technicalassistance, standardized curriculumand evaluation materials, manuals,fidelity instrumentation, videos, re-cruitment forms, etc.

◆ Cultural and age appropriateness.The degree to which the project is cul-turally and age appropriate.

◆ Integrity. The overall level of confi-dence that the reviewer can place inproject findings based on researchdesign and implementation.

◆ Utility. The overall usefulness ofproject findings for informing preven-tion theory and practice.

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Teacher Training. The Incredible YearsTeacher Training Program was designedto train teachers in classroom manage-ment skills such as how to encourageand motivate students, strengthen socialcompetence, decrease inappropriatebehavior, and teach social skills, angermanagement, and problem solving in the

classroom. Teacher training is offered togroups of teachers and may be deliveredin six day-long workshops offered monthlyor in 2-hour sessions offered once a weekfor 24 weeks. Videotaped vignettes of teach-ers managing common and difficult situa-tions in the classroom are used to stimulategroup discussion and problem solving.

readiness and promote strong connec-tions between home and school.

All of the Incredible Years parent trainingprograms include videotapes, extensivegroup leader manuals, books for parents,home activities, and refrigerator notes andare offered in parent group discussionsfacilitated by trained leaders.

Table 1: Overview of the Incredible Years Parent, Teacher, and Child Training Programs

Interventions Skills Targeted Person Trained Settings Targeted

Incredible Years Parenting skills Parent HomeBASIC Parent ● Play/Involvement.Training Program ● Praise/Rewards.

● Limit setting.● Discipline.

Incredible Years Interpersonal skills Parent Home, work, andADVANCE Parent ● Problem solving. communityTraining Program ● Anger management.

● Communication.● Depression control.● Giving and getting support.

Incredible Years Academic skills Parent Home-schoolEDUCATION Parent ● Academic stimulation. connectionTraining Program ● Learning routine after school.(also known as ● Homework support.Supporting Your ● Reading.Child’s Education) ● Limit setting.

● Involvement at school.● Teacher conferences.

Incredible Years Teacher Classroom management skills Teacher SchoolTraining Program ● Encouragement/Praise.

● Incentives.● Proactive teaching.● Discipline.● Positive relationships.● Social skills training.● Problem-solving training.

Promoting parent involvement

Incredible Years Child Social skills Child Home and schoolTraining Program ● Friendship.(also known as Dina ● Teamwork.Dinosaur Social Skills ● Cooperation/Helping.and Problem-Solving ● Communication.Curriculum) ● Understanding feelings/Feeling language.

● Rules.

Problem solving● Anger management.● Steps of problem solving.

Classroom behavior● Quiet hand up.● Compliance.● Listening.● Stop-look-think-check.● Concentrating.

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Incredible Years Training Materials

Parent TrainingThe Incredible Years parent training materials include:

◆ Twelve videotapes for the early childhood BASIC program.

◆ Three videotapes for the school-age BASIC program.

◆ Six videotapes for the ADVANCE program.

◆ Two videotapes for the EDUCATION program.

◆ A self-administered manual for the BASIC programs.

◆ Comprehensive leader manuals for each program (consisting of more than 500pages of “how to” information, including leader questions for discussion, homeactivities, and interpretation of videotapes).

◆ Weekly “refrigerator notes” (brief points to remember) for parents.

◆ Assignments for parents’ home activities.

◆ Copies of a book for parents titled The Incredible Years: A Trouble-ShootingGuide for Parents of Children Ages 3–8 (also available on audiotape).

◆ Refrigerator magnets that remind parents to do their weekly homework activitiesand deliver special messages, such as “Build up your bank account with chil-dren.” (The illustration on the magnet shows “coins” labeled love, play, caring, andsupport going into a piggybank.)

◆ Pyramid posters (see figure on page 5). The pyramids show how the programsfirst build a positive foundation emphasizing relationship skills before beginning todiscuss discipline strategies.

Teacher TrainingThe Incredible Years teacher training materials include:

◆ Twelve videotapes.

◆ Comprehensive leader manuals (including leader questions for discussions,classroom activities, suggested readings, and handouts).

◆ Self-administered manuals.

◆ Teacher blackboard notes (key points to remember for each program).

◆ Teacher classroom practice assignments.

◆ Copies of the book for teachers entitled How to Promote Social and EmotionalCompetence in the Classroom.

Child TrainingThe Incredible Years child training materials include:

◆ Thirteen videotapes.

◆ A comprehensive leader manual (including leader questions for discussion,home activities, teacher notes, suggested practice activities, and suggestedreadings).

◆ Weekly cue pictures of key concepts for children.

◆ Homework detective activities.

◆ Refrigerator magnets for children (reminding them to do their homework).

◆ A feeling-wheel game.

◆ Thirty-nine laminated cue cards.

◆ Six sets of different stickers (reviewing main concepts).

◆ Children’s books.

Child Training. The Incredible YearsChild Training Program, Dina Dinosaur’sSocial Skills and Problem-Solving Curricu-lum, was designed to teach groups of chil-dren friendship skills, appropriate conflictmanagement strategies, successful class-room behaviors, and empathy skills. In ad-dition, it teaches children cognitive strate-gies to cope with negative attributions(i.e., hostile thoughts about others’ inten-tions) and situations that incite anger.There are two versions of this curriculum.It can be used as a “pull out” treatmentprogram for small groups of children withconduct problems or as a classroom-basedpreventive program designed to be deliv-ered to all students two to three times aweek in 20- to 30-minute circle time discus-sions followed by 20-minute practice activi-ties during the day. Videotaped vignettesare used to stimulate children’s discussions,demonstrate problem solving, and promptrole-playing and practice activities.

Series GoalsThe Incredible Years Parents, Teachers,and Children Training Series has two long-range goals. The first goal is to developcomprehensive treatment programs foryoung children with early onset conductproblems. The second goal is the devel-opment of cost-effective, community-based,universal prevention programs that allfamilies and teachers of young childrencan use to promote social competenceand to prevent children from developingconduct problems in the first place.

The purpose of the series is to preventdelinquency, drug abuse, and violence.The short-term goals of the series are to:

◆ Reduce conduct problems in children:

❖ Decrease negative behaviors andnoncompliance with parents at home.

❖ Decrease peer aggression and dis-ruptive behaviors in the classroom.

◆ Promote social, emotional, and academiccompetence in children:

❖ Increase children’s social skills.

❖ Increase children’s understandingof feelings.

❖ Increase children’s conflict manage-ment skills and decrease negativeattributions.

❖ Increase academic engagement,school readiness, and cooperationwith teachers.

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◆ Promote parental competence andstrengthen families:

❖ Increase parents’ positive communi-cation skills, such as the use of praiseand positive feedback to children,and reduce the use of criticism andunnecessary commands.

❖ Improve parents’ limit-setting skillsby replacing spanking and other nega-tive physical behaviors with nonvio-lent discipline techniques and by pro-moting positive strategies such asignoring the child’s behavior, allowingfor logical consequences, providingredirection, and developing problem-solving and empathy skills.

❖ Improve parents’ problem-solvingskills and anger management.

❖ Increase family support networksand school involvement.

◆ Promote teacher competence andstrengthen school-home connections:

❖ Strengthen teachers’ classroommanagement strategies by usingproactive and positive teaching ap-proaches (e.g., clearly delineatedclassroom rules and use of strate-gies such as redirection, nonverbalwarning signs, proximity praise, etc.).

❖ Increase teachers’ collaborativeefforts in promoting parents’ schoolinvolvement and developing plansfor behavior modification that con-nect home and school environments.

❖ Increase teachers’ ability to offersocial skills and problem-solvingtraining in the classroom.

Target PopulationsThe Incredible Years Parents, Teachers, andChildren Training Series is a practical andversatile set of programs used to teach ef-fective child management skills to differenttypes of participants.

Parents of Children Ages 2 to 10 WithoutConduct Problems. The parenting seriescan be used to teach parents of childrenwithout conduct problems to foster posi-tive social behaviors in their children andto give parents effective discipline tech-niques for dealing with common behaviorproblems. Used as a prevention program,this series can help prevent child abuseand help parents avoid the developmentof serious child behavior problems throughearly intervention.

The series is effective with parents of alleducational and socioeconomic levels(Webster-Stratton, 1998, 1990a). The video-

taped vignettes show mothers and fathersof African American, Asian, Caucasian, andHispanic backgrounds. The series is avail-able in English and Spanish, and someparts are available in Vietnamese.

Parents of Children Ages 3 to 10 WhoHave Conduct Problems. The research forthe series involved more than 800 familieswith children having conduct problems,which are not usually evident until theage of 3. After completing the BASIC andADVANCE programs, the parents in these

families helped their children improvetheir behavior significantly. The children inthe studies displayed conduct problemsthat included aggressive behaviors such ashitting and kicking; destructive acts; nega-tive and defiant attitudes; whining, yelling,talking back, and interrupting; and non-compliance with parental requests. Al-though the research did not include devel-opmentally delayed, psychotic, or autisticchildren, the series could be adapted forparents of such children.

Pyramid Posters

Parenting Pyramid

Pyramid for BuildingRelationships

Benefits for Other Person

Respect

Enjoyment

LoveAcceptanceEmpathy

Family

Meetings

• Understanding

• Generating

solutions

• Evaluating

consequences

• Finding new solutions

Listening/

Taking Other’s

Perspective

Speaking Up

and

Being Polite

Being Involved

and Spending Time

With Another

Playing

and

Having Fun

Learning

Self-Control

Using

Positive

Self-Talk

Caring for

Yourself

Getting

Support

Self

Communi-cating

Effectively

Supportingand Givingto Others

CaringAbout

Oneself

ProblemSolving and

Coping

CooperationandPartnership

Benefits for Child

Problem Solving

Cooperation

Self-EsteemAttachment

Social Skills

Thinking Skills

Motivation

Responsibility

PredictabilityObedience

Setting Clear Limits

Establishing Household Rules

Using Consistent Followthrough

Giving Praise

and

Encouragement

Offering Rewards

and

Celebrations

Feeling

Empathy

Paying

Attention

and Being

Involved

Problem

Solving

Parent Skills and Strategies

AnnoyingBehaviors

Ignoring

Distracting

Redirecting

Listening

Talking

UseLiberally

UseLiberally

Use Selectively• Timeout• Loss of Privileges• Natural and Logical Consequences

Aggression Consequences

Playing

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Incredible Years Parentand Teacher TrainingProgramsGerald R. Patterson’s theoretical work onchildhood aggression strongly influenced

Table 2: Content and Objectives of the Incredible Years Early ChildhoodBASIC Parent Training Programs (Ages 2–7)

Content Objectives

Program 1: Play

Part 1: How To ● Recognizing children’s capabilities and needs.Play With a Child ● Providing positive support for children’s play.

● Helping children develop imaginative and creative play.● Building children’s self-esteem and self-concept.● Handling children’s boredom.● Avoiding power struggles with children.● Understanding the importance of adult attention.

Part 2: Helping ● Talking with children.Children Learn ● Understanding ways to create faster language

development.● Building children’s confidence in their learning ability.● Helping children learn to solve problems.● Helping children deal with frustration.● Avoiding the criticism trap.● Making learning enjoyable through play.

Program 2: Praise and Rewards

Part 1: The Art of ● Understanding ways to praise more effectively.Effective Praising ● Avoiding praise of perfection only.

● Recognizing common traps.● Handling children who reject praise.● Providing physical warmth.● Recognizing child behaviors that need praise.● Understanding the effects of social rewards on children.● Doubling the impact of praise.● Building children’s self-esteem.

Part 2: Tangible ● Providing unexpected rewards.Rewards ● Understanding the difference between rewards and bribes.

● Recognizing when to use the “first-then” rule.● Providing ways to set up star and chart systems with children.● Recognizing ways to carry out point programs.● Understanding how to develop programs that are age

appropriate.● Understanding ways to use tangible rewards for reducing

or eliminating problems such as dawdling, not dressing,noncompliance, not sharing, fighting with siblings, pickyeating, messy rooms, not going to bed, and messy diapers.

Program 3: Effective Limit Setting

Part 1: How To Set ● Identifying important household rules.Limits ● Understanding ways to give more effective commands.

