the illustrated philosophy of freedom

8/2/2019 The Illustrated Philosophy Of Freedom

1/168

www.philosophyoffreedom.com04/07/2012

PRINCIPLES OF RUDOLF STEINER'S

PHILOSOPHY OF FREEDOM

PART I THE THEORY OF FREEDOM

Chapter I

Chapter II

Chapter III

Chapter IV

Chapter V

Chapter VI

Chapter VII

Chapter VIII

The Goal Of Knowledge

Conscious Human Action

Why The esire !or Knowledge Is !undamental

Thought As The Instrument Of Knowledge

The World As "ercept

Our Knowledge Of The World

Human Indi#iduality

Are There Any $imits To Cognition%

PART II THE REALITY OF FREEDOMChapter I&

Chapter &

Chapter &I

Chapter &II

Chapter &III

Chapter &IV

Chapter &V

The !actors Of $ife

The Idea Of !reedom

'onism And The "hilosophy Of !reedom

World("urpose And $ife("urpose )the estiny Of 'an*

'oral Imagination )darwinism And 'orality*

The Value Of $ife )optimism And "essimism*

The Indi#idual And The Genus
http://www.philosophyoffreedom.com/http://www.philosophyoffreedom.com/


2/168

top

CHAPTER I

THE GOAL OF KNOWLEDGE

principles of individualism

Principles Of Individualistic Life1. Free Oneself From AuthorityAn energetic effort is being made to shae off ever! ind of authorit!"2. Individual Validation

#othing is accepted as valid$ unless it springs from the roots of individualit!" %ver!thing &hich hindersthe individual in the full development of his po&ers is thrust aside"

3. Leaderless Striving'he sa!ing (%ach one of us must choose his hero in &hose footsteps he toils up to Ol!mpus) no longer

holds for us"4. Individual Selection Of Ideals

*e allo& no ideals to be forced upon us". Individual !orthiness

*e are convinced that in each of us$ if onl! &e probe deep enough into the ver! heart of our being$

there d&ells something noble$ something &orth! of development"". #e$ection Of %onformity*e no longer believe that there is a norm of human life to &hich &e must all strive to conform"

&. 'erfection Of (ach Individual

*e regard the perfection of the &hole as depending on the uni+ue perfection of each single individual"). *ni+ue %ontri,ution

*e do not &ant to do &hat an!one else can do e+uall! &ell" #o$ our contribution to the developmentof the &orld$ ho&ever trifling$ must be something &hich$ b! reason of the uni+ueness of our nature$

&e alone can offer"

-. %reative (/ression#ever have artists been less concerned about rules and norms in art than toda!" %ach of them asserts

his right to e,press$ in the creations of his art$ &hat is uni+ue in him"

10. ynamic Language'here are dramatists &ho &rite in dialect rather than conform to the standard diction &hich grammardemands"

11. Striving oards Freedom-2. #o better e,pression for these phenomena can be found than this$ that the! result from the

individuals striving to&ards freedom$ developed to its highest pitch"12. Inde/endence

*e do not &ant to be dependent in an! respect$ and &here dependence must be$ &e tolerate it onl!on condition that it coincides &ith a vital interest of our individualit!"


3/168

Principles Of Individualistic 'ruth1.0%ulture Of Individuality

'oda!$ all human interests tend to center in the culture of human individualit!"1.1 %onviction Of Inner ruth

'ruth &ill be sought in our age onl! in the depths of human nature" onviction attaches onl! to &hatappears as truth to each of us in our o&n hearts"

1.2ruth (m/oers'ruth alone can give us confidence in developing our po&ers" e &ho is tortured b! doubts finds his

po&ers lamed"1.3 %om/rehensi,le ruth

*e no longer &ant to believe &e &ant to no&" 3elief demands the acceptance of truths &hich &e donot &holl! comprehend"

1.4noledge Starting From Individual (/eriencetarting from the facts nearest at hand$ our o&n immediate e,periences$ &e ascend to a no&ledge of

the &hole universe"

1.Individual rive o no#o&ada!s there is no attempt to compel an!one to understand" *e claim no agreement &ith an!one

&hom a distinct individual need does not drive to a certain vie&"1."Strive o Live According o Individualistic 'rinci/les

5an! of m! contemporaries strive to order their lives in the direction of the principles I have indicated"

'o them I &ould dedicate this boo"

1.&(ercise 'ure hin5ing'he *estern &orld no longer demands pious e,ercises and ascetic practices as a preparation forscience$ but it does re+uire a sincere &illingness to &ithdra& oneself a&hile from the immediate

impressions of life$ and to betae oneself into the realm of pure thought"1.)noledge Is A Self67overning Organism

Abstract thining attains concrete$ individual life" Ideas become po&ers of life" *e no longer havemerel! a no&ledge about things$ but have made no&ledge into a real$ self6governing organism" Our

consciousness$ alive and active$ has risen be!ond a mere passive reception of truths"1.-he 8ost 'ressing 9uestion Is Freedom

o& philosoph!$ as an art$ is related to freedom &hat freedom is and &hether &e do$ or can$participate in it these are the principle problems of m! boo" 'hese +uestions$ in m! opinion$ are

humanit! most immediate concern"

1.10he Value Of noledge Is :uman evelo/ment'he true value of the sciences is seen onl! &hen &e have sho&n the importance of their results forhumanit!" 8no&ledge has value onl! in so far as it contributes to the all6round unfolding of the &hole

nature of the human being"1.11Ideas o Serve Individual 7oals

*e each tae possession of the &orld of ideas in order to use them for our o&n human aims$ &hichtranscend those of mere science"

1.128aster Over Ideas*e must confront ideas as master or become their slave"


4/168

top

CHAPTER II

CONSCIOUS HUMAN ACTION

principles of freedom

2.0he 9uestion Of Freedom

Is the human being freein action and thought$ or inescapabl! controlled b! necessit!92.1 Freedom of Indifferent %hoice:support; #eutrall! choosing$ entirel! at &ill$ one or the other of t&o possible courses of action"

:opposed; 'here al&a!s e,ists a specific reasonto e,plain &h! &e carr! out an action"2.2Freedom Of %hoice

:support; 5ae a free choice according to our o&n &ants and preferences"

:opposed; *e are not free to desire or not desire arbitraril!"2.3Free ;ecessity Of Oneather than blind urge$ &e act according to a conscious motive":opposed; 'he no&er has been separated from the doer" *e dont al&a!s do &hat &e no& should be

done"2."Free !hen %ontrolled =y #ational ecision

:support;


5/168

top

CHAPTER III

WHY THE DESIRE FOR KNOWLEDGE

IS FUNDAMENTAL

principles of no&ledge

3.0he rive o no

*e see something more in things that e,ceeds &hat is immediatel! given to us" 'his addition &esee splits our &hole being into t&o parts our ob?ective outer perception and our sub?ective inner

thought6&orld" *e become conscious of contrasting &ith the &orld" 'he universe appears to us as t&ocontrasting sides@ Self and World"

3.18aterialism5aterialism begins &ith the thought of 5atter or material processes" 3ut$ in doing so$ it isconfronted

b! t&o different sets of facts$ the material &orld and the thoughts about it" houghts are understoodas purel! ph!sical processes"

3.2S/iritualism'he Spiritualistdenies 5atter :the *orld; and regards it as merel! a product of 5ind :the elf;"

3.3#ealism

If one &ould reall! no& the e,ternal &orld$ one must loo out&ards and dra& on the fund ofe,perience"3.4Idealism

*hat


6/168

top

CHAPTER IV

THOUGHT AS THE INSTRUMENT

OF KNOWLEDGE

principles of thining

4.0#eflective hought

'he purpose of m! reflection is to form concepts of the event" I tr! to add to the occurrence that runsits course &ithout m! participation a second process &hich taes place in the conceptual sphere" 'his

conceptual process depends on me"4.1O,servation Of hought

'hought$ as an ob?ect of observation$ differs essentiall! from all other ob?ects" I observe the table$ and

I carr! on m! thining about the table$ but I do not at the same moment observe this thought" *hilethe observation of things and events$ and thining about them$ are ever!da! occurrences filling m!

ongoing life$ observation of the thought itself is a ind of e,ceptional state"4.2Formation Of %once/t

I am definitel! a&are that the concept of a thing is formed b! m! activit!$ &hile the feeling of pleasure

is produced in me b! an ob?ect the same &a! as change is caused in an ob?ect b! a stone falling on it"

4.3hin5ing %ontem/lation Of O,$ect*hile I am reflecting on the ob?ect$ I am absorbed in it m! attention is turned to it" 'o becomeabsorbed in the ob?ect is to contemplate b! thought"

4.4hin5ing %ontem/lation Of houghtI can never observe the present thought in &hich I am actuall! engaged onl! after&ard can I mae

the past e,perience of m! thought process into the ob?ect of m! present thining"4.no %ontent Of %once/t

It is possible to no& thought more immediatel! and more intimatel! than an! other process in the&orld" 3ecause &e produce it ourselves &e no& the characteristic features of its course and the

details of ho& the process taes place"4."7uided =y %ontent Of hought

*hat I observe in stud!ing a thought process is not &hich process in m! brain connects the conceptlightning &ith the concept thunder$ but m! reason for bringing these t&o concepts into a specific

relationship" Introspection sho&s that in lining thought &ith thought I am guided b! the content ofm! thoughts I am not guided b! an! ph!sical processes in m! brain" 5an! people toda! find it

difficult to grasp the concept of pure thining"4.&I 'roduce 8y %ontent Of hought

In thought I observe something that I produce" I give to m! e,istence the definite$ self6determinedcontent of m! thought6activit!"


