The HTK Book

Steve YoungDan KershawJulian OdellDave OllasonValtcho ValtchevPhil Woodland

The HTK Book (for HTK Version 3.0)

c©COPYRIGHT 1995-1999 Microsoft Corporation.All Rights Reserved

First published December 1995

Reprinted March 1996

Revised for HTK Version 2.1 March 1997

Revised for HTK Version 2.2 January 1999

Revised for HTK Version 3.0 July 2000

Contents

I Tutorial Overview 1

1 The Fundamentals of HTK 21.1 General Principles of HMMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2 Isolated Word Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3 Output Probability Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.4 Baum-Welch Re-Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.5 Recognition and Viterbi Decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.6 Continuous Speech Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.7 Speaker Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 An Overview of the HTK Toolkit 142.1 HTK Software Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142.2 Generic Properties of a HTK Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.3 The Toolkit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.3.1 Data Preparation Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162.3.2 Training Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162.3.3 Recognition Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192.3.4 Analysis Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.4 Whats New In Version 2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192.4.1 Features Added To Version 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3 A Tutorial Example of Using HTK 213.1 Data Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3.1.1 Step 1 - the Task Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223.1.2 Step 2 - the Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233.1.3 Step 3 - Recording the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253.1.4 Step 4 - Creating the Transcription Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263.1.5 Step 5 - Coding the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3.2 Creating Monophone HMMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293.2.1 Step 6 - Creating Flat Start Monophones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293.2.2 Step 7 - Fixing the Silence Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323.2.3 Step 8 - Realigning the Training Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.3 Creating Tied-State Triphones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343.3.1 Step 9 - Making Triphones from Monophones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343.3.2 Step 10 - Making Tied-State Triphones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.4 Recogniser Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393.4.1 Step 11 - Recognising the Test Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.5 Running the Recogniser Live . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403.6 Adapting the HMMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.6.1 Step 12 - Preparation of the Adaptation Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413.6.2 Step 13 - Generating the Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423.6.3 Step 14 - Evaluation of the Adapted System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2

II HTK in Depth 44

4 The Operating Environment 454.1 The Command Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464.2 Script Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464.3 Configuration Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474.4 Standard Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484.5 Error Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494.6 Strings and Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494.7 Memory Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504.8 Input/Output via Pipes and Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514.9 Byte-swapping of HTK data files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5 Speech Input/Output 545.1 General Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545.2 Speech Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565.3 Linear Prediction Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585.4 Filterbank Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595.5 Energy Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615.6 Delta and Acceleration Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615.7 Storage of Parameter Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

5.7.1 HTK Format Parameter Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625.7.2 Esignal Format Parameter Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

5.8 Waveform File Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655.8.1 HTK File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655.8.2 Esignal File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655.8.3 TIMIT File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655.8.4 NIST File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655.8.5 SCRIBE File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665.8.6 SDES1 File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665.8.7 AIFF File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665.8.8 SUNAU8 File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665.8.9 OGI File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675.8.10 WAV File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675.8.11 ALIEN and NOHEAD File Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

5.9 Direct Audio Input/Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675.10 Multiple Input Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695.11 Vector Quantisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705.12 Viewing Speech with HList . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725.13 Copying and Coding using HCopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745.14 Version 1.5 Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755.15 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

6 Transcriptions and Label Files 796.1 Label File Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796.2 Label File Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

6.2.1 HTK Label Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806.2.2 ESPS Label Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816.2.3 TIMIT Label Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816.2.4 SCRIBE Label Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

6.3 Master Label Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826.3.1 General Principles of MLFs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826.3.2 Syntax and Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836.3.3 MLF Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836.3.4 MLF Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

6.4 Editing Label Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

7 HMM Definition Files 907.1 The HMM Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917.2 Basic HMM Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927.3 Macro Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957.4 HMM Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997.5 Tied-Mixture Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037.6 Discrete Probability HMMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037.7 Tee Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057.8 Regression Class Trees for Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057.9 Binary Storage Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067.10 The HMM Definition Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

8 HMM Parameter Estimation 1118.1 Training Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1118.2 Initialisation using HInit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1148.3 Flat Starting with HCompV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1178.4 Isolated Unit Re-Estimation using HRest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1198.5 Embedded Training using HERest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1208.6 Single-Pass Retraining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1238.7 Parameter Re-Estimation Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

8.7.1 Viterbi Training (HInit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1248.7.2 Forward/Backward Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1248.7.3 Single Model Reestimation(HRest) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1268.7.4 Embedded Model Reestimation(HERest) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

9 HMM Adaptation 1289.1 Model Adaptation using MLLR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

9.1.1 Maximum Likelihood Linear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1299.1.2 MLLR and Regression Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1299.1.3 Transform Model File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

9.2 Model Adaptation using MAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1329.3 Using HEAdapt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1349.4 MLLR Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

9.4.1 Estimation of the Mean Transformation Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1369.4.2 Estimation of the Variance Transformation Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

10 HMM System Refinement 13810.1 Using HHEd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13910.2 Constructing Context-Dependent Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13910.3 Parameter Tying and Item Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14010.4 Data-Driven Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14210.5 Tree-Based Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14410.6 Mixture Incrementing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14610.7 Regression Class Tree Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14710.8 Miscellaneous Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

11 Discrete and Tied-Mixture Models 14911.1 Modelling Discrete Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14911.2 Using Discrete Models with Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15011.3 Tied Mixture Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15211.4 Parameter Smoothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

12 Networks, Dictionaries and Language Models 15512.1 How Networks are Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15612.2 Word Networks and Standard Lattice Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15712.3 Building a Word Network with HParse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15912.4 Bigram Language Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16112.5 Building a Word Network with HBuild . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16312.6 Testing a Word Network using HSGen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16412.7 Constructing a Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

12.8 Word Network Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16712.9 Other Kinds of Recognition System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

13 Decoding 17213.1 Decoder Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17213.2 Decoder Organisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17413.3 Recognition using Test Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17613.4 Evaluating Recognition Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17713.5 Generating Forced Alignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18013.6 Decoding and Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

13.6.1 Recognition with Adapted HMMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18113.6.2 Unsupervised Adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

13.7 Recognition using Direct Audio Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18213.8 N-Best Lists and Lattices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

III Reference Section 185

14 The HTK Tools 18614.1 HBuild . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

14.1.1 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18714.1.2 Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18714.1.3 Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

14.2 HCompV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18914.2.1 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18914.2.2 Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18914.2.3 Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

14.3 HCopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19114.3.1 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19114.3.2 Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19114.3.3 Trace Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

14.4 HDMan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19414.4.1 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19414.4.2 Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19514.4.3 Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

14.5 HEAdapt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19714.5.1 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19714.5.2 Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19714.5.3 Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

14.6 HERest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20014.6.1 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20014.6.2 Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20014.6.3 Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

14.7 HHEd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20314.7.1 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20314.7.2 Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21014.7.3 Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

14.8 HInit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21214.8.1 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21214.8.2 Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21214.8.3 Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

14.9 HLEd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21414.9.1 Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21414.9.2 Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21514.9.3 Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

14.10HList . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21714.10.1Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21714.10.2Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21714.10.3Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

14.11HLStats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21814.11.1Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21814.11.2Bigram Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21814.11.3Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21914.11.4Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

14.12HParse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22014.12.1Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22014.12.2Network Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22014.12.3Compatibility Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22214.12.4Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22214.12.5Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

14.13HQuant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22414.13.1Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22414.13.2VQ Codebook Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22414.13.3Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22414.13.4Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

14.14HRest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22614.14.1Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22614.14.2Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22614.14.3Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

14.15HResults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22814.15.1Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22814.15.2Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22914.15.3Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

14.16HSGen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23114.16.1Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23114.16.2Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23114.16.3Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

14.17HSLab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23214.17.1Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23214.17.2Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23314.17.3Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

14.18HSmooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23614.18.1Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23614.18.2Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23614.18.3Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

14.19HVite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23814.19.1Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23814.19.2Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23814.19.3Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

15 Configuration Variables 24115.1 Configuration Variables used in Library Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24215.2 Configuration Variables used in Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

16 Error and Warning Codes 24616.1 Generic Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24616.2 Summary of Errors by Tool and Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

17 HTK Standard Lattice Format (SLF) 26217.1 SLF Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26217.2 Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26217.3 Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26317.4 Field Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26317.5 Example SLF file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

Part I

Tutorial Overview

1

Chapter 1

The Fundamentals of HTK

Training Tools

Speech�

Data

Recogniser

Transc� ription

Unknown� Speech Transc� ription

HTK is a toolkit for building Hidden Markov Models (HMMs). HMMs can be used to model anytime series and the core of HTK is similarly general-purpose. However, HTK is primarily designedfor building HMM-based speech processing tools, in particular recognisers. Thus, much of theinfrastructure support in HTK is dedicated to this task. As shown in the picture alongside, thereare two major processing stages involved. Firstly, the HTK training tools are used to estimatethe parameters of a set of HMMs using training utterances and their associated transcriptions.Secondly, unknown utterances are transcribed using the HTK recognition tools.