● Avoiding unnecessary commands.● Avoiding unclear, vague, and negative commands.● Providing children with positive alternatives.● Understanding when to use the “when-then” command.● Recognizing the importance of warnings and helpful

reminders.● Understanding ways to use problem-solving approaches.

the development of the Incredible Yearsparent and teacher training programs(Patterson, 1982). Patterson’s social learn-ing model emphasizes the importance ofthe family and teacher socialization pro-cesses, especially those affecting young

Parents at Risk for Abusing or NeglectingTheir Children. Additional research for theparenting series was based on two studieswith more than 600 families enrolled in 14Head Start centers. These families were ran-domly assigned to the BASIC parent train-ing program or to the usual Head Start cen-ter services. The BASIC program was wellreceived, with more than 85 percent of par-ents attending more than two-thirds of thesessions. Some of these parents were at riskfor abusing or neglecting their children be-cause of their own childhood experiencesof abuse or because of a lack of social andeconomic support. The BASIC program isalso appropriate for parents who have beenreported for child abuse. Parents of highlyaggressive and noncompliant children havean increased risk of abusive behavior orfeeling “out of control” when they disciplinetheir children and thus have a higher risk ofbecoming involved with child protectiveservices. Head Start parents who partici-pated in the BASIC program were signifi-cantly less likely to verbally attack or criti-cize their children or to use physicalpunishment such as spanking and hitting,compared with Head Start parents fromcenters that did not offer the parentingprogram (Webster-Stratton, 1998).

Teenagers Taking Babysitting Classesor Family Life Courses. Sections of theparenting series could be used to teachadolescents how to play with and read tochildren and how to discipline them appro-priately. The series could also serve as aneducational resource for teenagers study-ing the normal growth and developmentof preschool and early school-age children.

Child Service and Childcare Providersand Teachers. The teacher training serieshas been used to teach classroom man-agement strategies to childcare workers,teachers, therapists, and other profes-sionals working with children (e.g., nurses,social workers). The parenting series hasalso been used to illustrate play therapyskills, behavior management principles,and cognitive problem-solving strategiesin early childhood programs for teachers,nurses, and psychology students.

Children Ages 4 to 8 With DiagnosedConduct Problems. The treatment versionof the child training series can be used bytherapists to work with small groups of chil-dren (six children per group) exhibiting highrates of aggression and noncompliance. Ithas been proven effective in decreasingpeer aggression and promoting appropri-ate conflict management skills, inducingmore cooperative behavior, and increas-ing children’s self-confidence.

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Table 2 (cont.): Content and Objectives of the Incredible Years EarlyChildhood BASIC Parent Training Programs (Ages 2–7)

Content Objectives

Program 3: Effective Limit Setting (cont.)

Part 2: Helping ● Dealing with children who test the limits.Children Learn To ● Understanding when to divert and distract children.Accept Limits ● Avoiding arguments and “why games.”

● Recognizing traps children set for parents.● Ignoring inappropriate responses.● Following through with commands effectively.● Helping children to be more compliant.

Part 3: Dealing With ● Understanding how to implement timeouts forNoncompliance noncompliance.

● Understanding ways to explain timeouts to children.● Avoiding power struggles.● Dealing with children who refuse to go to timeout or refuse

to stay in timeout.● Ignoring children’s inappropriate responses.● Following through effectively and consistently.● Avoiding common mistakes concerning timeouts.

Program 4: Handling Misbehavior

Part 1: Avoiding ● Anticipating and avoiding frustration.and Ignoring ● Showing disapproval.Misbehavior ● Ignoring and distracting.

● Handling noncompliance, screaming, arguing, pleading,and tantrums.

● Handling crying, grabbing, not eating, and refusing togo to bed.

Part 2: Timeout and ● Explaining timeout to a school-age child.Other Penalties ● Using timeout for hitting behaviors.

● Using the timeout chair with a toddler.● Explaining timeout to a toddler.● Using a timeout room with a toddler.● Using timeout to help stop sibling fights.● Following through when a child refuses to go to timeout.● Dealing with spitting.● Dealing with threats.● Understanding and establishing logical consequences.● Coping when discipline does not work.● Dealing with the telephone syndrome.● Dealing with the TV syndrome.

Part 3: Preventive ● Encouraging sharing and cooperation between children.Strategies ● Using puppets and story books to teach children social skills.

● Talking and listening effectively.● Problem solving with children.● Reviewing points to remember when using timeouts.

appropriate problem-solving and disciplinestrategies, children can develop social com-petence and reduce aggressive behaviorat home and at school.

Children with behavior problems often havelow academic achievement and low intel-lectual functioning during the elementarygrades and throughout high school. Read-ing disabilities are also associated with con-

duct disorders. Despite the documentedlinks between underachievement, languagedelays, reading disabilities, and conductdisorders, few attempts have been made toincrease the effectiveness of parent trainingprograms by providing parents with aca-demic skills training. Parents, however, needto know how to give their children academichelp, especially in reading and writing. Par-ents must also learn how to work withteachers and schools to foster supportiverelationships between home and school.1

Contents and ProgramMechanicsEarly Childhood BASIC Parent TrainingPrograms (Ages 2–7). The four early child-hood BASIC parent training programs—Play, Praise and Rewards, Effective LimitSetting, and Handling Misbehavior—employ a leader’s manual, participants’books, and 10 videotapes. It is ideal to havetwo leaders for each group (preferably amale leader and a female leader). Theleader’s manual contains the video narra-tion, an edited recap of each parent-childinteraction, a concise statement of impor-tant points, discussion topics and ques-tions, homework assignments, handouts,and a list of recommended readings. Briefvideotaped vignettes of parents interactingwith children in family life situations illus-trate childrearing concepts. Group leadersuse these scenes to facilitate group discus-sion and problem solving. Participants dis-cuss the principles of childrearing andpractice new skills through role-playing andhome practice activities. The BASIC pro-grams, which can be self-administered oroffered for groups of 10 to 14 participants,can be covered in twelve to fourteen 2-hoursessions. See table 2 for the content andobjectives of the early childhood BASICparent training programs.

ADVANCE Parent Training Programs(Ages 4–10). ADVANCE, a broader-basedfamily intervention, has the same theoretical

children. His “coercion hypothesis” statesthat negative reinforcement develops andmaintains children’s deviant behaviorsand the parents’ and teachers’ critical orcoercive behaviors. The parents’ or teach-ers’ behaviors must therefore be changedso that the children’s social interactionscan be altered. If parents and teacherscan learn to deal effectively with children’smisbehavior and to model positive and

1 A family’s ability to benefit from parent training is influ-enced by factors such as parental depression, maritaldiscord, negative life stressors, and poverty (Webster-Stratton, 1985, 1990b; Webster-Stratton and Hammond,1990). For some parents, ongoing expanded therapyfocusing on the parents’ needs, including life-crisismanagement, depression management, problem-solving strategies, and marital therapy may be needed.Trainers should be prepared to refer parents to theseservices in conjunction with parent training. Training insocial skills, problem solving, and stress managementshould also be provided for some children. Althoughtherapy cannot change the stressful situations a familymust face, it can help teach parents and children to copewith them more effectively.

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Table 3: Content and Objectives of the Incredible Years ADVANCE ParentTraining Programs (Ages 4–10)

Content Objectives

Program 5: How To Communicate Effectively With Adults and Children

Part 1: Active ● Understanding the importance of active listening skills.Listening and ● Learning how to speak up effectively about problems.Speaking Up ● Recognizing how to validate another’s feelings.

● Knowing how and when to express one’s own feelings.● Avoiding communication blocks such as not listening,

storing up grievances, and angry explosions.

Part 2: Communicating ● Understanding the importance of recognizing self-talk.More Positively to ● Understanding how angry and depressive emotions andOneself and to thoughts can affect behaviors with others.Others ● Learning coping strategies to stop negative self-talk.

● Learning coping strategies to increase positive self-talk.● Increasing positive and polite communication with others.● Avoiding communication blocks such as put-downs,

blaming, and denials.● Understanding the importance of seeing a problem from

the other person’s point of view.

Part 3: Giving and ● Understanding the importance of support for a familyGetting Support or an individual.

● Recognizing communication styles or beliefs that blocksupport.

● Fostering self-care and positive self-reinforcementstrategies in adults and children.

● Avoiding communication blocks such as defensiveness,denials, cross complaints, and inconsistent or mixedmessages.

● Knowing how to get feedback from others.● Understanding how to turn a complaint into a positive

recommendation.● Promoting consistent verbal and nonverbal messages.● Knowing how to make positive requests of adults and

children.● Understanding why compliance with another’s request is

essential in any relationship.● Learning how to be more supportive of others.

Program 6: Problem Solving for Parents

Part 1: Adult Problem- ● Recognizing when to use spontaneous problem-solving skills.Solving Meetings ● Understanding the important steps to problem solving.

● Learning how and when to collaborate effectively.● Avoiding blocks to effective problem solving such as

blaming, attacking, anger, sidetracking, lengthy problemdefinition, missed steps, and criticizing solutions.

● Recognizing how to use problem-solving strategies to getmore support.

● Learning how to express feelings about a problem withoutblaming.

Part 2: Family Problem- ● Understanding how to use the problem-solving steps withSolving Meetings school-age children.

● Recognizing the importance of evaluating plans duringeach problem-solving session.

● Understanding the importance of rotating the leader foreach family meeting.

● Learning how to help children express their feelings aboutan issue.

● Reinforcing the problem-solving process.

foundation as the BASIC programs. Basedon cognitive social learning theory, theADVANCE programs—How To Communi-cate Effectively With Adults and Children,Problem Solving for Parents, and ProblemSolving With Young Children—consist of aleader’s manual and six videotapes. Offeredto groups of parents who have completedthe BASIC programs, the ADVANCE pro-grams take ten to twelve 2-hour sessionsto complete. They review the material cov-ered in the BASIC programs and help par-ents understand how to apply the principlesof communication and problem solving toother relationships. See table 3 for thecontent and objectives presented in theADVANCE programs.

Supporting Your Child’s Education ParentTraining Program (Ages 5–10). The EDU-CATION Parent Training Program supple-ments the BASIC parenting programs byfocusing on ways to foster children’s aca-demic competence, such as offering parentsstrategies for reading and doing homeworkwith their children, fostering supportiverelationships with teachers, and settingup coordinated plans between home andschool when necessary. It consists of twovideotapes and a manual. This program isimplemented after the completion of theBASIC programs because it builds on thebehavioral principles regarding social skillsthat were introduced in BASIC and appliesthem to academic skills. See table 4 forthe content and objectives of the Sup-porting Your Child’s Education parenttraining program.

School-Age BASIC Parent Training Pro-grams (Ages 5–12). This multicultural se-ries gives greater emphasis to strategiesfor older children, including logical conse-quences, monitoring, problem solving,and specific reference to problems suchas lying and stealing. There are twoprograms—Promoting Positive Behaviorsin School-Age Children and ReducingInappropriate Behaviors in School-AgeChildren—consisting of a leader’s manualand three videotapes. See table 5 for thecontent and objectives of the school-ageBASIC parent training programs.

Teacher Training Programs. The Incred-ible Years teacher training programs, de-veloped in 1995, are six comprehensivegroup discussion and intervention programsfor teachers, school counselors, and psy-chologists who work with children ages4 to 10. The six programs are The Impor-tance of Teacher Attention, Encourage-ment, and Praise; Motivating ChildrenThrough Incentives; Preventing Problems—The Proactive Teacher; Decreasing Students’

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Inappropriate Behavior; Building PositiveRelationships With Students; and How ToTeach Social Skills, Problem Solving, andAnger Management in the Classroom.The teaching concepts are illustratedwith brief videotaped vignettes of teach-ers interacting with children in class-rooms. The settings include large class-rooms with 28 children and 1 teacher andsmaller special education classroomswith multiple teachers. Group leadersuse the videotaped scenes (of teachershandling problem situations effectivelyand ineffectively) to facilitate discussion,solve problems, and share ideas amongteachers. Group leaders help teachersdiscuss important principles and prac-tice new skills through role-playing and

homework assignments. The teachertraining programs consist of 12 video-tapes. The leader’s manual contains thecomplete text of the video narration, anedited recap of the teacher-child interac-tion for each vignette, a concise state-ment of important points, discussiontopics and questions, readings and hand-outs, suggested classroom activities, anda list of recommended readings. See table6 for the content and objectives presentedduring the teacher training programs.

