the history of kōan interpretation a research attempt

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駒澤大學禪硏究所年報第 30 號 2019 1 1Introduction: The position of Xitang Zhizang 西堂智蔵 in Mazus lineage Although the Southern School technically became the base for mainstream Chan in China thanks to the efforts of Heze Shenhui 荷沢神会 (684 – 758), ultimately it was the lineages of Shenhui’s fellow students Qingyuan Xingsi 青原行思 (673 – 741) and Nanyue Huairang 南嶽懐譲 (677 – 744) that came to play the most prominent role. Moreover, Nanyue’s disciple Mazu Daoyi 馬祖道一 (709 – 788) is seen as one of the most influential figures of Chan history. Yanagida Seizan 柳田聖山 (1921 – 2006) in “Basozen no shomondai 祖禅の諸問題 . Problems in Mazu Zen. Zenbukkyō no kenkyū, Yanagida Seizan shū vol. 1 (1999, first published 1968) writes as follows: The formation of Chinese Chan school practically began with various activities of Mazu and his disciples. Foremostly, the use of the words Chan school as a specific term is one of the distinctive features of their teachings. (...) It is noteworthy that the Dunhuang manuscripts, which have greatly contributed to elucidating the early Zen thought, mention hardly anything about the time during and after Mazu’s life. (...) Most importantly, the Chan school after Mazu became extremely different from earlier Buddhism. (...) The Chinese Chan school after Mazu was too Chinese. For Dunhuang, Tibet, Korea and Japan, it had a hardly acceptable indigenousness. Moreover, the specific character of Mazu Chan lies in the new literary form of “oral records” and an original form of philosophy that requires such a style. (pp. 381 – 382.) The history of Kōan interpretation A research attempt using Mazu’s “White and Black” as an example (公案の思想史研究の試み─ 馬祖白黒の公案を例として) Ishii Shūdō Translated from Japanese by Kristyna Cislerova308

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Page 1: The history of Kōan interpretation A research attempt

駒澤大學禪硏究所年報第 30號 2019年 1月 (1)

Introduction: The position of Xitang Zhizang 西堂智蔵 in Mazu’s lineage

Although the Southern School technically became the base for

mainstream Chan in China thanks to the efforts of Heze Shenhui 荷沢神会

(684 – 758), ultimately it was the lineages of Shenhui’s fellow students

Qingyuan Xingsi 青原行思 (673 – 741) and Nanyue Huairang 南嶽懐譲 (677

– 744) that came to play the most prominent role. Moreover, Nanyue’s

disciple Mazu Daoyi 馬祖道一 (709 – 788) is seen as one of the most

influential figures of Chan history.

Yanagida Seizan 柳田聖山 (1921 – 2006) in “Basozen no shomondai ”馬祖禅の諸問題 . [Problems in Mazu Zen]. Zenbukkyō no kenkyū, Yanagida

Seizan shū vol. 1 (1999, first published 1968) writes as follows:

The formation of Chinese Chan school practically began with various

activities of Mazu and his disciples. Foremostly, the use of the words

Chan school as a specific term is one of the distinctive features of their

teachings. (...) It is noteworthy that the Dunhuang manuscripts, which

have greatly contributed to elucidating the early Zen thought, mention

hardly anything about the time during and after Mazu’s life. (...) Most

importantly, the Chan school after Mazu became extremely different

from earlier Buddhism. (...) The Chinese Chan school after Mazu was

too Chinese. For Dunhuang, Tibet, Korea and Japan, it had a hardly

acceptable indigenousness. Moreover, the specific character of Mazu

Chan lies in the new literary form of “oral records” and an original

form of philosophy that requires such a style. (pp. 381 – 382.)

The history of Kōan interpretationA research attempt using Mazu’s “White and Black” as an example(公案の思想史研究の試み─ 馬祖白黒の公案を例として)

Ishii Shūdō (Translated from Japanese by Kristyna Cislerova)

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Iriya Yoshitaka 入矢義高 (1910 – 1998) in his preface to “Baso no

goroku” 馬祖の語録 . Zenbunka kenkyūjo (1984), writes as follows:

Chinese Chan practically began with Mazu. Through Zen, he had

declared clear awakening to be the ultimate goal of Buddhism.

Moreover, this awakening was not to be reached by interpretation or

research of a certain doctrine, but rather experienced through

everyday practice. (...) So what exactly was so intriguing about Mazu

Chan that made it attract such numbers of people in the time of

transition between the Early and Mid-Tang? This is closely related to

the question of what is the core of Mazu’s teaching. If I were to

express it with just one phrase, judging by Mazu’s own sayings, or the

records and comments written by his disciples, it would have been the

words “All actions come from Buddha nature” and “Ordinary mind is

the Way.”

Both authors bring out the point that the early members of

Bodhidharma’s lineage extensively studied the Laṅkāvatāra sūtra, and

therefore became called the Laṅkāvatāra Masters. Mazu then re-edited this

text, while emphasizing sudden enlightenment through daily actions and

discourses.

One of the most widely known Zen questions is “Why did Bodhidharma

come to China?” “What kind of teaching did he bring along?” These are

actually fundamental questions for all Zen students, which bring up the

point of the meaning of Zen teachings and what is enlightenment.

As I presented in my book Chūgoku Zenshūshiwa – Shinji “Shōbōgenzō” ni manabu 中国禅宗史話─真字「正法眼蔵」に学ぶ . Zenbunka kenkyūjo

(1988), Mazu already provides an answer. In the 14th fascicle of Zutang ji 祖堂集 [Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall], he gives the following explanation,

using the Laṅkāvatāra sūtra.

Each one of you, you should believe that your own mind is the

Buddha, that this mind is identical with the Buddha. The great master

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Bodhidharma came from India to China and transmitted the One Mind

teaching of the supreme vehicle in order to cause you to realize

awakening. He also quoted the Laṅkāvatāra Scripture, in order to

imprint the minds of living beings, fearing that they are perturbed and

lack faith themselves. The truth of this One Mind is something that

each and every one of you possesses. Therefore, according to the

Laṅkāvatāra Scripture, the Buddha’s teaching asserts that the mind is

the essential principle, and that the lack of a particular point of entry

is the very essence of the true teaching” (English translation by Mario

Poceski)

According to Mazu, this is how Bodhidharma explains Mahāyāna and

the One Mind teaching, which is also related to Mazu’s famous quote “Mind

is Buddha,” meaning that our mind is identical with the Buddha’s mind.

Similarly, based on the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, he also teaches that “Ordinary

mind is the Way” 平常心是道 and “Only be ordinary” 平常無事 ; in other

words, that our ordinary, everyday behavior manifests the Buddha nature.

Mazu summarizes this concept in the phrase “All actions come from

Buddha nature.” Seeing the law of Dharma and Buddha nature as the

source of reality and daily actions, he points out that it is the mind which

blends everyday living and the Way into the original oneness.

This topic is throughly discussed by Ogawa Takashi 小川隆 in his

recent publication Goroku no kotoba – Tōdai no Zen 語録のことば─唐代の禅 . Zenbunka kenkyūjo (2007), where he argues that, seeing Mazu’s claim

about the question “Why did Bodhidharma come to China?” as a default

fact, Zen dialogues are a tool to ask about one’s self. The origin of the kōan

story “Cypress tree in the garden” by master Zhaozhou Congshen 趙州従諗 (778 – 897) thus becomes more clear.

There are two recent English publications on Mazu Daoyi by Mario

Poceski, Ordinary mind as the way: the Hongzhou school and the growth of Chan Buddhism. Oxford University Press, (2007) and The Records of Mazu and the Making of Classical Chan Literature. Oxford University Press (2015).

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Thus, it can be said that Chinese Chan was practically established by

Mazu Daoyi, while the lineage of his heir Baizhang Huaihai 百丈懐海 (749 –

814) historically led to the formation of the most prominent of Chan

schools, the Linji school. Furthermore, the character of Chan itself was

mostly determined in the Song dynasty with master Dahui Zonggao 大慧宗杲 (1089–1163) and his establishment of Kanna-Zen, using kōans to lead

students to enlightenment.

As I pointed out in my research, Dahui’s Kanna-Zen was allegedly

established in the fourth year of the Shaoxing era (1134) in Fuzhou, when

Dahui explicitly criticized the Silent Illumination Zen, particularly the

teachings of the Caodong school master Zhenxie Qingliao 真歇清了 (1088–

1151) of the Xuefeng Mountain.

Although Baizhang Huaihai came to be celebrated as the most

prominent representative of Mazu’s lineage (the Hongzhou school), it was

not like that from the start.

Let me now concentrate on the earlier stages of Mazu’s school, based

on an inscription on the memorial stele of Mazu’s heir Xitang Zhizang 西堂智蔵 (738 – 817), composed by Tang Zhi 唐枝 titled Gonggongshan Xitang chishi Dazhue Chanshi chongjian Dabaoguangda beiming 龔公山西堂勅諡大覚禅師重建大宝光塔碑銘 (abbreviated Xitang beiming 西堂碑銘 ), which I had

introduced for the first time. I presented the original text in Kōshūshūni okeru Seidō Chizō no ichi ni tsuite 洪州宗における西堂智蔵の位置について ,

published in Indogaku bukkyōgaku kenkyū vol. 27 no. 1 (1978), and in Chūgoku zenshūshiwa I provided a corrected version with a Japanese translation.

Other texts, traditionally used as a primary source to study the history

of early Chan, such as Lidaifabao ji 歴代法宝記 (Record of the Dharma-

Jewel through the Ages; completed around the year 775), Baolin zhuan 宝林伝 (Chronicle of the Baolin Monastery; discovered in the 20th Century,

completed in 801; fascicle 7 and 9 ,10 missing out of the original 10) of the

Dunhuang manuscripts, and other documents, such as Zutang ji 祖堂集

(Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall; 20 fascicles; completed in 952), Song Gaoseng chuan 宋高僧伝 (Biographies of Eminent Monks Compiled in the

Song Era; 30 fascicles, completed 988), Jingde chuandeng lu 景徳伝燈録

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(Records of the Transmission of the Lamp; 30 fascicles, dated 1004),

contain chronological gaps. Therefore, in order to determine the tendencies

within Mazu’s school, materials directly linked to Dunhuang manuscripts

can only be used critically, and it is necessary to handle stele inscriptions as

the main source of information. The Xitang beiming inscription portrays

Mazu Daoyi and his heir Xitang Zhizang in the following manner:

Among those who believe in the Three Sacred Teachings of

Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, after Mid-Tang, while

Confucianism is the most flourishing, Taoism is weak in influence.

Buddhism, on the other hand, has a great power similar with

Confucianism, and there is a great teacher, Daji Chanshi Mazu Daoyi.

His lay surname is Ma, and he is even more distinguished than the ten

great disciples of Shakyamuni. He has an excellent disciple called

Dajue Chanshi Xitang Zhizang.

Next is a summary of Xitang Zhizang’s deeds:

The lay surname of Dajue Chanshi is Liao, his monk’s name is

Zhizang, he was born in the Nankang province (modern-day Ganxian

District in Jiangxi province). He first started studying under Mazu at

the age of thirteen, at Xili 西裡 mountain in Linchuan. After seven

years, he became Mazu’s Dharma heir. When Mazu started teaching,

Xitang moved from Zhongling (refers to Hongzhou of the time) to

the Gonggong 龔公 Mountain (Ganxian District). Xitang became

increasingly respected by his students. When Mazu passed away in the

fourth year of Zhenyuan era (788), Xitang continued to guide his

disciples as if nothing had changed.

The Xitang beiming stele was erected on February 8th in the 15th year of

the Xiantong era (874), after The Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution initiated

by Emperor Wuzong, and was reinforced by Jue Xian 覚顕 on July 15th of

the second year of the Yuanfeng era (1079). There had been an earlier

epitaph composed by Li Bo 李渤 (773 – 831) in the 4th year of the Changqing

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era (824), but was destroyed during the Huichang-era persecution of

Buddhism; the extant version copies its content. Moreover, it is evidently

based on Mazu’s stele inscription, composed by Quan Deyu 権徳輿 (759 –

818) in 791 (the 7th year of the Zhenyuan era). Its full title is Hongzhou Kaiyuansi Shimen Daoyi Chanshita beiming bing xu 洪州開元寺石門道一禅師塔碑銘并序 (Tangwencui 唐文粹 , fascicle 64; abbreviated as Mazu beiming 馬祖碑銘 ).