The main body of this book is mostly concerned with the mechanics of these two processes.However, before launching into detail it is necessary to understand some of the basic principles ofHMMs. It is also helpful to have an overview of the toolkit and to have some appreciation of howtraining and recognition in HTK is organised.

This first part of the book attempts to provide this information. In this chapter, the basic ideasof HMMs and their use in speech recognition are introduced. The following chapter then presents abrief overview of HTK and, for users of older versions, it highlights the main differences in version2.0 and later. Finally in this tutorial part of the book, chapter 3 describes how a HMM-basedspeech recogniser can be built using HTK. It does this by describing the construction of a simplesmall vocabulary continuous speech recogniser.

The second part of the book then revisits the topics skimmed over here and discusses each indetail. This can be read in conjunction with the third and final part of the book which providesa reference manual for HTK. This includes a description of each tool, summaries of the variousparameters used to configure HTK and a list of the error messages that it generates when thingsgo wrong.

Finally, note that this book is concerned only with HTK as a tool-kit. It does not provideinformation for using the HTK libraries as a programming environment.

2

1.1 General Principles of HMMs 3

1.1 General Principles of HMMs

s1� s2� s3� et�c

s1� s2� s3�

SpeechWaveform

SpeechVectors

Concept: a seque� nce of symbols

Parame� terise

Recog� nise

Fig. 1.1 MessageEncoding/Decoding

Speech recognition systems generally assume that the speech signal is a realisation of some mes-sage encoded as a sequence of one or more symbols (see Fig. 1.1). To effect the reverse operation ofrecognising the underlying symbol sequence given a spoken utterance, the continuous speech wave-form is first converted to a sequence of equally spaced discrete parameter vectors. This sequence ofparameter vectors is assumed to form an exact representation of the speech waveform on the basisthat for the duration covered by a single vector (typically 10ms or so), the speech waveform canbe regarded as being stationary. Although this is not strictly true, it is a reasonable approxima-tion. Typical parametric representations in common use are smoothed spectra or linear predictioncoefficients plus various other representations derived from these.

The rôle of the recogniser is to effect a mapping between sequences of speech vectors and thewanted underlying symbol sequences. Two problems make this very difficult. Firstly, the mappingfrom symbols to speech is not one-to-one since different underlying symbols can give rise to similarspeech sounds. Furthermore, there are large variations in the realised speech waveform due tospeaker variability, mood, environment, etc. Secondly, the boundaries between symbols cannotbe identified explicitly from the speech waveform. Hence, it is not possible to treat the speechwaveform as a sequence of concatenated static patterns.

The second problem of not knowing the word boundary locations can be avoided by restrictingthe task to isolated word recognition. As shown in Fig. 1.2, this implies that the speech waveformcorresponds to a single underlying symbol (e.g. word) chosen from a fixed vocabulary. Despite thefact that this simpler problem is somewhat artificial, it nevertheless has a wide range of practicalapplications. Furthermore, it serves as a good basis for introducing the basic ideas of HMM-basedrecognition before dealing with the more complex continuous speech case. Hence, isolated wordrecognition using HMMs will be dealt with first.

1.2 Isolated Word Recognition

Let each spoken word be represented by a sequence of speech vectors or observations O, defined as

O = o1, o2, . . . , oT (1.1)

where ot is the speech vector observed at time t. The isolated word recognition problem can thenbe regarded as that of computing

arg maxi{P (wi|O)} (1.2)

where wi is the i’th vocabulary word. This probability is not computable directly but using Bayes’Rule gives

P (wi|O) = P (O|wi)P (wi)P (O)

(1.3)

Thus, for a given set of prior probabilities P (wi), the most probable spoken word depends onlyon the likelihood P (O|wi). Given the dimensionality of the observation sequence O, the directestimation of the joint conditional probability P (o1, o2, . . . |wi) from examples of spoken words isnot practicable. However, if a parametric model of word production such as a Markov model is

1.2 Isolated Word Recognition 4

assumed, then estimation from data is possible since the problem of estimating the class conditionalobservation densities P (O|wi) is replaced by the much simpler problem of estimating the Markovmodel parameters.

SpeechWaveform

SpeechVectors

Concept: a s� ingle word

Parame� terise

Recog� nise

w�

w�

Fig. 1.2 Isolated WordProblem

I n HMM based speech recognition, it is assumed that the sequence of observed speech vectorscorresponding to each word is generated by a Markov model as shown in Fig. 1.3. A Markov modelis a finite state machine which changes state once every time unit and each time t that a state jis entered, a speech vector ot is generated from the probability density bj(ot). Furthermore, thetransition from state i to state j is also probabilistic and is governed by the discrete probabilityaij . Fig. 1.3 shows an example of this process where the six state model moves through the statesequence X = 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6 in order to generate the sequence o1 to o6. Notice that in HTK, theentry and exit states of a HMM are non-emitting. This is to facilitate the construction of compositemodels as explained in more detail later.

The joint probability that O is generated by the model M moving through the state sequenceX is calculated simply as the product of the transition probabilities and the output probabilities.So for the state sequence X in Fig. 1.3

P (O, X|M) = a12b2(o1)a22b2(o2)a23b3(o3) . . . (1.4)However, in practice, only the observation sequence O is known and the underlying state sequenceX is hidden. This is why it is called a Hidden Markov Model.

a12� a23� a34� a 45� a56�

a22� a33 a44� a55

1 2 3 4 5 6

a24� a35

o1� o2� o3� o4� o5� o6�

b2� o1�( ) b5� o 6�( )b2� o 2�( ) b3� o 3�( ) b4� o 4�( ) b4� o 5�( )

Markov Mo� del

M

ObservationSequence

Fig. 1.3 The Markov Generation Model

Given that X is unknown, the required likelihood is computed by summing over all possiblestate sequences X = x(1), x(2), x(3), . . . , x(T ), that is

P (O|M) =∑

X

ax(0)x(1)

T∏t=1

bx(t)(ot)ax(t)x(t+1) (1.5)

1.2 Isolated Word Recognition 5

where x(0) is constrained to be the model entry state and x(T + 1) is constrained to be the modelexit state.