Training MethodsThe parent programs are designed as groupdiscussions with 12 to 14 parents per groupand 1 group leader (2 leaders if resources

permit). The group format fosters a senseof community support, reduces isolation,and normalizes parents’ experiences andsituations. This cost-effective approachalso allows for diverse problem-solvingexperiences in a variety of family situa-tions. Each parent is encouraged to havea partner or close friend participate inthe program.

In this collaborative, nonblaming, and non-hierarchical training model, the leader isnot an “expert” who dispenses advice toparents. Rather, the leader is a collabora-tor. Collaboration, meaning “to labor to-gether,” implies a reciprocal relationshipthat uses the leader’s and parents’ knowl-edge, strengths, and perspectives equally.The leader promotes collaboration throughreflection, summary of points made byparents, reframing, reinforcement, sup-port and acceptance, humor and opti-mism, encouragement of each member’sparticipation, teaching of important con-cepts, and role-playing exercises. Thecollaborative process is described exten-sively in Troubled Families—ProblemChildren (Webster-Stratton and Herbert,1994), which is a required text for thegroup leader training.

Approximately 60 percent of each sessionis group discussion, problem solving, andsupport; 25 percent is videotape modeling(25 to 30 minutes of videotape); and 15percent is teaching (Webster-Stratton andHerbert, 1994). The Incredible Years par-ent training programs make use of thefollowing instructional approaches:

◆ Videotape modeling. Because the ex-tent of conduct problems has createda need for services that exceeds avail-able personnel and resources, thisintervention had to be cost-effective,widely applicable, and sustaining. Vid-eotape modeling promised to be effec-tive and cost efficient. Modeling theo-ries of learning suggest that parentscan improve parenting skills by watch-ing videotaped examples of parentsinteracting with their children in waysthat promote prosocial behaviors anddecrease inappropriate behaviors(Bandura, 1977). This method of train-ing is more accessible, especially toless verbally oriented parents, thanother methods such as didactic in-struction, written handouts, or a solereliance on group or individual discus-sion. It promotes generalization andlong-term maintenance of positive be-haviors by portraying a variety of mod-els in many situations. Furthermore,

Table 3 (cont.): Content and Objectives of the Incredible Years ADVANCEParent Training Programs (Ages 4–10)

Content Objectives

Program 7: Problem Solving With Young Children

Part 1: Teaching ● Understanding that games and stories can be used to helpChildren To Problem children begin to learn problem-solving skills.Solve Through ● Appreciating the developmental nature and process ofStories and Games problem solving and learning how to enhance these skills

in children.● Strengthening a child’s beginning empathy skills or ability

to understand a problem from another person’s viewpoint.● Recognizing why aggressive and shy children need to learn

these skills.● Learning how to help children think about the emotional

and behavioral consequences of proposed solutions.● Knowing how to help older children evaluate their

proposed solutions.● Understanding the importance of validating children’s

feelings.● Learning how to help children make more positive

attributions about another person’s intentions.● Recognizing the value of adults’ modeling their ability to

solve problems for children to observe.

Part 2: Teaching ● Understanding the importance of not imposing solutionsChildren To Problem upon children but of fostering a thinking process aboutSolve in the Midst conflict.of Conflict ● Recognizing how and when to use guided solutions for

very young children or for children who have no positivesolutions in their repertoire.

● Discovering the value of obtaining the child’s feelings andview of the problem before attempting to solve the problem.

● Learning how to foster children’s skills to empathize andperceive another’s point of view.

● Recognizing when children may be ready to solve theproblem on their own.

● Avoiding “blocks” to effective problem solving withchildren, such as lectures, negative or quick judgmentsabout solutions, exclusive focus on the “right” answer, andthe failure to validate a child’s feelings.

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try out a parenting strategy. At the startof each session, the leader asks parentsto share their experiences with theirhome activities and reading. The leadercan then assess whether parents are inte-grating the material into their daily lives.

◆ Weekly evaluations. Parents evaluateeach group session by completing a briefweekly evaluation form, which gives the

leader immediate feedback about par-ticipants’ responses to the leader’s style,the group discussions, and the contentpresented in the session. If a parent isdissatisfied or is having trouble with aconcept, the leader may want to call thatparent to resolve the issue. If the diffi-culty is shared by others, the leader canbring it up at the next session.

Table 4: Content and Objectives of the Incredible Years Supporting YourChild’s Education Parent Training Program (Ages 5–12)

Content Objectives

Program 8: How To Support Your Child’s Education

Part 1: Promoting ● Recognizing the capabilities of young children.Your Child’s ● Providing positive support for children’s play.Self-Confidence ● Helping children develop imaginative and creative play.

● Building children’s self-esteem and self-confidence in theirlearning ability.

● Making learning enjoyable through play.● Teaching children to solve problems.● Understanding the importance of adult attention and

listening skills for children.● Fostering children’s reading skills and story telling through

“interactive dialogue,” praise, and open-ended questions.

Part 2: Fostering Good ● Setting up a predictable routine.Learning Habits ● Understanding how television interferes with learning.

● Incorporating effective limit setting regarding homework.● Understanding how to follow through with limits.● Understanding the importance of parental monitoring.● Avoiding the criticism trap.

Part 3: Dealing With ● Helping children avoid a sense of failure when they cannotChildren’s do something.Discouragement ● Recognizing the importance of children learning according

to their developmental ability and learning style.● Understanding how to build on children’s strengths.● Knowing how to set up tangible reward programs to help

motivate children in difficult areas.● Understanding how to motivate children through praise

and encouragement.

Part 4: Participating ● Understanding the importance of parental attention, praise,in Children’s and encouragement for children’s homework activities.Homework ● Recognizing that every child learns different skills at

different rates according to her or his developmental ability.● Understanding how to build on children’s strengths.● Understanding how to show “active interest” in children’s

learning at home and at school.

Part 5: Using Parent- ● Understanding the importance of parental advocacy forTeacher Conferences children in school.To Advocate for ● Understanding how to focus on finding solutions toYour Child children’s school difficulties (rather than blame).

● Recognizing effective communication and problem-solvingstrategies in talking with teachers.

● Knowing ways to support teachers in their teaching efforts.● Recognizing strategies to motivate children at school.● Understanding the importance of continuity from home to

school.

videotape modeling is cost effectivebecause it can be widely disseminated.

The programs show parents and chil-dren of different sexes, ages, cultures,socioeconomic backgrounds, and tem-peraments interacting with each other incommon family situations, such as eat-ing dinner, getting dressed in the morn-ing, and playing. The leader uses thesevignettes to trigger group discussion.Participants identify key principles formanaging children’s behavior by watch-ing examples of interaction that are posi-tive, negative, or neither. By showingnegative examples, the notion of “perfectparenting” is disproved and parents aregiven the chance to think about andpractice alternative strategies that aremore effective. The videotapes stimulategroup discussion and problem solving,and the leader ensures that the discus-sion addresses the topic and is under-stood by all parents. After each vignette,the leader stops the videotape and asksopen-ended questions about the scenes.Parents react to and discuss the episodesand develop alternative responses to theincidents portrayed.

◆ Role-playing and rehearsal. Role-playing and rehearsal of unfamiliar ornewly acquired behaviors are commonlyused in parent training programs and areeffective in changing behavior (Eisler,Hersen, and Agras, 1973; Twentymanand McFall, 1975). Role-playing helpsparents anticipate situations moreclearly and dramatizes possible conse-quences of interactions. There are atleast four or five brief role-plays duringeach session. The leader manual andleader training provide helpful strategiesfor making the role-playing comfortableand useful for parents and leaders.

◆ Weekly homework activities. Everysession also involves a home assignmentor activity, which is presented as an inte-gral part of the learning process. Thehome activities help transfer the learn-ing that takes place in group sessions toreal life at home and stimulate discus-sion at later sessions. Home activitiesalso convey the message that passiveinvolvement in the group will not workmagic; parents must work at home tomake changes. Parents are providedwith The Incredible Years (Webster-Stratton, 1992) and asked to read a chap-ter each week to prepare for the nextsession. Audiotapes are provided forthose who cannot read. Parents are alsoasked to observe behaviors at home,record their thoughts and feelings, or

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ers by calling them regularly and meetingwith them individually at the school.

Training and Qualificationsof Group LeadersGroup leaders for the parent training pro-grams may come from many disciplines,including nursing, psychology, counseling,social work, education, and psychiatry.Group leaders should have taken univer-sity courses in child development and be-havior management principles and haveexperience working with families and youngchildren. Leader effectiveness, however, isdetermined not so much by educational orprofessional background as by the indivi-dual’s degree of comfort with the collabo-rative process and the ability to promoteintimacy and assume a role of friendshipwith the families. A leader must be like afriend who listens, asks for clarification, isreflective and nonjudgmental, understandsthe parent through empathy, and helpssolve problems but does not command,instruct, or tell participants how to parent.At the same time, the leader must also beable to take charge, teach, and confront—to explain behavioral principles and pro-vide a clear rationale for them, challengefamilies to see new perspectives, elicitthe strengths of the parent group, andprovide clear limits within the group whennecessary. This requires effective groupleadership skills.

Group leader certification by the developerof the Incredible Years Training Series ishighly recommended and is required ifthe program is to be evaluated as part of aresearch program. This certification as agroup leader requires successful comple-tion of the following components:

◆ Application form.

◆ Three-day training from a certifiedtrainer.

◆ Successful completion of a minimum oftwo parent groups (each group lasting12 sessions).

◆ Peer review of groups by coleader.

◆ Satisfactory completion of groupleader self-evaluations for each group.

◆ Satisfactory completion of two coleaderpeer evaluations for each group.

◆ Submission of parent weekly evalua-tions from two groups and final cumu-lative parent evaluations. (Evaluationmaterials are provided with programmaterials.)

◆ Trainer review of groups by a certifiedleader who observes onsite or by acertification committee that reviews avideotape of the group.

Parents can also receive training as co-leaders to help certified leaders facilitategroups. Parent coleaders first participateas members of a parent group and thenapply to become coleaders. Selection isbased on natural group leadership skills,interest in working with fellow parents,and interpersonal skills. Once selected,these parents receive leader training fol-lowed by an apprenticeship with two cer-tified group leaders. Finally, they coleadwith a certified leader.

Once a person has become certified as agroup leader, he or she is then eligible tobecome certified as a mentor of groupleaders. Certification as a mentor requirescompletion of the following components:

◆ Application form.

◆ Successful completion of a minimum ofthree groups. (It is expected that certi-fied mentors will have ongoing groups.)

◆ Completion of mentor trainingworkshops.

◆ Completion of leader training groupsunder the supervision of a certifiedtrainer (or submission of 2-hour video-tape of training and evaluations).

◆ Submission of evaluations from groupleaders who are mentored.

◆ Submission of leader trainingevaluations.

Certified parent group leaders or teacherswho have completed the teacher trainingare qualified to offer the teacher trainingprogram. Trainers should have a back-ground in school psychology, experienceteaching young children, and practiceworking with parents.

Incredible Years ChildTraining Program—Dina Dinosaur SocialSkills and Problem-Solving CurriculumThe preschool and early grades are a stra-tegic time to intervene directly with chil-dren and an optimal time to facilitate so-cial competence. Research has shown thata significant relationship exists betweenpoor peer relationships in early childhoodand long-term social and emotional malad-justment (Loeber, 1985). In the absence of

◆ Phone calls and makeup sessions. Theleader calls the parents every 2 weeksto ask how things are going and whetherthey are having any difficulty with thehome assignments. These calls allowthe leader and parents to get to knowone another outside the group, whichis particularly useful in the case of quietor reluctant parents. These calls alsoreveal how well parents are assimilatingthe material presented.