7/168

top

CHAPTER V

THE WORLD AS PERCEPT

principles of perception

60#eactive hin5ing*hen &e see a tree$ our thining reacts to our observation a conceptual element comes to the ob?ect$

and &e consider the ob?ect and the conceptual counterpart as belonging together" oncepts are added

to observation".1 %once/tual Search

I first search for the concept that fits m! observation" omeone &ho does not reflect further$ observes$and is content to leave it at that" I can never gain the concept b! mere observation$ no matter ho&

man! cases I ma! observe".2%once/tual #eference

*hen I as thining sub?ect$ refer a concept to an ob?ect$ &e must not regard this reference assomething purel! sub?ective" It is not the sub?ect that maes the reference$ but thining"

.3%once/tual #elationshi/'hining is able to dra& threads from one element of observation to another" It connects specific

concepts &ith these elements and in this &a! brings them into a relationship &ith each other".4%orrection Of 8y 'icture Of !orld

%ver! broadening of the circle of m! perceptions compels me to correct the picture I have of the &orld"*e see this in ever!da! life$ as &ell as in the intellectual development of humanind"

.8athematical And 9ualitative 'erce/t6'ictureI should lie to call the dependence of m! perception6picture on m! place of observation$

mathematical$ and its dependence on m! organiBation$ +ualitative" 'he first determines theproportions of siBe and mutual distances of m! perceptions$ the second their +ualit!"

."Su,$ective 'erce/t6'icture'he recognition of the sub?ective character of our perceptions can lead to doubt &hether an!thing

ob?ective underlies them"


8/168

top

CHAPTER VI

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD

principles of conception

".0Finding he %once/t hat %orres/onds o he !orld


9/168

top

CHAPTER VII

HUMAN INDIVIDUALITY

principles of mental picturing

&.0 %orres/onding %once/t #elates Self o he !orld

I am reall! identical &ith the ob?ects not$ ho&ever$ I in so far as I am a perception of m!self assub?ect$ but I in so far as I am a part of the universal &orld process" I can discover the common

element in both :percept and self; $ so far as the! are complementar! aspects of the &orld$ onl!through thought &hich b! means of concepts relates the one to the other"

&.1Sense 'erce/tion Of 8otionCust as &e can sa! that the e!e perceives a mechanical process of motion in its surroundings as light$

so &e can affirm that ever! change in an ob?ect$ determined b! natural la&$ is perceived b! us as aprocess of motion"

&.28ental 'icture@ %once/tual Intuition #elated o A 'erce/t'he moment a percept appears in m! field of observation$ thining also becomes active through me"

An element of m! thought s!stem$ a definite intuition$ a concept$ connects itself &ith the percept"&.38ental 'icture@ Individualied %once/t

'he full realit! of a thing is given to us in the moment of observation through the fitting together ofconcept and percept" 3! means of a percept$ the concept ac+uires an individualiBed form$ a

relationship to this particular perception"&.48ental 'icture@ Ac+uired (/erience

'he sum of those things about &hich I can form mental pictures ma! be called m! total e,perience"&.8ental 'icture@ Su,$ective #e/resentation Of #eality

>ealit! presents itself to us as the union of percept and concept and the sub?ective representation ofthis realit! presents itself to us as mental picture"

&."#efer 'erce/ts o Feelings*e are not satisfied merel! to refer the percept$ b! means of thining$ to the concept$ but &e relate

them also to our particular sub?ectivit!$ our individual %go" 'he e,pression of this individual

relationship is feeling$ &hich manifests itself as pleasure or displeasure"&.&o6Fold ;ature@ hin5ing And Feeling

'hining is the element through &hich &e tae part in the universal cosmic process feeling is thatthrough &hich &e can &ithdra& ourselves into the narro& confines of our o&n being"&.)rue Individuality

A true individualit! &ill be those &ho reach up &ith their feelings to the farthest possible e,tent intothe region of the ideal"

&.-'oint Of VieIdeas give to our conceptual life an individual stamp" %ach one of us has his special standpoint from

&hich he loos out on the &orld" e has his o&n special &a! of forming general concepts"&.10Intensity Of Feelings

%ach of us combines special feelings$ and these in the most var!ing degrees of intensit!$ &ith ourperceptions"

&.11(ducation Of Feelings8no&ledge of things &ill go hand in hand &ith the development and education of the life of feeling"

&.12Living %once/ts


10/168

top

CHAPTER VIII

ARE THERE ANY LIMITS TO COGNITION

principles of cognition

).0%ognitive *nity

It is due$ as &e have seen$ to our organiBation that the full$ complete realit!$ including our o&n selvesas sub?ects$ appears at first as a dualit!" ognition overcomes this dualit! b! fusing the t&o elementsof realit!$ the percept and the concept gained b! thining$ into the complete thing"

).1:y/othetical !orld 'rinci/le and (/erienceIt is +uite natural that a dualistic thiner should be unable to find the connection bet&een the &orld

principle &hich he h!potheticall! assumes and the things given in e,perience").2(go6hood


11/168

top

CHAPTER IX

THE FACTORS OF LIFE

ethics of personalit!

-.0 %ognitive 'ersonality

If &e call the establishment of such a thought connection an act of cognition$ and the resultingcondition of our self no&ledge$ then$ assuming the above supposition to be true$ &e should have toconsider ourselves as beings &ho merel! cogniBe or no&"

-.1 Feeling 'ersonality'he #aDve >ealist holds that the personalit! actuall! lives more genuinel! in the life of feeling than in

the purel! ideal element of no&ledge"-.2 'erce/tion of Feeling

'o begin &ith$ feeling is e,actl! the same$ on the sub?ective side$ as the perception is on the ob?ective

side"-.3 Incom/lete Feeling


12/168

top

CHAPTER X

THE IDEA OF FREEDOM

ethics of individualit!

10.0 Intuitive Action

3! an act of thining I lin up m! individual facult! :m! &ill; &ith the universal &orld6process" 'heconceptual content of an act of &ill is not deduced from the action" It is got b! intuition"10.1 Intuitive Action

If the conceptual intuition :ideal content; of m! act of &ill occurs before the corresponding percept:the action;$ then the content of &hat I do is determined b! m! ideas" 'he conceptual intuition of an

act of &ill is determined onl! b! the conceptual s!stem itself" In other &ords$ the determining factorsfor m! &ill are to be found$ not in the perceptual$ but onl! in the conceptual &orld"

10.2 8otive Of !ill'he conceptual factor$ or motive$ is the momentar! determining cause of an act of &ill" 'he motive of

can be onl! a pure concept$ or a concept &ith a definite relation to perception$ i"e"$ a mental picture"10.3 %haracterological is/osition

'he characterological disposition is formed b! the more or less permanent content of our sub?ectivelife$ b! the content of mental pictures and feelings" It is determined especiall! b! m! life of feeling"

10.4 Levels Of 8orality'he levels of driving force are@ instinct$ feelings$ thining and forming mental pictures$ and conceptual

thining" 'he levels of motive are egoism$ moral authorit!$ moral insight$ and conceptual intuition"10. 8oral Intuition

Among the levels of characterological disposition$ &e have singled out as the highest the one that

&ors as pure thining or practical reason" Among the motives$ &e have singled out conceptualintuition as the highest" On closer inspection it &ill at once be seen that at this level of moralit! driving

force and motive coincide"

10." 8oral 8otiveo& can an action be individuall! made to fit the special case and the special situation$ and !et at the

same time be determined b! intuition in a purel! ideal &a!9 'his ob?ection rests upon a confusion ofthe moral motive &ith the perceptible content of an action" Of course$ m! I taes notice of these

perceptual contents$ but it does not allo& itself to be determined b! them"10.& (thical Individualism

'he sum of ideas &hich are effective in us$ the concrete content of our intuitions$ constitutes &hat isindividual in each of us" 'o let this content e,press itself in life is both the highest moral driving force

and the highest motive a man can have" *e ma! call this point of vie& ethical individualism"10.) Love For he O,$ective

*hile I am performing the action I am influenced b! a moral ma,im in so far as it can live in meintuitivel! it is bound up &ith m! love for the ob?ective that I &ant to realiBe through m! action" I do

not &or out mentall! &hether m! action is good or bad I carr! it out because I love it"10.- (/ression Of Ideals In Individual !ay

'he animal instinct &hich drives a man to a criminal act does not belong to &hat is individual in him"'he fact that something ideal e,presses itself in its o&n uni+ue &a! through these instincts$ passions$

and feelings$ constitutes m! individualit!"

10.10 :armony Of IntentionsIf &e both dra& our intuitions reall! from the &orld of ideas$ and do not obe! mere e,ternal impulses:ph!sical or moral;$ then &e can not but meet one another in striving for the same aims$ in having the

same intentions"10.11 %once/t of the Free :uman =eing

'he intellectual life overcomes his t&ofold nature b! means of no&ledge$ the moral life succeedsthrough the actual realiBation of the free spirit"

10.12 8oral !orld Order

5an does not e,ist in order to found a moral order of the &orld" 'he social order arises so that it ma!react favorabl! upon the individual"


13/168

top

CHAPTER XI

MONISM AND THE PHILOSOPHY OF FREEDOM

ethics of moral authorit!

