the impact of the covid-19 epidemic on mental health of
TRANSCRIPT
RESEARCH ARTICLE
The impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on
mental health of undergraduate students in
New Jersey, cross-sectional study
Aleksandar KecojevicID1*, Corey H. Basch1, Marianne Sullivan1, Nicole K. Davi2
1 Department of Public Health, College of Science and Health, William Paterson University, Wayne, NJ,
United States of America, 2 Department of Environmental Science, College of Science and Health, William
Paterson University, Wayne, NJ, United States of America
Abstract
Objective
The COVID-19 pandemic has been a period of upheaval for college students. The objective
of this study was to assess the factors associated with the increased levels of mental health
burden among a sample of undergraduate college students in Northern New Jersey, the
region of the U.S. severely impacted by the outbreak of COVID-19.
Methods
College students (N = 162) enrolled in an introductory core curriculum course completed a
cross-sectional survey. The survey collected information on demographics, knowledge lev-
els and sources of COVID-19 information, behavior changes, academic and everyday diffi-
culties, and mental health measurements (depression, anxiety, somatization, and stress).
Multivariable regression analysis was performed to identify factors associated with mental
health outcomes.
Results
Descriptive findings indicate that students have a fundamental knowledge of COVID-19
transmission and common symptoms. Students tend to use and trust the official sources
and have changed their behaviors in accordance with public health recommendations (i.e.,
increased hand washing, wearing mask). However, students reported a number of aca-
demic and everyday difficulties and high levels of mental health distress. High levels of
depression were associated with difficulties in focusing on academic work and with employ-
ment losses, while higher levels of anxiety were more likely to be reported by students other
than freshmen and those who spend more than one hour per day looking for information on
COVID-19. Inability to focus on academic work and an elevated concern with COVID-19
were more likely to be associated with higher levels of somatization, while trusting news
sources was associated with lower levels of somatization. Those with higher levels of
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OPEN ACCESS
Citation: Kecojevic A, Basch CH, Sullivan M, Davi
NK (2020) The impact of the COVID-19 epidemic
on mental health of undergraduate students in New
Jersey, cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE 15(9):
e0239696. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.
pone.0239696
Editor: Kristin Vickers, Ryerson University,
CANADA
Received: April 29, 2020
Accepted: September 12, 2020
Published: September 30, 2020
Copyright: © 2020 Kecojevic et al. This is an open
access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original
author and source are credited.
Data Availability Statement: All relevant data are
within the manuscript and its Supporting
Information files.
Funding: The author(s) received no specific
funding for this work.
Competing interests: The authors have declared
that no competing interests exist.
perceived stress were more likely to be females, unable to focus on academic work, and
report difficulties in obtaining medications and cleaning supplies.
Conclusions
The COVID-19 pandemic is making a significant negative impact on mental health of college
students. Proactive efforts to support the mental health and well-being of students are
needed.
Introduction
The novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has rapidly spread across the globe, causing
massive disruptions to everyday life, including in the United States (U.S.). According to the
Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University [1], as of
April 27th, there were close to a million of confirmed cases with a total of 55,952 deaths in the
U.S., with New Jersey among the hardest hit states in the country reporting 111,188 confirmed
cases and 6,044 deaths [2]. At the time of this study, the counties in Northern New Jersey,
where this study took place, have some of the highest confirmed case counts in the state.
The pandemic has the potential to affect college students physically, academically, finan-
cially and psychologically. Some colleges and universities in New Jersey have reported that a
number of students have tested positive for COVID-19 [3–6]. In order to prevent widespread
transmission of the COVID-19 virus among staff and the young adult population, higher-edu-
cation institutions across the country have rapidly switched from in-person to online learning
[7]. In a short period of time, college students’ lives have dramatically changed as they have
been asked to leave campus, adjust to new living circumstances, and adapt to online learning
platforms. The switch to online learning, particularly in courses that were not originally
designed for on-line delivery likely has increased stress among students. Courses designed to
include high levels of interaction and hands-on experiences such as practicums, labs, and/or
artistic performance have a clear disadvantage in regards to the evaluation of students [8].
Some students may have difficulties with access to computers and the internet at home [8, 9].
Additional challenges include concerns about their health, health of family members, and
worry about finances, particularly among those who support themselves by working in indus-
tries severely impacted by prolonged closures such as retail or the service industry. According
to a survey by the loan management website Student Loan Hero [10] 4 out of 5 college students
are facing financial difficulties due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Further, most college students
are not eligible for immediate financial relief under the Coronavirus Aid, Relief and Economic
Security (CARES) Act [11].