◆ Buddy calls. The leader creates a groupsupport system by assigning everyonea parent “buddy” in the second session.Buddies are asked to call each other dur-ing the week to share progress in homeassignments. This assignment is carriedout every few weeks throughout the pro-gram with different buddies each time.Parents are often initially hesitant aboutmaking these calls, but as they experi-ence the support they receive from thesephone conversations, they usually ex-press a desire to continue the calls. Manyfathers say that this is the first time theyhave ever talked to another father aboutparenting. If parents miss a session, bud-dies call them right away to let themknow they were missed and to fill themin on the week’s material.

The collaborative training methods and pro-cesses used with teacher training groupsare similar to those used with parent groups.Teachers come together in groups of 15 to25 to discuss a series of vignettes. The facili-tator encourages teachers to share theirideas. It takes six full-day workshops tocomplete all six components of the training.This training may be offered 1 day a monthor in weekly 2-hour sessions (lasting 18 to20 weeks). Whether these programs areoffered weekly or monthly will depend onthe school’s ability to release teachersfrom class to do the training.

Teachers use videotape modeling, role-playing, and practicing of key points justas parent groups do. For example, teach-ers are given classroom assignments topractice, such as praising a difficult stu-dent, using “proximity praise” duringcircle time, or setting up a home/schoolincentive program for an aggressive stu-dent. Assignments also include readingsfrom How to Promote Children’s Social andEmotional Competence (Webster-Stratton,1999). During the training, teachers de-velop behavior plans for targeted studentsand, by the end of the school year, developa “transition plan” for students to take tothe next grade. The leader supports teach-

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Table 5: Content and Objectives of the Incredible Years School-Age BASICParent Training Programs (Ages 5–12)

Content Objectives

Program 9: Promoting Positive Behaviors in School-Age Children

Part 1: The ● Providing positive support for children’s play.Importance of ● Helping children develop imaginative and creative play.Parental Attention ● Building children’s self-esteem and self-confidence through

supportive parental attention.● Understanding the importance of adult attention for

promoting positive child behaviors.● Understanding how lack of attention and interest can lead

to child misbehaviors.

Part 2: Effective ● Knowing how to use praise effectively.Praise ● Avoiding praise of perfection only.

● Recognizing common traps.● Handling children who reject praise.● Providing physical warmth.● Recognizing child behaviors that need praise.● Understanding the effects of social rewards on children.● Doubling the impact of praise.● Building children’s self-esteem.

Part 3: Tangible ● Understanding the difference between rewards and bribes.Rewards ● Recognizing when to use the “first-then” rule.

● Providing ways to set up star and point systems withchildren.

● Understanding how to develop programs that are age-appropriate.

● Understanding ways to use tangible rewards for reducing oreliminating problems such as dawdling, not dressing,noncompliance, not sharing, fighting with siblings, pickyeating, messy rooms, and not going to bed and for promotingtoilet training.

Program 10: Reducing Inappropriate Behaviors in School-Age Children

Part 1: Clear Limit ● Understanding the importance of household rules.Setting ● Learning guidelines for giving effective commands.

● Avoiding the use of unnecessary commands.● Identifying unclear, vague, and negative commands.● Providing children with positive alternatives.● Using “when-then” commands effectively.● Understanding the importance of warnings and helpful

reminders.

Part 2: Ignoring ● Dealing effectively with children who test the limits.Misbehavior ● Knowing when to divert and distract children.

● Avoiding arguments and “why games.”● Understanding why it is important to ignore children’s

inappropriate responses.● Following through with commands effectively.● Recognizing how to help children be more compliant.

Part 3: Timeout ● Implementing timeout guidelines for noncompliance,Consequences hitting, and destructive behaviors.

● Learning how to explain timeout to children.● Avoiding power struggles.● Implementing techniques for dealing with children who

refuse to go to timeout or will not stay in timeout.● Recognizing common mistakes in using timeout.● Understanding the importance of strengthening positive

behaviors.

treatment, child conduct problems intensifyafter the child begins school, putting thechild at increased risk for peer rejectionand poor social skill development (Loeberand Dishion, 1983). Before the middlegrades, most children already have had atleast 5 to 6 years of experience with peergroups because they have participatedin daycare centers and preschools sincethey were toddlers. Young aggressive chil-dren may have already established a pat-tern of social difficulty in the preschoolyears that continues and becomes fairlystable by the middle school years. Manychildren with conduct problems have al-ready been asked to leave four or fiveschools by the time they are 6 years old,and by the middle school grades, the ag-gressive child’s negative reputation andpeer group and parental rejection may bewell established (Coie, 1990). Even if thechild learns appropriate and effective so-cial skills during the middle grades, thispattern of rejection may make it difficultfor the child to use these skills to changehis or her image (Bierman and Furman,1984). Thus, intervening at a young agecan help children develop effective socialskills early and reduce their aggressivebehaviors before these behaviors andreputations develop into permanent pat-terns. Moreover, even though parenttraining is likely to affect parent-child re-lationships at home, it is less likely to im-pact peer relationships. To address peerproblems, children must receive small-group training in problem-solving andsocial skills, and trained teachers mustmonitor and reinforce the use of suchskills at school (Webster-Stratton andHammond, 1997).

Content and ProgramMechanicsThe Incredible Years Child TrainingProgram—Dina Dinosaur Social Skills andProblem-Solving Curriculum—was devel-oped in 1990 to teach positive interactionskills to 4- to 8-year-olds who have conductproblems. This intervention is designed toenhance children’s school behaviors, pro-mote social competence and positive peerinteractions, develop appropriate conflictmanagement strategies, enhance emotionalliteracy, and reduce conduct problems. Inaddition, the programs in the child trainingseries teach children ways to integrate intothe classroom and develop positive friend-ships. Finally, the programs are organized todovetail with the parent training programs.

There are six child training programs (sevenunits) in the series: Making Friends and

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Learning School Rules, Understanding andDetecting Feelings, Detective Wally TeachesProblem-Solving Steps (which includes aunit on anger management), Molly MannersTeaches How To Be Friendly, Molly ExplainsHow To Talk With Friends, and Dina DinosaurTeaches How To Do Your Best in School.The series consists of a leader’s manual,children’s and parents’ handouts, children’sbooks, detective home activities manuals,games and activities, and nine videotapes.

Treatment model. For treatment of chil-dren with conduct problems, the first fiveprograms are offered to groups of five orsix children in 2-hour sessions held oncea week for 22 weeks. If the series is se-

Table 5 (cont.): Content and Objectives of the Incredible Years School-AgeBASIC Parent Training Programs (Ages 5–12)

Content Objectives

Program 10: Reducing Inappropriate Behaviors in School-Age Children (cont.)

Part 4: Consequences, ● Implementing guidelines for avoiding power struggles.Extra Chores, and ● Recognizing when to use logical consequences, privilegeStartup Commands removal, or startup commands.

● Understanding what to do when discipline does not seemto work.

● Recognizing when to ignore children’s inappropriateresponses and how to avoid power struggles.

● Understanding how natural and logical consequencesincrease children’s sense of responsibility.

● Understanding when to use work chores with children.● Understanding the importance of parental monitoring

at all ages.

Part 5: Problem ● Understanding the importance of adults not imposingSolving With solutions on children but rather fostering a “thinkingChildren process” about conflict.

● Recognizing how and when to use “guided solutions” foryoung children.

● Recognizing how to foster children’s empathy skills.● Understanding ways to encourage children’s generation of

solutions to problems.● Learning how to help children think about and evaluate

consequences to proposed solutions.● Recognizing when children may be ready to solve problems

on their own.● Understanding how to use the problem-solving strategies in

a family meeting.

Part 6: Special ● Promoting open communication between adults andProblems: Lying, children.Stealing, and Hitting ● Understanding the problem steps: (1) problem definition,

(2) brainstorming, (3) evaluating, and (4) planning andfollowup.

● Avoiding “blocks” to effective problem solving withchildren, such as lectures, negative or quick judgmentsabout solutions, excessive focus on the “right” answer,and the failure to validate a child’s feelings.

● Exploring the advantages and disadvantages of spankingversus grounding, timeout, and loss of privileges.

quenced beginning with the onset of theschool year, then program number 6 (DinaDinosaur Teaches How To Do Your Best inSchool) should be offered right after pro-gram 1 (Making Friends and LearningSchool Rules) and followed by the otherfour programs in the order listed above.

Prevention model. The series can also beoffered as a classroomwide curriculum topromote social and emotional compe-tence in all children (preschool throughgrade three). It is implemented two tothree times a week in 20- to 30-minutecircle time discussions accompanied by20-minute practice activities during theday. The sixth program of the teacher

training series, developed in 1998, con-sists of five videotapes and manuals thatshow teachers how to use the Dinosaur cur-riculum as a prevention program with largegroups of students. See table 7 for a list ofthe content and objectives of these childtraining programs.

Training MethodsMethods for teaching social skills toyoung children must be commensuratewith the children’s learning styles, tem-peraments, and cognitive abilities. Ap-proaches used with elementary schoolchildren are not likely to work with pre-schoolers. Training programs for olderchildren often require verbal and cogni-tive skills that preschool children do nothave (Ladd, 1981). The child training pro-grams make use of the following instruc-tional approaches.

◆ Videotape modeling. Younger childrenusually benefit more from a concreteperformance-based approach, such asvideotape modeling, than they do froma purely cognitive or verbal approach.Although no comprehensive videotapemodeling treatments have been designedto train aggressive children in prosocialskills, research attests to the effects oftelevision on children’s behaviors(Singer, 1982; Singer and Singer, 1983).Reviews of research show convincinglythat children learn a great deal fromtelevision. Unfortunately, this learningmay be harmful without adult mediation,especially in the case of aggressive car-toons and violent news programs (Singer,1985; Singer and Singer, 1983). Fewage-specific television programs aredesigned to enhance prosocial behav-ior in children, with the exception ofMister Rogers, which was designed forpreschoolers. Available data suggestthat children show a significant increasein positive behaviors after watching thisprogram (Singer and Singer, 1983). Youngchildren learn best from programs thatare paced slowly at comprehensiblelevels and include adult voice-overs or“real” adults who explain visual actionsequences (Singer, 1982).

The Dina Dinosaur curriculum uses vid-eotape modeling in every session. Thescenes selected for each unit are basedon interactions that occur naturally be-tween children at home, at school, or inthe University of Washington’s ParentingClinic’s laboratory playroom. In addition,the leader and puppets serve as copingmodels (as opposed to expert models)who self-disclose and share mistakes

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Themes for the role-plays are based onthe leader’s knowledge of each child’sunique family situation and particularneeds. For example, children who haveexperienced traumas such as physicalor sexual abuse will have role-playsinitiated by the puppets demonstratingwhat to do when confronted with anangry parent or a situation involvingpersonal safety. Children who have ex-perienced loss such as the death of aparent or divorce will engage in role-plays that center around the fear ofabandonment or anger at a parent fordisappearing. In addition, children’songoing and current problems such asbeing teased or rejected at school bypeers, being sent home with a note

Table 6: Content and Objectives of the Incredible Years Teacher TrainingPrograms (Ages 4–10)

Program 1: The Importance of Teacher Attention, Encouragement, and Praise● Using praise and encouragement more effectively.● Building children’s self-esteem and self-confidence by teaching children how to

praise themselves.● Understanding the importance of general praise to the whole group as well as

individual praise.● Knowing the importance of praising social and academic behaviors.● Recognizing common traps.● Using physical warmth as a reinforcer.● Providing nonverbal cues of appreciation.● Doubling the impact of praise by involving other school personnel and parents.● Helping children learn how to praise others and enjoy others’ achievements.

Program 2: Motivating Children Through Incentives● Understanding why incentives are valuable teaching strategies for children with

behavior problems.● Understanding ways to use an incentive program for social problems such as

noncompliance, inattentiveness, uncooperativeness, and hyperactivity andfor academic problems.

● Setting up individual incentive programs for particular children.● Using group or classroom incentives.● Designing programs that have variety and build on the positive relationship

between the teacher, child, and parent.● Using incentives in a way that fosters the child’s internal motivation and focuses

on the process of learning rather than the end product.● Providing unexpected rewards.● Appreciating the importance of involving parents in incentive programs.