11.0 Authoritative 8oral 'rinci/les

'he naDve man allo&s his basis for action to be dictated to him as commandments b! an! manconsidered &iser or more po&erful than himself$ or acno&ledged for some other reason to be a po&er

over him" In this &a! arise$ as moral principles$ the authorit! of famil!$ state$ societ!$ church and Eod"

11.1 8echanical ;ecessityIf the h!potheticall! assumed entit! is conceived as in itself unthining$ acting according to purel!

mechanical la&s$ as materialism &ould have it$ then it must also produce out of itself$ b! purel!mechanical necessit!$ the human individual &ith all his characteristic features" I believe m!self free

but in fact all m! actions are nothing but the result of the material processes &hich underlie m!ph!sical and mental organiBation"

11.2 S/iritual ForceAnother possibilit! is that a man ma! picture the e,tra6human Absolute that lies behind the &orld of

appearances as a spiritual being" In this case he &ill also see the impulse for his actions in acorresponding spiritual force" 'o this ind of dualist the moral la&s appear to be dictated b! the

Absolute$ and all that man has to do is to use his intelligence to find out the decisions of the absolutebeing and then carr! them out"

11.3 Inferring !ithout (/eriencing he rue #ealityAs in materialism$ so also in one6sided spiritualism$ in fact in an! ind of metaph!sical realism

inferring but not e,periencing something e,tra6human as the true realit!$ freedom is out of the+uestion"

11.4 Im/osed 'rinci/les5etaph!sical as &ell as naDve realism$ consistentl! follo&ed out$ must den! freedom for one and the

same reason@ the! both see man as doing no more than putting into effect$ or carr!ing out$ principlesforced :imposed; upon him b! necessit!"

11. Free !hen Follo On 8oral Intuition*hoever is incapable of producing moral ideas through intuition must accept them from others" 'he

idea can manifest itself onl! in human individuals" In so far as man obe!s the impulses coming fromthis side he is free"11." Free !hen O,ey Self

If an!one asserts that the action of a fello& man is done unfreel!$ then he must identif! the thing orthe person or the institution &ithin the perceptible &orld$ that has caused the person to act"

11.& #ealiation Of he Free S/irit !ithin

According to the monistic vie&$ then$ man=s action is partl! unfree$ partl! free" e finds himself to beunfree in the &orld of percepts$ and he realiBes &ithin himself the free spirit"

11.) 8oral Las %onceived =y Individuals'he moral la&s &hich the metaph!sician &ho &ors b! mere inference must regard as issuing from a

higher po&er$ are$ for the adherent of monism$ thoughts of men"11.- Freedom Stage Of evelo/ment

5onism sees in man a developing being$ and ass &hether$ in the course of this development$ the

stage of the free spirit can be reached"11.10 iscover Self5onism no&s that #ature does not send man forth from her arms read! made as a free spirit$ but

that she leads him up to a certain stage$ from &hich he continues to develop still as an unfree being$until he comes to the point &here he finds his o&n self"

11.11 Free 8oral !orld %once/tion5onism frees the trul! moral &orld conception both from the mundane fetters of naDve moral ma,ims

and from the transcendental moral ma,ims of the speculative metaph!sician"11.12 :umanist 8orality

5oralit! is for the monist a specificall! human +ualit!$ and freedom the human &a! of being moral"


14/168

top

CHAPTER XII

WORLD-PURPOSE AND LIFE-PURPOSE

(THE DESTINY OF MAN)

ethics of purposefulness

12.0 %once/t Of 'ur/ose

Overcoming of the concept of purpose in spheres &here it does not belong"12.1 'erce/t %ause 'recedes 'erce/t (ffect

'he percept of the cause precedes the percept of the effect"

12.2 %once/tual Factor Of (ffectIf the effect is to have a real influence upon the cause$ it can do so onl! b! means of the conceptual

factor"12.3 #eal Influence Of %once/t CActionD

A perceptible influence of a concept upon something else is to be observed onl! in human actions"12.4 Imagined 'ur/ose In ;ature

'he concept of purpose$ valid for sub?ective actions$ is ver! convenient for inventing such imaginar!connections" 'he naive mind no&s ho& it produces events itself$ and conse+uentl! concludes that

#ature &ill do it in the same &a!"12. Las Of ;ature

5onism loos for la&s of nature$ but not for purposes of nature"12." 'ur/oses Of Life

#othing is purposeful e,cept &hat the human being has first made so$ for purposefulness arises onl!through the realiBation of an idea"

12.& :uman estiny5! mission in the &orld is not predetermined$ but is at ever! moment the one I choose for m!self"

12.) Only oers #ealie 'ur/oseful IdeasIdeas are realiBed purposefull! onl! b! human beings" onse+uentl! it is not permissible to spea of

the embodiment of ideas b! histor!"12.- Formative 'rinci/le

'he formative principle of the totalit! of nature unfolds and organiBes itself"12.10 eleology

'he theor! of purpose maintains that there is a high degree of purpose and plan unmistaabl! present

in the formations and developments of nature"12.11 %oherence !ithin !hole

'he s!stematic coherence of the parts of a perceptual &hole is simpl! the ideal coherence of the parts

of an ideal &hole contained in this perceptual &hole"12.12 'ur/oses Of A,solute %osmic =eing

*herever there is a s!stematic lining of cause and effect for our perception$ the dualist ma! assumethat &e see onl! the carbon cop! of a connection in &hich the absolute cosmic 3eing has realiBed its

purposes"


15/168

top

CHAPTER XIII

MORAL IMAGINATION

(DARWINISM AND MORALITY)

ethics of moral ideas

13.0 Selection Of Idea o #ealie In Action

A free spirit acts according to his impulses$ that is$ according to intuitions selected from the totalit! ofhis &orld of ideas b! thining"


16/168

top

CHAPTER XIV

THE VALUE OF LIFE

(OPTIMISM AND PESSIMISM)

ethics of life=s value

14.0 7ood !orld Or 8isera,le LifeOne vie& sa!s that this &orld is the best that could conceivabl! e,ist$ and that to live and to act in it is

a blessing of untold value" 'he other vie& maintains that life is full of miser! and &ant ever!&herepain out&eighs pleasure$ sorro& out&eighs ?o!"

14.1 =est 'ossi,le !orld Ccoo/erative /artici/ationD'he &orld is the best of all possible &orlds" A better &orld is impossible for Eod is good and &ise"


17/168

top

CHAPTER XV

THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE GENUS

ethics of free individualit!

1.0 7rou/ 8em,erA person bears the general characteristics of the groups to &hich he belongs"1.1 7rou/ %haracteristics

If &e as &h! some particular thing about a person is lie this or lie that$ &e are referred bac fromthe individual to the genus"

1.2 7eneric 8edium For Individual (/ressionA man develops +ualities and activities of his o&n$ and the basis for these &e can see onl! in the man

himself" *hat is generic in him serves onl! as a medium in &hich to e,press his o&n individual being"

1.3 Individual %a/acities And InclinationsA man=s activit! in life is governed b! his individual capacities and inclinations$ &hereas a &oman=s is

supposed to be determined solel! b! the mere fact that she is a &oman"

1.4 Individual Social ecision*hat a &oman$ &ithin her natural limitations$ &ants to become had better be left to the &oman

herself to decide"1. *ni+ue %haracteristics

Getermining the individual according to the la&s of his genus ceases &here the sphere of freedom :inthining and acting; begins"

1." Intuitive %once/tual %ontent'he conceptual content &hich man has to connect &ith the percept b! an act of thining in order to

have the full realit! cannot be fi,ed once and for all and be+ueathed read!6made to manind" 'heindividual must get his concepts through his o&n intuition"

1.& Individual %oncrete AimsIt is not possible to determine from the general characteristics of man &hat concrete aims the

individual ma! choose to set himself"1.) Individual Vies And Actions

And ever! ind of stud! that deals &ith abstract thoughts and generic concepts is but a preparation forthe no&ledge &e get &hen a human individualit! tells us his &a! of vie&ing the &orld$ and for the

no&ledge &e get from the content of his acts of &ill"1.- (manci/ation Of noing

If &e are to understand a free individualit! &e must tae over into our o&n spirit those concepts b!&hich he determines himself$ in their pure form :&ithout mi,ing our o&n conceptual content &ith

them;"1.10 (manci/ation Of =eing

Onl! to the e,tent that a man has emancipated himself in this &a! from all that is generic$ does hecount as a free spirit &ithin a human communit!"

1.11 Intuitive %onduct

Onl! that part of his conduct that springs from his intuitions can have ethical value in the true sense"1.12 8oral Life Of :umanity

'he moral life of humanit! is the sum6total of the products of the moral imagination of free humanindividuals"


18/168

CHAPTER1

THE GOAL OFKNOWLEDGE


19/168

www.philosophyoffreedom.com The Philosophy Of Freedom y R!dolf "#ei$erHoer$le #r%$sl%#io$ &'(')*re+ised ,-,/0,'0

I

THE GOAL OF KNOWLEDGE

JournalWhat is this chapter about?Principles of individualistic life and truth.

What is its value? These principles are for those who strive to be free individuals, rather thanconform to norms. They have value when they are understood and applied to life.

The pursuit of individualistic life is driving dramatic cultural changes around the world. The leaders of

traditional institutions struggle to maintain their authority with the increasing recognition that eachindividual has value and something worthy to offer.

Truth, also, is now a matter for the individual. We no longer seek the wise one who will bestowwisdom upon us. Conviction and empowerment only comes with the truth that appears within each

one.

The pursuit of individualistic life and truth is the last stage of human development. Nature develops

the automatic behavior of natural urges and instincts; society develops lawabiding obedientbehavior; but these transitory stages can be overcome by a free individual.

!udolf "teiner, while having been born a clairvoyant, was not born a free individualist. #e had to

strive toward freedom like everybody else. The pious e$ercises and ascetic practices of past culturesare no longer suitable for today in the age of science. "teiner%s training was in mathematics, science,

and philosophy leading to a doctorate in philosophy. Trained as a scientist and philosopher with a love

of truth he found a new path to freedom suited to our age and then described his inner e$periencesin The Philosophy Of Freedom."teiner%s path is clarity of mind, not vague mysticism, through thepractice of pure thinking and living according to the principles of freedom.