College students’ mental health has been rising concern with a significant number of stu-
dents experiencing psychological distress [12]. Mental health issues can significantly impair
students’ academic success and social interactions affecting their future career and personal
opportunities. The rapid spread of COVID-19 and social distancing measures imposed across
the country are expected to further affect the mental health of the population, including college
students. Several studies have examined the psychological impact of the pandemic on the gen-
eral public [13–15], health care workers [16], or older adults [17]. These surveys revealed
greater concerns about social isolation, and increased stress, anxiety, and depression among
respondents. Interestingly, a study of Chinese general public [13] also reported that exposure
to accurate content of health information during the epidemic was associated with lower stress
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levels. Conversely, the studies of previous epidemics show that inaccurate information, partic-
ularly prevalent in online discussion boards or social media, was associated with anxiety and
fear [18]. Accurate information, knowledge and perceptions of risk can contribute to behav-
ioral changes [19], such as social distancing, which is currently one of the few ways to mitigate
the spread of COVID-19. The current evidence also shows that taking prescribed precaution-
ary measures (i.e. hand hygiene, mask wearing) to prevent the spread of COVID-19 may
reduce negative psychological impacts by providing a sense of security to those engaging in
these preventative actions [13]. While many colleges and universities provide students with
information related to COVID-19 from reliable sources [20], there is a high potential for mis-
information and disinformation to spread through online sources and social media often used
by young adults [21–23] further contributing to stress, anxiety and depression among
students.
Available literature examining the impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on students in the U.
S. is primarily focused on the role of medical and other health profession students during the
current COVID-19 epidemic [24–26]. Limited research examining the impact of the COVID-
19 epidemic on the psychological health of students has primarily focused on students outside
the U.S. Furthermore, little is known about factors contributing to psychological distress
related to COVID-19 among college students. One study of undergraduates of Changzhi medi-
cal college in China, indicated that a quarter of those surveyed have experienced anxiety due to
COVID-19 [27]. Having a relative or an acquaintance infected with COVID-19, economic
stressors and academic delays were all positively associated with an increased level of anxiety
symptoms. A previous study investigating adverse psychological reactions to the Middle East
Respiratory Syndrome Corona Virus (MERS-CoV) outbreak in 2014 among medical students
in Saudi Arabia indicated that increased hygienic habits and social distancing were positively
associated with the psychological well-being of students [28]. Additionally, a study of Iranian
medical students found a high level of COVID-19 related knowledge, engagement in self-
reported preventive behaviors, and moderate risk perception among respondents [29].
Current study
In light of growing concerns related to the impact of COVID-19 on the mental health of vul-
nerable groups [30], there is an urgent need for research to address mental health burden of
the COVID-19 pandemic on college students. At the time of writing we were unable to identify
published research on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health of under-
graduate college students in the US. Therefore, the current investigation had two primary
aims. First, we sought to determine the levels of mental health distress among undergraduate
college students during a time period when the significant number of people in Northern New
Jersey were testing positive and dying due to COVID-19. Second, we sought to examine
whether factors such as knowledge, sources of information, and academic and everyday diffi-
culties are associated with mental health distress among college students during the COVID-
19 pandemic.
Methods
Sample
This cross-sectional survey was administered at a suburban public university in Northern New
Jersey, U.S., in April of 2020. All students (n = 450) taking an introductory core curriculum
course focusing on personal health and delivered by the Department of Public Health were
invited to participate in this study. While completion of this course is required for admission
to a Public Health program, students from other majors may take either this course or other
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courses focused on personal well-being. The instructors of 17 course sections were provided
with a description of the study and were asked to alert their students about the forthcoming
invitation. A link to the survey was delivered to students via e-mail, and two reminders were
sent in the subsequent week following the initial invitation. Participants provided informed
consent to participate in an anonymous survey by completing and submitting the question-
naire electronically in Qualtrics software (Qualtrics, Provo, UT). All data were self-reported. A
total of 162 students completed the survey, resulting in a response rate of 36.0%. Students were
given an opportunity to enter a raffle to win one of five $20 gift cards. The University Institu-
tional Review Board (IRB) approved the study.
Measures
Demographics. Demographic information included age (recorded as continuous vari-
able), sex (male, female, other), ethnicity (Hispanic/non-Hispanic), race, class level (freshman,
sophomore, junior, senior), and whether the student is a health major—public health or nurs-
ing (yes/no).
Knowledge related to COVID-19. A total of 10 knowledge questions were asked, 7 of
which were True/False (e.g., “Those who are elderly and have chronic illnesses are more likely
to be severe cases”), while 3 questions assessed the level of agreement with the statements (e.g.
“To prevent infection with COVID-19, people should avoid going to crowded places”) on a
5-point scale (0 = “strongly disagree” to 4 = “strongly agree”). All knowledge questions were
based on Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) fact sheets [31].
Sources of information on COVID-19. Students were asked what information sources
(i.e. news websites, doctors, friends) they trust to provide accurate COVID-19 information
(check all that apply). Additionally, students were asked how often do they use these sources to
get health information on COVID-19 on a 5-point scale that ranges from 0 =“never” to 4
=“always”. Values were dichotomized to 0 (never, rarely, sometimes) and 1 (often, always). In
addition, they were asked to indicate the average number of hours per day they spend looking
for information on COVID-19.