Program 3: Preventing Behavior Problems—The Proactive Teacher● Preparing children for transitions.● Establishing clear, predictable classroom rules.● Using guidelines for giving effective commands or instructions.● Identifying unclear, vague, and negative commands.● Understanding the value of warnings and helpful reminders, especially for

distractible and impulsive children.● Engaging children’s attention.● Using nonverbal signals and cues for communication.● Recognizing the need for ongoing monitoring and positive attention.

from the teacher, being sent to timeout,or running away from school are alsothe scripts for role-plays and for prac-ticing appropriate solutions. Programsare tailored to help children with theirindividual needs and to teach them acommon set of appropriate social skillsand conflict management strategies.

◆ Activities. Targeted play skills are prac-ticed through cooperative art projects;guessing games; creative activities withblocks and clay; feeling, “let’s suppose,”and bingo games; and plays. There arealso four children’s books specificallywritten to promote effective problemsolving around common conflict situa-tions that occur at home or at school

with the children in problem-solvingdiscussions.

◆ Fantasy play and instruction. Fantasyplay provides the context for this pro-gram because a high level of sociodra-matic play in preschool children isassociated with sustained and recipro-cal verbal interaction and high levelsof affective role-taking (Connolly andDoyle, 1984). Fantasy play gives childrenthe opportunity to develop intimacy(Gottman and Parkhurst, 1980) andwork out emotional issues (Gottman,1987). For children of preschool age,sociodramatic play is an importantcontext for the development of per-spective taking, social participation,group cooperation, and intimacy skills.It is also a skill to be fostered.

In this curriculum, the children are in-structed by using near life-sized humanpuppets and a variety of animal puppets.These puppets narrate the videotapedscenes and give information about keyconcepts. For example, when the chil-dren first come to “Dinosaur School,”Dina the Dinosaur teaches them aboutthe school’s “dinosaur rules.” The chil-dren learn how to earn tangible rewards(“dinosaur chips”) for good behaviors.They learn which behaviors are prohib-ited and what the consequences are forbreaking a rule. Tiny, the turtle puppet,teaches children how to control angerby using their “shells” as protectionwhen they become angry. WallyProblem-Solver and Molly Mannersteach them how to solve problems suchas being teased or bullied by others, feel-ing left out, lying and stealing, copingwith disappointment, being afraid andanxious, and making new friends.

◆ Role-playing. Role-playing activitiesprovide opportunities to practice newskills and experience different perspec-tives. For example, a difficult situationmay be role-played with the child asthe parent and the leader as the child.A regular activity in the classes is toplay the “let’s suppose” game. The chil-dren role-play a situation such as “Sup-pose your mother was angry at you forbreaking her best vase. What wouldyou do?” With children ages 4 to 6, therole-playing can be acted out by a childand a leader while the second leader sitswith the remaining children and helpsthem think of alternative responses.Older children put on skits in pairs withone leader acting as coach.

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Table 6 (cont.): Content and Objectives of the Incredible Years TeacherTraining Programs (Ages 4–10)

Program 4: Decreasing Students’ Inappropriate Behavior● Knowing how to redirect and engage children.● Knowing how and when to ignore inappropriate responses from children.● Using verbal and nonverbal cues to reengage off-task children.● Understanding the importance of reminders and warnings.● Using guidelines for setting up timeout in the classroom.● Avoiding common mistakes in using timeout.● Handling common misbehaviors such as impulsivity, disengagement,

noncompliance, tantrums, and disruptive behaviors.● Using the color cards system.● Recognizing when to use logical consequences or removal of privileges as

discipline.

Program 5: Building Positive Relationships With Students● Building positive relationships with difficult students.● Showing students you trust and believe in them.● Fostering students’ sense of responsibility for the classroom and their

involvement in other students’ learning in addition to their own.● Giving students choices when possible.● Teaching students how to ask for what they want in appropriate ways.● Fostering listening and speaking skills between students.● Fostering “feeling talk” between students.● Teaching students how to solve problems through role-plays and examples.● Promoting positive self-talk.● Implementing strategies to counter students’ negative attributions and

reputations within the classroom and in the community of parents.● Promoting positive relationships with students’ parents.

Program 6: How To Teach Social Skills, Problem Solving, and Anger Managementin the Classroom● Helping increase children’s awareness of different feelings and perspectives in

social situations.● Building children’s emotional vocabulary.● Understanding how to help children identify a problem and to generate possible

solutions.● Helping children learn to anticipate different consequences and to evaluate the

most effective solutions.● Helping children recognize their anger and learn ways to manage it successfully.● Using puppets to present hypothetical problem situations such as being teased,

bullied, or isolated by other children.● Providing small-group activities to practice friendship, group entry, play, and

problem-solving skills.● Helping children learn how to use friendly talk such as giving compliments,

providing suggestions, offering apologies, asking for help, and sharing ideas andfeelings.

● Helping children learn classroom behavior such as listening, quiet hand up,cooperating, and following the teacher’s directions.

(see list on page 23). Activities designedfor this curriculum not only addresssocial and emotional issues, but theyalso address academic skills such asreading, writing, school readiness, fineand gross motor, language and commu-nication, cognitive and creative, follow-ing direction, and listening.

◆ Feedback and reinforcement. Duringthe sessions, the leader rewards eachchild’s appropriate behaviors and abil-ity to follow the rules by labeling the be-havior, praising it, and giving tangiblerewards. Midway through the curricu-lum, the behavior goals are individual-ized according to each child’s specificneeds. For example, one child might

work for a reward by staying seatedand not interrupting the leader, whileanother works to find three positivesolutions to a problem. Toward the endof the curriculum, leaders give out tan-gible rewards less frequently and main-tain behaviors with praise and attention.

◆ Fostering skills maintenance and gen-eralization. The children are encour-aged to use their new skills outside thetraining environment. Because pre-schoolers find this difficult, leadersmake great efforts to help children applythe skills learned in training to theirhomes, classrooms, and playgrounds.Parents and teachers are also asked toreinforce the concepts taught. For eachsession, letters are sent to parents andteachers explaining the children’s behav-iors that should be reinforced at homeand at school. For each unit, childrenare given a detective home activitiesmanual that they are asked to do at homeand to have parents sign off when com-pleted. When a certain number of activi-ties are completed for each unit, thechildren receive the dinosaur buttonfor that unit. Ideally, parents are alsogiven training in social skills so theycan reinforce the concepts at home.

Training and Qualificationsof Child Group LeadersGroup leaders for the child training programsmay come from many disciplines, includingnursing, psychology, counseling, social work,education, and psychiatry. Group leadersshould have taken university courses in childdevelopment and classroom managementprinciples and have experience working withfamilies and young children. Leader effective-ness, however, is determined not so muchby educational or professional backgroundas by the individual’s degree of comfortwith children and enjoyment in workingwith them. Group leaders are playful, cre-ative, flexible people who have good inter-personal skills and who can set clear limits.It is highly preferable if group leaders haveparticipated in the teacher training work-shops (or at least have completed the train-ing exercises as a self-administered program)before beginning to implement this series.

As for parent group leaders, child groupleader certification by the developer ofthe Incredible Years Training Series ishighly recommended and is required ifthe program is to be evaluated as part ofa research program. This certificationprocess is identical to the process re-quired for certified parent group leadersand mentors.

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Table 7: Content and Objectives of the Incredible Years Child TrainingPrograms (a.k.a. Dina Dinosaur Social Skills and Problem-SolvingCurriculum) (Ages 4–8)

Content Objectives

Program 1: Making Friends and Learning School Rules

Introduction to ● Understanding the importance of rules.Dinosaur School ● Participating in the process of rulemaking.

● Understanding what will happen if rules are broken.● Learning how to earn rewards for good behaviors.● Learning to build friendships.

Program 2: Understanding and Detecting Feelings

Parts 1 and 2: Wally ● Learning words for different feelings.Teaches Clues to ● Learning how to tell how someone is feeling fromDetecting Feelings verbal and nonverbal expressions.and Wally Teaches ● Increasing awareness of nonverbal facial communicationClues to Under- used to portray feelings.standing Feelings ● Learning different ways to relax.

● Understanding why different feelings occur.● Understanding feelings from different perspectives.● Practicing talking about feelings.

Program 3: Detective Wally Teaches Problem-Solving Steps

Parts 1–3: Identifying ● Learning how to identify a problem.Problems and ● Thinking of solutions to hypothetical problems.Solutions, Finding ● Learning verbal assertive skills.More Solutions, ● Learning how to inhibit impulsive reactions.and Thinking of ● Understanding what an apology means.Consequences ● Thinking of alternative solutions to problem situations

such as being teased and hit.● Learning to understand that solutions have different

consequences.● Learning how to critically evaluate solutions—one’s own

and others.

Parts 4 and 5: ● Recognizing that anger can interfere with good problemDetective Wally solving.Teaches How To ● Understanding Tiny Turtle’s story about managing angerControl Anger and and getting help.Problem Solving ● Understanding when apologies are helpful.Step 7 and Review ● Recognizing anger in selves and others.

● Understanding that anger is okay to feel “inside” but not toact out by hitting or hurting someone else.

● Learning how to control angry reactions.● Understanding that things that happen are not necessarily

hostile or deliberate attempts to hurt.● Practicing alternative responses to being teased, bullied, or

yelled at by an angry adult.● Learning skills to cope with another person’s anger.

Research Studies andResultsOver the past 17 years, a series of studiesevaluated the Incredible Years Parents,Teachers, and Children Training Series.2

Studies of the BASIC ParentTraining ProgramsIn the first study, 35 nonclinic familieswere randomly assigned to BASIC parenttraining or to a waiting-list control group.Results indicated that the BASIC programscaused highly significant attitudinal andbehavioral changes in participatingmiddle-class, nonclinic mothers and chil-dren (ages 3 to 6) compared with controlgroups. Nearly all the changes were main-tained at the 1-year followup (Webster-Stratton, 1981, 1982a, 1982b).

A second study randomly assigned 35clinic families (with children having con-duct problems) to one of three groups:

◆ One-on-one personalized parent therapy.

◆ Videotape-based group therapy (BASIC).

◆ Waiting-list control group.

These clinic families were at high risk be-cause of the large number of single parents,low socioeconomic status, low mean edu-cation level, high prevalence of child abuse,and the deviant nature of the children.BASIC training was as effective as high-cost,one-on-one therapy, and both treatmentswere superior to the control group in regardto attitudinal and behavioral changes. More-over, at the 1-year followup, no differenceswere noted between the two treatmentgroups, and most of the children contin-ued to improve. BASIC training was fivetimes more cost effective than one-on-onetherapy, using 48 hours of therapist timeversus 251 hours of therapist time. Approxi-mately 70 percent of both treatment groupsmaintained significant positive behavioralchanges at the 1-year followup. Familieswho had little or no social support weremost likely to relapse following treatment(Webster-Stratton, 1984, 1985).

A third study was conducted to ascertainthe most efficient and effective componentof BASIC training. Parents of 114 conduct-problem children, ages 3 to 8, were ran-domly assigned to one of four groups:

◆ Individually (or self-) administeredvideotape modeling (IVM).

◆ Videotape-based group therapy (BASIC).

◆ Group therapy alone (GD).

◆ Waiting-list control group.

Compared with the control group, mothersin all three treatment groups reported

significantly fewer child behavior problems,more prosocial behaviors, and less use ofspanking following treatment. Fathers inthe IVM and BASIC groups and teachers ofchildren whose parents were in the BASICand GD groups also reported significantreductions in behavior problems comparedwith control subjects. Data collected fromhome visits indicated that, for all treatment

2 Sources marked by an asterisk in the lists of Refer-ences and Related Readings at the end of this Bulletinprovide descriptions and evaluations of the IncredibleYears Parents, Teachers, and Children Training Series.

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Table 7 (cont.): Content and Objectives of the Incredible Years ChildTraining Programs (a.k.a. Dina Dinosaur Social Skills andProblem-Solving Curriculum) (Ages 4–8)

Content Objectives

Program 4: Molly Manners Teaches How To Be Friendly

Parts 1–4: Helping, ● Learning what friendship means and how to be friendly.Sharing, Teamwork ● Understanding ways to help others.at School, and ● Learning the concept of sharing and the relationshipTeamwork at Home between sharing and helping.

● Learning what teamwork means.● Understanding the benefits of sharing, helping, and

teamwork.● Practicing friendship skills.