The study of mathematics and philosophy are e$amples of the practice of thinking that re&uires

entering the realm of pure thought. 'mmersing yourself in the study of The Philosophy Of Freedomisa training in pure thinking, so e$pect the mental challenge faced by a university science or philosophy

student. While studying you can decide to read attentively and struggle to understand, (udge, andapply the material, or you can let your attention wander. )ou may half get some points, awaken again

with effort, then lapse into partial focus. *t each moment you are deciding whether to think or not.

The Philosophy Of Freedomis not a guide to imitate !udolf "teiner, but rather a guide to find your

own self. +art ' of the book is about the N-W!, beginning with the principles of individuality andfreedom, then e$amining the processes of cognition with chapter discussions on/ knowledge,

thinking, perception, conception, mental picturing and cognition. +art '' opens out into the e$pressionof freedom as the N-W'N0 1-!, living life as an ethical individualist.


20/168

"tudy Topicsprinciples of individualism

+rinciples -f 'ndividualistic Truth

1.0Culture Of IndividualityToday, all human interests tend to center in the culture of human individuality.

+rinciples -f 'ndividualistic 2ife1. Free Oneself From Authority

*n energetic effort is being made to shake off every kind of authority.2. Individual alidation

Nothing is accepted as valid, unless it springs from the roots of individuality. verything which

hinders the individual in the full development of his powers is thrust aside.!. "eaderless #trivin$

The saying 3ach one of us must choose his hero in whose footsteps he toils up to -lympus4no longer holds for us.

%. Individual #election Of IdealsWe allow no ideals to be forced upon us.

&. Individual WorthinessWe are convinced that in each of us, if only we probe deep enough into the very heart of our

being, there dwells something noble, something worthy of development.'. (e)ection Of Conformity

We no longer believe that there is a norm of human life to which we must all strive toconform.

*. +erfection Of ,ach IndividualWe regard the perfection of the whole as depending on the uni&ue perfection of each single

individual.-. ni/ue Contribution

We do not want to do what anyone else can do e&ually well. No, our contribution to thedevelopment of the world, however trifling, must be something which, by reason of the

uni&ueness of our nature, we alone can offer.. Creative ,pression

Never have artists been less concerned about rules and norms in art than today. ach of themasserts his right to e$press, in the creations of his art, what is uni&ue in him.

10. ynamic "an$ua$eThere are dramatists who write in dialect rather than conform to the standard diction which

grammar demands.

11. #trivin$ 3o4ards Freedom567 No better e$pression for these phenomena can be found than this, that they result from

the individual8s striving towards freedom, developed to its highest pitch.

12. IndependenceWe do not want to be dependent in any respect, and where dependence must be, we tolerate

it only on condition that it coincides with a vital interest of our individuality.

1.1Conviction Of Inner 3ruthTruth will be sought in our age only in the depths of human nature. Conviction attaches only to what

appears as truth to each of us in our own hearts.1.23ruth ,mpo4ers

Truth alone can give us confidence in developing our powers. #e who is tortured by doubts finds hispowers lamed.

1.!Comprehensible 3ruthWe no longer want to believe; we want to know. 9elief demands the acceptance of truths which we

do not wholly comprehend.1.%5no4led$e #tartin$ From Individual ,perience


21/168

"tarting from the facts nearest at hand, our own immediate e$periences, we ascend to a knowledge

of the whole universe.1 .& Individual rive 3o 5no4

Nowadays there is no attempt to compel anyone to understand. We claim no agreement with anyonewhom a distinct individual need does not drive to a certain view.

1 .' #trive 3o "ive Accordin$ 3o Individualistic +rinciples:any of my contemporaries strive to order their lives in the direction of the principles ' have

indicated. To them ' would dedicate this book.

1 .* ,ercise +ure 3hin6in$The Western world no longer demands pious e$ercises and ascetic practices as a preparation forscience, but it does re&uire a sincere willingness to withdraw oneself awhile from the immediate

impressions of life, and to betake oneself into the realm of pure thought.1 .- 5no4led$e Is A #elf78overnin$ Or$anism

*bstract thinking attains concrete, individual life. 'deas become powers of life. We no longer havemerely a knowledge about things, but have made knowledge into a real, selfgoverning organism.

-ur consciousness, alive and active, has risen beyond a mere passive reception of truths.1 . 3he 9ost +ressin$ :uestion Is Freedom

#ow philosophy, as an art, is related to freedom; what freedom is; and whether we do, or can,participate in it these are the principle problems of my book. These &uestions, in my opinion, are

humanity most immediate concern.

1 .10 3he alue Of 5no4led$e Is ;uman evelopmentThe true value of the sciences is seen only when we have shown the importance of their results for

humanity. nowledge has value only in so far as it contributes to the allround unfolding of the wholenature of the human being.

1.11Ideas 3o #erve Individual 8oals

We each take possession of the world of ideas in order to use them for our own human aims, whichtranscend those of mere science.

1.129aster Over IdeasWe must confront ideas as master; or become their slave.


22/168

top

1.0 Culture Of Individuality

5


23/168

top

1.1 Inner 3ruth Alone 8ives Conviction

5>7 Truth, too, will be sought in an age such as ours only in the depths of human nature. -f the following

two wellknown paths described by "chiller, it is the second which will today be found most useful/

* truth which comes to us from without bears ever the stamp of uncertainty. Conviction attaches only to

what appears as truth to each of us in our own hearts.

top1.2 3ruth ,mpo4ers

5?7 Truth alone can give us confidence in developing our powers. #e who is tortured by doubts finds hispowers lamed. 'n a world of riddle of which baffles him, he can find no aim for his activity.

top

1.! Comprehensible 3ruth5@7 We no longer want to believe; we want to know. 9elief demands the acceptance

of truths which we do not wholly comprehend. 9ut the individuality which seeks toe$perience everything in the depths of its own being, is repelled by what it cannot

understand. -nly that knowledge will satisfy us which springs from the inner life ofthe personality, and submits itself to no e$ternal norm.

top1.% 5no4led$e #tartin$ From Individual ,perience5A7 *gain, we do not want any knowledge that has encased itself once and for all in hide bound formulas,

and which is preserved in ncyclopedias valid for all time. ach of us claims the right to start from thefacts that lie nearest to hand, from his own immediate e$periences, and thence to ascend to a knowledge

of the whole universe. We strive after certainty in knowledge, but each in his own way.

top

1.& Individual


24/168

top

1.' #trive 3o "ive Accordin$ 3o Individualistic +rinciples5F7 ' am under no illusion concerning the characteristics of the present age. '

know how many flaunt a manner of life which lacks all individuality andfollows only the prevailing fashion. 9ut ' know also that many of my

contemporaries strive to order their lives in the direction of the principles '

have indicated. To them ' would dedicate this book. 't does not pretend tooffer the Gonly possibleG way to Truth, it only describes the path chosen by

one whose heart is set upon Truth.

top

1.* 3hou$ht 3rainin$ In +ure 3hin6in$

5H7 The reader will be led at first into somewhat abstract regions, where thought must draw sharp outlines

if it is to reach secure conclusions. 9ut he will also be led out of these arid concepts into concrete life. 'am fully convinced that one cannot do without soaring into the ethereal realm of abstraction, if one%s

e$perience is to penetrate life in all directions. #e who is limited to the pleasures of the senses misses thesweetest en(oyments of life.

top

1.- ;olistic #cience "eadin$ 3o Fullness Of "ife

5


25/168

top

1. 3he +rinciple :uestion Is Freedom5


26/168

CHAPTER

2

CONSCIOUS

HUMAN

ACTION


27/168

www.philosophyoffreedom.comThe Philosophy Of Freedom by Rudolf SteinerHoernle translation (191!re"ised #$%1&%$#1$

II

CONSCIOUS HUMAN ACTION

'ournalWhat is this chapter about?The Principles of Freedom. How do you define freedom? The pursuit offreedom begins with the questioning of common beliefs of what freedom is. Are we free, under the

illusion of freedom, or determined by something other than ourselves? This questioning of freedomleads to a new question, the question of nowing. !hat does it mean to now why " act? !hat does it

mean to #now$ anything?

What is its value?To mae an honest self%assessment as to the e&tent of one's freedom. Toorientate our pursuit of freedom in the direction where we will have a better chance of attaining it.

Rudolf Steiner said #And one may well feel that if the soul has not at some time found itself faced inutmost seriousness by the problem of free will or necessity, it will not have reached its full stature.$

)hile the *uestion of free will has challen+ed the +reatest minds of history since the time of the,ree-s assume ha"e free will without seriously loo-in+ at the issue. This chapter as-s me to*uestion what freedom is whether ha"e it or not and where it is located.

t is ob"ious that cannot be free if my action is dri"en by un-nown moti"es. The *uestion is whether am free if reco+ni/e and understand the moti"e before actin+ on it. 0ut what does it mean to -now2why act3 )hat does it mean to -now anythin+ in +eneral3

The way +ain -nowled+e of thin+s is by means of the co+niti"e process. To what e4tent my thin-in+is free depends on the functionin+ of my co+niti"e processes. Thus ma-in+ pro+ress toward freedom

is lin-ed to understandin+ and deepenin+ the powers of co+nition.