As an alternative to equation 1.5, the likelihood can be approximated by only considering themost likely state sequence, that is

P̂ (O|M) = maxX

{ax(0)x(1)

T∏t=1

bx(t)(ot)ax(t)x(t+1)

}(1.6)

Although the direct computation of equations 1.5 and 1.6 is not tractable, simple recursiveprocedures exist which allow both quantities to be calculated very efficiently. Before going anyfurther, however, notice that if equation 1.2 is computable then the recognition problem is solved.Given a set of models Mi corresponding to words wi, equation 1.2 is solved by using 1.3 andassuming that

P (O|wi) = P (O|Mi). (1.7)All this, of course, assumes that the parameters {aij} and {bj(ot)} are known for each model

Mi. Herein lies the elegance and power of the HMM framework. Given a set of training examplescorresponding to a particular model, the parameters of that model can be determined automaticallyby a robust and efficient re-estimation procedure. Thus, provided that a sufficient number ofrepresentative examples of each word can be collected then a HMM can be constructed whichimplicitly models all of the many sources of variability inherent in real speech. Fig. 1.4 summarisesthe use of HMMs for isolated word recognition. Firstly, a HMM is trained for each vocabulary wordusing a number of examples of that word. In this case, the vocabulary consists of just three words:“one”, “two” and “three”. Secondly, to recognise some unknown word, the likelihood of each modelgenerating that word is calculated and the most likely model identifies the word.

P( P(P(

(a) Training

one two three

Training Examples

M1� M 2� M3�

EstimateModels

1.

2.

3.

(b) Recognition

Unknown O =

O|M1� ) O|M2� ) O|M3� )

Choose Max

Fig. 1.4 Using HMMs for Isolated WordRecognition

1.3 Output Probability Specification 6

1.3 Output Probability Specification

Before the problem of parameter estimation can be discussed in more detail, the form of the outputdistributions {bj(ot)} needs to be made explicit. HTK is designed primarily for modelling con-tinuous parameters using continuous density multivariate output distributions. It can also handleobservation sequences consisting of discrete symbols in which case, the output distributions arediscrete probabilities. For simplicity, however, the presentation in this chapter will assume thatcontinuous density distributions are being used. The minor differences that the use of discreteprobabilities entail are noted in chapter 7 and discussed in more detail in chapter 11.

In common with most other continuous density HMM systems, HTK represents output distri-butions by Gaussian Mixture Densities. In HTK, however, a further generalisation is made. HTKallows each observation vector at time t to be split into a number of S independent data streamsost. The formula for computing bj(ot) is then

bj(ot) =S∏

s=1

[Ms∑

m=1

cjsmN (ost;µjsm,Σjsm)]γs

(1.8)

where Ms is the number of mixture components in stream s, cjsm is the weight of the m’th compo-nent and N (·; µ,Σ) is a multivariate Gaussian with mean vector µ and covariance matrix Σ, thatis

N (o; µ,Σ) = 1√(2π)n|Σ|e

− 12 (o−µ)′Σ−1

(o−µ) (1.9)

where n is the dimensionality of o.The exponent γs is a stream weight1. It can be used to give a particular stream more emphasis,

however, it can only be set manually. No current HTK training tools can estimate values for it.Multiple data streams are used to enable separate modelling of multiple information sources. In

HTK, the processing of streams is completely general. However, the speech input modules assumethat the source data is split into at most 4 streams. Chapter 5 discusses this in more detail but fornow it is sufficient to remark that the default streams are the basic parameter vector, first (delta)and second (acceleration) difference coefficients and log energy.

1.4 Baum-Welch Re-Estimation

To determine the parameters of a HMM it is first necessary to make a rough guess at what theymight be. Once this is done, more accurate (in the maximum likelihood sense) parameters can befound by applying the so-called Baum-Welch re-estimation formulae.

a ij� cj� 1�

a ij� c j2�

a ij� cj� M�...

Single Gaussians

j�a ij�

M-componentGaus� sianmixture

j�1�

j�2�

j�M

�

Fig. 1.5 Representing a Mixture

Chapter 8 gives the formulae used in HTK in full detail. Here the basis of the formulae willbe presented in a very informal way. Firstly, it should be noted that the inclusion of multipledata streams does not alter matters significantly since each stream is considered to be statistically

1often referred to as a codebook exponent.

1.4 Baum-Welch Re-Estimation 7

independent. Furthermore, mixture components can be considered to be a special form of sub-statein which the transition probabilities are the mixture weights (see Fig. 1.5).

Thus, the essential problem is to estimate the means and variances of a HMM in which eachstate output distribution is a single component Gaussian, that is

bj(ot) =1√

(2π)n|Σj |e−

12 (ot−µj)′Σ

−1j (ot−µj) (1.10)

If there was just one state j in the HMM, this parameter estimation would be easy. The maximumlikelihood estimates of µj and Σj would be just the simple averages, that is

µ̂j =1T

T∑t=1

ot (1.11)

and

Σ̂j =1T

T∑t=1

(ot − µj)(ot − µj)′ (1.12)

In practice, of course, there are multiple states and there is no direct assignment of observationvectors to individual states because the underlying state sequence is unknown. Note, however, thatif some approximate assignment of vectors to states could be made then equations 1.11 and 1.12could be used to give the required initial values for the parameters. Indeed, this is exactly whatis done in the HTK tool called HInit. HInit first divides the training observation vectors equallyamongst the model states and then uses equations 1.11 and 1.12 to give initial values for the meanand variance of each state. It then finds the maximum likelihood state sequence using the Viterbialgorithm described below, reassigns the observation vectors to states and then uses equations 1.11and 1.12 again to get better initial values. This process is repeated until the estimates do notchange.

Since the full likelihood of each observation sequence is based on the summation of all possi-ble state sequences, each observation vector ot contributes to the computation of the maximumlikelihood parameter values for each state j. In other words, instead of assigning each observationvector to a specific state as in the above approximation, each observation is assigned to every statein proportion to the probability of the model being in that state when the vector was observed.Thus, if Lj(t) denotes the probability of being in state j at time t then the equations 1.11 and 1.12given above become the following weighted averages

µ̂j =∑T

t=1 Lj(t)ot∑Tt=1 Lj(t)

(1.13)

and

Σ̂j =∑T

t=1 Lj(t)(ot − µj)(ot − µj)′∑Tt=1 Lj(t)

(1.14)

where the summations in the denominators are included to give the required normalisation.Equations 1.13 and 1.14 are the Baum-Welch re-estimation formulae for the means and covari-

ances of a HMM. A similar but slightly more complex formula can be derived for the transitionprobabilities (see chapter 8).

Of course, to apply equations 1.13 and 1.14, the probability of state occupation Lj(t) mustbe calculated. This is done efficiently using the so-called Forward-Backward algorithm. Let theforward probability2 αj(t) for some model M with N states be defined as

αj(t) = P (o1, . . . , ot, x(t) = j|M). (1.15)

That is, αj(t) is the joint probability of observing the first t speech vectors and being in state j attime t. This forward probability can be efficiently calculated by the following recursion

αj(t) =

[N−1∑

i=2

αi(t− 1)aij]

bj(ot). (1.16)

2 Since the output distributions are densities, these are not really probabilities but it is a convenient fiction.

1.4 Baum-Welch Re-Estimation 8

This recursion depends on the fact that the probability of being in state j at time t and seeingobservation ot can be deduced by summing the forward probabilities for all possible predecessorstates i weighted by the transition probability aij . The slightly odd limits are caused by the factthat states 1 and N are non-emitting3. The initial conditions for the above recursion are

α1(1) = 1 (1.17)

αj(1) = a1jbj(o1) (1.18)

for 1 < j < N and the final condition is given by

αN (T ) =N−1∑

i=2

αi(T )aiN . (1.19)

Notice here that from the definition of αj(t),

P (O|M) = αN (T ). (1.20)Hence, the calculation of the forward probability also yields the total likelihood P (O|M).