Program 5: Molly Explains How To Talk With Friends

● Learning how to ask questions and tell something to a friend.● Learning how to listen carefully to what a friend is saying.● Understanding why it is important to speak up about

something that is bothering one.● Understanding how and when to give an apology or

compliment.● Learning how to enter into a group of children who are

already playing.● Learning how to make suggestions rather than give

commands.● Practicing friendship skills.

Program 6: Dina Dinosaur Teaches How To Do Your Best in School

Parts 1 and 2: ● Learning how to listen, wait, avoid interruptions, and putListening, Waiting, up a quiet hand to ask questions in class.Quiet, Hands Up; ● Learning how to handle other children who poke fun andand Concentrating, interfere with one’s ability to work at school.Checking, and ● Learning how to stop, think, and check work first.Cooperating ● Learning the importance of cooperation with the teacher

and other children.● Practicing concentration and good classroom skills.

groups, mothers, fathers, and childrenexhibited significant behavioral changes.Relatively few differences were noted be-tween treatment groups on most out-come measures, but these differencesconsistently favored BASIC training. Costeffectiveness, however, was the major ad-vantage of the IVM treatment (Webster-Stratton, Kolpacoff, and Hollinsworth, 1988;Webster-Stratton, 1990b).

At the 1-year followup, 93.1 percent of fami-lies were assessed. All significant behavioralchanges reported immediately after treat-ment were maintained 1 year later. More-over, parent report data indicated that bothmothers and fathers perceived a furtherreduction in child behavior problems. Fewdifferences were found among the threetreatment groups except for the differencesin consumer satisfaction, which indicatedthat BASIC training was superior. With each

of the treatment programs, 70 percent ofthe sample showed clinically significantimprovement to within normal ranges(Webster-Stratton, Kolpacoff, andHollinsworth, 1988).

A fourth study was conducted to determinehow to enhance the effectiveness of theself-administered videotape therapy whilemaintaining its cost effectiveness. Parentsof 43 conduct-problem children were as-signed to one of three groups:

◆ Individually administered videotapemodeling (IVM) program.

◆ IVM plus therapist consultation (IVMC).

◆ Waiting-list control group.

In comparison with the control group, bothgroups of mothers receiving treatment re-ported significantly fewer child behaviorproblems, reduced stress levels, and less

use of spanking after intervention. Datafrom home visits indicated that both treat-ment groups exhibited significant behav-ioral changes. Relatively few differences onthe outcome measures were found betweenthe two treatment conditions, but childrenin the IVMC group were significantly lessdeviant than the children in the individuallyadministered videotape program, suggest-ing that combined treatment was superior(Webster-Stratton, 1990a).

A fifth study examined the effectiveness ofBASIC training as a universal preventionintervention with a sample of 362 HeadStart mothers and their 4-year-old children.Eight Head Start centers were randomlyassigned to two groups:

◆ An experimental group in which parents,teachers, and family service workersparticipated in the intervention.

◆ A control group in which parents, teach-ers, and family service workers partici-pated in the regular center-based HeadStart program.

The results from observations at the post-intervention assessment indicated thatmothers in the intervention group madesignificantly fewer critical remarks and com-mands, used less harsh discipline, and weremore nurturing, reinforcing, and competentin their parenting when compared withmothers in the control group. Interventionmothers reported that their discipline wasmore consistent and that they used fewerphysically and verbally negative disciplinetechniques. They also used more appropri-ate limit-setting techniques. In turn, thechildren of mothers in the interventiongroup exhibited significantly fewer nega-tive behaviors and conduct problems, lessnoncompliance, less negative affect andmore positive affect, and more prosocialbehaviors than children in the controlgroup. One year later, most of the improve-ments noted in the intervention mothers’parenting skills and in their children’s af-fect and behavior were maintained, includ-ing increased contacts with new teachers,as compared with mothers in the controlgroup (Webster-Stratton, 1998). Theseresults were recently replicated in a seventhstudy (discussed on page 18) that offered alonger parent program spanning the HeadStart and kindergarten years.

Study of the ADVANCEParent Training ProgramsA sixth study (Webster-Stratton, 1994)examined the effects of adding the ADVANCEintervention component to the BASIC

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intervention. Parents of 78 families withchildren with ODD/CD received the BASICparent training and then were randomlyassigned to either ADVANCE training for12 weeks or no further contact. Familieswere assessed at 1 month, 1 year, and 2years after treatment through parent andteacher reports of child adjustment andparent distress (i.e., depression, anger, andstress) and direct observations of parent-child interactions and marital interactionssuch as discussing a problem. For bothtreatment groups, child adjustment andparent-child interactions significantly im-proved and parent distress and child be-havior problems decreased. These changeswere maintained at followup. In compari-son with their counterparts, ADVANCEchildren showed significant increases inthe total number of solutions generatedduring problem solving, most notably inprosocial solutions as compared with ag-gressive solutions. Observations of par-ents’ marital interactions indicated signifi-cant improvements in ADVANCE parents’communication, problem solving, and col-laboration when compared with parentswho did not receive ADVANCE training.Only one family dropped out of ADVANCEtraining, which attests to its perceivedusefulness by families. All the families at-tended more than two-thirds of the ses-sions, with the majority attending morethan 90 percent of the sessions.

Study of the TeacherTraining Programs With theBASIC Plus ADVANCEParent Training ProgramsA seventh study examined the effective-ness of the BASIC plus ADVANCE programsand the teacher training programs with asample of 272 Head Start mothers and 61teachers. Fourteen Head Start centerswere randomly assigned to two groups:

◆ An experimental condition in whichparents, teachers, and family serviceworkers participated in the preventionprograms (BASIC plus ADVANCE plusEDUCATION and teacher training).

◆ A control condition in which parents,teachers, and family service workersparticipated in the regular center-basedHead Start program (control).

The combined BASIC plus ADVANCE plusEDUCATION program was a 16-week, 2-hourweekly parent program offered by FamilyService Workers. The 12-week BASIC pro-gram was offered to parents in the HeadStart year and a 4-week abbreviated versionof ADVANCE plus EDUCATION program

was offered in the kindergarten year(based on problem solving with partnersand teachers, promoting reading and aca-demic skills, and peer coaching). All teach-ers and aides received 6-day workshopssequenced over the year (monthly), whichfocused on classroom management skills,relationship building with students andparents, and ways to promote social andemotional competence in the classroom.Those in the control Head Start centersreceived their usual services.

Home observations indicated that mothersin the intervention group were significantlyless harsh and critical in their disciplineapproaches and significantly more positiveand nurturing and that they used moreproblem-solving approaches in their inter-actions with their children than mothers inthe control group. Intervention mothersreported that their discipline was morepositive and less harsh or punitive, thatthey used more monitoring, and that theywere more involved in activities with theirchildren than control mothers. Teachersreported that mothers in the interventiongroup were more involved in their children’seducation. Children of mothers who at-tended six or more intervention sessionsreceived lower ratings on independent ob-servations of inappropriate behavior thanchildren in the control group and were ob-served to exhibit significantly fewer nega-tive behaviors and conduct problems, lessnoncompliance, and less negative affectthan children in the control group.

Results of classroom observations indi-cated that teachers in the interventiongroup were significantly less critical intheir discipline approaches and more posi-tive in their interactions with their studentsthan teachers in the control group. Teach-ers from the intervention condition re-ported making significantly more effort toinvolve parents in their classrooms thancontrol teachers. Students in the interven-tion classrooms were observed to exhibitsignificantly fewer negative behaviors, lessnoncompliance with teachers, and lessphysical aggression with peers than stu-dents in control classrooms. Interventionchildren were more engaged or on task inthe classroom and had higher schoolreadiness scores (e.g., friendly, self-reliant,on task, low disruption) than control chil-dren. Overall classroom atmosphere wassignificantly more positive for interventionclassrooms than control classrooms. Teach-ers also reported the intervention studentsto be more socially competent than thecontrol students.

One year later, most of the improvementsnoted in the intervention mothers’ par-enting skills and in their children’s affectand behavior were maintained. Two-yearfollowups are currently being conducted.(Webster-Stratton and Reid, 1999a, 1999b).

Study of the Child TrainingPrograms (Dina DinosaurCurriculum)The Dina Dinosaur curriculum for childrenwas evaluated in a randomized trial with4- to 7-year-olds who had conduct disor-ders. Families of 97 children with early-onset conduct problems were randomlyassigned to one of four groups:

◆ Child training only.

◆ Parent training only (BASIC plusADVANCE).

◆ Combined parent and child trainingintervention.

◆ Waiting-list control group.

Results showed that the combined parentand child training was more effective thanparent training alone and that both weresuperior to the control group. The childtraining programs resulted in significantimprovements in observed peer interac-tions. Children who had gone through theDinosaur curriculum were significantlymore positive in their social skills and con-flict management strategies with peers thaneither children whose parents received par-ent training only or children in the controlgroup. One year later, the combined parentand child intervention showed the mostsustained effects (Webster-Stratton andHammond, 1997).

Analyses of the clinical significance (mea-sured by reduction in total child deviantbehaviors at home) revealed that thecombined parent and child interventionshowed the most sustained effects on childbehavior, with a 95-percent decrease indeviant behaviors since baseline (com-pared with reduction of 74 percent for thechild-only condition and 60 percent forthe BASIC plus ADVANCE parent condi-tion) (Webster-Stratton and Reid, 1999c).

Study of the TeacherTraining Programs With theBASIC Plus ADVANCE PlusEDUCATION Parent TrainingPrograms and the ChildTraining ProgramsThe Incredible Years Teacher TrainingProgram was evaluated in a randomized

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trial with 133 children with early onset con-duct problems. Families were randomlyassigned to one of six groups:

◆ Parent training (BASIC plus ADVANCE)only.

◆ Child training (Dina Dinosaur Curricu-lum) only.

◆ Parent training (BASIC plus ADVANCEplus EDUCATION) and teacher training.

◆ Parent training (BASIC plus ADVANCEplus EDUCATION), teacher training,and child training.

◆ Child training and teacher training.

◆ Waiting-list control group.

The BASIC plus ADVANCE parent trainingconsisted of twenty-two 2-hour weeklysessions as described above. The parenttraining condition that included teachertraining also included the EDUCATION pro-gram, a parent training component relatedto helping parents promote children’sacademic skills through effective readingskills, homework routines, and enhancedcollaboration with teachers. The 20- to 22-week child training program is describedabove. The teacher training componentconsisted of four full-day workshops offeredmonthly and a minimum of two school con-sultations in which the parent and groupleader met with the teacher at school toplan an individual behavior plan. Regularcalls were made to teachers to support theirefforts and to inform them of the progressof the child at home.

Results immediately posttreatment suggestthat combining EDUCATION training forparents with training for teachers improveschildren’s outcomes in terms of strength-ening both academic and social skills in theclassroom, promoting more positive peerrelationships, and ensuring that behaviorproblems are reduced at school and athome (Webster-Stratton and Reid, 1999c).

Summary of IncredibleYears Training Series’EffectivenessAs noted above, the BASIC program appearshighly effective in reducing child conductproblems by promoting social competence,reducing parents’ violent methods of dis-cipline, and improving their child manage-ment skills. For clinic children with con-duct problems, the cycle of aggressionappears to have been halted for approxi-mately two-thirds of the treated families.(This includes both clinic and prevention

studies.) For the Head Start children, manyof whom are at high risk because of ex-treme poverty, protective factors such aspositive parenting and children’s socialcompetence were enhanced.

The BASIC program was evaluated first as atreatment program in a series of 4 random-ized studies with more than 800 childrenages 3 to 8 who were referred for conductproblems. The BASIC program significantlyimproved parental attitudes and parent-child interactions, reduced parents’ use ofviolent forms of discipline, and reducedchild conduct problems (Webster-Stratton,1982a, 1984, 1989, 1990b, 1994; Webster-Stratton, Hollinsworth, and Kolpacoff, 1989).The BASIC program was then evaluated asa selective prevention program in two ran-domized trials with more than 500 HeadStart families with preschool children. Thispopulation was considered to be at highrisk for conduct disorder because of theincreased number of risk factors associatedwith poverty (Webster-Stratton, 1998). Re-sults indicated that the parenting skills ofHead Start parents who received BASICtraining and the social competence of theirchildren significantly improved comparedwith the control group. These data sup-ported the hypothesis that strengtheningparenting competence and increasing theinvolvement of high-risk mothers inchildren’s school-related activities wouldhelp prevent children’s conduct problemsand promote social competence (Webster-Stratton, 1998). In a second randomizedstudy with Head Start families, parent train-ing was offered to parents of children inthe Head Start and kindergarten years. Inthe kindergarten year, parents were offeredthe Supporting Your Child’s Education pro-gram, which focuses on reading skills, andthe ADVANCE program, which focuses onproblem solving and peer coaching. Theresults, which replicated those of the firststudy, included increased parental involve-ment in schools and enhanced school readi-ness scores among the children (Webster-Stratton and Reid, 1999b).