Engagement in precautionary behaviors. Using 5-point scale (0 = “not at all” to 4 =
“extremely”), participants were asked whether they engaged in precautionary changes of
behaviors related to their personal hygiene (e.g. “I have increased hand washing”) or social
habits (e.g. “I have limited going outside only to essential trips”) since the start of the pan-
demic. The statements were formed based on previous literature [13]. Values were dichoto-
mized to 0 (did not engage in precautionary behaviors at all) and 1 (engaged in in
precautionary behaviors even a little bit).
Hardships experienced during the pandemic. Students were asked to indicate whether
they experienced various academic (i.e. difficulties with online learning, ability to focus on aca-
demic work, etc.), or life (i.e. losing job, getting food, etc.) difficulties. Some values were com-
bined for easiness of presentation (i.e. difficulties with online learning and inadequate WiFi/
Internet access).
Mental health burden
Level of concern with the current pandemic was assessed by a single question asking how con-
cerned the respondent feels about COVID-19. Responses were recorded on a 5-point scale that
ranges from 0 =“not at all” to 4 =“extremely”. Values were dichotomized to 0 (not at all to
moderately concerned), and 1 (very to extremely concerned).
To assess levels of depression, anxiety and somatic distress, we used the Brief Symptom
Inventory, BSI-18, [32]. The assessment measures self-reported psychological distress in the
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prior week. Participants were queried about the extent to which something has distressed or
bothered them in the past 7 days (e.g., “In the past 7 days, how much were you distressed by
feeling lonely?”) on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 =“not at all” to 4 =“extremely”. As per the
BSI-18 scoring instructions, raw scores were converted to T scores using gender specific com-
munity norms. Higher scores signify greater levels of depression, anxiety, or distress arising
from perceptions of bodily dysfunctions, i.e. somatization. Because the BSI clinical case cutoff
likely has a low positive predictive value in this population [33], we are not reporting on preva-
lence of psychological distress in our sample. Cronbach’s alpha for the overall scale was 0.94 (α= 0.89, 0.89, 0.84 for the depression, anxiety, and somatization subscales, respectively).
The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), a 10-item self-report questionnaire with strong reliability
and validity [34], was used to assess general stress appraisal. Respondents were asked to specify
how often they have felt or thought a certain way in the past month (e.g., “In the last month,
how often have you been upset because of something that happened unexpectedly?”) on a
5-point scale ranging from 0 =“never” to 4 =“very often”. Some of the items were scored in
reverse. Responses were then summed to indicate the level of perceived stress. It should be
noted that the PSS is not a diagnostic instrument and there are no score cut-offs. Nevertheless,
higher scores signify a greater perceived stress. Cronbach’s alpha was 0.84.
Data analysis
Statistical analyses were conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences, SPSS, 26.0
(IBM). Descriptive analyses examined the distribution of all variables of interest. Eleven partic-
ipants did not complete questions about mental health burden and stress; hence they were not
included in bivariate and regression analyses. Using t-tests for means we then examined unad-
justed bivariate associations between the independent variables and the four variables describ-
ing mental health burden. Next, we entered all bivariate correlates that achieved significance of
less than 0.05 into multivariable linear regression models to evaluate the predictive nature of
independent variables on depression, anxiety, somatization and stress while controlling for the
potentially confounding effects of other variables in models. To ensure that covariates were
not collinear, we examined the variance inflation factors for each variable, none of which were
greater than two, indicating low levels of collinearity. Standardized β regression coefficient,
95% confidence intervals (CIs), and p-values are reported, together with the test-statistic for
each of four models.
Results
Descriptive findings
As shown in Table 1, the median age of our sample was 19 years (range 18–37). Study partici-
pants were predominantly female (71.0%) and non-White (63.0%). Two-thirds of the partici-
pants were freshman, while approximately one third were health majors.
As indicated in Table 2, participants generally had a very good knowledge of the main
modes of COVID-19 transmission and common symptoms of the disease. Close to two-thirds
identified correct answers to all knowledge questions in the survey. Additionally, to a great
extent students agreed with, and were following social distancing measures currently insti-
tuted. The most trusted sources of information were official sources: government (77.8%), fol-
lowed by medical professionals (58.0%). These were also the most commonly used sources of
information about the COVID-19 pandemic. Only 12.3% said they trusted social media as a
source of information. Almost universally, students had changed their behaviors in response
to the pandemic, including by increasing hand washing and limiting social contacts (100%),
and starting to wear masks (97.5%).
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A majority of students reported experiencing academic difficulties since the start of the
pandemic. Ability to focus on academic work (73.5%) and difficulties with online learning
(58.6%) were the most commonly cited issues related to academics. With respect to difficulties
in everyday life, obtaining hygiene supplies and medications (59.3%), and losing job/work
hours/reduced wages (56.8%) were the most common life difficulties. A number of students
(22.2%) also reported difficulties in getting food. Two-thirds of participants (66.7%) were
greatly concerned about COVID-19 epidemic. Finally we report levels of depression, anxiety,
somatization, and perceived stress reported by the study participants.