This Mazu stele mentions a list of eleven Mazu’s Dharma heirs in the

following order: 1. Dazhu Huihai 大珠慧海 , 2. Xitang Zhizang 西堂智蔵 (738

– 817), 3. Gaoying 鎬英 , 4. Ganquan Zhixian 甘泉志賢 , 5. Qiling Zhitong 棲霊智通 , 6. Tianhuang Daowu 天皇道悟 (748 – 807), 7. Zhangjing Huaihui 章敬懐暉 (756 – 815), 8. Xingshan Weikuan 興善惟寛 (755 – 817), 9. Zhiguang

智広 , 10. Chongtai 崇泰 , 11. Huiyun 恵雲 . No details are known about the

life of those disciples, who are only mentioned by their personal names.

Dazhu Huihai is noted as the author of Dunwu yaomen 頓悟要門 [The

Essential Teaching of Sudden Enlightenment]. According to Song gaoseng chuan, fascicle 9, Taiyuan ganquansi Zhixian chuan 太原甘泉寺志賢伝 , he is

mentioned as the first desciple to have received teaching from Mazu, in 742

at Fojiyan in Fujian. Jingde chuandeng lu, however, does not provide his

encounter dialogue. Furthermore, as I mentioned in Tennō Dōgo to Tennō Dōgo 天皇道悟と天王道悟 in Chūgoku Zenshūshiwa, Tianhuang Daowu 天皇道悟 , who became known as a heir of Shitou Xiqian 石頭希遷 , had caused

controversy about Dharma inheritance.

On disciples 7. and 8., as well as on the lack of Baizhang Huaihai’s

name in the list, I shall focus later.

As the Song gaoseng chuan describes in fascicle 10, Tan Ghongzhou Kaiyuansi Daoyi chuan 唐洪州開元寺道一伝 , based on Quan’s inscription,

disciples 2., 3., and 10. all have taken part in Mazu’s funeral. Moreover, this

chapter makes a special mention of Xitang Zhizang’s receival of Mazu’s

robe. “General Lu Sigong 路嗣恭 summoned master Daji to preech at his

city; when (Zhi)Zang was about to return to the countryside temple, he was

given Daji’s robe.” This suggests that Xitang had played a central role in

early stages of Mazu’s lineage.

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The discovery of Xitang’s stele has brought up another interesting

problem in the following passage:

In Xingshan temple in Changan, there was an elder monk named Wei

Kuan, his posthumous name was Dache Chanshi. Similarly to Xitang

Zhizang, he was a disciple of Mazu Daoyi. His teaching was different

from Xitang. Wei Kuan was based in the North, while Xitang was

based in the South, similarly to Huineng and Shenxiu, who were also

divided into South and North.

This passage obviously refers to the difference between the Southern

and Northern schools. The following part of the 9th fascicle of Jingde chuandeng lu gives a clear explanation of this topic, in a dialogue between

the heir of Zhangying Huaihui 章敬懐暉 , Hong Bian 大薦福寺弘弁 of the

Dajianfu Temple, and Emperor Xuanzong. To the question “Why is there

such thing as the Southern and Northern Chan?” he provides the following

answer:

The Fifth Patriarch Hongren taught Dharma in the Eastern mountain

of the Qi province. He had two disciples. One was named Huineng.

After receiving his master’s robe, he moved to Lingnan and became

the Sixth Patriarch. Another disciple was named Shenxiu. He was

active in the North. Later, his disciple Puji pronounced Shenxiu as the

Sixth Patriarch, and himself as the Seventh Patriarch. Although there

is only one Dharma, there is the immediate and gradual way to reach

it. Therefore, we call the teaching of the Southern School immediate,

and the teaching of the Northern School gradual. Originally, however,

there is no such thing as a Southern and Northern Chan. (Zenbunka

edition, p. 143.)

I translated the difference between Xingshan Weikuan 興善惟寛 and

Xitang Zhizang as “different teaching.” Yet, from the historical tendencies of

Chan of that time, the superior position of the Southern School is

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indisputable. If we should perceive it like that, it is not only the

geographical difference between the North and the South. Contrary to

Xingshan Weikuan, who has centered his activities around the capital of

Changan, Xitang Zhizang, who has been active in the Hong province in the

South (similarly to the Sixth Patriarch Huineng), was celebrated as a true

Dharma heir of Mazu Daoyi.

There is no evidence of Xingshan Weikuan having taught the gradual

way of enlightenment, as it was in the case of Huineng who taught the

sudden enlightenment, as opposed to Shenxiu’s gradual enlightenment.

However, in Xijing Xingshansi Chuanfatang beiming 西京興善寺伝法堂碑銘

(Quantangwen 全唐文 , fascicle 678) composed by Bai Juyi 白居易 , we can

learn about Xingshan’s doings. There is an apparent influence of zhiguan 止観 (calm abiding and clear observation) practice of the Lu and Tiantai

schools.

He took the precepts at the age twenty four under Sengchong 僧崇

and studied the Lu school under Sengru 僧如 . After that, he studied

zhiguan of the Tiantai school, and finally became a disciple of Mazu

Daoyi, with whom he studied Chan and inherited his Dharma.

The peculiar teachings of Xingshan Weikuan are further illustrated in

his theory of the Fifty Nine Patriarchs, mentioned by Yanagida Seizan in

Shoki zenshū shisho no kenkyū 初期禅宗史書の研究 . Hōzōkan (1967).

Before Shakyamuni Buddha entered Nirvana, he turned to

Mahākāśyapa and through a secret mudra he transmitted his true

teachings, which were then transmitted down to Aśvaghoṣa. Twelve

generations later, the teachings were inherited by Shishi Bhikku. After

twenty four generations, they were transmitted to Prajñātārā, who

then transmitted them to Bodhidharma. Rang (=Nanyue Huairang)

transmitted his teachings to Hongzhou Daoyi, his posthumous name

was Daji, he was the master of my master (Xingshan Weikuan). From

Buddha through Mahākāśyapa to my teacher, Dharma was transmitted

through fifty nine generations. Therefore I name this hall, in which all

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patriarchs are worshipped, The Dharma Transmission Hall.

According to this theory, Prajñātārā would have been the 50th patriarch

and Bodhidharma the 51st, which is quite different from the traditional

theory of Bodhidharma being the 28th. Yanagida suggests, that this lineage is

based on Chusancangji ji 出三蔵記集 [Collection of Notes on the Tripitaka], book 12, Sapoduobuji mulu 薩婆多部記目録 by Sengyo 僧祐 , who adopted

this theory of an alternative genealogy from Baolin zhuan 宝林伝 [Chronicle

of the Baolin Monastery]. Sapoduobu 薩婆多部 (Sabbatthavāda) refers to Sarvāstivāda 説一切有部, an early school of Buddhism. The Chronicle of the Baolin Monastery,

compiled in 801 by Shamen Zhiju 沙門智炬 (or Huiju 恵炬 ) of Zhuling (or

Jinling), mentions Vasumitra 婆須蜜 as the 7th Indian patriarch, thus

establishing the theory of Bodhidharma being the 28th patriarch, and

becoming the base for the classical patriarchal genealogy, which has been

used from the time of the Records of the Transmission of the Lamp onward,

and is called the Vasumitra lineage. The formation process of the

patriarchal theory has gone through twists and turns, in fact in China, a

lineage which gives Sāṇavāsī as the 24th patriarch was even more popular.

Among Mazu’s disciples was a monk named Ehu Dayi 鵝胡大義 (748 –

818), who resided in the North. His story is described in the epitaph Xingfusi Neidaochang Gongfengdade Dayi Chanshi bei 興福寺内道場供奉大徳大義禅師碑 , composed by Wei Chuhou 韋処厚 (773 – 828) (Quantangwen 全唐文 ,

fascicle 715). He was summoned by the Emperor Dezong 徳宗 , and after

the Emperor’s death on January 22nd, in the first year of Yongzhen era (805),

he was again summoned by his successor Emperor Shunzong 順 宗 .

However, his reign lasted less than a year as, due to his illness, the throne

was transferred to Emperor Xianzong 憲宗 on August 9th. Emperor Xianzong

then summoned the master Zhangjing Huaihui 章 敬 懐 暉 . His life is

described in the epitaph Tang gu Zhangjingsi Baiyan Chanshi beiming bing xu 唐故章敬寺百巌禅師碑銘并序 composed by Quan Deyu 権徳輿 (Tangwencui 唐文粹 , fascicle 64). After being summoned for the first time in 808 (the 3rd

year of Yuanhe), he would come almost every year to teach Dharma to

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Emperor Xianzong in the Lindedian hall. Later, he would resign from his

post after falling ill and his role was taken over by Xingshan Weikuan.

An epitaph of Mazu Daoyi’s teacher, Nanyue Huairang 南嶽懐譲 ,

composed by Zhang Zhengfu 張正甫 , Hengzhou Boresi Guanyin Dashi beiming bing xu 衡州般若寺観音大師碑銘并序 (Quantangwen 全唐文 ,

fascicle 619; abbreviated as Nanyue beiming 南嶽碑銘 ) is particularly

interesting. The stele was erected during the reign of Emperor Xianzong in

815 (the 10th year of Yuanhe) under the influence of Mazu Daoyi’s disciples

Xingshan Weikuan and Zhangjing Huaihui. Yanagida comments on the

epitaph in Shoki zenshū shisho no kenkyū 初期禅宗史書の研究 .

It is not necessary to doubt the authenticity of the lineage of Caoxi 曹渓 – Nanyue – Mazu. Yet, in comparison to the formation of other

lineages, it is certain, that this lineage is one generation behind, and

primary materials on Dharma inheritance between these three

generations are rather weak. The emphasis on the uncertainty of

transmission between these three generations can be even seen as an

intention of the Chronicle of the Baolin Monastery 宝林伝 .

Until the Yuanhe Era (806 - 820), influential disciples of Mazu, such as

Zhangjing Huaihui, Xingshan Weikuan or Ehu Dayi have done

vigorous work in various places, some of them even being summoned

by the emperor Xianzong to provide him with teachings. Under this

influence, the stele of Nanyue Huairang was erected and Mazu

received a posthumous name from the emperor, while at the same

time the posthumous name Dajian Chanshi was granted to Huineng.

Judging from these circumstances, the author of the Chronicle of the

Baolin Monastery might have provoked the above-mentioned

speculations. Huiju 恵炬 (or Zhiju 智炬 ) might have been just a

pseudonym or a person who remained unknown, but his purported

genealogy Caoxi – Nanyue – Mazu later became an established theory

in the official history of Chan. (pp. 360 – 361)

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The main current in Chan will later be based not in the North, but

rather in the South, a fact which is described in the following famous

passage of Jingde chuandeng lu, fascicle 6, chapter Mazu Daoyi.

(Huai)rang to (Dao)yi is the same as (Xing)si to (Xi)qian. They share

the same roots, but their lineage is different. Thus, the flourishing of

Chan begins with these two masters. Liu Ke 劉軻 says, “In Jiangxi,

there is a great master named Daji (Daoyi), and in Hunan, the most

famous master is Shitou (Xiqian). Those who travel the country to

study Chan and have not seen these two masters are not worthy.”

(Zenbunka edition, p. 88.)

Liu Ke, who was active in the beginning of the 9th century, thus notes

that Mazu Daoyi had been the most famous master in Jiangxi, and Shitou

Xiqian had been the representative of Hunan, while both were sought by

Chan monks from all over the country. It is said, that this situation later led

to the use of the term Jianghuhui 江湖会 as a place of practice for Chan

monks.