The backward probability βj(t) is defined as

βj(t) = P (ot+1, . . . , oT |x(t) = j,M). (1.21)As in the forward case, this backward probability can be computed efficiently using the followingrecursion

βi(t) =N−1∑

j=2

aijbj(ot+1)βj(t + 1) (1.22)

with initial condition given byβi(T ) = aiN (1.23)

for 1 < i < N and final condition given by

β1(1) =N−1∑

j=2

a1jbj(o1)βj(1). (1.24)

Notice that in the definitions above, the forward probability is a joint probability whereas thebackward probability is a conditional probability. This somewhat asymmetric definition is deliberatesince it allows the probability of state occupation to be determined by taking the product of thetwo probabilities. From the definitions,

αj(t)βj(t) = P (O, x(t) = j|M). (1.25)Hence,

Lj(t) = P (x(t) = j|O,M) (1.26)=

P (O, x(t) = j|M)P (O|M)

=1P

αj(t)βj(t)

where P = P (O|M).All of the information needed to perform HMM parameter re-estimation using the Baum-Welch

algorithm is now in place. The steps in this algorithm may be summarised as follows

1. For every parameter vector/matrix requiring re-estimation, allocate storage for the numeratorand denominator summations of the form illustrated by equations 1.13 and 1.14. These storagelocations are referred to as accumulators4.

3 To understand equations involving a non-emitting state at time t, the time should be thought of as being t− δtif it is an entry state, and t + δt if it is an exit state. This becomes important when HMMs are connected togetherin sequence so that transitions across non-emitting states take place between frames.

4 Note that normally the summations in the denominators of the re-estimation formulae are identical across theparameter sets of a given state and therefore only a single common storage location for the denominators is requiredand it need only be calculated once. However, HTK supports a generalised parameter tying mechanism which canresult in the denominator summations being different. Hence, in HTK the denominator summations are alwaysstored and calculated individually for each distinct parameter vector or matrix.

1.5 Recognition and Viterbi Decoding 9

2. Calculate the forward and backward probabilities for all states j and times t.

3. For each state j and time t, use the probability Lj(t) and the current observation vector otto update the accumulators for that state.

4. Use the final accumulator values to calculate new parameter values.

5. If the value of P = P (O|M) for this iteration is not higher than the value at the previousiteration then stop, otherwise repeat the above steps using the new re-estimated parametervalues.

All of the above assumes that the parameters for a HMM are re-estimated from a single ob-servation sequence, that is a single example of the spoken word. In practice, many examples areneeded to get good parameter estimates. However, the use of multiple observation sequences addsno additional complexity to the algorithm. Steps 2 and 3 above are simply repeated for each distincttraining sequence.

One final point that should be mentioned is that the computation of the forward and backwardprobabilities involves taking the product of a large number of probabilities. In practice, this meansthat the actual numbers involved become very small. Hence, to avoid numerical problems, theforward-backward computation is computed in HTK using log arithmetic.

The HTK program which implements the above algorithm is called HRest. In combinationwith the tool HInit for estimating initial values mentioned earlier, HRest allows isolated wordHMMs to be constructed from a set of training examples using Baum-Welch re-estimation.

1.5 Recognition and Viterbi Decoding

The previous section has described the basic ideas underlying HMM parameter re-estimation usingthe Baum-Welch algorithm. In passing, it was noted that the efficient recursive algorithm forcomputing the forward probability also yielded as a by-product the total likelihood P (O|M). Thus,this algorithm could also be used to find the model which yields the maximum value of P (O|Mi),and hence, it could be used for recognition.

In practice, however, it is preferable to base recognition on the maximum likelihood state se-quence since this generalises easily to the continuous speech case whereas the use of the totalprobability does not. This likelihood is computed using essentially the same algorithm as the for-ward probability calculation except that the summation is replaced by a maximum operation. Fora given model M , let φj(t) represent the maximum likelihood of observing speech vectors o1 toot and being in state j at time t. This partial likelihood can be computed efficiently using thefollowing recursion (cf. equation 1.16)

φj(t) = maxi{φi(t− 1)aij} bj(ot). (1.27)

whereφ1(1) = 1 (1.28)

φj(1) = a1jbj(o1) (1.29)

for 1 < j < N . The maximum likelihood P̂ (O|M) is then given byφN (T ) = max

i{φi(T )aiN} (1.30)

As for the re-estimation case, the direct computation of likelihoods leads to underflow, hence,log likelihoods are used instead. The recursion of equation 1.27 then becomes

ψj(t) = maxi{ψi(t− 1) + log(aij)}+ log(bj(ot)). (1.31)

This recursion forms the basis of the so-called Viterbi algorithm. As shown in Fig. 1.6, this algorithmcan be visualised as finding the best path through a matrix where the vertical dimension representsthe states of the HMM and the horizontal dimension represents the frames of speech (i.e. time).Each large dot in the picture represents the log probability of observing that frame at that time andeach arc between dots corresponds to a log transition probability. The log probability of any pathis computed simply by summing the log transition probabilities and the log output probabilitiesalong that path. The paths are grown from left-to-right column-by-column. At time t, each partialpath ψi(t− 1) is known for all states i, hence equation 1.31 can be used to compute ψj(t) therebyextending the partial paths by one time frame.

1.6 Continuous Speech Recognition 10

1�

2�

3�

4�

5�

6�

Sta� te

SpeechFram� e(Time)1

�2� 3� 4� 5� 6�

b3� o 4( )

a35

Fig. 1.6 The Viterbi Algorithm for Isolated WordRecognition

This concept of a path is extremely important and it is generalised below to deal with thecontinuous speech case.

This completes the discussion of isolated word recognition using HMMs. There is no HTK toolwhich implements the above Viterbi algorithm directly. Instead, a tool called HVite is providedwhich along with its supporting libraries, HNet and HRec, is designed to handle continuousspeech. Since this recogniser is syntax directed, it can also perform isolated word recognition as aspecial case. This is discussed in more detail below.

1.6 Continuous Speech Recognition

Returning now to the conceptual model of speech production and recognition exemplified by Fig. 1.1,it should be clear that the extension to continuous speech simply involves connecting HMMs togetherin sequence. Each model in the sequence corresponds directly to the assumed underlying symbol.These could be either whole words for so-called connected speech recognition or sub-words such asphonemes for continuous speech recognition. The reason for including the non-emitting entry andexit states should now be evident, these states provide the glue needed to join models together.

There are, however, some practical difficulties to overcome. The training data for continuousspeech must consist of continuous utterances and, in general, the boundaries dividing the segmentsof speech corresponding to each underlying sub-word model in the sequence will not be known. Inpractice, it is usually feasible to mark the boundaries of a small amount of data by hand. All ofthe segments corresponding to a given model can then be extracted and the isolated word styleof training described above can be used. However, the amount of data obtainable in this way isusually very limited and the resultant models will be poor estimates. Furthermore, even if therewas a large amount of data, the boundaries imposed by hand-marking may not be optimal as faras the HMMs are concerned. Hence, in HTK the use of HInit and HRest for initialising sub-wordmodels is regarded as a bootstrap operation5. The main training phase involves the use of a toolcalled HERest which does embedded training.

Embedded training uses the same Baum-Welch procedure as for the isolated case but ratherthan training each model individually all models are trained in parallel. It works in the followingsteps:

1. Allocate and zero accumulators for all parameters of all HMMs.

2. Get the next training utterance.5 They can even be avoided altogether by using a flat start as described in section 8.3.

1.6 Continuous Speech Recognition 11

3. Construct a composite HMM by joining in sequence the HMMs corresponding to the symboltranscription of the training utterance.

4. Calculate the forward and backward probabilities for the composite HMM. The inclusionof intermediate non-emitting states in the composite model requires some changes to thecomputation of the forward and backward probabilities but these are only minor. The detailsare given in chapter 8.