The ne4t three chapters e4amine the relationship of co+nition to5(chapter $! willin+ by reco+ni/in+ how -nowin+ the moti"e is essential to free action(chapter 6! feelin+ by reco+ni/in+ how the desire for -nowled+e is rooted in one7s own nature anddri"es an indi"idual *uest for answers(chapter 8! thin-in+ by reco+ni/in+ how thou+ht is a selfsupportin+ basis on which to understand theworld

The other chapters in Part e4amine four processes of co+nition: 1. perception $. conception 6.formin+ mental pictures and concludin+ with the e+o achie"in+ 8. co+niti"e unity by means of theinner power of intuition5

(chapter &! perception5 how thou+ht reacts to obser"ation and is initially applied to the world(chapter ! conception5 how intuition +i"es us the concept that corresponds to the world(chapter ;! mental picturin+5 how we indi"iduali/e the correspondin+ concept by formin+ mentalpictures(chapter


28/168

Study Topicsprinciples of freedom

2.0The Question Of Freedom

s the human bein+ freein action and thou+ht or inescapably controlled by necessity32-1Freedom of Indifferent hoice

(support! =eutrally choosin+ entirely at will one or the other of two possible courses of action.(opposed! There always e4ists a specific reasonto e4plain why we carry out an action.2.2Freedom Of hoice(support! >a-e a free choice accordin+ to our own wants and preferences.(opposed! )e are not free to desire or not desire arbitrarily.2.!Free "ecessit# Of One$s "ature

(support! Freedom is to e4press the necessity of our own nature.(opposed! Howe"er comple4 our nature is determined by e4ternal causes to act in a fi4ed and e4actway.2.%Free From &'ternal Influences(support! )e act on an idea only if it is first accepted by our character.(opposed! ?n idea is made into a moti"e accordin+ to the 7necessity7 of our characterolo+ical

disposition.2.()ction *esultin+ From onscious ,otive

(support! Rather than blind ur+e we act accordin+ to a conscious moti"e.(opposed! The -nower has been separated from the doer. )e don@t always do what we -now shouldbe done.2.Free When ontrolled # *ational /ecision

(support! Freedom is to determine one7s life and action by purpose and deliberate decisions.(opposed! ? rational decision may emer+es in me with the same necessity with which hun+er andthirst arise.2.Free To /o )s One Wants

(support! To be free does not mean bein+ able to determine what one wants but bein+ able to dowhat one wants.(opposed! f a moti"e wor-s on me and am compelled to follow it because it pro"es to be thestron+est2 of its -ind then the thou+ht of freedom ceases to ma-e any sense.2.pontaneous 3nconditioned Will

(support! Our will is the cause of our mo"ement the willin+ itself is unconditioned: it is an absolutebe+innin+ (a first cause and not a linin a chain of e"ents!.(opposed! )e do not percei"e the causes that determine our will so we belie"e it is not causallydetermined at all.2.45no6led+e Of The *easons

(support! Freedom is an action of which the reasons are -nown.(opposed! )hat is the ori+in of the thou+hts that cause us to act32.10/rivin+ Force Of The 7eart(support! Ao"e compassion and patriotism are dri"in+ forces for action where heartfelt sensibilitypre"ails.

(opposed! The heart and its sensibility do not create the moti"es of action. They allow them toenter. The moti"es ha"e already been established.2.11Idealistic Thou+ht(support! Ao"e determines our action.(opposed! Feelin+s are determined by thou+ht. Ao"e is based on the thou+hts we form of the lo"edone. The more idealistic the thou+hts the more blessed is our lo"e.2.128erception Of 9ood Qualities(support! )e see the +ood *ualities of the lo"ed one. >any pass by without noticin+ these +ood*ualities.(opposed! Seein+ +ood *ualities is determined by lo"e which opens the eyes to see them. The lo"eis there because mental pictures ha"e been made of the +ood *ualities.


29/168

top

2.0 The Question Of FreedomB1C S man free in action and thou+ht or is he bound by an iron necessity3 There are few *uestions onwhich so much in+enuity has been e4pended. The idea of freedom has found enthusiastic supporters andstubborn opponents in plenty.

There are those who in their moral fer"our label anyone a man of limitedintelli+ence who can deny so patent a fact as freedom. Opposed to them areothers who re+ard it as the acme of unscientific thin-in+ for anyone to belie"e

that the uniformity of natural law is bro-en in the sphere of human action andthou+ht. One and the same thin+ is thus proclaimed now as the most preciouspossession of humanity now as its most fatal illusion.

nfinite subtlety has been employed to e4plain how human freedom can be consistent with determinism innature of which man after all is a part. Others ha"e been at no less pains to e4plain how such a delusionas this could ha"e arisen. That we are dealin+ here with one of the most important *uestions for lifereli+ion conduct science must be clear to e"ery one whose most prominent trait of character is not there"erse of thorou+hness.

top

2.1 Freedom Of Indifferent hoice

t is one of the sad si+ns of the superficiality of presentday thou+ht that a boo- which attempts to

de"elop a new faith out of the results of recent scientific research (Da"id Friedrich Strauss5 Der alte undneue ,laube! has nothin+ more to say on this *uestion than these words5

E)ith the *uestion of the freedom of the human will we are not concerned.The alle+ed freedom of indifferent choice has been reco+ni/ed as an emptyillusion by e"ery philosophy worthy of the name. The determination of themoral "alue of human conduct and character remains untouched by thisproblem.E

t is not because consider that the boo- in which it occurs has any specialimportance that *uote this passa+e but because it seems to me to e4press the

only "iew to which the thou+ht of the maority of our contemporaries is able torise in this matter. G"ery one who has +own beyond the -inder+artensta+e ofscience appears to -now nowadays that freedom cannot consist in choosin+ atone7s pleasure one or other of two possible courses of action. There is alwaysso we are told a perfectly definite reason why out of se"eral possible actionswe carry out ust one and no other.

top

2.2 Freedom Of hoice

B$C This seems *uite ob"ious. =e"ertheless down to the present days themain attac-s of the opponents of freedom are directed only a+ainstfreedom of choice. G"en Herbert Spencer in fact whose doctrines are

+ainin+ +round daily says

David Strauss

18081874

is man free in actionand thought, or is

he bound by an ironnecessity?

Herbert Spencer

18201903

EThat e"ery one is at liberty to desire or not to desire which is the realproposition in"ol"ed in the do+ma of free will is ne+ati"ed as much bythe analysis of consciousness as by the contents of the precedin+chaptersE (The Principles of Psycholo+y Part chap. i4 par. $9!.


30/168

top

2.! Free "ecessit# Of One$s "atureOthers too start from the same point of "iew in combatin+ the concept of free will. The +erms of all therele"ant ar+uments are to be found as early as Spino/a. ?ll that he brou+ht forward in clear and simplelan+ua+e a+ainst the idea of freedom has since been repeated times without number but as a ruleen"eloped in the most sophisticated ar+uments so that it is difficult to reco+ni/e the strai+htforward trainof thou+ht which is alone in *uestion. Spino/a writes in a letter of October or =o"ember ;8

E call a thin+ free which e4ists and acts from the pure necessity of its nature and call that unfree ofwhich the bein+ and action are precisely and fi4edly determined bysomethin+ else. Thus e.+. ,od thou+h necessary is free because hee4ists only throu+h the necessity of his own nature. Similarly ,od -nowshimself and all else as free because it follows solely from the necessity ofhis nature that he -nows all. Iou see therefore that for me freedomconsists not in free decision but in free necessity.

B6C 0ut let us come down to created thin+s which are all determined bye4ternal causes to e4ist and to act in a fi4ed and definite manner. Topercei"e this more clearly let us ima+ine a perfectly simple case. ?stone for e4ample recei"es from an e4ternal cause actin+ upon it acertain *uantity of motion by reason of which it necessarily continues to

mo"e after the impact of the e4ternal cause has ceased. The continuedmotion of the stone is due to compulsion not to the necessity of its ownnature because it re*uires to be defined by the impact of an e4ternalcause. )hat is true here for the stone is true also for e"ery otherparticular thin+ howe"er complicated and manysided it may be namelythat e"erythin+ is necessarily determined by e4ternal causes to e4ist andto act in a fi4ed and definite manner.

B8C =ow pray assume that this stone durin+ its motion thin-s and -nows that it is stri"in+ to the bestof its power to continue in motion. This stone which is conscious only of its stri"in+ and is by no meansindifferent will belie"e that it is absolutely free and that it continues in motion for no other reasonthan its own will to continue. =ow this is that human freedom which e"erybody claims to possess and

which consists in nothin+ but this that men are conscious of their desires but i+norant of the causesby which they are determined. Thus the child belie"es that he desires mil- of his own free will thean+ry boy re+ards his desire for "en+eance as free and the coward his desire for fli+ht. ?+ain thedrun-en man belie"es that he says of his own free will what sober a+ain he would fain ha"e leftunsaid and as this preudice is innate all men it is difficult to free oneself from it. For althou+he4perience teaches us often enou+h that man least of all can temper his desires and that mo"ed byconflictin+ passions he percei"es the better and pursues the worse yet he considers himself freebecause there are some thin+s which he desires less stron+ly and some desires which he can easilyinhibit throu+h the recollection of somethin+ else which it is often possible to recall.E

B&C t is easy to detect the fundamental error of this "iew because it is so clearly and definitelye4pressed. The same necessity by which a stone ma-es a definite mo"ement as the result of an impact is

said to compel a man to carry out an action when impelled thereto by any cause. t is only because manis conscious of his action that he thin-s himself to be its ori+inator. n doin+ so he o"erloo-s the fact thathe is dri"en by a cause which he must obey unconditionally. The error in this train of thou+ht is easilybrou+ht to li+ht. Spino/a and all who thin- li-e him o"erloo- the fact that man not only is conscious ofhis action but also may become conscious of the cause which +uides him.