The ADVANCE program has been shownto be a highly productive treatment for pro-moting parents’ use of effective problem-solving and communication skills, reduc-ing maternal depression, and increasingchildren’s social and problem-solvingskills (Webster-Stratton, 1994). Usershave been highly satisfied with bothprograms, and the dropout rates havebeen low regardless of the family’s so-cioeconomic status. Improvements inchild conduct problems and parenting

interactions have been sustained up to4 years after intervention (Webster-Stratton, 1990b).

The effectiveness of the teacher trainingprogram has been tested by more than200 Head Start teachers and 140 kinder-garten through third grade teachers, withexcellent teacher satisfaction. A random-ized study with 4- to 8-year-olds who havebeen diagnosed with ODD/CD has recentlybeen completed comparing groups receiv-ing BASIC parent training and teachertraining; child training and teacher train-ing; BASIC parent training, teacher train-ing, and child training; and the waiting-list control group. Results indicate thatteacher-trained classrooms, when com-pared with classrooms in the controlcondition, had significantly fewer stu-dents who were misbehaving, off task,disruptive, or aggressive with peers andteachers. Teachers and parents from thecombined intervention conditions reporteda significantly higher level of collabora-tion, stronger home-school connections,and children with fewer behavior prob-lems. In a second randomized study, theteacher training program was evaluatedwith more than 200 Head Start teachers.Results showed that in classrooms whereteachers received the 6-day training, chil-dren were significantly less aggressive,more socially competent, and more ontask and had higher school readinessscores than children in control HeadStart classrooms where teachers did notreceive the program (Webster-Strattonand Reid, 1999a).

Finally, in a randomized study, the DinaDinosaur program was compared withBASIC parent training, BASIC parent train-ing plus child training, child training alone,and a waiting-list control group. The re-sults showed that the combined parentand child training was more effective thanparent training alone and that both weresuperior to the control group. The childtraining program resulted in significantlyimproved social skills and positive con-flict management strategies with peers(Webster-Stratton and Hammond, 1997).

Implementing thePrograms in AppliedSettingsAt present, the Incredible Years parenttraining has been adopted by several hun-dred service agencies in 43 States of theUnited States and in Canada, the UnitedKingdom, Norway, and Australia. These

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agencies include children’s mental healthagencies, family support services, childprotection services, Head Start programs,health management organizations, nationalhealth services, and school systems. Expe-rience suggests that agencies that havehad the greatest success in integrating theIncredible Years Training Series as an on-going part of their regular service haveshared certain common elements. Theseinclude:

◆ Administrative support and champi-oning of the program. Administrativechampioning involves not merely au-thorizing the adoption of the new pro-gram, but showing active, continuedinterest. It also includes a willingnessto authorize changes in the way ser-vices are usually offered to facilitatethe new program (e.g., allowing staff totake leave time in exchange for leadingevening groups, paying for childcarefor the group).

◆ Training and ongoing consultationthrough the initial groups so provid-ers can become “certified” as groupleaders. Service agencies that havearranged for staff to attend an autho-rized introductory workshop in theprogram, along with additional consul-tation through the initial groups (oftenincluding sending videotapes of groupworkshops for feedback), are more likelyto offer higher quality workshops andto have more committed leaders.

Funding to purchase the Incredible Yearsprograms may be obtained from local PTAgroups in schools or from charitable organi-zations such as the Rotary Club, Kiwanas,and so forth. Once the initial costs of thematerials and leader training have beenassumed, these programs can be offeredat minimal cost (which can be calculatedbased on the hourly rate of paying thegroup leader/therapist to conduct groupsplus additional costs for books for partici-pants and food and daycare for meetings).Incredible Years parent training hasachieved favorable outcomes at cost sav-ings in comparison with traditional mentalhealth services. Its focus on a group-basedapproach and extensive use of videotapesmakes it a cost-effective method of bothtraining facilitators to deliver the programwith high fidelity and reaching more fami-lies than the usual one-to-one approach.

Service agencies interested in communi-cating with other service providers whoare already implementing the program insimilar service settings should e-mailincredibleyears@seanet.com.

Program DiffusionComponents of the Incredible Years Par-ents, Teachers, and Children TrainingSeries have been used in a number ofprevention studies:

The United States◆ Columbia University, Laurie Miller, Prin-

cipal Investigator (PI). The BASIC pro-grams and Dina Dinosaur curriculumare being used with depressed and drug-abusing mothers who are living in shel-ters with their preschool children.

◆ Delaware State Department of Servicesfor Children, Youth and Families—Kindergarten to Grade 3, Early Interven-tion Program, Nancy Pearsall, ProgramManager, and Julien Taplin, Director,Department of Services for Children,Youth and Families. The early child-hood and school-age BASIC programs,Dina Dinosaur curriculum, and teachertraining programs are being evaluatedas school-based interventions withvolunteer high-risk families whosechildren␣ show signs of aggression.

◆ Fast Track Prevention Program, JohnCoie, PI. Approximately 40 percent ofthe videotapes from BASIC were usedas part of the parent training for thefirst- and second-grade curriculums.

◆ Johns Hopkins Prevention Center, ShepKellam, PI. The school-age BASIC pro-gram was abbreviated and used as abrief 4-session prevention interventionfor parents in 10 schools.

◆ Oregon Research Institute, Toni Biglan,PI. The BASIC programs were translatedinto Spanish and are being used as a12-session prevention intervention forSpanish-speaking migrant workers inHood River. Ted Taylor, of the OregonResearch Institute, is undertaking a ran-domized study whereby he is comparingclassrooms that deliver the parent,teacher, and child training programs withcontrol classrooms. All children in theclassrooms received the Dinosaur class-room curriculum whereas children withhigh-risk behaviors (high rates of aggres-sion) will be identified and their parentswill be offered the parent program.

◆ Rush University, School of Nursing,Debra Gross, PI. The BASIC programshave been evaluated as a 12-sessionprevention intervention for traininghigh-risk parents of toddlers anddaycare providers in Chicago daycarecenters (see Gross, Fogg, and Tucker,1995; Gross et al., 1999).

◆ University of Massachusetts, DavidArnold, PI. The BASIC and teachertraining programs are being used aspart of a prevention training programfor Head Start parents and teachers.

◆ University of Minnesota, MichaelBloomquist, PI. The school-age BASICprogram and Dina Dinosaur curriculumare being researched as a drug abuseprevention program for high-risk childrenages 6 to 8.

◆ University of Minnesota, TomKratchowell, PI. The BASIC programsare being used as a self-administeredprevention training program for parentsand teachers.

Canada, Norway, andUnited Kingdom◆ Lakehead Regional Family Center,

Ontario, Canada, Ted Taylor, PI. TheBASIC programs were compared withtraditional mental health services in arandomized trial (Taylor et al., 1998).

◆ Tromso and Trondheim, Norway, Pro-fessor Willy Tore March, PI. March andcolleagues are undertaking a random-ized study in which children who havebeen diagnosed as having oppositionaldefiant disorder or conduct disorderwill be identified and offered the “pullout” Dina Dinosaur child treatmentprogram and the parent intervention.

◆ Alder Hey Children’s Hospital, Liverpool,England, Jonathan Hill, Professor. TheBASIC programs are being used as atreatment program for low-income fami-lies with children diagnosed with con-duct disorders.

◆ C’Mon Everybody, Sheffield, England,John Rylance and Geoff Evans, Direc-tors. The BASIC programs and DinaDinosaur curriculum are being offeredin schools for families with childrenwith conduct problems.

◆ Family Nurturing Network, Oxford, Eng-land, Ivanna Klimes, Director. TheBASIC programs and Dinosaur curricu-lum are being researched for use withhigh-risk parents and children.

◆ Maudsley Psychiatric Hospital, London,England, Stephen Scott, PI. The BASICprograms have been evaluated as atreatment program for low-incomemothers with children diagnosed withconduct disorders and have replicatedprogram effects (Scott, 1999). A studyis currently under way to evaluate thetraining program as part of a schoolwideprevention intervention.

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For Further InformationIncredible Years Parents, Teachers, andChildren Training Series

Carolyn Webster-Stratton1411 Eighth Avenue WestSeattle, WA 98119206–285–7565 (phone and fax)888–506–3562 (toll-free phone and fax)E-mail: incredibleyears@seanet.comInternet: www.incredibleyears.com

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Bierman, K.L., and Furman, W. 1984. Theeffects of social skills training and peerinvolvement on the social adjustment ofpreadolescents. Child Development55(1):151–62.

Campbell, S.B. 1990. Behavior Problems inPreschool Children: Clinical and Develop-mental Issues. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Coie, J.D. 1990. Toward a theory of peerrejection. In Peer Rejection in Childhood(Cambridge Studies in Social and EmotionalDevelopment), edited by S.R. Asher andJ.D. Coie. New York, NY: Cambridge Uni-versity Press, pp. 365–398.

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Forehand, R.L., and McMahon, R.J. 1981.Helping the Noncompliant Child: A Clinician’sGuide to Parent Training. New York, NY:Guilford Press.

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Gross, D., Fogg, L., and Tucker, S. 1995. Theefficacy of parent training for promotingpositive parent-toddler relationships. Re-search in Nursing and Health 18(1):489–499.

Gross, D., Fogg, L., Webster-Stratton, C., andGrady, J. 1999. Parent training with low-income multi-ethnic parents of toddlers.Paper presented at the Society for Researchin Child Development, Albuquerque, NM.

Hanf, C. 1970. Shaping mothers to shapetheir children’s behavior. Unpublishedmanuscript. Portland, OR: University ofOregon Medical School.

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Scott, S. 1999. Parent training groups forchildhood conduct disorder. Paper pre-sented at the National Center for Childand Adolescent Psychiatry, Oslo, Norway.

Singer, D.G. 1982. Television and the de-veloping imagination of the child. In Tele-vision and Behavior: Ten Years of ScientificProgress and Implications for the Eighties,vol. 2, edited by D. Pearl. Washington, DC:National Institute of Mental Health.

Singer, D.G. 1985. Does violent televisionproduce aggressive children? PediatricAnnals 14(12):807–810.

Singer, J.L., and Singer, D.G. 1983. Implica-tions of childhood television viewing forcognition, imagination, and emotion. InChildren’s Understanding of Television, ed-ited by J. Bryant and D.R. Anderson. NewYork, NY: Academic Press, pp. 265–298.

Taylor, T.K., Schmidt, F., Pepler, D., andHodgins, H. 1998. A comparison of eclec-tic treatment with Webster-Stratton’s Par-ents and Children Series in a children’smental health center: A randomized con-trol trial. Behavior Therapy 29:221–40.

Twentyman, C.T., and McFall, R.M. 1975.Behavioral training of social skills in shymales. Journal of Consulting and ClinicalPsychology 43:384–395.