Like I already mentioned, the pivotal figure in Mazu’s school in Jiangxi

was Xitang Zhizang.

As Yanagida had pointed out, Xitang Zhizang’s name is featured among the

four masters, along with Jingzhongsi Wuxiang 浄衆寺無相 (684 – 762 or 680

– 756), Baotangsi Wuzhu 保唐寺無住 (714 – 774) and Mazu Daoyi, on an

epitaph titled Tang Zizhou Huiyijingshe Nanchanyuan Sizhengtang beiming bing xu 唐梓州慧義精舍南禅院四証堂碑銘并序 (Quantangwen 全唐文 , fascicle

780) composed by Li Shangyin 李 商 隠 , on a stele erected in Zizhou

(Sichuan). Although the latter three all have had deep connections with

Chan in that area, there is no proof of Xitang Zhizang having anything to do

with Sichuan, and the presence of his name remains a mystery. We only

know for certain that Xitang was Mazu’s chief disciple.

Moreover, three of Xitang’s disciples later became founders of three of

the initial Nine mountain schools of Seon in Korean peninsula. The first

temple was Gajisan Borimsa 迦智山宝林寺 (Jangheung County, South

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Jeolla), established by Doui 道義 , who entered China in 784 and received

Dharma from Xitang. Upon his return to Korea in 821, he became the first

monk to introduce the southern lineage of Chan to the peninsula.

The second one Jirisan Silsangsa temple 智異山実相寺 (Namwon,

North Jeolla), was founded by Hongcheok 洪渉 , who also studied under

Xitang. The fourth temple to be established was Dongnisan Taeansa 桐裏山泰安寺 (Gokseong, South Jeolla), founded by Hyejeol 恵哲 (or 慧徹 ; 785 -

861), who entered China to study with Xitang in 814, and returned in 839.

Thus, the lineage of Xitang Zhizang had a major influence on the Seon

school in Korean peninsula.

From this overview it is evident, that Xitang Zhizang was a pivotal

figure in the early stages of Mazu’s lineage.

2. Mazu’s lineage and the glorification campaign for Baizhang Huaihai

Let me now examine the process in which Baizhang Huaihai, as a

result of a glorification campaign, came to be seen as the most prominent

representative of Mazu’s lineage (Hongzhou school).

In sources such as Zutang ji 祖堂集 , fascicle 17, or the 9th fascicle of

Jingde chuandeng lu, Fuzhou Daan 福州大安 (793 - 883) is mentioned as a

Dharma heir of Baizhang Huaihai. However, based on Fuzhou Daan’s

epitaph composed by Yun Ming 允明 , titled Tang Fuzhou Yanshou chanyuan gu Yansheng Dashi tanei zhenshen ji 唐福州延寿禅院故延聖大師塔内真身記

(abbreviated as Zhenshen ji 真身記 ), which I have introduced for the first

time, I shall focus on the claim that he was in fact the heir of Guishan

Lingyou 潙山霊祐 (771 – 853). I presented the original text with Japanese

translation in Isan kyōdan no dōkō ni tsuite – Fushū Daian no “Shinjinki ” no shōkai ni chinande 潙山教団の動向について─福州大安の「真身記」の紹介に因んで─ published in Indogaku bukkyōgaku kenkyū 印度学仏教学研究 vol.

40 no. 1 (1991), and also mentioned it in <Dōgen Zenji> Shōbōgenzō Gyōji ni manabu 〈道元禅師〉正法眼蔵行持に学ぶ . Zenbunka Kenkyūjo (2007).

Initially Daan had another epitaph titled Daguishan Yansheng Chanshi bei大潙山延聖禅師碑 , composed by Cui Yin 崔胤 (854 – 904), which most

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likely served as the primary source for Tang Fuzhou Yishanyuan Daan chuan

唐福州怡山院大安伝 [Biography of Daan from Yishan Temple of Fuzhou] included in Song gaoseng chuan 宋高僧伝 . By combining the information in

this source with the above-mentioned Zhenshen ji 真身記 , we can get a

clearer picture of Daan’s life.

He resided at the present-day Yishan Xichansi 怡山西禅寺 (455

Gongye Lu, Gulou Qu, Fuzhou Shi), which used to be called Qingshansi 清禅寺 , later renamed to Yanshouchanyuan 延寿禅院 , and at certain point

called Yishan Xichanchangqingsi 怡山西禅長慶寺 . It is also known by the

common names Yishanyuan 怡山院 , Changqingyuan 長慶院 or Xichansi 西禅寺 . There, I came across the Zhenshen ji 真身記 , which was discovered in

a well in August 1990. When I returned in October 2016, it was already

conserved and built into a wall.

Daan was born in the 9th year of the Zhenyuan era (793) in Futang

district in Fuzhou, into a Confucianist family named Chen 陳 . At a young age,

he became a monk under the Chan master Zhiji of the Huang Nie mountain,

and in 817 he received his wovs from the excellent priest Lingai 霊藹 at the

Fengqi Temple at Pucheng County, Jianzhou. Later on, while traveling in

Shangyuan (Jiangning Province), he met an old priest who told him, that he

will surely reach enlightenment if he goes to Nanchang. Daan decided to

obey the recommendation, and during the period of summer training, while

studying Theravada, two Chan monks told him about the great master

Baizhang Huaihai, whose teachings are a real treasure, and that he should

not rely solely on words with his studies, which led him to a realization.

Although both Song gaoseng chuan and Zhenshen ji mention Nanchang,

the name of master Baizhang is not featured in Song gaoseng chuan, and

therefore is probably an addition of Zhenshen ji. Moreover, the presence of

Baizhang’s name does not prove that the two have actually met, which they

probably did not.

As for Daan’s first encounter with Chan, both sources state that he

went to study with master Huicang 慧蔵 of the Shigong 石鞏 mountain in

Fuzhou (Jiangxi). Song gaoseng chuan describes the beginning of his training

in the following passage:

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In order to help his disciples reach enlightenment, master Shigong

Huicang always used a bow and an arrow. Before Daan could even

finish his greetings, Shigong shouted out “Watch for the arrow!” Daan

reacted without even changing the expression of his face. Shigong

threw away his arrow, saying “After so many years of shooting, I

finally met half a wise man.”

This story is more widely known as “Shigong draws a bow” and

features Sanping Yizhong 三平義忠 (781 – 872), a monk who reached

enlightenment under Shigong. However, in the Daan chapter of Zutang ji and Jingde chuandeng lu, we can find an addition of the following episode

about Baizhang.

Daan bowed in front of Baizhang, saying “I would like to meet the

Buddha. Who is Buddha?” Baizhang replied “That is like wanting to

see an ox while sitting on one.” Daan asked, “What happens when one

meets the Buddha?” Baizhang said, “It is like riding back home on a

back of an ox.” “So what is one always supposed to do to reach that?”

asked Daan. Baizang answered, “The oxkeeper needs to use a whip to

make sure the ox does not eat the farmer’s crops.” Upon hearing this,

Daan realized the true meaning of Chan and all his doubts

disappeared at once. (Zhonghua Book Company edition, page 44.)

The source of this story most likely lies in Zutang ji or Jingde chuandeng lu, which features a sermon about Daan’s life at Guishan.

All of you here are already Buddhas; Daan spent thirty years at

Guishan, eating Guishan food, excreting Guishan feces, yet never

trying to grasp Guishan’s Chan with his mind. The only thing he did

was taming an ox for many years. He would pull it back when it

wandered off the road to eat grass, strike it with a whip if it ate other’s

crops and prevent it from running wild. A winsome creature obeying

the instructions of others.

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Daan never had any actual contact with Baizhang. After leaving

master Shigong, he stayed at Linming 臨洺 (Hebei province) for a while,

then returned to Shangyuan 上元 and later travelled to Wutai mountains.

Finally, he met the master Guishan Lingyou 潙山霊祐 , as we can read

in the following passage of Zutang ji.

Later, Daan studied under master Lingyou, and together founded

a monastery at Guishan. For over a decade, there were very few

students. Daan plowed the fields one by one and sow seeds, working

hard in many places, devoting himself fully without ever feeling tired

or taking a rest. Master Lingyou told him, “Daan, you shouldn’t push

yourself.” Daan replied, “I shall rest only after my Master sees five

hundred disciples.” After a while, when the number of monks reached

five hundred, Daan finally stopped struggling. (ibid.)

In the 5th year of the Huichang era (845), the temple was devastated in

the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution of emperor Wuzong. After general

amnesty by emperor Xuanzong, the monks could return to Guishan and

Lingyou continued to teach until his death on January 9th in the 7th year of

the Dazhong era (853), aged 83. As Lingyou’s heir, Daan became the next

chief priest of Guishan monastery.

In the 7th year of the Xiantong era (866), during the reign of Emperor

Yizong, Daan left Guishan for good to become the head priest of Yishan

Xichan monastery in Fuzhou. He appointed his disciple Huizhen 恵真 to

become his successor in the 14th year of the Xiantong era (873), and thanks

to Daan’s virtue, the temple received the name Yanshou Chanyuan from the

emperor. Later, in the 3rd year of the Ganfu era (876), Daan was awarded

with a purple robe and the name Yansheng Dashi 延聖大師 . He passed

away on October 14th, 883 (3rd year of the Zhonghe era) at the age of 91.

Let me now concentrate on the hagiography of Baizhang Huaihai百丈懐海 , using the epitaph by Chen Yi 陳翊 titled Tang Hongzhou Baizhangshan gu Huaihai Chanshi taming 唐洪州百丈山故懐海禅師塔銘 (Quantangwen,

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fascicle 446; abbreviated as Baizhang taming 百丈塔銘 ) as a primary source,

with regards to Song gaoseng chuan (fascicle 10) and Jingde chuandeng lu (fascicle 6).

I already mentioned the stele Nanyue beiming 南嶽碑銘 , which was

built during the reign of Emperor Xianzong in 815 (10th year of the Yuanhe

era) under the influence of Mazu Daoyi’s disciples Xingshan Weikuan and

Zhangjing Huaihui. It was in the same Yuanhe era (806 – 820) during the

reign of Emperor Xianzong, thanks to the endavours of the same two

disciples, that Mazu Daoyi was awarded with the posthumous title Daji

Chanshi 大寂禅師 . Concerning the death of Baizhang Huaihai, I adopt the

dates from Chen Yi’s Baizhang taming pagoda, which gives the date January

17th of the 10th year of the Yuanhe era (814), at the age 66.

Born in Changle, Fujian, into the Wang 王 family, Huaihai became

a monk at a young age under Huizhao 慧照 of Xishan, Chaozhou

(Guangdong). Concerning master Huizhao, Luo Xianglin 羅香林 in his

Tangdai wenhuashi 唐代文化史 (Taiwan Commercial Press, 2nd edition, 1963)

identifies him as Nanyue Huairang’s heir Shenzhao 神照 . I accept Luo’s

claim as legitimate. Interestingly, it was recently found that Yaoshan Weiyan

薬山惟儼 also became a monk under Xishan Huizhao in 760 (the first year

of the Shangyuan era), and therefore was Huaihai’s fellow disciple. The

temple is located in the present-day Xian Lu, Chaozhou, and is called

Xiyansi 西岩寺 (or Haichaosi 海潮寺 ). Huaihai received his vows from

priest Fachao 法朝 of Hengshan. Meanwhile, Yaoshan Weiyan received his

vows in 773 (the 8th year of the Dali era) from the priest Xichen (Zao) 希琛(澡)at the Hengyue monastery under Jixianfeng, Hengshan (Nanyue).

Eventually, he developed a connection with Mazu Daoyi. As I

previously mentioned, Mazu’s stupa Mazu taming was built three years after

his death on February 1st, 788 (the 4th year of the Zhenyuan era). It is

evident, that Chen Yi used the inscription on this stupa when composing

Baizhang’s epitaph Baizhang taming. There, we can find the following

passage:

The words of Baizhang were simple, his teachings elaborate, his

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appearance calm and his heart severe. He was respected by his

students, his life was simple, and he never sought for fame and

fortune. That is why his name is not mentioned in Mazu’s epitaph.