5. Use the forward and backward probabilities to compute the probabilities of state occupationat each time frame and update the accumulators in the usual way.

6. Repeat from 2 until all training utterances have been processed.

7. Use the accumulators to calculate new parameter estimates for all of the HMMs.

These steps can then all be repeated as many times as is necessary to achieve the required conver-gence. Notice that although the location of symbol boundaries in the training data is not required(or wanted) for this procedure, the symbolic transcription of each training utterance is needed.

Whereas the extensions needed to the Baum-Welch procedure for training sub-word models arerelatively minor6, the corresponding extensions to the Viterbi algorithm are more substantial.

In HTK, an alternative formulation of the Viterbi algorithm is used called the Token PassingModel 7. In brief, the token passing model makes the concept of a state alignment path explicit.Imagine each state j of a HMM at time t holds a single moveable token which contains, amongstother information, the partial log probability ψj(t). This token then represents a partial matchbetween the observation sequence o1 to ot and the model subject to the constraint that the modelis in state j at time t. The path extension algorithm represented by the recursion of equation 1.31is then replaced by the equivalent token passing algorithm which is executed at each time frame t.The key steps in this algorithm are as follows

1. Pass a copy of every token in state i to all connecting states j, incrementing the log probabilityof the copy by log[aij ] + log[bj(o(t)].

2. Examine the tokens in every state and discard all but the token with the highest probability.

In practice, some modifications are needed to deal with the non-emitting states but these arestraightforward if the tokens in entry states are assumed to represent paths extended to time t− δtand tokens in exit states are assumed to represent paths extended to time t + δt.

The point of using the Token Passing Model is that it extends very simply to the continuousspeech case. Suppose that the allowed sequence of HMMs is defined by a finite state network. Forexample, Fig. 1.7 shows a simple network in which each word is defined as a sequence of phoneme-based HMMs and all of the words are placed in a loop. In this network, the oval boxes denote HMMinstances and the square boxes denote word-end nodes. This composite network is essentially justa single large HMM and the above Token Passing algorithm applies. The only difference now isthat more information is needed beyond the log probability of the best token. When the best tokenreaches the end of the speech, the route it took through the network must be known in order torecover the recognised sequence of models.

6 In practice, a good deal of extra work is needed to achieve efficient operation on large training databases. Forexample, the HERest tool includes facilities for pruning on both the forward and backward passes and paralleloperation on a network of machines.

7 See “Token Passing: a Conceptual Model for Connected Speech Recognition Systems”, SJ Young, NH Russell andJHS Thornton, CUED Technical Report F INFENG/TR38, Cambridge University, 1989. Available by anonymousftp from svr-ftp.eng.cam.ac.uk.

1.6 Continuous Speech Recognition 12

a� x

b�

iy�

b�

iy� n�

a�

b�

e

been

et� c

Fig. 1.7 Recognition Network forContinuously Spoken Word

Recognition

The history of a token’s route through the network may be recorded efficiently as follows. Everytoken carries a pointer called a word end link. When a token is propagated from the exit state of aword (indicated by passing through a word-end node) to the entry state of another, that transitionrepresents a potential word boundary. Hence a record called a Word Link Record is generated inwhich is stored the identity of the word from which the token has just emerged and the currentvalue of the token’s link. The token’s actual link is then replaced by a pointer to the newly createdWLR. Fig. 1.8 illustrates this process.

Once all of the unknown speech has been processed, the WLRs attached to the link of the bestmatching token (i.e. the token with the highest log probability) can be traced back to give the bestmatching sequence of words. At the same time the positions of the word boundaries can also beextracted if required.

log� P log� P log� P log� P

t-3 t-2 t-1 t�tw� o tw� o on� e on� e

Recording Decisions

log� P log� P

Record

Word Ends

BestTokencam� e from"one"

w� uh n�

t� uw�

th�

r� iy�

on� e

thr� ee

two�Before After

Fig. 1.8 Recording Word Boundary Decisions

The token passing algorithm for continuous speech has been described in terms of recording theword sequence only. If required, the same principle can be used to record decisions at the modeland state level. Also, more than just the best token at each word boundary can be saved. Thisgives the potential for generating a lattice of hypotheses rather than just the single best hypothesis.Algorithms based on this idea are called lattice N-best . They are suboptimal because the use of asingle token per state limits the number of different token histories that can be maintained. Thislimitation can be avoided by allowing each model state to hold multiple-tokens and regarding tokensas distinct if they come from different preceding words. This gives a class of algorithm called word

1.7 Speaker Adaptation 13

N-best which has been shown empirically to be comparable in performance to an optimal N-bestalgorithm.

The above outlines the main idea of Token Passing as it is implemented within HTK. Thealgorithms are embedded in the library modules HNet and HRec and they may be invoked usingthe recogniser tool called HVite. They provide single and multiple-token passing recognition,single-best output, lattice output, N-best lists, support for cross-word context-dependency, latticerescoring and forced alignment.

1.7 Speaker Adaptation

Although the training and recognition techniques described previously can produce high perfor-mance recognition systems, these systems can be improved upon by customising the HMMs to thecharacteristics of a particular speaker. HTK provides the tools HEAdapt and HVite to performadaptation using a small amount of enrollment or adaptation data. The two tools differ in thatHEAdapt performs offline supervised adaptation while HVite recognises the adaptation data anduses the generated transcriptions to perform the adaptation. Generally, more robust adaptation isperformed in a supervised mode, as provided by HEAdapt, but given an initial well trained modelset, HVite can still achieve noticeable improvements in performance. Full details of adaptationand how it is used in HTK can be found in Chapter 9.

Chapter 2

An Overview of the HTK Toolkit

Entr� opic

Darpa TIM IT

NIST

The basic principles of HMM-based recognition were outlined in the previous chapter and anumber of the key HTK tools have already been mentioned. This chapter describes the softwarearchitecture of a HTK tool. It then gives a brief outline of all the HTK tools and the way thatthey are used together to construct and test HMM-based recognisers. For the benefit of existingHTK users, the major changes in recent versions of HTK are listed. The following chapter will thenillustrate the use of the HTK toolkit by working through a practical example of building a simplecontinuous speech recognition system.

2.1 HTK Software Architecture

Much of the functionality of HTK is built into the library modules. These modules ensure thatevery tool interfaces to the outside world in exactly the same way. They also provide a centralresource of commonly used functions. Fig. 2.1 illustrates the software structure of a typical HTKtool and shows its input/output interfaces.

User input/output and interaction with the operating system is controlled by the library moduleHShell and all memory management is controlled by HMem. Math support is provided by HMathand the signal processing operations needed for speech analysis are in HSigP. Each of the file typesrequired by HTK has a dedicated interface module. HLabel provides the interface for label files,HLM for language model files, HNet for networks and lattices, HDict for dictionaries, HVQ forVQ codebooks and HModel for HMM definitions.

14

2.2 Generic Properties of a HTK Tool 15

SpeechData Definitions

HMM

Terminal

Graphical

AdaptationModelTraining

HNet

LanguageModels

ConstraintNetwork

Lattices/

Dictionary

HModel

HDict

HUtil

HShell

HGraf

HRecHAdaptHMath

HMem

HSigP

HVQHParmHWaveHAudio

HTrain HFB

HTK Tool

I/O

I/O

HLM

Labels

HLabel

Fig. 2.1 Software Architecture

All speech input and output at the waveform level is via HWave and at the parameterised levelvia HParm. As well as providing a consistent interface, HWave and HLabel support multiplefile formats allowing data to be imported from other systems. Direct audio input is supportedby HAudio and simple interactive graphics is provided by HGraf. HUtil provides a number ofutility routines for manipulating HMMs while HTrain and HFB contain support for the variousHTK training tools. HAdapt provides support for the various HTK adaptation tools. Finally,HRec contains the main recognition processing functions.