Webster-Stratton, C. 1981. Modification ofmothers’ behaviors and attitudes throughvideotape modeling group discussionprogram. Behavior Therapy 12:634–642.*

Webster-Stratton, C. 1982a. The long-termeffects of a videotape modeling parenttraining program: Comparison of immedi-ate and 1-year followup results. BehaviorTherapy 13:702–714.*

Webster-Stratton, C. 1982b. Teachingmothers through videotape modeling tochange their children’s behaviors. Journalof Pediatric Psychology 7(3):279–294.*

Webster-Stratton, C. 1984. A randomizedtrial of two parent training programs forfamilies with conduct-disordered chil-dren. Journal of Consulting and ClinicalPsychology 52(4):666–678.*

Webster-Stratton, C. 1985. Predictors oftreatment outcome in parent training forconduct-disordered children. BehaviorTherapy 16:223–243.*

Webster-Stratton, C. 1989. Systematiccomparison of consumer satisfaction ofthree cost-effective parent training pro-grams for conduct-problem children. Be-havior Therapy 20:103–115.*

Webster-Stratton, C. 1990a. Enhancing theeffectiveness of self-administered videotapeparent training for families with conduct-problem children. Journal of Abnormal ChildPsychology 18(5):479–492.*

Webster-Stratton, C. 1990b. Long-termfollowup of families with young conduct-problem children: From preschool tograde school. Journal of Clinical Child Psy-chology 19(2):144–149.*

Webster-Stratton, C. 1991. Annotation: Strat-egies for working with families of conduct-disordered children. British Journal of

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Child Psychiatry and Psychology32(7):1047–1062.*

Webster-Stratton, C. 1992. The IncredibleYears: A Trouble-Shooting Guide for Parentsof Children Ages 3–8 Years. Toronto,Canada: Umbrella Press.*

Webster-Stratton, C. 1994. Advancingvideotape parent training: A comparisonstudy. Journal of Consulting and ClinicalPsychology 62(3):583–593.*

Webster-Stratton, C. 1997. Early interven-tion for families of preschool children withconduct problems. In The Effectivenessof Early Intervention: Second GenerationResearch, edited by M.J. Guralnick. Balti-more, MD: Paul H. Brookes Company, pp.429–454.

Webster-Stratton, C. 1998. Preventing con-duct problems in Head Start children:Strengthening parent competencies. Jour-nal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology66:715–730.*

Webster-Stratton, C. 1999. How To PromoteChildren’s Social and Emotional Compe-tence. London, England: Paul ChapmanPublishing.

Webster-Stratton, C., and Hammond, M.1990. Predictors of treatment outcome inparent training for families with conduct-problem children. Behavior Therapy21:319–337.*

Webster-Stratton, C., and Hammond, M.1997. Treating children with early-onsetconduct problems: A comparison of childand parent training interventions. Journalof Consulting and Clinical Psychology65(1):93–109.*

Webster-Stratton, C., and Hammond, M.1998. Conduct problems and level of socialcompetence in Head Start children: Preva-lence, pervasiveness and associated riskfactors. Clinical Child Psychology and FamilyPsychology Review 1:101–124.

Webster-Stratton, C., and Herbert, M. 1994.Troubled Families—Problem Children: Work-ing With Parents: A Collaborative Process.Chichester, England: Wiley and Sons.*

Webster-Stratton, C., Hollinsworth, T., andKolpacoff, M. 1989. The long-term effec-tiveness and clinical significance of threecost-effective training programs for fami-lies with conduct-problem children. Jour-nal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology57(4):550–553.*

Webster-Stratton, C., Kolpacoff, M., andHollinsworth, T. 1988. Self-administeredvideotape therapy for families with

conduct-problem children: Comparisonwith two cost-effective treatments and acontrol group. Journal of Consulting andClinical Psychology 56(4):558–566.*

Webster-Stratton, C. and Reid, M.J. 1999a.Effects of parent and teacher training inHead Start. Paper presented at the Ad-vances in Substance Abuse Research,Washington, DC, December 6–8, 1999.

Webster-Stratton, C. and Reid, M.J. 1999b.Effects of teacher training in Head Startclassrooms: Results of a randomized con-trolled evaluation. Paper presented at theSociety for Prevention Research, NewOrleans, LA, June 1999.

Webster-Stratton, C. and Reid, M.J. 1999c.Treating children with early-onset conductproblems: The importance of teacher train-ing. Paper presented at the Association forthe Advancement of Behavior Therapy,Toronto, Canada, November 1999.

* Indicates articles related to the de-scription and evaluation of the IncredibleYears Parents, Teachers, and ChildrenTraining Series.

Related ReadingsSpitzer, A., Webster-Stratton, C., andHollinsworth, T. 1991. Coping withconduct-problem children: Parents gain-ing knowledge and control. Journal ofClinical Child Psychology 20:413–427.*

Webster-Stratton, C. 1983. Conduct-disordered children: Recognition andassessment. Maternal and Child Nursing8:330–335.

Webster-Stratton, C. 1983. Conduct disor-ders: Intervention approaches. Nurse Prac-titioner 8(5):23–34.

Webster-Stratton, C. 1985. Comparison ofabusive and nonabusive families withconduct-disordered children. AmericanJournal of Orthopsychiatry 55:59–69.

Webster-Stratton, C. 1985. Comparisons ofbehavior transactions between conduct-disordered children and their mothers inthe clinic and at home. Journal of AbnormalChild Psychology 13:169–184.

Webster-Stratton, C. 1985. Mother percep-tions and mother-child interactions: Com-parison of a clinic-referred and a nonclinicgroup. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology14(4):334–339.

Webster-Stratton, C. 1988. Mothers’ andfathers’ perceptions of child deviance:Roles of parent and child behaviors and

parent adjustment. Journal of Consultingand Clinical Psychology 56(6):909–915.

Webster-Stratton, C. 1989. The relationshipof marital support, conflict and divorce toparent perceptions, behaviors and child-hood conduct problems. Journal of Mar-riage and the Family 51:417–430.

Webster-Stratton, C. 1990. Predictors oftreatment outcome in parent training forfamilies with conduct-problem children.Behavior Therapy 21:319–337.*

Webster-Stratton, C. 1990. Stress: A poten-tial disruption of parent perceptions andfamily interactions. Journal of Clinical ChildPsychology 19(4):302–312.

Webster-Stratton, C. 1992. Individually ad-ministered videotape parent training: “Whobenefits?” Cognitive Therapy and Research16(1):31–35.*

Webster-Stratton, C. 1993. Strategies forhelping families with young oppositionaldefiant or conduct-disordered children: Theimportance of home and school collabora-tion. School Psychology Review 22:437–457.

Webster-Stratton, C. 1993. What really hap-pens in parent training? Behavior Modifica-tion 17(4):407–456.

Webster-Stratton, C. 1995. Preventing con-duct problems in Head Start children:Short-term results of intervention. Paperpresented at the Society for Research andChild Development.

Webster-Stratton, C. 1996. Early-onset con-duct problems: Does gender make a differ-ence? Journal of Consulting and ClinicalPsychology 64(3):540–551.

Webster-Stratton, C. 1996. Videotape mod-eling intervention programs for families ofyoung children with oppositional defiantdisorder or conduct disorder. In Psychoso-cial Treatment Research of Child and Ado-lescent Disorders: Empirically Based Strate-gies for Clinical Practice, edited by E.D.Hibbs and P.S. Jensen. Washington, DC:American Psychological Association.*

Webster-Stratton, C. 1997. From parenttraining to community building. The Jour-nal of Contemporary Human Services78:156–171.*

Webster-Stratton, C. 1998. Parent trainingwith low-income clients: Promoting paren-tal engagement through a collaborativeapproach. In Child Abuse: A Handbook ofTheory, Research and Treatment, edited byJ.R. Lutzker. New York, NY: Plenum Press,pp. 183–210.*

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Webster-Stratton, C., and Dahl, R. 1995.Conduct disorder. In Advanced AbnormalChild Psychology, edited by M. Herson andR.T. Ammerman. Hillsdale, NJ: LawrenceErlbaum Associates, pp. 333–335.

Webster-Stratton, C., and Eyberg, S.M.1982. Child temperament: Relationshipswith child behavior problems and parent-child interactions. Journal of Clinical ChildPsychology 11(2):123–129.

Webster-Stratton, C., and Fjone, A. 1989.Interactions of mothers and fathers withconduct-problem children: Comparisonwith a nonclinic group. Public Health Nurs-ing 6(4):218–223.

Webster-Stratton, C., and Hammond, M.1988. Maternal depression and its relation-ship to life stress, perceptions of child be-havior problems, parenting behaviors, andchild conduct problems. Journal of Abnor-mal Child Psychology 16(3):299–315.

Webster-Stratton, C., and Hammond, M.1998. Conduct problems and level of so-cial competence in Head Start children:Prevalence, pervasiveness, and associ-ated risk factors. Clinical Child and FamilyPsychology Review 1:101–124.

Webster-Stratton, C., and Hammond, M.1999. Marital conflict management skills,parenting style, and early-onset conflictproblems: Processes and pathways. Jour-nal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,40(6):917–927.

Webster-Stratton, C., and Hancock, L. 1998.Parent training for young children withconduct problems: Content, methods, andtherapeutic processes. In Handbook of Par-ent Training, edited by C.E. Schaefer. NewYork, NY: John Wiley & Sons.*

Webster-Stratton, C., and Hooven, C. 1998.Parent training for child conduct problems.In Comprehensive Clinical Psychology, editedby T. Ollendick. Oxford, England: ElsevierScience. pp. 186–219.

Webster-Stratton, C., and Spitzer, A. 1991.Development, reliability, and validity ofthe daily telephone discipline interview.Behavioral Assessment 13:221–239.

Webster-Stratton, C., and Taylor, E.T. 1998.Adopting and disseminating empiricallyvalidated intervention: A recipe for success.In Parenting, Schooling, and Children’s Be-havior, edited by A. Buchanan. Aldershot,England: Ashgate.

Webster-Stratton, C., and Woolley, D. 1999.Social competence and early-onset conductproblems: Issues in assessment. Journal ofClinical Child Psychology 28:25–93.

Whipple, E., and Webster-Stratton, C. 1991.The role of parental stress in physicallyabusive families. Child Abuse and Neglect15:279–291.

* Indicates articles related to the descrip-tion and evaluation of the IncredibleYears Parents, Teachers, and ChildrenTraining Series.

Children’s Books inthe Incredible YearsParents, Teachers, andChildren TrainingSeriesWebster-Stratton, C. 1998. Wally Learns aLesson from Tiny Turtle. Incredible YearsParents, Teachers, and Children TrainingSeries. Seattle, WA: Seth Enterprises.

Webster-Stratton, C. 1998. Wally Meets DinaDinosaur. Incredible Years Parents, Teach-ers, and Children Training Series. Seattle,WA: Seth Enterprises.

Webster-Stratton, C. 1998. Wally’s Detec-tive Manual for Solving Problems at Home.Incredible Years Parents, Teachers, andChildren Training Series. Seattle, WA: SethEnterprises.

Webster-Stratton, C. 1998. Wally’s Detec-tive Manual for Solving Problems at School.Incredible Years Parents, Teachers, andChildren Training Series. Seattle, WA: SethEnterprises.

Acknowledgments

This Bulletin was written by Carolyn Webster-Stratton, Ph.D., Director of theParenting Clinic and Professor at the University of Washington, Seattle. She is alicensed clinical psychologist and nurse-practitioner and has published numerousscientific articles evaluating interventions for helping families and teachers withchildren who are highly aggressive, disobedient, hyperactive, and inattentive. In1997, she was the recipient of the National Mental Health Association Award forExcellence in Prevention.

Currently, she is conducting a study evaluating a partnership that combinesteacher training with parent and child treatment for young children who are highlyaggressive and noncompliant. In addition, she has a second study evaluating aprevention program within Head Start which focuses on teacher-parent partner-ships and training. She has written books for therapists and parents and recentlypublished four books for children about problem solving and a book for teachersentitled How to Promote Children’s Social and Emotional Competence. She is arecipient of the prestigious Research Scientist Award from the National Instituteof Mental Health.

The studies reported in this Bulletin have been supported by several grants,including a grant from the Prevention Research Branch of the National Instituteof Mental Health (NIMH) (5R01MH/NR50516); a Research Scientist Award fromNIMH (MH00988–05); a Head Start Partnership Grant from the Administration forChildren and Families; and a grant from the National Center for Nursing Research(R01NR01075).

Points of view or opinions expressed in thisdocument are those of the author and do notnecessarily represent the official position orpolicies of OJJDP or the U.S. Department ofJustice.

The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin-quency Prevention is a component of the Of-fice of Justice Programs, which also includesthe Bureau of Justice Assistance, the Bureauof Justice Statistics, the National Institute ofJustice, and the Office for Victims of Crime.

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