?nyone can see that a child is not free when he desires mil- nor the drun-en man when he says thin+swhich he later re+rets. =either -nows anythin+ of the causes wor-in+ deep within their or+anisms whiche4ercise irresistible control o"er them. 0ut is it ustifiable to lump to+ether actions of this -ind with thosein which a man is conscious not only of his actions but also of their causes3 ?re the actions of men reallyall of one -ind3 Should the act of a soldier on the field of battle of the scientific researcher in his

Baruch Spinoza

1632-1677


31/168

laboratory of the statesman in the most complicated diplomatic ne+otiations be placed on the same le"elwith that of the child when he desires mil-3

t is no doubt true that it is best to see- the solution of a problemwhere the conditions are simplest. 0ut lac- of ability to seedistinctions has before now caused endless confusion. There isafter all a profound difference between -nowin+ the moti"e of myaction and not -nowin+ it. ?t first si+ht this seems a selfe"identtruth. ?nd yet the opponents of freedom ne"er as- themsel"es

whether a moti"e of action which reco+ni/e and understand is tobe re+arded as compulsory for me in the same sense as theor+anic process which causes the child to cry for mil-.

top

2.% Free From &'ternal InfluencesBC Gduard "an Hartmann in hisPhanomenologie des (ittlichen )ewusstseins(p. 8&1! asserts that thehuman will depends on two chief factors the moti"es and the character. f one re+ards men as all ali-e orat any rate the differences between them as ne+li+ible then their will appears as determined fromwithout "i/. by the circumstances with which they come in contact.

0ut if one bears in mind that men adopt an idea as the moti"e of theirconduct only if their character is such that this idea arouses a desire in

them then men appear as determined from within and not from without.=ow because an idea +i"en to us from without must first in accordancewith our characters be adopted as a moti"e men belie"e that they are freei.e. independent of e4ternal influences. The truth howe"er accordin+ toGduard "on Hartmann is that

Ee"en thou+h we must first adopt an idea as a moti"e we do so notarbitrarily but accordin+ to the disposition of our characters that is weare anythin+ but free.E

Here a+ain the difference between moti"es which allow to influence meonly after ha"e consciously made them my own and those which followwithout any clear -nowled+e of them is absolutely i+nored.

top

2.( )ction *esultin+ From onscious ,otive

B;C This leads us strai+ht to the standpoint from which the subect will be treated here. Ha"e we any ri+htto consider the *uestion of the freedom of the will by itself at all3 ?nd if not with what other *uestionmust it necessarily be connected3

B


32/168

B11C =othin+ is +ained by assertions of this sort. For the *uestion is ust whether reason purposes anddecisions e4ercise the same -ind of compulsion o"er a man as his animal passions. f without my doin+ arational decision occurs in me with the same necessity with which hun+er and thirst happen to me then must needs obey it and my freedom is an illusion.

top

2. Free To /o )s One WantsB1$C ?nother form of e4pression runs5 to be free means not that we can will what we will but that wecan do what we will. This thou+ht has been e4pressed with +reat clearness by the poetphilosopher Robert

Hamerlin+ in hisAtomisti des !illens.

E>an can it is true do what he wills but he cannot will what he willsbecause his will is determined by moti"esJ He cannot will what hewills3 Aet us consider these phrases more closely. Ha"e they anyintelli+ible meanin+3

Does freedom of the will then mean bein+ able to will without +roundwithout moti"e3 )hat does willin+ mean if not to ha"e +rounds fordoin+ or stri"in+ to do this rather than that3 To will anythin+ without+round or moti"e would mean to will somethin+ without willin+ it.

The concept of moti"e is indissolubly bound up with that of will.)ithout the determinin+ moti"e the will is an empty faculty: it is themoti"e which ma-es it acti"e and real. t is therefore *uite true thatthe human will is not 7free7 inasmuch as its direction is alwaysdetermined by the stron+est moti"e. 0ut on the other hand it mustbe admitted that it is absurd to spea- in contrast with this7unfreedom7 of a concei"able 7freedom7 of the will which would consistin bein+ able to will what one does not willE (Atomisti des !illens p.$16 ff.!.K

:)lternate translationThe human bein+ can certainly dowhat he wants but he cannot determinewhat he wants because

his will is determined by motivesJ He cannot determine what he wants3 Aet us loo- at these wordsmore closely. Do they ma-e any sense3

s free will then bein+ able to want somethin+ without reason without a moti"e3 0ut what doeswantin+ mean other than having a reason for doin+ or tryin+ to do this rather than that3 To wantsomethin+ without a reason without a moti"e would be to want somethin+ without wanting it.

The concept of wantin+ is inseparablefrom the concept of moti"e. )ithout a moti"e to determine itthe will is an empty capacity: only throu+h the moti"e does it become acti"e and real. Therefore it isentirely correct that the human will is not Lfree@ to the e4tent that its direction is always determined bythe stron+est moti"e. 0ut in contrast to this Lunfreedom@ it is absurd to spea- of a possible Lfreedom@of the will that amounts to ha"in+ the ability to want what one does not want.2

B16C Here a+ain only moti"es in +eneral are mentioned without ta-in+ into account the differencebetween unconscious and conscious moti"es. f a moti"e affects me and am compelled to act on itbecause it pro"es to be the Estron+estE of its -ind then the idea of freedom ceases to ha"e any meanin+.How should it matter to me whether can do a thin+ or not if am forced by the moti"e to do it3 Theprimary *uestion is not whether can do a thin+ or not when impelled by a moti"e but whether the onlymoti"es are such as impel me with absolute necessity. f must will somethin+ then may well beabsolutely indifferent as to whether can also do it. ?nd if throu+h my character or throu+hcircumstances pre"ailin+ in my en"ironment a moti"e is forced on me which to my thin-in+ isunreasonable then should e"en ha"e to be +lad if could not do what will.

obert Hamer!in"

1830-1889


33/168

B18C The *uestion is not whether can carry out a decision once made but how come to ma-e thedecision.

top

2. pontaneous 3nconditioned Will

B1&C )hat distin+uishes man from all other or+anic bein+s is his rational thou+ht. ?cti"ity is common tohim with other or+anisms. =othin+ is +ained by see-in+ analo+ies in the animal world to clear up theconcept of freedom as applied to the actions of human bein+s.

>odern science lo"es these analo+ies. )hen scientists ha"e succeeded in findin+ amon+ animalssomethin+ similar to human beha"iour they belie"e they ha"e touched on the most important *uestion ofthe science of man. To what misunderstandin+s this "iew leads is seen for e4ample in the boo- +ie"llusion der !illensfreiheit by P. Ree 1


34/168

top

2.4 5no6led+e Of The *easons

B1;C That an action of which the a+ent does not -now why he performs itcannot be free +oes without sayin+. 0ut what of the freedom of an actionabout the moti"es of which we reflect3 This leads us to the *uestion of theori+in and meanin+ of thou+ht. )hen we -now what thou+ht in +eneralmeans it will be easier to see clearly the role which thou+ht plays inhuman action. ?s He+el ri+htly says

Et is thou+ht which turns the soul common to us and animals intospirit.E

Hence it is thou+ht which we may e4pect to +i"e to human action itscharacteristic stamp.

top

2.10 /rivin+ Force Of The 7eart

B1any pass these +ood *ualities by without an in-lin+ without noticin+them. One person sees them and ust because he does lo"e awa-ens in his soul. )hat has he doneother than ma-e for himself a mental picture of somethin+ of which a hundred others ha"e none. Theydo not ha"e the lo"e because they lac- the mental picture.

our motives are always

shaped by thoughts


35/168

CHAPTER

3

DESIRE FOR

KNOWLEDGE


36/168

www.philosophyoffreedom.comThe Philosophy Of Freedom by Rudolf Steiner

Hoernle translation (191!re"ised #$%#&%'#1'

III

WHY THE DESIRE FOR KNOWLEDGE

IS FUNDAMENTAL

ournalWhat is this chapter about?The Principles of Knowledge. Our fundamental urge to know occurs asthe result of our need to reconcile our thought-world with our perceived-world. To unite these two

elements, the inner and the outer, is the function of knowledge. We each naturally desire a certaintype of knowledge, such as materialistic or spiritualistic explanations. We are not satisfied and lack

conviction unless it is explained according to our own world-view.

What is its value? y understanding that our desire for knowledge is individualistic, we are in a!etter position to cultivate intellectual curiosity and discover knowledge that satisfies our desire toknow. Our striving for knowledge can !e narrowly directed to one realm of reality, !ut the pursuit of

truth re"uires !roadmindedness. #ach view of the world is the key to open a related domain, such as$aterialism the material world and %dealism the world of ideas, !ut a one-sided pursuit of knowledge

is narrow minded. &peculation is !etter replaced !y factual thinking.

)hy do * stri"e for +nowled,e- *n childhood we percei"e the world and feel oursel"es to be at one withature. /hildren feel in their hearts the inner harmony of the uni"erse. This chan,es when we ,row up

enou,h to ha"e thou,hts and de"elop an inner world of thou,ht. The mental process splits our worldinto two hal"es0 the outer percei"edworld contrasts with our inner thou,htworld. ow the uni"erse

appears to us as two opposin, sides0 Self and )orld.

)e confront the world as separate indi"iduals2 and lose our childhood feelin, of unity to the feelin, ofseparation. *t is the conflict between the sense of unity that we do belon, to the world yet are

separate from it that ma+es us stri"e for a brid,e to reunite us with the world.

This stri"in, is found in reli,ion throu,h the acceptance of re"elation2 in art by moldin, the e3ternalworld in a way that e3presses the ideas of the artist2 and in science with the thin+in, penetration of

world phenomena to disco"er the laws of nature. Historically2 this stri"in, appears in two opposin,world"iews0 4ualism and 5onism.