3.2. Bivariate Associations with mental health burden variables. Bivariate associations
between demographic characteristics, knowledge and concerns, precautionary behaviors, and
hardships experienced during the pandemic and mental health burden variables are presented
in Table 3. With respect to demographic characteristics, non-freshmen (sophomores, juniors,
and seniors) were more likely to exhibit increased levels of anxiety compared to freshmen, and
female students reported significantly higher levels of stress than their male counterparts.
Spending a greater amount of time looking for COVID-19 information on news sites was asso-
ciated with increased level of anxiety and somatization, while increased level of anxiety was
also associated with spending greater hours looking for information on social media. Interest-
ingly, the number of hours spent on news sites looking for information on COVID-19 was sig-
nificantly correlated with the amount of time spent on social media looking for COVID-19
information (ρ = 0.77, p<0.001). Those who reported trust in the news media were less likely
to exhibit increased levels of somatization.
Academic difficulties (the ability to focus on academic work and online learning) were asso-
ciated with the increased levels of all four mental health burden measures. Those with
increased levels of depression and anxiety were also more likely to report having lost job,
wages, or work hours, and difficulties in obtaining medications and hygiene supplies.
Increased levels of stress were also associated with difficulties in obtaining medications and
hygiene supplies. Finally, those participants who expressed higher levels of concern about
COVID-19 were more likely to report higher levels of anxiety and somatization.
Table 1. Demographic information of respondents (N = 162).
Variable Category N (%)
Age Mean ± SD, 20.4 ± 2.9
Median, Range 19, 18–37
Gender Female 115 (71.0)
Male 46 (28.4)
Other 1 (0.6)
Race/Ethnicity Non-Hispanic White 60 (37.0)
Nonwhite: 102 (63.0)
African-American/Black 41 (25.3)
Other (incl. Hispanic) 43 (26.5)
Asian 11 (6.8)
Native American 6 (3.7)
Pacific Islander 1 (0.6)
Class level Freshman 106 (65.4)
Sophomore 18 (11.1)
Junior 12 (7.5)
Senior 26 (16.0)
Major Health Sciences 50 (30.9)
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Table 2. Descriptive statistics for observed indicators of COVID-19 knowledge, sources of information, behav-
iors, academic and life difficulties, and mental health burden (N = 162).
Variable Category N (%)
I. Knowledge
Knowledge statements, correctly
answered (True/False)
Correct answers provided to all statements 104 (64.2)
1. The COVID-19 virus spreads via respiratory
droplets of infected individuals (T)
151 (93.2)
2. The main clinical symptoms of COVID-19 are fever,
fatigue, and dry cough (T)
159 (98.1)
3. There is effective cure for COVID-19 (F) 150 (92.6)
4. Early symptomatic and supportive treatment can
help most patients recover from the infection (T)
145 (89.5)
5. All people with COVID-19 will develop severe
Illness (F)
139 (85.8)
6. Those who are elderly and have chronic illnesses are
more likely to be severe cases (T)
160 (98.8)
7. Those with COVID-19 cannot transmit the virus to
others when a fever is not present (F)
154 (95.1)
Level of agreement with social
distancing measures (agree/strongly
agree)
1. To prevent infection with COVID-19, people should
avoid going to crowded places
159 (98.2)
2. Isolation of people who are infected with COVID-
19 are effective ways to reduce the spread of the virus
151 (93.2)
3. Young adults should take measures to prevent
infection with COVID-19
133 (82.1)
II. Sources of Information (n = 156)
Trust in sources of information Official sources 141 (87.0)
Government 126 (77.8)
Health professionals 94 (58.0)
Unofficial sources 37 (22.8)
Social media 20 (12.3)
Friends and family 32 (19.8)
News sources 46 (28.4)
Use of sources of information (often/
always)
Official sources 123 (75.9)
Government sites 90 (57.7)
Health professionals 105 (67.3)
Unofficial Sources 74 (45.7)
Social media 48 (31.8)
Friends and family 51 (32.7)
News websites 70 (44.8)
Number of hours/day looking for
information on COVID-19 (n = 154)
On news websites (Mean ± SD, median, IQR) (1.5 ± 2.1, 1,
1–2)
On social media (Mean ± SD, median, IQR) (1.9 ± 3.4, 1,
0–2)
III. Behaviors (n = 158)
Changed behaviors, even a little bit Increased hand washing 158 (100.0)
Increased spending on cleaning supplies 152 (96.2)
Limited going out 156 (98.7)
Stocked up on food and supplies 154 (97.5)
Started wearing a mask 154 (97.5)
Limited social outings 158 (100)
Avoided going to doctor or dentist 148 (93.7)
IV. Academic and Life Difficulties
(Continued)
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Multivariable associations
Table 4 presents results from the linear regression models for each of mental health burden
outcomes. Analyses indicated that economic hardship was the most significant predictor of
depression among respondents, followed by difficulties with focusing on academics (see
Table 4 for test statistics). Anxiety levels were significantly higher among non-freshmen, those
who spent more than one hour per day looking for COVID-19 information on news sites, and
ability to focus on academic work. Ability to focus on academic work was also a significant
predictor of somatic problems, together with being very to extremely concerned about
COVID-19. Interestingly, those who exhibited trust in news media were less likely to exhibit
somatic problems. Finally, male sex was significantly associated with lower levels of stress,
while inability to focus on academic work, and difficulties with obtaining medicine and
hygiene supplies were significant predictors of higher levels of stress among undergraduate
students.