I already mentioned that Mazu taming does not include the name of

Huaihai among the list of Mazu’s Dharma heirs. In response to this fact,

Huaihai’s epitaph had to include the above-mentioned explanation.

Another influential source of Mazu Daoyi’s hagiography is an

inscription on his relic case Mazu Chanshi sheli Shihan tiji 馬祖禅師舎利石函題記 , discovered in 1966 at Letan Baofengchanyuan 泐潭宝峰禅院 (also

known as Shimenshan Baofengsi 石門山宝峰寺 ) and presented by Chen

Baiquan 陳柏泉 (Wen shi 文史 vol. 14, 1982). The inscription naturally does

not yet carry Mazu’s posthumous title Daji Chanshi 大寂禅師 .

This pagoda was erected in the seventh year of the Zhenyuan era

(781) of the Tang dynasty, on the seventeenth day of the seventh

month, to house the golden relics of reverend Mazu Daoyi. The Master

entered Nirvana on the fourth year of the Zhenyuan era, on the first

day of the second month. On that occasion he was commemorated by

Li Jian 李兼 , the governor of Hongzhou, Li Qi 李啓 , the county

magistrate of Jianchang, his students from Falin monastery in Shimen,

and others.

Note that the inscription only says “his students from Falin monastery

in Shimen, and others,” and does not include Huaihai as his foremost

disciple. In Baizhang taming, we can read the following passage:

Huihai initially resided at the Shimen Falin monastery, where he

served as a protector of Daji Chanshi’s pagoda. He eventually became

the head priest of Mazu’s Shimen Falin monastery, where he

continued to teach Dharma.

Huaihai was 40 years old at the time of Mazu’s passing. At first, it was

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likely one of Mazu’s many excellent disciples who became the abbot at the

Shimen Falin monastery, and only later was he succeeded by Huaihai.

In Chanlin sengbao chuan 禅林僧宝伝 , fascicle 5, Jiufeng Daoqian chuan

九峰道虔伝 , the following passage can be found: “The grand master Ma

entered Nirvana at the Kaiyuan monastery in Yuzhang. His relics were

buried by his disciples Huaihai, Zhizang, etc. at Shimen in Haihun. Huaihai

resided at the pagoda for over ten years.”

It seems that Huaihai studied under Mazu in the master’s final years.

According to Baizhang taming, after receiving his precepts, Huaihai “went to

Lujiang and studied Tripitaka at the Fucha 浮槎 temple, spending many

years without even having visited a Chan monastery.” The existence of

Tripitaka at Fucha temple was widely known at that time, one of the monks

studying the scripture was Hualin Lingtan 華林霊坦 (709 – 816), the heir of

Heze Shenhui 荷沢神会 . Eventually, Huaihai would “become the disciple of

Daji Chanshi and fully master the mind-seal.” Hence the number of years

prior to meeting Mazu might have been well over a decade, while the period

of studying under Mazu about five years at most, therefore, the generally

accepted theory of Huaihai’s “20 years of apprenticeship” formulated by Ui

Hakuju 宇井伯寿 would prove as false. This is precisely why the author of

Baizhang taming had to make the following explanation about Huaihai’s

position among Mazu’s disciples.

Daji Chanshi had numbers of excellent disciples, each of them would

guide their own students. One of them was summoned to the capital

by the Emperor, others went to teach in rural areas. Only Baizhang

preferred seclusion and lived in a remote place, but even though he

was hiding his name, his fame grew stronger; although he walked his

own path, the number of his followers grew.

In the abovementioned epitaph of Xingshan Weikuan (died in the 17th

year of the Yuanhe era / 817), Xijing Xingshansi Chuanfatang beiming 西京興善寺伝法堂碑銘 , there is not a single note about Baizhang mountain being

the centre of Huaihai ’s activities.

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The inscription states that “Xingshan Weikuan, Xitang Zhizang,

Ganquan Zhixian, Letan Huaikai 泐潭懐海 , Zhangjing (Baiyan)

Huaihui, were all disciples of Chan master Daji.”

Furthermore, Huaihai is introduced as the head priest of the Letan

Baofeng monastery. Naturally, it is not necessary to question the

relationship between Huaihai and the Baizhang mountain.

The Chan Chart (Zhonghua chuan xindi Chanmen shizi chengxi tu 中華伝心地禅門師資承襲図 included in the treatise Pei Xiu Shiyi wen 裴休拾遺問

(Imperial Redactor Pei Xiu’s Inquiry), a literary correspondence in which

Guifeng Zongmi 圭峰宗密 (780 – 841) answers the questions of Pei Xiu 裴休

(791 – 864), written around 830, features the names of the six following

masters: Xingshan Weikuan, Zhangjing Huaihui, Baizhang Huaihai, Xitang

Zhizang, Fenzhou Wuye 汾州無業 (672- 824), and Tianhuang Daowu.

Moreover, the famous story about Baizhang’s enlightenment,

“Baizhang’s wild ducks,” case 53 of Yiyeben Biyan lu 一夜本碧巌録 [Blue

Cliff Record, One Night book], is not included in earlier texts such as

Zutang ji or Jingde chuandeng lu, only appearing for the first time in

Tiansheng guangdeng lu, fascicle 8, chapter Baizhang Huaihai.

Baizhang Huaihai became an attendant to master Mazu. Once when

were walking on the road together, they heard the voice of some wild

ducks. Master Mazu asked, “What is that sound?” Baizhang said, “Wild

ducks.” Mazu said, “Where has the sound gone?” Baizhang said,

“They’ve flown away.” Mazu turned around and twisted Baizhang’s

nose. “Ouch!” said Baizhang. Mazu said, “Do you still think that they

have flown away?” Upon hearing these words, Baizhang reached

enlightenment.

This story is also included in Zutang ji, fascicle 15, chapter Wuxie Lingmo 五洩霊黙 , as an encounter dialogue of Baizhang Weizheng百丈惟政 . Due to this and other stories, it is evident that the dialogue between

Huaihai and Mazu must be a newer addition.

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Huaihai centered his activities around the Baizhang mountain, and

passed away on the seventeenth day of the first month of the ninth year of

the Yuanhe era, at the age of 66. The difference of this figure and the alleged

age of 95 given by Song gaoseng chuan or Jingde chuandeng lu is also a

problem. It is known that Huaihai received the posthumous name Dazhi

Chanshi in the first year of the Qingyuan era (821), during the reign of

emperor Muzong 穆宗 .

By the way, today’s account on Baizhang Huaihai is also related to the

activities of his Dharma heir Guishan Lingyou and his glorification

campaign. The primary source of Lingyou’s hagiography is the inscription

on his stele, titled Tanzhou Daguishan Tongqingsi Dayuan Chanshi beiming bing yu 潭州大潙山同慶寺大円禅師碑銘并序 (Tangwencui 唐文粹 , fascicle 63),

composed by Zheng Yu 鄭愚 in 867 (7th year of the Xiantong era).

I have addressed the problematics of Guishan’s school in Igyōshū no seisui 1 – 6 潙仰宗の盛衰(一)~(六)in Komazawa Daigaku Bukkyōgakubu ronshū vol. 18 – 24, 1987 – 1993. However, since it develops into a significant

problem, I can not discuss it in detail now.

Yanagida Seizan also noted on several occasions, that Linji school had

to borrow the authority of the Guiyang school during the process of its

development. Here I would like to point out, that this illustrates the great

degree of authority which the Guiyang school had. The next famous

passage from the Jingde chuandeng lu describes how Guishan Lingyou

became the head priest of Guishan monastery. It also includes a notable

comment about Baizhang Huaihai.

Once a monk named Sima Toutuo 司馬頭陀 came from Hunan to see

Baizhang. (Sima was a student of Zen and was famed for his ability to

judge a person’s character simply by observing his comportment. He

was also an expert in geomancy, assisting in finding places for new

temples across the country.) Baizhang asked Sima, “The old monk(=I)

would like to go to Guishan, is that possible? Sima Toutuo replied,

“Guishan is an amazing place with the ability to house as many as

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1500 monks. However, I do not think that it is appropriate for master

Baizhang to live there.” Baizhang asked, “Why?” Sima replied, “Your

appearance is too thin, Guishan is a very abundant place. Even if you

became the head priest of the new monastery, a thousand monks

would never gather there.” Baizhang said, “Can you find anyone

suitable among my disciples?” Sima said, “Let me see your students.”

Baizhang called his attendant to bring in the head monk (Hualin).

“What about him?” Baizhang asked. Sima Toutuo made the head monk

cough a bit and walk a few steps and then said, “No, this monk isn’t

suitable.” Next, Baizhang called the cook (Lingyou). Sima said, “This

is the right person to be the abbot of Guishan.” Later that evening,

Baizhang called Lingyou to his quarters and told him, “My place is

here. Guishan is an amazing mountain. Go live there and carry on my

teaching for future generations.” When Hualin heard of this he went to

the master. “With all due respect, I’m the head monk,” he said. “Why is

the Lingyou going to be abbot?” Baizhang said, “If one of my students

can provide a satisfactory answer to my question, I will let him

become the abbot.” He pointed at a water jar and asked: “If you

cannot call it a ‘water jar,’ how else might you call it?” The head monk

said: “You cannot call it a ‘piece of wood!’ ” Baizhang wasn’t satisfied

with this answer. When Baizhang put Lingyou to the same question,

Lingyou kicked the jar over. Master Baizhang laughed and said to the

head monk: “You have just lost the mountain to Lingyou.” Thus,

Baizhang made Lingyou the head priest of the new monastery at

Guishan. (Zenbunka edition, p.133.)

The original text describes Baizhang as “bony 骨人 ,” which I took as

“thin appearance,” whereas Guishan is described as “fleshy mountain 肉山 ,” meaning “abundant.” These expressions likely come from Chinese

physiognomy and Feng Shui 風水 , however, the details are not known. The

comment about Baizhang being “bony” is particularly interesting. As I

already pointed out, Daan assisted Guishan Lingyou with the opening of the

new monastery, and after Lingyou’s passing he became the next abbot.

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Guishan Lingyou always reminds me of master Yangshan Huiji 仰山慧寂 (807 – 883), one of the founders of The Guiyang school 潙仰宗 , the first

of the Five Houses of Chan.

The inscription on his memorial pagoda, titled Yangshan Tongzhi Dashi taming 仰山通智大師塔銘 (Quantangwen 全唐文 , fascicle 813), composed in

895 by Lu Xisheng 陸希声 , provides the names of three main disciples of

Guishan Lingyou: Yangshan Huiji, Changqing Daan and Xiangyan Zhixian 香厳智閑 . “Yangshan resided in Jiangxi and dominated Dragon, the deity of

water. Daan lived in Minyue and brought the blessing of rain. Xiangyan

stayed in Nanyang and stopped a disastrous hailstorm.” The three masters

are described as “different presons of the same flesh.” Notice that at that

time, Daan is listed as one of three disciples of Lingyou, whereas later he

became known as a disciple of Baizhang, most likely due to Baizhang’s

glorification campaign. Baizhang is best known as a creator of Chan

monastic rules, usually referred to as “rules of purity” 清規 , and was

traditionally perceived as one of the two principal figures in the history of

Chan together with Bodhidharma, because of his role as the originator of

Chan monasticism, marking the emergence of Chan as an institutionally

independent tradition. However, as I point out in Hyakujō shingi no kenkyū: ‘Zenmon kishiki ’ to ‘Hyakujō koshingi.’ 百丈清規の研究─「禅門規式」と『百丈古清規』─ in: Komazawa Daigaku Zenkenkyūjo nenpō, vol. 6 (1995), there

were actually no codified monastic rules in Baizhang’s time, and the Chan

school itself did not have any unified rules.

Therefore, it is safe to say, that the position of master Baizhang

Huaihai in the history of Chan is actually a result of a glorification

campaign from later era.