As noted in the next section, fine control over the behaviour of these library modules is providedby setting configuration variables. Detailed descriptions of the functions provided by the librarymodules are given in the second part of this book and the relevant configuration variables aredescribed as they arise. For reference purposes, a complete list is given in chapter 15.

2.2 Generic Properties of a HTK Tool

HTK tools are designed to run with a traditional command-line style interface. Each tool has anumber of required arguments plus optional arguments. The latter are always prefixed by a minussign. As an example, the following command would invoke the mythical HTK tool called HFoo

HFoo -T 1 -f 34.3 -a -s myfile file1 file2

This tool has two main arguments called file1 and file2 plus four optional arguments. Optionsare always introduced by a single letter option name followed where appropriate by the option value.The option value is always separated from the option name by a space. Thus, the value of the -foption is a real number, the value of the -T option is an integer number and the value of the -soption is a string. The -a option has no following value and it is used as a simple flag to enable ordisable some feature of the tool. Options whose names are a capital letter have the same meaningacross all tools. For example, the -T option is always used to control the trace output of a HTKtool.

In addition to command line arguments, the operation of a tool can be controlled by parametersstored in a configuration file. For example, if the command

HFoo -C config -f 34.3 -a -s myfile file1 file2

is executed, the tool HFoo will load the parameters stored in the configuration file config duringits initialisation procedures. Configuration parameters can sometimes be used as an alternative tousing command line arguments. For example, trace options can always be set within a configurationfile. However, the main use of configuration files is to control the detailed behaviour of the librarymodules on which all HTK tools depend.

Although this style of command-line working may seem old-fashioned when compared to moderngraphical user interfaces, it has many advantages. In particular, it makes it simple to write shell

2.3 The Toolkit 16

scripts to control HTK tool execution. This is vital for performing large-scale system buildingand experimentation. Furthermore, defining all operations using text-based commands allows thedetails of system construction or experimental procedure to be recorded and documented.

Finally, note that a summary of the command line and options for any HTK tool can be obtainedsimply by executing the tool with no arguments.

2.3 The Toolkit

The HTK tools are best introduced by going through the processing steps involved in building asub-word based continuous speech recogniser. As shown in Fig. 2.2, there are 4 main phases: datapreparation, training, testing and analysis.

2.3.1 Data Preparation Tools

In order to build a set of HMMs, a set of speech data files and their associated transcriptions arerequired. Very often speech data will be obtained from database archives, typically on CD-ROMs.Before it can be used in training, it must be converted into the appropriate parametric form andany associated transcriptions must be converted to have the correct format and use the requiredphone or word labels. If the speech needs to be recorded, then the tool HSLab can be used bothto record the speech and to manually annotate it with any required transcriptions.

Although all HTK tools can parameterise waveforms on-the-fly, in practice it is usually better toparameterise the data just once. The tool HCopy is used for this. As the name suggests, HCopyis used to copy one or more source files to an output file. Normally, HCopy copies the whole file,but a variety of mechanisms are provided for extracting segments of files and concatenating files.By setting the appropriate configuration variables, all input files can be converted to parametricform as they are read-in. Thus, simply copying each file in this manner performs the requiredencoding. The tool HList can be used to check the contents of any speech file and since it can alsoconvert input on-the-fly, it can be used to check the results of any conversions before processinglarge quantities of data. Transcriptions will also need preparing. Typically the labels used in theoriginal source transcriptions will not be exactly as required, for example, because of differences inthe phone sets used. Also, HMM training might require the labels to be context-dependent. Thetool HLEd is a script-driven label editor which is designed to make the required transformationsto label files. HLEd can also output files to a single Master Label File MLF which is usuallymore convenient for subsequent processing. Finally on data preparation, HLStats can gather anddisplay statistics on label files and where required, HQuant can be used to build a VQ codebookin preparation for building discrete probability HMM system.

2.3.2 Training Tools

The second step of system building is to define the topology required for each HMM by writing aprototype definition. HTK allows HMMs to be built with any desired topology. HMM definitionscan be stored externally as simple text files and hence it is possible to edit them with any convenienttext editor. Alternatively, the standard HTK distribution includes a number of example HMMprototypes and a script to generate the most common topologies automatically. With the exceptionof the transition probabilities, all of the HMM parameters given in the prototype definition areignored. The purpose of the prototype definition is only to specify the overall characteristics andtopology of the HMM. The actual parameters will be computed later by the training tools. Sensiblevalues for the transition probabilities must be given but the training process is very insensitiveto these. An acceptable and simple strategy for choosing these probabilities is to make all of thetransitions out of any state equally likely.

2.3 The Toolkit 17

HPARSE

HVITE

HCOMPV, HINIT , HREST , HEREST

DataPrep

Training

Testing

Analysis

HMMs

Networks

Dictionary

HLE

HDMAN

HQ

HSLABHCHL

Speech

D

HLS

UANTISTOPY

TATS

HR

HBUILD

ESULTS

HSMOOTH, HHED DAPT, HEA

Transcriptions

Transcriptions

Fig. 2.2 HTK Processing Stages

The actual training process takes place in stages and it is illustrated in more detail in Fig. 2.3.Firstly, an initial set of models must be created. If there is some speech data available for whichthe location of the sub-word (i.e. phone) boundaries have been marked, then this can be used asbootstrap data. In this case, the tools HInit and HRest provide isolated word style training usingthe fully labelled bootstrap data. Each of the required HMMs is generated individually. HInitreads in all of the bootstrap training data and cuts out all of the examples of the required phone. Itthen iteratively computes an initial set of parameter values using a segmental k-means procedure.On the first cycle, the training data is uniformly segmented, each model state is matched with thecorresponding data segments and then means and variances are estimated. If mixture Gaussianmodels are being trained, then a modified form of k-means clustering is used. On the secondand successive cycles, the uniform segmentation is replaced by Viterbi alignment. The initialparameter values computed by HInit are then further re-estimated by HRest. Again, the fullylabelled bootstrap data is used but this time the segmental k-means procedure is replaced by theBaum-Welch re-estimation procedure described in the previous chapter. When no bootstrap datais available, a so-called flat start can be used. In this case all of the phone models are initialisedto be identical and have state means and variances equal to the global speech mean and variance.The tool HCompV can be used for this.

2.3 The Toolkit 18

HCom� pV

HER�

est

HH� Ed

th ih s ih s p iy t sh

sh t iy s z� ih s ih th

Labelled U�

tterances

HR�

est

HI� nit

Sub-WordHMMs

Unlabelled Utterances

Transcr� iptionsth ih s ih s p iy t sh

sh t iy s z� ih s ih th

Fig. 2.3 Training Sub-word HMMs

Once an initial set of models has been created, the tool HERest is used to perform embeddedtraining using the entire training set. HERest performs a single Baum-Welch re-estimation of thewhole set of HMM phone models simultaneously. For each training utterance, the correspondingphone models are concatenated and then the forward-backward algorithm is used to accumulate thestatistics of state occupation, means, variances, etc., for each HMM in the sequence. When all ofthe training data has been processed, the accumulated statistics are used to compute re-estimatesof the HMM parameters. HERest is the core HTK training tool. It is designed to process largedatabases, it has facilities for pruning to reduce computation and it can be run in parallel across anetwork of machines.