Discussion
Previous studies have shown that public health emergencies have a significant impact on men-
tal health of college students [28, 35]. Since the COVID-19 outbreak, a few studies have
emerged describing higher levels of anxiety and increased risk perception among college stu-
dents during COVID-19 pandemic [26, 27]. The current study is among the first to examine
the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health among undergraduate college stu-
dents in the U.S. Northern New Jersey has been one of the most severely affected regions in
the U.S. by the current pandemic, creating uncertainty, anxiety and stress among a wider pop-
ulation. The pandemic has also elevated concerns about well-being of the members of the uni-
versity community, including students. While previous studies have indicated that the current
Table 2. (Continued)
Variable Category N (%)
Academic Difficulties Ability to focus and complete academic work 126 (77.8)
Ability to focus on academic work 119 (73.5)
Completing assignments and tests 83 (51.2)
Difficulty with online learning/inadequate access 99 (61.1)
Difficulties with online mode of learning 95 (58.6)
Inadequate WiFi/Computer access 36 (22.2)
No academic difficulties 22 (13.6)
Everyday Life Difficulties Lost job, reduced wages or work hours 92 (56.8)
Getting food 36 (22.2)
Obtaining hygiene supplies and medications 96 (59.3)
Transportation 18 (11.1)
V. Level of Concern and Mental Health Burden
Level of concern with the COVID-19
pandemic
Not at all to moderately 54 (33.3)
Very to extremely concerned 108 (66.7)
(Mean ± SD)
Mental health burden (n = 151) BSI Depression 64.4 ± 10.7
BSI Anxiety 58.2 ± 13.6
BSI Somatization 53.5 ± 11.9
Stress 20.6 ± 7.3
Note: BSI–Brief Symptoms Inventory 18, values represent T scores based on gender specific community norms.
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Table 3. Bivariate associations of selected socio-demographic variables, knowledge and sources of information, behaviors and academic difficulties with mental
health burden among undergraduate college students during COVID-19 epidemic. (N = 151).
Mental Health Burden (mean ± SD)
BSI Depression BSI Anxiety BSI Somatization Stress
Variables Categories
I Demographics
Age (continuous)† 0.01 ns 0.10 ns 0.06 ns -0.06 nsGender Female 64.4 ± 9.9 58.1 ± 12.6 53.6 ± 11.6 21.8 ± 7.0
Male 64.9 ± 12.4 ns 58.7 ± 15.7 ns 53.3 ± 12.1 ns 18.1 ± 7.5��
p = 0.004
Race White 63.9 ± 11.6 58.3 ± 13.7 53.5 ± 12.2 20.8 ± 8.1
Non-White 64.8 ± 10.1 ns 58.1 ± 13.6 ns 53.4 ± 11.8 ns 20.5 ± 6.9 nsClass Level Freshman 64.2 ± 11.1 56.4 ± 13.9 53.3 ± 12.0 20.6 ± 7.3
Other (sophomore, junior,
and senior)
65.0 ± 9.7 ns 61.7 ± 12.3�
p = 0.024
53.7 ± 11.8 ns 20.8 ± 7.5 ns
Major Health 63.5 ± 10.3 57.2 ± 13.3 53.5 ± 10.5 21.8 ± 7.2
Other 64.8 ± 10.8 ns 58.6 ± 13.7 ns 53.4 ± 12.5 ns 20.1 ± 7.4 nsII Knowledge
Correct answers provided to all knowledge
statements
No 63.4 ± 10.6 58.6 ± 14.2 54.4 ± 11.7 19.2 ± 7.9
Yes 65.0 ± 10.7 ns 57.9 ± 13.3 ns 52.9 ± 12.0 ns 21.4 ± 6.9 ns
III Sources of information