3. Mazu’s “White and Black”

I already explained about the position of Xitang Zhizang and Baizhang

Huaihai in the early stages of Mazu’s lineage. Eventually, these two masters

came to be seen as equally important. The “Baizhang Huaihai” chapter of

the Sibu congkan edition of the Song version of Jingde chuandeng lu, fascicle

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6, begins with the following case of Mazu’s moon viewing.

Chan master Baizhang Huaihai of Hongzhou was a native of Zhangle

in Fuzhou. When young, he left the dust of the world and deeply

penetrated the three studies 三学 . After receiving teachings from

master Daji at mt. Gonggong 龔公 in Nankang, his heart inclined

unreservedly to studying there. Together with Chan master Xitang

Zhizang they were called the master’s main heirs. One night, the two

were attending Mazu as they viewed the full moon. Mazu asked them,

“How do you see this time of full moon (=complete enlightenment)?.”

Xitang said, “It’s ideal for a ceremony.” Baizhang said, “It’s ideal for

practice.” Mazu said, “Zhizang has gained the teachings (lit. Sutra

pitaka), Huaihai has gained the practice.”

In this case, it is safe to say that Mazu approved of both answers,

evaluating his two students equally. The same case, “Mazu’s moon viewing,”

is also included in the “Baizhang Huaihai” chapter of the 8th fascicle of

Tiansheng guangdeng lu 天聖広燈録 , however, with the addition of Nanquan

Puyuan 南泉普願 (748 – 835).

While there is no doubt about Nanquan Puyuan being one of Mazu

Daoyi’s disciples, as I said earlier, there is no mention of his name in the

early stages of Mazu’s school. The reason why his name appears in the later

version of this case most probably lies in the efforts of Nanquan’s disciple

Zhaozhou Congshen 趙州従諗 (778 – 897). Another notable point besides

the Guiyang school is that, as I described in Minami no Seppō, kita no Jōshū 南の雪峰・北の趙州 (in: Chūgoku zenshūshiwa), the counterpart to the

influential Xuefeng Yicun 雪峰義存 (822 – 908) in the south was not Linji

Yixuan 臨済義玄 (? - 866), but rather Zhaozhou Congshen 趙州従諗 . There

is no doubt that it is due to the spread of Kanna Zen/Kanhua Chan and the

Mu-kōan during the Song dynasty, that the influence of Zhaozhou’s teaching

grew even stronger. This brings me to the question of existence of a third

Chan school, which formed around Nanquan Puyuan, independent from

Mazu’s Southern and Northern lineages, but which might have had a link to

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the Caodong school. However, this topic is very broad and strays from the

main subject, so I shall leave it for now.

Baizhang Huaihai, Xitang Zhizang, and Nanquan Puyuan were called

master Mazu’s main heirs. One night, the three were attending Mazu

as they viewed the full moon. Mazu asked them, “How do you see this

time of full moon (=complete enlightenment)?.” Xitang said, “It’s ideal

for a ceremony.” Baizhang said, “It’s ideal for practice.” Nanquan

shook his sleeves and immediately walked away. Mazu said, “Zhizang

has gained the teachings (lit. Sutra pitaka), Huaihai has gained the

practice, but Puyuan alone has gone beyond all things.”

There seems to be a traditional interpretation of this kōan, which

treats the three student’s answers as equal. However, I believe that the high

appraisal of Nanquan Puyuan can at the same time be seen as the

evaluation of Zhaozhou Congshen, and it should be understood as a new

interpretation of the traditional Chan story. Here, the storyline follows the

historical development of Chan, with the first two disciples beginning their

studies with the classical teachings of Shakyamuni in Sutra pitaka, followed

by the higher teachings of Chan practice, and finally Nanquan’s silent action

presented as the primary principle of Chan.

To examine this case even further, I will use “Mazu’s White and

Black,” the 6th case of Congrong lu 従 容 録 [Book of Equanimity] by

Wansong Xingxiu 万松行秀 (1166 –1246).

In the second fascicle of Song edition of Tiantong Zhengyue’s 天童正覚 (1091 – 1157) Hongzhi lu 宏智録 , which is based on the “Mazu Daoyi”

chapter of the third fascicle of Zongmen tongyao ji 宗門統要集 , the case

goes as follows:

A monk asked Great Master Mazu, “Apart from the four propositions

and beyond the hundred negations, please directly point out the

meaning of Bodhidharma’s coming from India.”

The Great Master said, “I’m tired out today and cannot explain for

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you. Go ask Zhizang.” Zhizang said, “Why don’t you ask the teacher?”

The monk said, “The teacher told me to come ask you.” Zhizang said,

“I have a headache today and cannot explain for you. Ask older

brother Huaihai.” The monk asked Huaihai. Huaihai said, “When I

come this far, after all I don’t understand.” The monk reported this to

the Great Master Mazu. Mazu said, “Zhizang’s head is white, Huaihai’s

head is black.”

Tiantong adds the following verse:

In India, medicine called milk can cause illness. Learn from the sages

of the past. The patient becomes a great doctor. Who is that person?

(It has to be father Mazu.) White-headed Zhizang, black-headed

Huaihai, capable heirs of Mazu’s house. Statement or no statement,

both are an excellent sword with the ability to cut off flowing water.

Clearly cutting off the road of speech. (The three including Mazu) are

laughing at the cheap silence of Vimalakīrti at Vaisali.

Starting with the “Mazu Daoyi” chapter in the 14th fascicle of Zutang ji, the position of Baizhang Huaihai in Mazu’s school shifts from the

previously-described, as he already starts to be addressed as Xitang’s

senior. Eventhough the positioning of the two disciples in Mazu’s school

shifts through the ages, in the case and verse given in Tiantong’s book, we

can read that Zhizang’s head is white / Zhizang is white-headed, and

Huaihai’s head is black/ Huaihai is black-headed. The exact meaning of

Mazu’s statement “Zhizang’s head is white, Huaihai’s head is black.” is not

quite clear, however, Tiantong’s verse “White-headed Zhizang, black-headed

Huaihai, capable heirs of Mazu’s house” indicates, that both disciples were

in an equal position.

In his commentary to this case, Wansong presents yet another

interpretation, explaining “black and white” as the colour of monk’s robe

(black) as opposed to that of layman’s clothes (white), placing Baizhang in

a higher position than Xitang.

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A monk asked Great Master Mazu, “Apart from the four propositions

and beyond the hundred negations, please directly point out the

meaning of Bodhidharma’s coming from India.” Everywhere they call

this a “shackled-mouth question” (i.e. it is not possible to answer it

with words). Mazu slowly answered, “I am tired today and cannot

explain for you. Go ask Zhizang.” Without giving any oral instructions,

Mazu tried to move the monk directly. However, the student got more

confused. He proceeded to ask Zhizang, who only said, in compliance

with his master’s intention, “Why don’t you ask the teacher?” Without

being able to find a single clue, the monk said, “The teacher told me to

come ask you.” Zhizang said, “I have a headache today and cannot

explain for you. Ask elder brother Huaihai.” Like father (Mazu), like

son (Zhizang). The monk asked Huaihai. Huaihai said, “When I come

this far, after all I don’t understand.” I thought Hou Bai (=Zhizang) was

a go-getter, but wait, here is even more clever Hou Hei (=Huaihai).

Although the monk didn’t have a sanguine nature, still he saw things

through from start to finish. He came back and reported this to the

Great Master Mazu. Mazu said, “Zhizang is very clever, but Huaihai is

superior.”

Wansong likens Zhizang to Hou Bai and Huaihai to Hou Hei, two

characters known from Qin Guan’s 秦観 (1049 – 1100) Huaihai ji 淮海集 ,

fascicle 25, “A Tale of Two Hous.”

In the land of Min 閩 , there was a bandit named Hou Bai. Using

different tricks, he would often cheat people without ever being

noticed. The townspeople were very afraid of Hou Bai and hated him,

yet there was no one who could fight him. One day, he met a female

thief named Hou Hei. She was roaming around a well, as if she had

lost something. Hou Bai found it suspicious and asked Hou Hei what

happened. Hou Hei said: “Unfortunately, I dropped an earring into the

well. It cost hundred gold pieces, and if there is anyone who finds it, I

will pay him half the price in return. Would you like to try?” Hou Bai

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paused and thought for a while: “This lady says she’d lost her earring.

If I find it, I could steal it from her.” He decided to give it a try. He took

off his clothes and placed them next to the well, suspended a rope and

climbed inside. When Hou Hei saw that Hou Bai reached the bottom,

she immediately grabbed his clothes and ran away. From that day on,

when the people of Min deceive each other, they say “I am like Hou

Bai, but he is like the ever-smarter Hou Hei.”

From a place of non-duality and no words, when asked for an oral

explanation of enlightenment, Mazu did not answer, saying that he’s tired,

and made his disciple Xitang answer instead. Xitang, in turn, said he had a

headache, sending the monk to Baizhang. Wansong comments on this in the

sentence “Like father (Mazu), like son (Zhizang).” Baizhang said, “I don’t

understand.” (不会 ) Wansong comments: “I thought Hou Bai (=Zhizang)

was a go-getter, but wait, here is even more clever Hou Hei (=Huaihai).”

Because of that, he adds Mazu’s final comment, “Zhizang is very clever, but

Huaihai is superior.” At that time, the position of Baizhang in Mazu’s school

was already unshakable.

4. Conclusion

The appraisal of Baizhang Huaihai most likely began during the late-

Tang rebellion led by Huang Chao 黄巣 and the subsequent uprising of

Wang Xianzhi 王仙芝 in the Jiangxi area, and became solidified after Zhong

Chuan’s 鍾傳 (? - 906) seizure of Jiangxi in the second year of the Zhonghe

era (882) and his subsequent patronage over Chan.

The two kōans I presented today, “Mazu’s moon viewing” and “Mazu’s

‘White and Black’ ” first became widely known probably after the publishing

of the now lost Xu Baolin chuan 続宝林伝 by Nanyue Weijin南嶽惟勁 in 911

(5th year of the Kaiping era).

Moreover, as I already pointed out, the rules for Chan monastic

discipline (=the Pure Rules of Baizhang) included in Song gaoseng chuan (completed in 988) and Jingde chuandeng lu (completed in 1004), were based

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on the actual rules of the Baizhang mountain monastery, which had been

renewed under the patronage of Zhong Chuan. This is why in the Song gaoseng chuan, we can find the following passage:

The whole Chan school was crushed down, as it were grass in the

wind, and started to gain its independence only with Baizhang Huaihai.

What exactly was the meaning of the monk’s question in the kōan

“Mazu’s ‘White and Black’” I examined today? “Apart from the four

propositions and beyond the hundred negations, please directly point out

the meaning of (Bodhidharma’s) coming from India.” In other words, he is

asking Mazu to “show” him what is Zen and enlightenment, without the use

of reason, judgement and language. Wansong highly appreciates this

question, commenting:

This monk seems to have studied Buddhism thoroughly. He demanded

to have the meaning of Chan (which cannot be explained with words

and letters) pointed out, apart from the four propositions and beyond

the hundred negations.

Wansong continues:

If you realize the truth clearly and thoroughly, nothing is not it.

Looking at it the other way around, without abandoning the four

propositions or the hundred negations, where is the meaning of

Bodhidharma’s coming from India not clear?

I translated the original word duandi 端的 (simple, straightforward) as

“clearly and thoroughly.” In Chan literature, there is an opposite expression

duozi 多子 , meaning “lenghty” or “tedious.”

In a famous story, Linji Yixuan, after reaching enlightenment under

Gaoan Dayu 高安大愚 , said: “Huangbo’s teaching wasn’t tedious 多子 after

all.” In other words, “(I misunderstood Huangbo’s teaching as something

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difficult and annoying, full of reason, judgement and language), yet from the

start, Huangbo has been teaching the truth clearly and thoroughly,” he

exclaimed.

At the beginning, I explained that the essence of Mazu’s Chan lies in

the words “Only be ordinary.” This explains why, when asked by a monk to

“directly point out the meaning of Bodhidharma’s coming from India, apart

from the four propositions and beyond the hundred negations,” Mazu,

Xitang and Baizhang all replied in a very simple way.