The philosophy of system construction in HTK is that HMMs should be refined incrementally.Thus, a typical progression is to start with a simple set of single Gaussian context-independentphone models and then iteratively refine them by expanding them to include context-dependencyand use multiple mixture component Gaussian distributions. The tool HHEd is a HMM definitioneditor which will clone models into context-dependent sets, apply a variety of parameter tyingsand increment the number of mixture components in specified distributions. The usual processis to modify a set of HMMs in stages using HHEd and then re-estimate the parameters of themodified set using HERest after each stage. To improve performance for specific speakers thetools HEAdapt and HVite can be used to adapt HMMs to better model the characteristics ofparticular speakers using a small amount of training or adaptation data. The end result of whichis a speaker adapted system.

The single biggest problem in building context-dependent HMM systems is always data insuffi-ciency. The more complex the model set, the more data is needed to make robust estimates of itsparameters, and since data is usually limited, a balance must be struck between complexity andthe available data. For continuous density systems, this balance is achieved by tying parameterstogether as mentioned above. Parameter tying allows data to be pooled so that the shared param-eters can be robustly estimated. In addition to continuous density systems, HTK also supports

2.4 Whats New In Version 2.2 19

fully tied mixture systems and discrete probability systems. In these cases, the data insufficiencyproblem is usually addressed by smoothing the distributions and the tool HSmooth is used forthis.

2.3.3 Recognition Tools

HTK provides a single recognition tool called HVite which uses the token passing algorithm de-scribed in the previous chapter to perform Viterbi-based speech recognition. HVite takes as inputa network describing the allowable word sequences, a dictionary defining how each word is pro-nounced and a set of HMMs. It operates by converting the word network to a phone network andthen attaching the appropriate HMM definition to each phone instance. Recognition can then beperformed on either a list of stored speech files or on direct audio input. As noted at the end ofthe last chapter, HVite can support cross-word triphones and it can run with multiple tokens togenerate lattices containing multiple hypotheses. It can also be configured to rescore lattices andperform forced alignments.

The word networks needed to drive HVite are usually either simple word loops in which anyword can follow any other word or they are directed graphs representing a finite-state task grammar.In the former case, bigram probabilities are normally attached to the word transitions. Wordnetworks are stored using the HTK standard lattice format. This is a text-based format and henceword networks can be created directly using a text-editor. However, this is rather tedious and henceHTK provides two tools to assist in creating word networks. Firstly, HBuild allows sub-networksto be created and used within higher level networks. Hence, although the same low level notation isused, much duplication is avoided. Also, HBuild can be used to generate word loops and it can alsoread in a backed-off bigram language model and modify the word loop transitions to incorporatethe bigram probabilities. Note that the label statistics tool HLStats mentioned earlier can be usedto generate a backed-off bigram language model.

As an alternative to specifying a word network directly, a higher level grammar notation canbe used. This notation is based on the Extended Backus Naur Form (EBNF) used in compilerspecification and it is compatible with the grammar specification language used in earlier versionsof HTK. The tool HParse is supplied to convert this notation into the equivalent word network.

Whichever method is chosen to generate a word network, it is useful to be able to see examplesof the language that it defines. The tool HSGen is provided to do this. It takes as input anetwork and then randomly traverses the network outputting word strings. These strings can thenbe inspected to ensure that they correspond to what is required. HSGen can also compute theempirical perplexity of the task.

Finally, the construction of large dictionaries can involve merging several sources and performinga variety of transformations on each sources. The dictionary management tool HDMan is suppliedto assist with this process.

2.3.4 Analysis Tool

Once the HMM-based recogniser has been built, it is necessary to evaluate its performance. Thisis usually done by using it to transcribe some pre-recorded test sentences and match the recogniseroutput with the correct reference transcriptions. This comparison is performed by a tool calledHResults which uses dynamic programming to align the two transcriptions and then count sub-stitution, deletion and insertion errors. Options are provided to ensure that the algorithms andoutput formats used by HResults are compatible with those used by the US National Instituteof Standards and Technology (NIST). As well as global performance measures, HResults canalso provide speaker-by-speaker breakdowns, confusion matrices and time-aligned transcriptions.For word spotting applications, it can also compute Figure of Merit (FOM) scores and ReceiverOperating Curve (ROC) information.

2.4 Whats New In Version 2.2

This section lists the new features and refinements in HTK Version 2.2 compared to the precedingVersion 2.1.

1. Speaker adaptation is now supported via the HEAdapt and HVite tools, which adapt acurrent set of models to a new speaker and/or environment.

2.4 Whats New In Version 2.2 20

• HEAdapt performs offline supervised adaptation using maximum likelihood linear re-gression (MLLR) and/or maximum a-posteriori (MAP) adaptation.

• HVite performs unsupervised adaptation using just MLLR.Both tools can be used in a static mode, where all the data is presented prior to any adaptation,or in an incremental fashion.

2. Improved support for PC WAV filesIn addition to 16-bit PCM linear, HTK can now read

• 8-bit CCITT mu-law• 8-bit CCITT a-law• 8-bit PCM linear

2.4.1 Features Added To Version 2.1

For the benefit of users of earlier versions of HTK this section lists the main changes in HTKVersion 2.1 compared to the preceding Version 2.0.

1. The speech input handling has been partially re-designed and a new energy-based speech/silencedetector has been incorporated into HParm. The detector is robust yet flexible and can beconfigured through a number of configuration variables. Speech/silence detection can now beperformed on waveform files. The calibration of speech/silence detector parameters is nowaccomplished by asking the user to speak an arbitrary sentence.

2. HParm now allows random noise signal to be added to waveform data via the configurationparameter ADDDITHER. This prevents numerical overflows which can occur with artificiallycreated waveform data under some coding schemes.

3. HNet has been optimised for more efficient operation when performing forced alignments ofutterances using HVite. Further network optimisations tailored to biphone/triphone-basedphone recognition have also been incorporated.

4. HVite can now produce partial recognition hypothesis even when no tokens survive to the endof the network. This is accomplished by setting the HRec configuration parameter FORCEOUTto true.

5. Dictionary support has been extended to allow pronunciation probabilities to be associatedwith different pronunciations of the same word. At the same time, HVite now allows the useof a pronunciation scale factor during recognition.

6. HTK now provides consistent support for reading and writing of HTK binary files (waveforms,binary MMFs, binary SLFs, HERest accumulators) across different machine architecturesincorporating automatic byte swapping. By default, all binary data files handled by the toolsare now written/read in big-endian (NONVAX) byte order. The default behavior can be changedvia the configuration parameters NATURALREADORDER and NATURALWRITEORDER.

7. HWave supports the reading of waveforms in Microsoft WAVE file format.

8. HAudio allows key-press control of live audio input.

Chapter 3

A Tutorial Example of Using HTK

" call J�ulian "

" dial 33� 2654 "

This final chapter of the tutorial part of the book will describe the construction of a recogniserfor simple voice dialling applications. This recogniser will be designed to recognise continuouslyspoken digit strings and a limited set of names. It is sub-word based so that adding a new name tothe vocabulary involves only modification to the pronouncing dictionary and task grammar. TheHMMs will be continuous density mixture Gaussian tied-state triphones with clustering performedusing phonetic decision trees. Although the voice dialling task itself is quite simple, the systemdesign is general-purpose and would be useful for a range of applications.

The system will be built from scratch even to the extent of recording training and test datausing the HTK tool HSLab. To make this tractable, the system will be speaker dependent1, butthe same design would be followed to build a speaker independent system. The only difference beingthat data would be required from a large number of speakers and there would be a consequentialincrease in model complexity.

Building a speech recogniser from scratch involves a number of inter-related subtasks and ped-agogically it is not obvious what the best order is to present them. In the presentation here, theordering is chronological so that in effect the text provides a recipe that could be followed to con-struct a similar system. The entire process is described in considerable detail in order give a clearview of the range of functions that HTK addresses and thereby to motivate the rest of the book.