6ll attempts to find unity will be ineffecti"e if the word 7science8 is reser"ed for the e3ploration andmastery of the physical world with the only real sciences bein, the hard sciences. This widespread

assumption is wron, because it is the method2 not the subect matter that determines whether any

,i"en in"esti,ation is scientific.

5y separation from the world is fundamentally a polarity of consciousness that can only be reconciledin a specific way for myself. How do * find my way bac+- )hat corresponds to the world within me will

be my ,uide. )hile * am seein, nature outside of me2 * feel somethin, more within me that is itselfpressin, toward manifestation. This can only indicate an element within me that is true2 for it belon,s

not only to myself2 but also corresponds to the world. *f * find this element2 * will ha"e found thebrid,e to unite myself with the world. This element is e3perienced as thou,ht. Only when the outer

percei"edworld corresponds to my innerthou,ht world is my ur,e for +nowled,e satisfied and * arri"eat +nowled,e that is indi"idualistic and yet true.


37/168

Study Topicsprinciples of +nowled,e

3.0The Drive To Know)e see+ somethin, more in thin,s that e3ceeds what is immediately ,i"en to us. This addition we see+

splits our whole bein, into two parts: our obecti"e outer perception and our subecti"e inner thou,htworld. )e become conscious of contrastin, with the world. The uni"erse appears to us as twocontrastin, sides0 &elf and World.

3.1Materialism5aterialism be,ins with the thou,ht of 5atter or material processes. ;ut2 in doin, so2 it isconfronted

by two different sets of facts2 the material world and the thou,hts about it. Thou,hts are understoodas purely physical processes.

3.2SpiritualismThe &piritualistdenies 5atter (the )orld! and re,ards it as merely a product of 5ind (the Self!.

3.3Realism*f one would really +now the e3ternal world2 one must loo+ outwards and draw on the fund of

e3perience.3.!"ealism

)hat Fichte has actually accomplished is a ma,nificent thought-pictureof the world2 but one withoutany empirical content.

3.#Materialistic !"ealism5aterialism e3plains all world phenomena2 includin, our thou,hts2 to be the product of purely material

processes2 but2 con"ersely2 5atter and its processes are themsel"es a product of our thin+in,.3.$!n"ivisible %nit&

The third form of 5onism sees the indi"isible unity of 5atter and 5ind in e"en the simplest physicalparticle.

3.'(olarit& )* +onsciousness)e first encounter the basic and ori,inal polarity in our own consciousness. )e are the ones who

detach oursel"es from the mother soil of ature and contrast oursel"es with the )orld as Self.

3.,-eelin !mpulse*t is true that we ha"e estran,ed oursel"es from ature: but it is e"en those sentences about the attempts to reconcile 5ind with

the )orld ha"e only been included to clarify the actual facts.

3.12-acts Without !nterpretation5y concern is not how science has interpreted consciousness2 but rather how we e3perience it momentby moment.


38/168

?wei Seelen wohnen2 ach@ in meiner ;rust24ie eine will sich "on der andern trennen:

4ie eine hAlt2 in derber Biebeslust2Sich an die )elt mit +lammerden Or,anen:

4ie andre hebt ,ewaltsam sich "om 4ust?u den Cefilden hoher 6hnen.F6DST2 *2 111'E111.

Two souls2 alas@ reside within my breast26nd each withdraws from2 and repels2 its brother.

One with tenacious or,ans holds in lo"e6nd clin,in, lust the world in its embraces:

The other stron,ly sweeps2 this dust abo"e2

*nto the hi,h ancestral spaces.'aust2 Part *2 Scene '.(;ayard Taylor=s translation!

top

3.0 %re To KnowG1 * these words Coethe e3presses a trait which is deeply in,rained in human nature. 5an is not a self

contained unity. He demands e"er more than the world2 of itself2 offers him. ature has endowed us withneeds2 but left their satisfaction to our own acti"ity. Howe"er abundant the ,ifts which we ha"e recei"ed2

still more abundant are our desires. )e seem born to dissatisfaction. 6nd our desire for +nowled,e is buta special instance of this unsatisfied stri"in,.

Suppose we loo+ twice at a tree. The first time we see its branches at rest2 the second time in motion. )e

are not satisfied with this obser"ation. )hy2 we as+2 does the tree appear to us now at rest2 then inmotion- >"ery ,lance at nature e"o+es in us a multitude of "ery

phenomenon we meet presents a new problem to be sol"ed. >"ery e3perience isto us a riddle. )e obser"e that from the e,, there emer,es a creature li+e the

mother animal2 and we as+ for the reason of the li+eness. )e obser"e a li"in,

bein, ,row and de"elop to a determinate de,ree of perfection2 and we see+ theconditions of this e3perience. owhere are we satisfied with the facts which nature spreads out before our

senses. >"erywhere we see+ what we call the e3planation of these facts.

G' The somethin, more which we see+ in thin,s2 o"er and abo"e what is immediately ,i"en to us in

them2 splits our whole bein, into two parts. )e become conscious of our opposition to the world. )eoppose oursel"es to the world as independent bein,s. The uni"erse has for us two opposite poles0 Self

and )orld.

GI )e erect this barrier between oursel"es and the world as soon as consciousness is first +indled in us.;ut we ne"er cease to feel that2 in spite of all2 we belon, to the world2 that there is a connectin, lin+

between it and us2 and that we are bein,s within2 and not without2 the uni"erse.

G$ This feelin, ma+es us stri"e to brid,e o"er this opposition2 and ultimately the whole spiritual stri"in,of man+ind is nothin, but the brid,in, of this opposition. The history of our spiritual life is a continuous

see+in, after union between oursel"es and the world. Reli,ion2 6rt2 and Science follow2 one and all2 this,oal. The reli,ious man see+s in the re"elation2 which Cod ,rants him2 the solution of the world problem2

which his Self2 dissatisfied with the world of mere phenomena2 setshim as a tas+. The artist see+s to embody in his material the ideas

which are his Self2 that he may thus reconcile the spirit which li"eswithin him and the outer world. He too2 feels dissatisfied with the

world of mere appearances2 and see+s to mould into it that somethin,more which his Self supplies and which transcends appearances. The

thin+er searches for the laws of phenomena. He stri"es to master bythou,ht what he e3periences by obser"ation.

everywhere we

seek what we callthe explanation of

these facts

only when we havetransformed the world-content into our thought-

content do we recapture theconnection

Johann Wolfgangvon Goethe

17491832


39/168

The whole situation2 as * ha"e here stated it2 meets us2 on the sta,e of history2 in the conflict between the

oneworld theory2 or 5onism2 and the twoworld theory or 4ualism. 4ualism pays attention only to theseparation between the Self and the )orld2 which the consciousnessof man has brou,ht about. 6ll its efforts consist in a "ain stru,,le to

reconcile these opposites2 which it calls now 5ind and 5atter2 nowSubect and Obect2 now Thou,ht and 6ppearance. The 4ualist feels

that there must be a brid,e between the two worlds2 but is not ableto find it. 5onism pays attention only to the unity

and tries either to deny or to slur o"er theopposites2 present thou,h they are. either of

these two points of "iew call satisfy us2 for they do not do ustice to the facts.

The 4ualist sees in 5ind (Self! and 5atter ()orld! two essentially different entities2 andcannot therefore understand how they can interact with one another. How should 5ind be

aware of what ,oes on in 5atter2 seein, that the essential nature of 5atter is


40/168

an indefinite shadowy somewhat. 6nd here the old problem meets him a,ain. The materialistic theorycannot sol"e the problem2 it can only shift it to another place.

top

3.2 Spiritualism

G )hat of the Spiritualistic theory- The Spiritualist denies 5atter (the

)orld! and re,ards it merely as a product of 5ind (the Self!. He supposesthe whole phenomenal word to be nothin, more than a fabric wo"en by

5ind out of itself.

This conception of the world finds itself indifficulties as soon as it attempts to deduce

from 5ind any sin,le concrete phenomenon. *tcannot do so either in +nowled,e or in action. *f

one would really +now the e3ternal world2 onemust turn one=s eye outwards and draw on the fund of e3perience. )ithout

e3perience 5ind can ha"e no content.

top

3.3 RealismSimilarly2 when it comes to actin,2 we ha"e to translate our purposes into realities with the help of

material thin,s and forces. )e are2 therefore2 dependent on the outer world.

top

3. !"ealism

The most e3treme Spiritualist or2 if you prefer it2 *dealist2

is ohann Cottlieb Fichte. He attempts to deduce thewhole edifice of the world from the K>,o.K )hat he has

actually accomplished is a ma,nificent thou,htpicture ofthe world2 without any empirical content. 6s little as it is

possible for the 5aterialist to ar,ue the 5ind away2 ust as little is it possible for the*dealist to do without the outer world of 5atter.