Trust official (govern., medical professionals)
sources
No 67.9 ± 11.0 60.1 ± 13.6 55.2 ± 12.5 19.9 ± 8.1
Yes 64.1 ± 10.8 ns 58.0 ± 13.6 ns 53.2 ± 11.9 ns 20.7 ± 7.3 nsTrust news media No 64.8 ± 11.1 58.6 ± 14.1 54.7 ± 12.5 20.9 ± 7.9
Yes 63.6 ± 9.7 ns 57.2 ± 12.3 ns 50.5 ± 9.8�
p = 0.046
20.2 ± 6.0 ns
Trust unofficial (social media, friends/family)
sources
No 63.7 ± 11.0 57.8 ± 13.7 52.8 ± 12.2 20.6 ± 7.2
Yes 62.6 ± 9.2 ns 59.2 ± 13.4 ns 55.5 ± 10.8 ns 20.7 ± 7.8 nsUse official (govern., medical professionals)
sources
No 62.3 ± 12.0 54.9 ± 13.8 52.1 ± 12.1 18.7 ± 8.1
Yes 65.0 ± 10.3 ns 59.0 ± 13.5 ns 53.8 ± 11.9 ns 21.2 ± 7.1 nsUse news media No 65.3 ± 10.8 58.4 ± 14.0 52.7 ± 12.3 20.8 ± 7.2
Yes 63.4 ± 10.5 ns 58.0 ± 13.2 ns 54.4 ± 11.5 ns 20.5 ± 7.6 nsUse unofficial (social media, friends/family)
sources
No 64.8 ± 11.2 58.3 ± 14.3 53.4 ± 12.2 21.0 ± 7.0
Yes 64.0 ± 10.0 ns 58.1 ± 12.9 ns 53.5 ± 11.7 ns 20.3 ± 7.7 nsTime spent on looking for information on news
sites
�1 hour 63.7 ± 11.3 55.9 ± 13.9 52.2 ± 12.1 20.7 ± 7.2
>1 hour 66.2 ± 9.0 ns 63.5 ± 11.3��� 56.4 ± 10.9� 20.5 ± 7.7 ns
p = 0.001 p = 0.049
Time spent on looking for information on
social media
�1 hour 63.4 ± 11.0 56.6 ± 13.8 52.6 ± 12.0 20.5 ± 7.1
>1 hour 66.7 ± 9.6 ns 61.7 ± 12.6� 55.3 ± 11.5 ns 21.1 ± 8.0 ns
p = 0.032
IV Academic and Life difficulties
Academic difficulties—Ability to focus on
academic work
No 56.3 ± 10.8 50.4 ± 11.6 47.5 ± 9.7 16.2 ± 6.2
Yes 66.4 ± 9.7���
p < 0.001
60.0 ± 13.4���
p < 0.001
54.9 ± 12.0��
p = 0.003
21.7 ± 7.2���
p < 0.001
Academic difficulties—Difficulties with online
learning
No 59.9 ± 11.0 54.5 ± 13.1 50.9 ± 10.9 18.6 ± 8.1
Yes 67.1 ± 9.5���
p < 0.001
60.3 ± 13.5��
p = 0.011
54.9 ± 12.3�
p = 0.047
21.9 ± 6.6��
p = 0.007
Everyday difficulties—Lost job, reduced wages
or work hours
No 60.2 ± 10.6 55.1 ± 12.8 52.6 ± 9.3 19.5 ± 6.6
Yes 67.4 ± 9.7���
p < 0.001
60.3 ± 13.8�
p = 0.019
54.1 ± 13.4 ns 21.4 ± 7.7 ns
(Continued)
PLOS ONE COVID-19 and college students
PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239696 September 30, 2020 9 / 16
Table 3. (Continued)
Mental Health Burden (mean ± SD)
BSI Depression BSI Anxiety BSI Somatization Stress
Variables Categories
Everyday difficulties–Obtaining medications
and hygiene supplies
No 62.3 ± 11.6 55.1 ± 14.1 51.3 ± 12.0 18.3 ± 8.0
Yes 65.8 ± 9.8�
p = 0.049
60.1 ± 12.9�
p = 0.027
54.8 ± 11.7 ns 22.1 ± 6.5��
p = 0.002
Everyday difficulties–Obtaining food No 63.5 ± 11.1 57.3 ± 13.9 53.0 ± 12.1 20.3 ± 7.6
Yes 67.3 ± 8.5 ns 61.1 ± 12.3 ns 54.8 ± 11.2 ns 21.9 ± 6.2 nsV Level of concern
Concerned about COVID-19 Not at all to moderately 62.5 ± 11.8 55.1 ± 13.4 49.5 ± 10.5 19.4 ± 8.0
Very to extremely 65.4 ± 10.0 ns 59.7 ± 13.5� p = 0.05 55.4 ± 12.1��
p = 0.004
21.3 ± 7.0 ns
Note† Pearson correlation coefficient; ns = non-significant
� p < 0.05
�� p < 0.01
��� p < 0.001.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239696.t003
Table 4. Multiple linear regression analyses of predictors of mental health burden among undergraduate college students during COVID-19 epidemic.