This story of “Mazu’s ‘White and Black,’ ” however, was created in the

time when Baizhang’s position in Mazu’s lineage had already been secured.

For that reason, he had to be treated equally to Xitang, who was the original

representative of Mazu’s lineage.

Concerning the origin of the “Mazu’s ‘White and Black’ ” case, Ogawa

Takashi 小川隆 presents a new interpretation in Zoku: Goroku no Kotoba, Hekiganroku to Sōdai no Zen. 続・語録のことば─『碧巌録』と宋代の禅 .

Zen bunka kenkyūjo, 2010. As a base for his theory, he uses the article by Li

Zhuangying 李壮鷹 , Chanyu jieshuo - “Toubai ” yu “Touhei ” 禅語解説─〝頭白〟与〝頭黒〟in: Journal of Beijing Normal University (Social Science), 1996,

issue 2 (vol. 134).

Ogawa writes:

In his article, (Li) argues that in Minbei (northern Fujian), there are

certain dialects which do not discriminate the consonants “ t~” and

“ h~,” therefore, pronunciation of the character tóu 頭 (head) is

identical with the pronunciation of hóu 侯 (a surname). It is possible,

that Mazu, who had at certain point of his life resided in that area,

might have been influenced by the local dialect, and the names “Hóu

Bái 侯白 and Hóu Hēi 侯黒 ” might have been changed to “white head,

black head” (tóubái 頭白 , tóuhēi 頭黒 ). (p. 36)

Based on this theory, he analyzes a classical case related to “Houhai

and Hou Hei,” and also includes the previously mentioned Huaihai ji by Qin

Guan. If we accept the theory from Li’s article,

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we should probably say that “Zang is white-headed, Hai is black-

headed,” rather than “Zang’s head is white, Hai’s head is black.” In any

case, Mazu evaluates his disciples saying “Zhizang is a cunning man,

but Huaihai is even smarter.”

Ogawa continues:

It is also possible, that Mazu and Xitang’s answers only try to evade

language, while Baizhang uses words to negate it (i.e. kill words using

words). If we understand it this way, it is only natural that Mazu

praises Baizhang for being even more wicked.

What seems interesting to me is the following conclusion:

Even if the alleged Mazu’s statement had not originally been “Hou Hai

and Hou Hei,” I believe that, judging from the development of this

subject and the weight of the word “black,” the case could still be

interpreted in the above-mentioned manner. “When I come this far,

after all I don’t understand.” The point of this sentence lies in the

expression “after all” (却 ). If it wasn’t for this logic-bending expression,

and the contrast of the words “white” and “black,” I believe this case

would have been quite ordinary.

As I mentioned above, the traditional version of this case as recorded

in Hongzhi songgu 宏智頌古 does not say “Zang is white-headed (=Hou Hai),

Hai is black-headed (=Hou Hei),” instead it says “Zang’s head is white, Hai’s

head is black.” The same interpretation appears in Xuedou songgu 雪竇頌古 ,

case 75. However, if we consider that these texts evolved in the time when

Baizhang’s position in Mazu’s lineage had already been seen as superior to

that of Xitang, it is possible to give our attention to Ogawa Takashi’s theory.

From a historical standpoint, the expression “Zang is Hou Hai, Hai is Hou

Hei” does not appear until Wansong Xingxiu’s commentary in Conrong lu.

The following kōan, which appears in the 14th fascicle of Zutang ji, chapter Shigong Huicang 石鞏慧蔵 and is known under the title “Shigong

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grasps emptiness,” can be seen as an example of the decline of Xitang’s

position in Mazu’s lineage.

Shigong asked Xitang, “Do you know how to grasp emptiness?” Xitang

said, “Yes, I know.” Shigong said, “How do you grasp it?” Xitang

grabbed at the air with his hand. Shigong said, “If you do it that way,

you really won’t be able to grasp emptiness.” Xitang asked Shigong,

“How do you grasp it, then?” Shigong grabbed Xitang’s nose and

pulled. Xitang screamed in pain and yelled, “How cruel! You’re pulling

my nose off!” Shigong said, “This is how you have to grasp emptiness.”

The same case is included in Jingde chuandeng lu, fascicle 6, chapter

Shigong Huicang, or in Liandeng Huiyao 聯燈会要 , fascicle 5, chapter Shigong Huicang, where Shigong also plays the role of Xitang’s senior, while Xitang is

portrayed as a complete loser. Moreover, compared to the previously

mentioned story about Baizhang’s enlightenment, “Baizhang’s wild ducks,”

which was completed in earlier times, the case “Shigong grasps emptiness”

can be understood as completely opposite.

The later development is well illustrated in the commentary verse of

Yiyeben Biyan lu, case 11, “Huangbo’s Gobblers of Dregs.” This case

describes the time when Huangbo Xiyun went to see Baizhang.

The next day he took leave of Baizhang. Baizhang. asked, “Where are

you going?” Huangbo replied, “To Jiangxi to see the Great Master Ma.”

Baizhang said, “The Great Master Ma has already passed on.” Huangbo

asked, “What did he teach when he was alive? Baizhang then told him

the story of his second encounter with Mazu, when he went deaf for

three days. Huangbo unconsciously stuck out his tongue in awe.

Baizhang said, “After this, won’t you be a successor of the Great

Master Ma?” Huangbo said, “What are you trying to say? Today,

because you told me your story, I’ve gotten to see the Great Master

Ma’s great capacity and its great function; but if I were to succeed to

Master Ma, in the future I would be bereft of descendants.” (Itō Yūten

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edition, pp. 60 – 61. English translation adapted from The Blue Cliff Record by Thomas Cleary.)

In the most common version of Biyan lu based on the Zhang edition,

we can find the following addition:

Baizhang said, “It is so, it is so. If your view equals your teacher, you

have less than half your teacher’s virtue. Only when your wisdom goes

beyond your teacher are you worthy to pass on the transmission. As

your view is right now, it seems that you have ability which transcends

any teacher.”

The traditional lineage of Mazu Daoyi ─ Baizhang Huaihai ─ Huangbo

Xiyun was validated in Tiansheng guangdeng lu, 百丈懐海章 fascicle 8,

chapter Baizhang Huaihai, creating a strong base for the domination of Chan

history by the Linji school.

With the establishment of Kanna-Zen, kōans start to function as a tool

of “speech which transcends reason” (a problem whose main point is that it

is impossible to logically understand) to lead students to enlightenment

(breaking through thought and causing a burst of consciousness).

The different fractions of Japanese Rinzai school, especially after

Hakuin Ekaku 白隠慧鶴 (1685 – 1768), started to adopt the aspect of

Hakuin’s teachings into their practice. This is where kōans play their role in

the search for truth, crossing over time and space.

Today, I tried to explain the need for clarification of the process in

which kōans were developed. I see this as one of the issues of Zen studies in

the 21st century. I do not feel it is possible to clarify all of the existing kōans,

on the contrary, it might actually be impossible, however, this time I decided

to make such an attempt.

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日本語の原文

        公案の思想史研究の試み    ─ 馬祖白黒の公案を例として

一 はじめに ─ 馬祖教団における西堂智蔵について

 荷沢神会(684~ 758)の活躍は、結果的に南宗禅が禅宗教団の主流を形成することの原因となったが、結局、教団としてその主流を担ったのは、神会の系統ではなく、同門の青原行思(673~ 741)と南嶽懐譲(677~744)の二系統である。特に南嶽の弟子の馬祖道一(709~ 788)の活躍は、禅宗の歴史に大きな影響を与えた。柳田聖山(1921~ 2006)の「馬祖禅の諸問題」(『禅仏教の研究〈柳田聖山集第 1巻〉』所収、1999年、初出論文、1968年)に次のように述べている。中国禅宗の実質的な形成は、馬祖およびその門下たちの多彩な活動よりはじまる。だいいち、禅宗という呼称が、明確な内容をもって用いられるのは、かれらの説法の特色である。……資料の上で初期の禅思想の解明に、大きい意味をもつ敦煌文献が、馬祖および馬祖以降の時代に対して、ほとんど無言であることが注目される。……何よりも重要なのは、馬祖以後の禅宗が、従来の仏教と極めて異質なものとなっていたことである。……馬祖以後の中国禅宗は、あまりにも中国的であったのだ。敦煌にも、チベットにも、朝鮮および日本にも、甚だ受け入れ難い土着性をもっていたのである。しかも、そうした馬祖禅の個性は、文献の上で「語録」という新しい様式と、そうした様式を必要とする内容的な思想を創造した点にあるのである。(381~ 382頁)

 また、入矢義高(1910~ 1998)編『馬祖の語録』(禅文化研究所、1984

年)の入矢の「序」の冒頭でも、次の通り言っている。中国の禅は、実質的には馬祖から始まった。禅をもって仏教の帰結とする理念が明確な自覚として宣明されたからであり、しかもその自覚が、教義の解釈や研究という形でなしに、具体的な日常の営為のなかで実践的に形成され体認されたものだったからである。……盛唐から中唐への転変の時期なればこそ多くの人びとを引きつけ得たその馬祖禅の魅力は、では一体どこにあったのであろうか。そのことは、馬祖

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禅の核心は何であったかという問いに関わってくる。いま馬祖自身の言葉と、彼が弟子たちを接化した記録、また弟子たちが彼について語った言葉などから帰納して、敢えて一言でその端的をいうならば、「作用即性」または「日用即妙用」ということになる。

 これらの意味するところは、初期の菩提達摩の学系は『楞伽経』の研究者であり、楞伽師と呼ばれるのであるが、その『楞伽経』の再編を行ったのが馬祖なのである。同時に問答や日常生活で神会の強調した「頓悟」が徹底されるのである。 禅問答の代表的な「祖師西来意」の問いとは、禅宗の開祖達磨はインドより中国に来て何を伝えたか、別の言い方をすれば禅宗は何を説き、悟りとは何かという、禅修行者の根本的な重要な問いの一つである。ところが、私の『中国禅宗史話─真字「正法眼蔵」に学ぶ』(禅文化研究所、1988年)に取り上げたように、馬祖は既にこの解答を示していたのである。つまり、馬祖は『祖堂集』巻 14の中でも『楞伽経』を根拠に次のように述べていたのである。毎つね

に衆に謂い

いて曰く、汝、今い

ま各おの

おの自心是こ

れ仏、此こ

の心即すなわ

ち是れ仏心なることを信ぜよ。是の故に達摩大師、南天竺国より来たりて、上乗一心の法を伝えて、汝をして開悟せしむ。又た数

しば

しば『楞伽経』の文を引いて以て衆生の心地に印す。汝が顛倒して自ら此の一心の法の各おのおの

各之こ

れ有るを信ぜざるを恐おそ

るればなり、故に『楞伽経』に云く、『仏の語る心を宗と為し、無門を法門と為す』と。〈每謂衆曰、汝今各信自心是仏、此心即是仏心。是故達摩大師従南天竺国来、伝上乗一心之法、令汝開悟。又数引楞伽経文以印衆生心地、恐汝顛倒不自信、此一心之法、各各有之、故楞伽経云、仏語心為宗、無門為法門。〉(中華書局本 610頁)

 このように、達磨は上乗の一心を伝えたというのである。その一心とは「即

そくしんぜぶつ

心是仏(=外ならぬわれわれの心が仏の心と異なることはない)」と言い切ったのである。馬祖はまた『楞伽経』に基づきながら、「平

びょうじょうしんぜどう

常心是道」という、つまり、日常のあらゆる行為が法性・仏性のあらわれで、「平常無事」というのである。その主張を「作用即性」説と呼ぶ。あらゆる日常の行為を現実態として、法性・仏性を本来性とするならば、この両者を「心」のもとに無媒介に等置したものと表現したのである。現在では、小川隆『語録のことば─唐代の禅』(禅文化研究所、2007年)に詳論されるように、