The HTK software distribution also contains an example of constructing a recognition systemfor the 1000 word ARPA Naval Resource Management Task. This is contained in the directoryRMHTK of the HTK distribution. Further demonstration of HTK’s capabilities can be found in thedirectory HTKDemo. Some example scripts that may be of assistance during the tutorial are availablein the HTKTutorial directory.

At each step of the tutorial presented in this chapter, the user is advised to thoroughly readthe entire section before executing the commands, and also to consult the reference section foreach HTK tool being introduced (chapter 14), so that all command line options and arguments areclearly understood.

1The final stage of the tutorial deals with adapting the speaker dependent models for new speakers

21

3.1 Data Preparation 22

3.1 Data Preparation

The first stage of any recogniser development project is data preparation. Speech data is neededboth for training and for testing. In the system to be built here, all of this speech will be recordedfrom scratch and to do this scripts are needed to prompt for each sentence. In the case of thetest data, these prompt scripts will also provide the reference transcriptions against which therecogniser’s performance can be measured and a convenient way to create them is to use the taskgrammar as a random generator. In the case of the training data, the prompt scripts will be used inconjunction with a pronunciation dictionary to provide the initial phone level transcriptions neededto start the HMM training process. Since the application requires that arbitrary names can beadded to the recogniser, training data with good phonetic balance and coverage is needed. Herefor convenience the prompt scripts needed for training are taken from the TIMIT acoustic-phoneticdatabase.

It follows from the above that before the data can be recorded, a phone set must be defined,a dictionary must be constructed to cover both training and testing and a task grammar must bedefined.

3.1.1 Step 1 - the Task Grammar

The goal of the system to be built here is to provide a voice-operated interface for phone dialling.Thus, the recogniser must handle digit strings and also personal name lists. Examples of typicalinputs might be

Dial three three two six five four

Dial nine zero four one oh nine

Phone Woodland

Call Steve Young

HTK provides a grammar definition language for specifying simple task grammars such as this.It consists of a set of variable definitions followed by a regular expression describing the words torecognise. For the voice dialling application, a suitable grammar might be

$digit = ONE | TWO | THREE | FOUR | FIVE |SIX | SEVEN | EIGHT | NINE | OH | ZERO;

$name = [ JOOP ] JANSEN |[ JULIAN ] ODELL |[ DAVE ] OLLASON |[ PHIL ] WOODLAND |[ STEVE ] YOUNG;

( SENT-START ( DIAL | (PHONE|CALL) $name) SENT-END )

where the vertical bars denote alternatives, the square brackets denote optional items and the anglebraces denote one or more repetitions. The complete grammar can be depicted as a network asshown in Fig. 3.1.

3.1 Data Preparation 23

sent-� start

on� e

tw� o

thr� ee

ze� r� o

dial

pho� ne

ca� ll

Juli�an Od� ell

Da� ve

... e� tc

Ste� ve You ng

... e� tc

Olla� son

sent-� end

Fig. 3.1 Grammar for Voice Dialling

Grammar(gram)

Word Net(wdnet)

HPA� RSE

Fig. 3.2Step 1

The above high level representation of a task grammar is provided for user convenience. TheHTK recogniser actually requires a word network to be defined using a low level notation calledHTK Standard Lattice Format (SLF) in which each word instance and each word-to-word transitionis listed explicitly. This word network can be created automatically from the grammar above usingthe HParse tool, thus assuming that the file gram contains the above grammar, executing

HParse gram wdnet

will create an equivalent word network in the file wdnet (see Fig 3.2).

3.1.2 Step 2 - the Dictionary

The first step in building a dictionary is to create a sorted list of the required words. In the telephonedialling task pursued here, it is quite easy to create a list of required words by hand. However, ifthe task were more complex, it would be necessary to build a word list from the sample sentencespresent in the training data. Furthermore, to build robust acoustic models, it is necessary to trainthem on a large set of sentences containing many words and preferably phonetically balanced. Forthese reasons, the training data will consist of English sentences unrelated to the phone recognitiontask. Below, a short example of creating a word list from sentence prompts will be given. As notedabove the training sentences given here are extracted from some prompts used with the TIMITdatabase and for convenience reasons they have been renumbered. For example, the first few itemsmight be as follows

3.1 Data Preparation 24

S0001 ONE VALIDATED ACTS OF SCHOOL DISTRICTSS0002 TWO OTHER CASES ALSO WERE UNDER ADVISEMENTS0003 BOTH FIGURES WOULD GO HIGHER IN LATER YEARSS0004 THIS IS NOT A PROGRAM OF SOCIALIZED MEDICINEetc

The desired training word list (wlist) could then be extracted automatically from these. Beforeusing HTK, one would need to edit the text into a suitable format. For example, it would benecessary to change all white space to newlines and then to use the UNIX utilities sort and uniqto sort the words into a unique alphabetically ordered set, with one word per line. The scriptprompts2wlist from the HTKTutorial directory can be used for this purpose.

The dictionary itself can be built from a standard source using HDMan. For this example, theBritish English BEEP pronouncing dictionary will be used2. Its phone set will be adopted withoutmodification except that the stress marks will be removed and a short-pause (sp) will be added tothe end of every pronunciation. If the dictionary contains any silence markers then the MP commandwill merge the sil and sp phones into a single sil. These changes can be applied using HDManand an edit script (stored in global.ded) containing the three commands

AS spRS cmuMP sil sp sil

where cmu refers to a style of stress marking in which the lexical stress level is marked by a singledigit appended to the phone name (e.g. eh2 means the phone eh with level 2 stress).

TIMITPrompts

Word List(wlist)

sort | uniq

Edit Script(global.ded)HDM

�AN

BEEP Dict(beep)

Names Dict(names)

Dictionary(dict)

+�

TestVocab

Fig. 3.3 Step 2

The command

HDMan -m -w wlist -n monophones1 -l dlog dict beep names

will create a new dictionary called dict by searching the source dictionaries beep and names to findpronunciations for each word in wlist (see Fig 3.3). Here, the wlist in question needs only to bea sorted list of the words appearing in the task grammar given above.

Note that names is a manually constructed file containing pronunciations for the proper namesused in the task grammar. The option -l instructs HDMan to output a log file dlog whichcontains various statistics about the constructed dictionary. In particular, it indicates if there arewords missing. HDMan can also output a list of the phones used, here called monophones1. Oncetraining and test data has been recorded, an HMM will be estimated for each of these phones.

The general format of each dictionary entry is

WORD [outsym] p1 p2 p3 ....2Available by anonymous ftp from svr-ftp.eng.cam.ac.uk/comp.speech/dictionaries/beep.tar.gz. Note that

items beginning with unmatched quotes, found at the start of the dictionary, should be removed.

3.1 Data Preparation 25

which means that the word WORD is pronounced as the sequence of phones p1 p2 p3 .... Thestring in square brackets specifies the string to output when that word is recognised. If it is omittedthen the word itself is output. If it is included but empty, then nothing is output.

To see what the dictionary is like, here are a few entries.

A ah spA ax spA ey spCALL k ao l spDIAL d ay ax l spEIGHT ey t spPHONE f ow n spSENT-END [] silSENT-START [] silSEVEN s eh v n spTO t ax spTO t uw spZERO z ia r ow sp

Notice that function words such as A and TO have multiple pronunciations. The entries for SENT-STARTand SENT-END have a silence model sil as their pronunciations and null output symbols.

3.1.3 Step 3 - Recording the Data

The training and test data will be recorded using the HTK tool HSLab. This is a combinedwaveform recording and labelling tool.