BSI-Depression BSI-Anxiety BSI-Somatization Stress
Variable β (95% CI) β (95% CI) β (95% CI) β (95% CI)
Gender (Male = 1) - - - - - - -0.17 (-0.32- -0.01)�
p = 0.036
Class Level (> freshmen = 1) - - 0.16 (0.01–0.31)�
p = 0.039
- - - -
Trust news media (Yes = 1) - - - - -0.17 (-0.32- -0.02)�
p = 0.024
- -
Time spent looking for information on news sites
(> 1hr = 1)
- - 0.21 (0.04–0.38)�
p = 0.016
0.12 (-0.03–0.27) ns - -
Time spent looking for information on social media
(> 1hr = 1)
- - 0.03 (-0.14–0.2) ns - - - -
Academic difficulties—Ability to focus on academic
work (Yes = 1)
0.24 (0.09–0.42)��
p = 0.003
0.17 (0.00–0.35)�
p = 0.047
0.21 (0.04–0.39)�
p = 0.014
0.18 (0.02–0.37)�
p = 0.033
Academic difficulties—Difficulties with online learning
(Yes = 1)
0.16 (-0.04–0.32) ns 0.10 (-0.06–0.27) ns 0.08 (-0.09–0.24) ns 0.12 (-0.04–0.29) ns
Everyday difficulties—Lost job, reduced wages or work
hours (Yes = 1)
0.25 (0.1–0.40)���
p = 0.001
0.12 (-0.04–0.28) ns - - - -
Everyday difficulties–Obtaining medications and
hygiene supplies (Yes = 1)
0.13 (-0.02–0.28) ns 0.13 (-0.02–0.29) ns - - 0.18 (0.02–0.33)�
p = 0.024
Everyday difficulties–Obtaining food (Yes = 1) - - - - - - - -
Concerned about COVID-19 (Very to extremely) - - 0.08 (-0.07–0.23) ns 0.21 (0.05–0.36)��
p = 0.008
- -
Test Statistics F(4,146) = 11.75;
p<0.001; R2 = 0.24
F(8,142) = 4.87;
p<0.001; R2 = 0.22
F(5,145) = 5.50; p<0.001;
R2 = 0.16
F(4,145) = 6.98; p<0.001;
R2 = 0.16
Note: All dichotomous variables were coded 0 or 1. ns–not significant
� p < 0.05
�� p < 0.01
��� p < 0.001.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239696.t004
PLOS ONE COVID-19 and college students
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pandemic may have widespread impacts on students’ learning experiences [8, 36], our results
indicate that college students who are experiencing considerable number of academic and
everyday difficulties during the COVID-19 pandemic also report increased levels of mental
health burden. This is of potential concern as the pandemic is occurring against the backdrop
of increasing mental health issues among college students [37]. Additional stress may lead to
further detrimental effects on the learning experiences and mental health of undergraduates.
Most of our participants were females, which is not surprising considering that the student
body at the university is approximately 60% female. As this was an introductory personal
health course, the majority of participants were freshmen. The racial composition of the sam-
ple was also reflective of the University’s diverse undergraduate student body. In multivariable
models, students other than freshmen were more likely to report higher levels of anxiety. A
possible explanation for this could be that students in upper classes may be more concerned
about the impact of the pandemic on their post-graduation plans and the economy. Addition-
ally, male students were less likely to report higher levels of stress. This is similar to previous
studies’ findings that, in general, female students report higher perceived stress levels than
their male counterparts [38, 39]. Traditional self-concepts of masculinity and femininity can
lead to differential expression of attitudes and emotions towards life experiences [40]. There-
fore, it is possible that in circumstances surrounding COVID-19 pandemic female students
were more likely to express internalized disorders such as stress.
Change of behavior in response to the pandemic was pervasive. In accordance with the cur-
rent recommendations, our respondents almost universally increased hand washing, limited
social outings, and started wearing masks. This is contrary to the findings of a recent study of
adults in the U.S. with chronic conditions [41], but similar to behavior changes observed in
two population studies in Hong Kong [42] and China [43]. While some of the changes in
behavior may be the result of mandatory requirements (i.e. lockdowns, mandatory mask wear-
ing), it is also possible that students taking a personal health course are more conscious of the
way virus spreads and are more likely to adapt to behaviors that would prevent the spread of
the virus.
While we found no significant association of knowledge levels with mental health burden
variables, the descriptive findings of this study indicate that undergraduate students possessed
an adequate level of knowledge related to COVID-19 at the time of the survey administration.
Nearly all respondents correctly identified how the virus spreads, clinical symptoms of the
infection, or the most vulnerable populations to an infection. Information surrounding
COVID-19 pandemic has been characterized as an “infodemic” [44] with an unprecedented
amount of information but also misinformation, particularly present on social media. Yet, par-
ticipants in this study were more likely to report use of “formal” sources of information as
opposed to “informal” or news sites, resulting in higher correct knowledge of COVID-19.
Additionally, students who are enrolled in personal health course may be more likely to be
attuned to correct information related to COVID-19. The most common misconception was
that those with COVID-19 cannot transmit the virus to others when a fever is not present
(35.8% of participants endorsed this statement). Another misconception exhibited by a smaller
number (18.5%) of participants was that young people do not necessarily need to take mea-
sures to prevent infection with COVID-19. Educating students on the role that asymptomatic
and pre-symptomatic individuals play in transmission of COVID-19 should be a priority for
college health educators, as returning to campus may necessitate limits on students’ gathering
in confined settings, or institute mask-wearing to mitigate spread of the virus.
Overall, official sources, such as health professionals (64.8%) and government sites (55.6%),
were the most common sources of information regarding COVID-19 among undergraduate
students. Furthermore, official sites were the most trusted sources of information (87.0%).