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この馬祖の主張の祖師西来意が既定の事実として、問答とは自己を問うことであり、たとえば趙州従諗(778~ 897)の唐代の「柏樹子」の話の公案の元来の成り立ちが解明されるようになってきている。 なお、近年の英語による馬祖道一の研究には、Mario Poceskiの “Ordinary

mind as the way: the Hongzhou school and the growth of Chan Buddhism”

(Oxford University Press, 2007)と “The Records of Mazu and the Making

of Classical Chan Literature”(Oxford University Press, 2015)がある。 このように、中国禅は実質的には、馬祖道一からはじまり、歴史的には、その代表的な弟子である百丈懐海(749~ 814)の法系が、禅宗の主流として最大の教団の臨済宗へと発展して行くのである。更に、宋代の至って大慧宗杲(1089~ 1163)が公案を使用して修行者を「悟り」へと導く看話禅を集大成し、禅そのものの性格が決定づけられた。看話禅の成立過程は、私の硏究で明らかにしたように、紹興 4年(1134)に福州において、雪峰山の曹洞宗の真歇清了(1088~ 1151)の黙照邪禅の批判から生まれてきたのである。 ところが、百丈懐海は、最初から馬祖教団(洪州宗)を代表し、重んじられた訳ではなかった。このことを私が始めて紹介した馬祖の法嗣の西堂智蔵(738~ 817)の唐枝撰「龔公山西堂勅諡大覚禅師重建大宝光塔碑銘」(「西堂碑銘」と略称す)で、初期の馬祖教団の状況を考えてみよう。この碑は最初に「洪州宗における西堂智蔵の位置について」(『印度学仏教学研究』第 27巻第 1号、1978年)で原文を発表し、『中国禅宗史話』で補正し、訓読文を掲載して紹介したものである。 初期の禅宗史の解明に使用された敦煌文献、例えば『歴代法宝記』(775

年頃成立)や 20世紀に発見された『宝林伝』(801年成立、10巻の内、7・9・10欠)に比べると、それに継ぐその後の伝存の第一次資料は、南唐保大 10年(952)に成立した『祖堂集』20巻と、端拱元年(988)に成立した『宋高僧伝』30巻と、景徳元年(1004)に成立した『景徳伝燈録』30

巻までには断絶があるのである。馬祖教団の動向を解明するには、敦煌文献に直結する伝世資料は批判的にしか利用できない現状においては、どうしても碑文を第一とせざるを得ないのである。 「西堂碑銘」もまた馬祖道一に触れて、その法嗣である西堂智蔵を次のように位置づけている。儒仏道の三つの聖なる教えを信ずる者は、中唐以後では、儒教が最も

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盛んで、道教は勢力が弱い。だが、仏教は儒教と肩を並べて勢いがあり、中でも偉大な指導者に大寂禅師馬祖道一という者がいる。俗姓は馬氏であり、彼は釈尊の十大弟子も及ばぬほどの優れ者である。更に大覚禅師西堂智蔵なる者がいて、馬祖の優れた弟子である。〈服庸於三聖之教、国朝中興之後、偉儒最多、偉道班班。然仏之教与儒偕。而尤為龍為象者、曰大寂禅師。俗姓馬氏、禅師大雄十大弟子不若也。有大覚禅師、又馬禅師之上足也。〉

つづいて、西堂智蔵の簡単な行状をまとめている。大覚禅師は、俗姓を廖といい、智蔵と号し、南康郡(江西省贛県)の出身である。始め一三歳のとき臨川の西裡山で馬祖に師事した。更に七年を経て、馬祖の法を嗣いだ。馬祖が教化しようとした時に、西堂は鐘陵(ここでは当時の洪州を指す)より龔公山(贛県)へ庵を移した。西堂はその門人の中で、ますます重んじられた。馬祖が(貞元 4

年(788)に)遷化しても、西堂は修行者を教え導くこと、馬祖の生前と全く変わらなかった。〈惟大覚禅師、廖姓、智蔵号、生南康郡。年十三、首事大寂於臨川西裡山。又七年、遂受之法。大寂将欲示化、自鍾陵、結茅龔公山。於門人中、益為重。大寂殁、師教聚其清信衆、如寂之存。〉

 この「西堂碑銘」は、会昌の破仏後の咸通 15年(874)2月 8日に建立され、覚顕が元豊 2年(1079)7月 15日に重建したもので、最初の西堂の碑文は長慶 4年(824)に李渤(773~ 831)が撰碑していたが、会昌の破仏で破壊されたことが知られ、その内容を重建碑は継承している。また、貞元 7年(791)に建碑された馬祖の権徳輿(759~ 818)撰「洪州開元寺石門道一禅師塔碑銘并序」(『唐文粹』巻 64,「馬祖碑銘」と略称す)を踏まえていることが判明する。 その「馬祖碑銘」に出てくる法嗣名を具名で順次に示すと、①大珠慧海・②西堂智蔵(738~ 817)・③鎬英・④甘泉志賢・⑤棲霊智通・⑥天皇道悟(748~ 807)・⑦章敬懐暉(756~ 815)・⑧興善惟寛(755~ 817)・⑨智広・⑩崇泰・⑪恵雲の 11人である。その中で、諱のみ知られる人は行状もよく判らず、ただ、最初の大珠慧海のみは『頓悟要門』の著者として有名である。また、『宋高僧伝』巻 9の「太原甘泉寺志賢伝」によると、大宝元年(742)に福建省の仏跡巌で馬祖に最初期に師事した人として知られているが、『景徳伝燈録』では機縁の語句も伝わってはいない。更に、石頭

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希遷の法嗣として伝承されるようになる天皇道悟については、『中国禅宗史話』の「天皇道悟と天王道悟」で述べたように、嗣法を巡って大問題を引き起こすことになる。特に、⑦⑧および百丈懐海の名が無いことについては、後述する。『宋高僧伝』巻 10の「唐洪州開元寺道一伝」は、権徳輿の碑銘を踏まえて、②③⑩の三人が送葬に参じたことを示している。また、西堂智蔵がその伝に付伝として取り上げられる。属たま

たま元戎の路嗣恭は大寂を請うて府に居らしむるに、蔵は乃ち郡くに

に迴かえ

るに、大寂の納袈裟を付さず け

授るを得たり。〈属元戎路嗣恭請大寂居府。蔵乃迴郡、得大寂付授納袈裟。」〉(大正蔵巻 50─ 766 c)

 ここに、伝法の袈裟が伝えられたことを特記しているのは、初期の馬祖教団を支えた禅者として参考になろう。 「西堂碑銘」が知られるようになって、最も興味深い問題は、次の記事である。長安の興善寺の長老に惟寛という者がおり、諡号を大徹禅師という。西堂智蔵と同じく馬祖道一の弟子である。西堂と宗風が異なっている。惟寛は北を根拠とし、西堂は南を根拠としている。あたかも慧能と神秀とが、以前に南北に分かれたようである。〈上都興善寺禅老曰惟寛、勅諡大徹、亦大寂之門弟子也。与師名相差。惟寛宗於北、師宗於南。又若能与秀、分於昔者矣。〉

 周知の南宗と北宗の相違であるが、章敬懐暉の法嗣の大薦福寺弘弁が、宣宗の「禅宗になぜ南北の名があるのか」の問いに答えた『景徳伝燈録』巻 9の次の語が簡潔で解りやすい。

第五祖弘忍大師に曁およ

んで、蘄きしゅう

州の東山に在りて開法す。時に二弟子有り。一は慧能と名づく。衣法を受けて嶺

れいなん

南に居して六祖と為る。一は神秀と名づく。北に在りて化を揚ぐ。其の後、神秀の門人普寂は本師を立てて第六祖と為し、而

しか

して自ら七祖と称す。其の所得の法は一と雖も、而るに開導発悟するに頓漸の異

ことな

り有り。故に南頓北漸と曰う。禅宗に本

とより南北の号有るにあらざるなり。〈暨第五祖弘忍大師、在蘄州東山開法。時有二弟子。一名慧能。受衣法居嶺南為六祖。一名神秀。在北揚化。其後神秀門人普寂立本師為第六祖、而自称七祖。其所得法雖一、而開導発悟有頓漸之異。故曰、南頓北漸。非禅宗本有南北之号也。〉(禅文化本 143頁)

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 興善惟寛と西堂智蔵の相違を原文の「名相」を「宗風」の意味としたが、当時の禅宗の動向から言って、「南宗」の優位は動かせないであろう。そのように理解すべきだとすると、北地と南地の地理上の相違だけではないことになる。長安の都を中心とする興善惟寛の活躍に比べて、六祖慧能と同じく南地の洪州において活躍した馬祖道一の忠実な継承者としての西堂智蔵を高く顯彰したことになろう。また、頓悟を説く慧能と漸悟を説く神秀のように、興善惟寛が漸悟を説いていたとする明確な文献は見いだせないが、興善惟寛には、白居易(772~ 846)撰「西京興善寺伝法堂碑銘」(『全唐文』巻 678)があって、行状を知ることができる。確かに次のようにその基礎に律宗や天台宗の止観がある。二四歳で、僧崇に受戒し、僧如に律を学んだ。その後、天台止観を習い、最後に、馬祖道一に師事して禅を学んで嗣法した。〈(二四歳)受尸羅於僧崇、学毘尼於僧如。如証大乗法於天台止観、成最上乗道於大寂道一。〉

 更に、この人の特異な主張は、柳田聖山『初期禅宗史書の研究』(法蔵館、1967年)で強調される興善惟寛の五十九祖の祖統説であろう。釈迦如来は涅槃せんと欲

るに、正法の密印を以て摩訶迦葉に付し、伝えて馬鳴に至る。又

た十二葉して、伝えて師子比丘に至る。及び二十四葉して、伝えて仏駄先那に至る。先那は円覚達摩に伝え、……(南嶽懐)譲は洪州道一に伝え、一は諡を大寂と曰

い、(大)寂は即ち師(興善惟寛)の師なり。……仏は一印を以て迦葉に付し、師に至りて五十有九葉なり。故に師堂を名づけて伝法と為す。〈釈迦如来欲涅槃時、以正法密印付摩訶迦葉、伝至馬鳴。又十二葉伝至師子比丘。及二十四葉伝至仏駄先那。先那伝円覚達摩、……譲伝洪州道一、一諡曰大寂、寂即師之師。……仏以一印付迦葉、至師五十有九葉。故名師堂為伝法。〉

 この説によれば、仏駄先那が五十祖で、菩提達摩が五十一祖となり、一般に知られる禅宗開祖の菩提達摩の二十八祖説とは異なるもので、柳田は『宝林伝』の傍系説を受けた僧祐の『出三蔵記集』第 12の『薩婆多部記目録』によるものとするのである。薩婆多部(Sabbatthavāda)とは小乗の説一切有部のことである。貞元 17年(801)に朱陵(または金陵)の沙門智炬(または恵炬)の編纂した『宝林伝』は、インド七祖を婆須蜜とし、祖統説として菩提達摩を二十八祖とする説を確立して、現在でも伝承される