Johann Gottlie Fi!hte

17621814

top

3.# Materialistic !"ealism

G 6 curious "ariant of *dealism is to be found in the theory which F. 6.Ban,e has put forward in his widely read (istory of $aterialism. He holds

that the 5aterialists are


41/168

top

3.$ !n"ivisible %nit&GL The third form of 5onism is that which finds e"en in the simplest real (the atom! the union of both

5atter and 5ind. ;ut nothin, is ,ained by this either2 e3cept that the


42/168

top

3.10 Somethin More Than !G1' The e3amination of our own bein, must brin, the solution of the problem. )e must reach a point

where we can say2 KThis is no lon,er merely = *2= this is somethin, which is more than = *.= K

top

3.11 Description )* +onsciousnessG1I * am well aware that many who ha"e read thus far will not

consider my discussion in +eepin, with Kthe present state of

science.K To such criticism * can reply only that * ha"e so far notbeen concerned with any scientific results2 but simply with thedescription of what e"ery one of us e3periences in his own

consciousness. That a few phrases ha"e slipped in about attemptsto reconcile 5ind and the )orld has been due solely to the desire

to elucidate the actual facts. * ha"e therefore made no attempt to,i"e to the e3pressions KSelf2K K5ind2K K)orld2K Kature2K the

precise meanin, which they usually bear in Psycholo,y andPhilosophy.

top

3.12 -acts Without !nterpretationThe ordinary consciousness i,nores the sharp distinctions of the sciences2 and so far my purpose has been

solely to record the facts of e"eryday e3perience. To obect that the abo"e discussions ha"e beenunscientific would be li+e


43/168

CHAPTER

4

THOUGHT ASTHE

INSTRUMENT

OF

KNOWLEDGE


44/168

www.philosophyoffreedom.comThe Philosophy Of Freedom by Rudolf Steiner

Hoernle translation (191!re"ised #$%#&%'#1'

IV

THOUGHT AS THE INSTRUMENT

OF KNOWLEDGE

ournalWhat is this chapter about?It is a study of the principles of thinking leading to a description of

pure thinking.

What is its value?The ability to enter into the realm of pure thinking is necessary to rise abovebias and experience pure reason, the necessary ability of this freedom philosophy. The moral

intuition described in Part II of this book is attained through pure reason. Moral intuition is the

impulse to act that is the origin of free action.

)n the search for thou*ht that corresponds to the world+ let,s e-amine the stri"in* for nowled*e. /ll

nowled*e comes from obser"ation and thou*ht+ that is+ from thinin* about what is obser"ed. Fore-ample+ a billiard player uses obser"ation and thou*ht to mae a shot. The purpose of reflection is

to form concepts of the e"ent and add a correspondin* process that taes place in the conceptualrealm. The scientific method re0uires the ability to betae oneself into the realm of pure thou*ht2

as was mentioned in chapter one. ) connect the concepts ball+ elasticity+ motion+ impact+ "elocity+etc.+ so that they apply to my billiard shot. )f ) am successful in disco"erin* the correspondin*

concepts of the e"ent+ ) can predict what will happen. This conceptual process re0uires effort on mypart. Spectators can passi"ely watch without any effort+ and not thin at all. They will ha"e to wait

to see what happens.

3ormally+ ) obser"e whate"er is in reach+ but ) am unaware of my own acti"ity of thinin*. Toobser"e thou*ht ) must purposely tae an e-ceptional position and loo bac upon an act of thinin*

already performed. 3ormally+ my obser"ation and thinin* are wholly absorbed in the study of other

thin*s. Thinin* is ordinarily the one unobser"ed factor in the world. )t is important that we nolon*er lea"e it unobser"ed. (to learn how to obser"e thinin* see Obser"ation Of Thinin* 4-ercises!

The obser"ation of thinin* is the most important obser"ation ) can mae. 5ecause ) create it+ ) amable to now it more intimately than anythin* else in the world. ) now the characteristic features ofits course and the details of how the process taes place. 6hat can be disco"ered only indirectly in allother fields of obser"ation+ 77the rele"ant conte-t and the relationships between the indi"idualob8ects77 is nown to me directly in the case of thou*ht.

)t is different than the obser"ation of anythin* else. 4nterin* the realm of thou*ht to study thou*htconsists of two steps

1. :reate thou*ht'. Obser"e thou*ht

To create thou*ht the full attention is on the ob8ect ) am thinin* about; not on the thinin*

personality. To observethou*ht the full attention is shifted to the thou*ht ) ha"e created+ which isnow a past thou*ht.

:oncepts and ideas are *i"en to us in a form called intellectual intuition+ a ind of intellectual,seein*, of the conceptual content. 6ith pure concepts and ideas the content is contained within the
http://www.philosophyoffreedom.com/http://www.philosophyoffreedom.com/node/5654http://www.philosophyoffreedom.com/node/5654http://www.philosophyoffreedom.com/


45/168

thou*ht itself. For e-ample+ cause and effect are sou*ht in the world+ but before ) can disco"er it in

the world ) first produce causality2 as a thou*ht7form that does not refer to a particular instance ofcausality. The concepts disco"ered combine to form an ordered and systematic whole. The concept

or*anism2 combines with those of de"elopment accordin* to law+2 *rowth+2 and others.


46/168

Study Topicsprinciples of thinin*

4.0Reflective ThoughtThe purpose of my reflection is to form concepts of the e"ent. ) try to add to the occurrence that

runs its course without my participation a second process which taes place in the conceptualsphere. This conceptual process depends on me.4.1Observation Of Thought

Thou*ht+ as an ob8ect of obser"ation+ differs essentially from all other ob8ects. ) obser"e the table+and ) carry on my thinin* about the table+ but ) do not at the same moment obser"e this thou*ht.

6hile the obser"ation of thin*s and e"ents+ and thinin* about them+ are e"eryday occurrencesfillin* my on*oin* life+ obser"ation of the thou*ht itself is a ind of e-ceptional state.

4.2Formation Of Concept) am definitely aware that the concept of a thin* is formed by my acti"ity+ while the feelin* of

pleasure is produced in me by an ob8ect in the same way as+ for e-ample+ a chan*e is caused in anob8ect by a stone that falls on it.

4.Thin!ing Contemplation Of Ob"ect6hile ) am reflectin* on the ob8ect+ ) am absorbed in it; my attention is turned to it. To become

absorbed in the ob8ect is to contemplate by thou*ht.4.4Thin!ing Contemplation Of Thought

) can ne"er obser"e the present thou*ht in which ) am actually en*a*ed; only afterward can ) maethe past e-perience of my thou*ht process into the ob8ect of my present thinin*.

4.#$no% Content Of Concept)t is possible to now thou*ht more immediately and more intimately than any other process in the

world. 5ecause we produce it oursel"es we now the characteristic features of its course and thedetails of how the process taes place.

4.&'ui(e( )* Content Of Thought6hat ) obser"e in studyin* a thou*ht process is not which process in my brain connects the concept

li*htnin* with the concept thunder+ but my reason for brin*in* these two concepts into a specific

relationship. )ntrospection shows that in linin* thou*ht with thou*ht ) am *uided by the content ofmy thou*hts; ) am not *uided by any physical processes in my brain.


47/168

top

4.0 Reflective Thin!ingB1C 6H43 ) obser"e how a billiard ball+ when struc+ communicates its motion to another+ ) remain

entirely without influence on the process before me. The direction and "elocity of the motion of thesecond ball is determined by the direction and "elocity of the first. /s lon* as ) remain a mere spectator+ )

can say nothin* about the motion of the second ball until after it has happened. )t is 0uite different when

) be*in to reflect on the content of my obser"ations.

The purpose of my reflection is to construct concepts of the process. )

connect the concept of an elastic ball with certain other concepts ofmechanics+ and consider the special circumstanceswhich obtain in the instance in 0uestion. ) try+ in

other words+ to add to the process which taesplace without any interference+ a second process

which taes place in the conceptual sphere.

This latter process is dependent on me. This is shown by the fact that )can rest content with the obser"ation+ and renounce all search for

concepts if ) ha"e no need of them. )f+ therefore+ this need is present+then ) am not content until ) ha"e established a definite connection

amon* the concepts+ ball+ elasticity+ motion+ impact+ "elocity+ etc.+ sothat they apply to the obser"ed process in a definite way. /s surely as

the occurrence of the obser"ed process is independent of me+ so surely is the occurrence of theconceptual process dependent on me.

For the present we wish merely to establish the fact that we constantly feel obli*ed to see for conceptsand connections of concepts+ which stand in definite relation to the ob8ects and processes which are *i"en

independently of us. 6hether this acti"ity is really ours+ or whetherwe are determined to it by an unalterable necessity+ is a 0uestion

which we need not decide at present. 6hat is un0uestionable isthat the acti"ity appears+ in the first instance+ to be ours. 6e now

for certain that concepts are not *i"en to*ether with the ob8ects towhich they correspond.


48/168

Suppose some one obstructs my "iew of the field where the process is happenin*+ at the moment whenthe impact occurs+ then+ as mere spectator+ ) remain i*norant of what *oes on. The situation is "ery

different+ if prior to the obstructin* of my "iew ) ha"e disco"ered the concepts correspondin* to the ne-usof e"ents. )n that case ) can say what occurs+ e"en when ) am no lon*er able to obser"e. There is nothin*

in a merely obser"ed process or ob8ect to show its relation to other processes or ob8ects. This relationbecomes manifest only when obser"ation is combined with thou*ht.

B$C Obser"ation and thou*ht are the two points of departure for all the

spiritual stri"in* of man+ in so far as he is conscious of such stri"in*. The

worin*s of common sense+ as well as the most complicated scientificresearches+ rest on these two fundamental pillars of our minds. Philosophers

ha"e started from "arious ultimate antitheses+ )dea and Reality+ Sub8ect andOb8ect+ /ppearance and Thin*7in7itself+ 4*o and 3on74*o+ )dea and 6ill+


49/168

in the study of all other ob8ects in the world+ but which in the ordinary course of that study is usually notapplied to thou*ht itself.

top

4.2 Formation Of Concept

B9C Some one mi*ht ob8ect that what ) ha"e said about thinin* applies e0ually to feelin* and to all other

mental acti"ities. Thus it is said that when+ e.*.+ ) ha"e a feelin* of pleasure+ the feelin* is indled by theob8ect+ but it is this ob8ect ) obser"e+ not the feelin* of pleasure. This

ob8ection howe"er is based on an error. Pleasure does not stand at all in the

same relation to its ob8ect a

the illustrated philosophy of freedom

Documents