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Similar to the study of adult U.S. population [45], social media was the least trusted source of
COVID-19 information in this sample (12.3%), which is encouraging as social media plat-
forms may have a high potential for spreading misinformation [44]. It is also possible that
users searching for information on social media are directed to reliable sources such as the
CDC [46]. In multivariable regression models, spending a greater amount of time looking for
COVID-19 information on the news sites was associated higher levels of anxiety. This is con-
sistent with previous studies which have found that increased time spent using social media
per day was associated with increased odds of reporting high levels of anxiety [47]. While we
did not test for possible exposure to COVID-19 virus, it is possible that those who perceived as
being exposed to virus were more likely to search for information. It is also possible that highly
anxious individuals may engage in more information-seeking as an adaptive coping strategy
[48]. However, trusting news media was associated with decreased levels of perceptions of
bodily dysfunctions. News sites presenting substantiated and accurate COVID-related infor-
mation may have the potential to create a positive environment that is conducive to easing
somatic distress in response to psychosocial stress.
Academic difficulties, such as ability to focus on academic work, were significantly associ-
ated with increased levels of depression, anxiety, somatization, and stress. It is also important
to note that, at the bivariate level, all four forms of mental health burden were significantly
associated with online learning difficulties. However, once the effects of other covariates were
considered, difficulty with online learning was no longer a significant predictor of mental
health burden. Higher level of depression were also significantly associated with loss of job,
reduced wages or work hours, while difficulties in obtaining medicine and hygiene supplies
were significantly associated with increased stress levels. Students who are dependent on jobs
to support themselves and/or families may be particularly vulnerable to depression and worry
due to economic hardship. As uncertainties about the future continue this may lead to worsen-
ing mental health status, particularly among young individuals [49]. The current pandemic
has shifted students’ priorities. Many are worried about their own health, health of their fami-
lies, or struggling financially, perhaps making them less focused on academics, and increasing
academic difficulties. An abrupt migration of traditional face-to-face courses to the on-line
mode may be particularly difficult for students who are used to in person classes and to those
from academically marginal undergraduate student groups [50], or in courses that are poorly
suited for online learning [51]. Struggling academically with online courses may further exac-
erbate mental health distress among students. All of this may have implications for students’
retention rate, leaving college administrators and instructors with the task to create innovative
solutions to the unexpected challenge the pandemic has created. College support services may
have a crucial role in helping students navigate the life challenges associated with the pandemic
may help to improve their mental health.
Limitations
This study has several limitations worth noting. The study design is cross-sectional. Therefore,
the causality cannot be established, as data represents a single moment in time. Given the lim-
ited resources available and time-sensitivity of the COVID-19 outbreak, the sample is com-
prised of undergraduates who are enrolled in one introductory core curriculum course. While
the course is university-wide, our results may not generalize to other students. Participation in
the study may have been influenced by various difficulties students found themselves in. The
data are based on self-report and may be subject to social desirability bias. Our questions cap-
tured only fundamental knowledge, attitudes, and a limited set of behaviors. It is possible that
our questions tapped into personal beliefs and/or endorsement of health promotion guidelines
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by the authorities. Future studies should also capture whether direct or indirect exposure to
COVID-19 virus added to mental health distress. Additionally, self-reported levels of mental
health distress are not confirmed by the mental health professionals’ assessments.
Conclusions
Our findings support the notion that the current COVID-19 pandemic is making a significant
negative impact on mental health of college students. College students who exhibit greater aca-
demic and life difficulties may be particularly vulnerable to higher mental health distress. The
current pandemic may further exacerbate already existing problems. The timeline of the pan-
demic is uncertain further impacting students’ academics, lives, and mental health. With a
host of negative consequences associated with poor mental health, further research is needed
to address additional risk factors (i.e., substance use, coping mechanisms, social support, fam-
ily and peer relationships dynamics) that are associated with mental health in this population.
Additional studies investigating the effect of pandemic on mental health of faculty may provide
a better understanding of the impact of COVID-19 on higher education. Our findings suggest
that college health service providers and administrators need to consider proactive measures
to support the mental health and well-being of students. Mental health interventions and pro-
fessionally trained counselors could help students address academic and financial concerns,
which may alleviate mental health burden of the COVID-19 pandemic. In public health emer-
gencies like this, many students will have special needs and emerging challenges that will
require responsive programming by colleges.
Supporting information
S1 File.
(DOCX)
S2 File.
(XLS)
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Aleksandar Kecojevic, Corey H. Basch.
Data curation: Aleksandar Kecojevic, Corey H. Basch.
Formal analysis: Aleksandar Kecojevic.
Methodology: Aleksandar Kecojevic, Corey H. Basch, Marianne Sullivan, Nicole K. Davi.
Writing – original draft: Aleksandar Kecojevic.
Writing – review & editing: Aleksandar Kecojevic, Corey H. Basch, Marianne Sullivan, Nicole
K. Davi.
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