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『景徳伝燈録』以降の祖統説の源流となるものである。祖統説の成立過程は紆余曲折を経るが、これを婆須蜜系の祖統説といい、二十四祖を舎那婆斯とする系統が中国においてむしろ多いのが現状だったのと対象的である。 ところで、馬祖門下で北地で活躍した人に鵝胡大義(748~ 818)がいる。彼の行状は、韋処厚(773~ 828)撰「興福寺内道場供奉大徳大義禅師碑」(『全唐文』巻 715)に詳しい。彼は孝文皇帝(徳宗)に召され、徳宗が永貞元年(805)1月 22日に崩ずると、順宗が即位し、また召されている。順宗は即位したその年の 8月 9日には、病気の為に禅譲し、憲宗が即位することになる。この憲宗に召されたのが、章敬懐暉である。彼の行状は、権徳輿撰「唐故章敬寺百巌禅師碑銘并序」(『唐文粹』巻 64)に詳しい。彼は元和 3年(808)に召されて以降は、毎年のようの麟徳殿において憲宗に説法した。後には病気を理由に辞退している。この章敬懐暉の後を受けて入内したのが、興善惟寛なのである。 特に興味深いのは、馬祖道一の師の南嶽懐譲の張正甫撰「衡州般若寺観音大師碑銘并序」(『全唐文』巻 619、「南嶽碑銘」と略す)である。この碑は憲宗の元和 10年(815)に馬祖道一の門下の興善惟寛と章敬懐暉のはたらきかけで建てられていることである。柳田はこの碑を位置づけて次のように『初期禅宗史書の研究』の中で述べている。曹渓─南嶽─馬祖の相伝の事実を疑う必要はないが、他の系統の形成に比して、此の派のそれが一世代遅れている事は確かであり、むしろ三代の師資相承に関する直接資料は極めて弱い。言わば、不確かな此の三代の相承を敢えて強調するところに、『宝林伝』の意図があったと見てよい。元和年間(806─ 820)に至って、馬祖の門下の有力な諸弟子たちが、各地に盛んに化を布き、章敬懐暉、興善惟寛、鵝胡大義等の如き、憲宗の勅請を受けて入内説法するものが輩出するに及んで、それらの人々の奏によって、元和 10年(815)に、南嶽懐譲の塔が建ち、恐らく勅諡が贈られ、此と前後して慧能に大鑑禅師と追諡されているのを考え合わせると、『宝林伝』の実際の作者は、寧ろこれに先立って、右のような気運を導いた人と言えるのではなかろうか。恵炬、若しくは智炬は、恐らく仮託か、又は生涯を無名に終った人に過ぎぬが、彼の主張した曹渓─南嶽─馬祖という伝統は、遂に後代の禅宗史の正統としての定説となるのである。(360~ 361頁)

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 その後において、禅宗史の主流は、北地では無く、南地が本場となるのである。『景徳伝燈録』巻六の「馬祖道一章」で次のように言われていることは有名である。(懐)譲と(道)一とは、猶

お(行)思と(希)遷のごとし。源を同じくすれども派を異にす。故に禅法の盛んなるは、二師より始まる。劉軻云く、「江西は大寂(道一)を主とし、湖南は石頭(希遷)を主とす。往来憧

とうとう

憧として、二大士に見えずんば、無知と為す」。〈讓之一猶思之遷也。同源而異派。故禅法之盛、始于二師。劉軻云、江西主大寂、湖南主石頭。往来憧憧不見二大士為無知矣。〉(禅文化本88頁)

 このように、9世紀初頭に活躍した劉軻がいうように、馬祖道一が江西省を、石頭希遷が湖南省をそれぞれ代表し、天下の禅僧が盛んに往来していたのである。このことから禅宗の修行道場を「江

ご う こ え

湖会」と呼ぶようになると言われている。江西省の馬祖教団の中心にいた者が、先に見てきたように西堂智蔵であったのである。 これも柳田の主張するところであるが、梓州(四川省)に建立された李商隠撰「唐梓州慧義精舍南禅院四証堂碑銘并序」(『全唐文』巻 780)に、四証として浄衆寺無相(684~ 762/ 680~ 756)と保唐寺無住(714~774)と馬祖道一と共に、西堂智蔵が数えられている。前の三者が四川の禅と深い関係があるにも関わらず、西堂智蔵は四川との関係は見いだせないので、なぜ、西堂が取り上げられたかは疑問とされている。ただ言えることは、西堂が馬祖の筆頭の弟子であったことである。 更に西堂の禅は、その弟子の活躍により、朝鮮半島に定着した禅として数える九山禅門の内の三つを占める。第一の迦智山宝林寺(全羅南道長興郡)派を開いた道義は、784年に入唐し、西堂に嗣法して、821年に帰国して始めて南宗禅を伝えている。第二の智異山実相寺(全羅北道南原郡)派の洪渉も西堂に嗣法している。第四の桐裏山泰安寺(全羅南道谷城郡)派の恵哲(慧徹とも。785~ 861)は、814年に入唐し、西堂に嗣法して、839年に帰国している。西堂智蔵の禅が朝鮮半島へ大きな影響を与えたことが知られる。 以上、概観したように、西堂智蔵が初期の馬祖教団の主要な位置を占めていたことが判明する。

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二 馬祖教団と百丈懐海の顕彰運動

 百丈懐海が、顕彰運動の結果、馬祖教団(洪州宗)を代表し、重んじられて行く過程を検討してみよう。『祖堂集』巻 17や『景徳伝燈録』巻 9の福州大安(793~ 883)章は、百丈懐海の法嗣とされている。ここで、私が始めて紹介した福州大安の允明撰「唐福州延寿禅院故延聖大師塔内真身記」(「真身記」と略称す)の碑文では、潙山霊祐(771~ 853)の法嗣とすべきだと主張したことを中心に述べてみよう。「潙山教団の動向について─福州大安の「真身記」の紹介に因んで─」(『印度学仏教学研究』第40巻第 1号、1991年)で原文と訓読文を紹介し、『〈道元禅師〉正法眼蔵行持に学ぶ』(禅文化研究所、2007年)でも取り上げたものである。 大安には崔胤(854~ 904)の撰になる「大潙山延聖禅師碑」があったとされ、それに基づいたと考えられる『宋高僧伝』巻 12の「唐福州怡山院大安伝」が存し、先の「真身記」とあわせ検討するとより正確な伝記が推測できる。寺は現在、福州市鼓楼区工業路 455号にある怡山西禅寺のことで、かつては、清禅寺といい、後に延寿禅院と改め、怡山西禅長慶寺ともよばれた。怡山院とか、長慶院とか、西禅寺と通称されてもいる。1990

年 8月に井戸から発見された「真身記」に出会ったが、2016年 10月に訪れた時も壁面に埋められて保存されていた。 大安は、貞元 9年(793)に福州福唐県の陳氏の儒学の家に生まれた。幼くして黄蘗山智積禅師の下で出家し、元和 12年(817)に建州浦城県の鳳棲寺の戒壇で、霊

れいあい

藹大徳を請して具足戒を受けた。その後、上元県(江蘇省)に遊行する途中に、一人の老僧に出逢い、南昌に行くと必ず悟りが得られるであろう勧められた。そこでその勧めに従うことにし、夏安居中に小乗教を学んでいる時に、二人の禅僧が、百丈懐海禅師は禅のすぐれた指導者で、その教えこそ宝であることは明らかであり、文字に拘泥してはならない、と聞いて、悟るところがあった。ここは、『宋高僧伝』も「真身記」にも「南昌」の語があるので、『宋高僧伝』にはない「百丈」の語が「真身記」に新たに加わったもので、百丈の語があっても、大安と百丈の直接の出会いは無かったとみるべきである。 両文献が共に伝える最初の禅との出会いは、撫州(江西省)の石

しゃっきょうざん

鞏山に入り、慧蔵禅師に参じたというのである。『宋高僧伝』では次のようにその機縁を伝える。

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石鞏慧蔵は修行者を悟らせようとして必ず弓矢をもって逼った。大安が礼拝をし終えない内に、石鞏は「矢を看よ」と大声を出した。大安は顔色一つ変えずに対応した。石鞏はそこで矢を放り投げて言った、「幾年も射かけてやっと半人に出会ったぞ」。〈(石鞏山慧)蔵之提唱必持弓弩以擬学人。安服拝未興、唱曰、看箭。安神色不撓、答対不差。石鞏乃投弩曰、幾年射始中半人也矣。〉(大正蔵巻 50─ 780 b)

 一般に三平義忠(781~ 872)が石鞏の下で悟った「石鞏彎わんきゅう

弓」の機縁と伝えられているものである。ところが、大安章の『祖堂集』や『景徳伝燈録』では、新たに百丈との機縁が創作されるのである。大安は礼拝して百丈に問うた「わたくしは仏に出会いたいと思います、仏とは何ですか」。百丈は答えた、「牛に騎って牛を求めるのと同じだ」。大安、「出会った後はどうなりますか」。百丈、「人が牛に騎って家に帰るようなものだ」。大安、「では、いつもどのように心がけたら、そのようになれますか」。百丈、「牛を飼う人が、鞭をもって監視して、他人の農作物を食い荒らさないようにすることだ」。大安はこのことから禅の教えを体得して、一時にあらゆる迷いが無くなった。〈礼問百丈曰、学人欲求識仏、如何是仏。百丈云、太似騎牛覓牛。師云、識得後如何。百丈云、如人騎牛至家。師云、「未審始終如何保任、則得相応去。百丈云、譬如牧牛之人、執鞭視之、不令犯人苗稼。師従茲領旨、頓息万縁。〉(中華書局本 744頁)

 この話の素材になったのは、有名な大安の潙山での活躍を前提とした『祖堂集』や『景徳伝燈録』の説法であろう。諸君はもとより仏であるから、大

わたし

安は潙山に三十年間居て、潙山の飯を食べ、潙山の糞をたれても、潙山の禅は頭で学ばず、ただ長い間に亘って一頭の水牯牛を飼い慣らしてきた。橫路に逸

れて草を食べようとすれば引き戻し、他人の農作物を食い荒らそうとすれば鞭で打ち、暴れぬようにさせてしまう、他人の指図を受ける可愛いものよ。〈若欲得作仏、汝自是仏。…所以安在潙山、三十年来喫潙山飯、屙潙山屎、不学潙山禅、只是長看一頭水牯牛、落路入草便牽出、侵犯人苗稼則鞭打、調来伏去、可憐生受人言語。〉(同 746頁)

 大安は、実際は百丈とは全く関係なく、石鞏の下を離れると、臨りんべい

洺県(河北省)に止まり、また、上元県に引き返し。更に五台山に遊行したと伝え

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ている。 その後、潙山霊祐に出会うのである。『祖堂集』の次の記事は当時を伝えていると言ってよいであろう。その後、大安は霊祐禅師に従い、共に潙山を開創した。十数年間は修行者数は少なかった。大安は一つ一つ田を耕し種まきをし、至る所で骨身を削り、日夜疲れを忘れて精進し、片時も休むことをしなかった。霊祐はこれを見て語りかけた、「大安よ、無理をするな」。大安は答えた、「和尚が五百の修行僧をご覧になったら、わたしは休みましょう」。しばらくして、修行僧が思った通り五百となったので、やっと大安は苦労をすぱりと止めた。〈後随祐禅師、同創潙山、則十数年間、僧衆猶小。師乃頭頭耕耨、処処労形、日夜忘疲、未嘗輒暇。潙山見而語曰、安、汝少労役。師云、待和尚観五百衆、安則休也。不久之間、僧衆果至五百。師乃労心頓擺。〉(同 744頁)

 その後、会昌 5年(845)の武宗の会昌の破仏に遭遇するが、宣宗が仏教を復興すると、潙山に戻り、修行僧を指導した。霊祐が大中 7年(853)正月 9日に 83歳で示寂するので、大安が潙山の後継者として住持するのである。 大安が潙山を離れたのは、懿宗の咸通 7年(866)のことで、福州の怡

いさん

山西禅寺に住し、大活躍するのである。咸通 14年(873)には、門人恵真が後継者となり、大安の徳を奏して勅により延寿禅院と賜わり、乾符 3年(876)に紫衣及び延聖大師の号を賜った。中和 3年(883)の 10月 22日示寂した。世寿 91歳。 さて、ここで百丈懐海の伝記を、第一次の伝記資料である陳

ちんよく

翊撰「唐洪州百丈山故懐海禅師塔銘」(『全唐文』巻 446、「百丈塔銘」と略す)を中心に、『宋高僧伝』巻 10と『景徳伝燈録』巻 6を参考にして簡単に述べることにしよう。 既に「南嶽碑銘」が、憲宗の元和 10年(815)に馬祖道一の門下の興善惟寛と章敬懐暉のはたらきかけで建てられていることを述べたが、馬祖道一に大寂禅師の諡号を賜ったのも、憲宗の元和年間(806─ 820)であり、門下の興善惟寛と章敬懐暉のはたらきかけと考えてよい。百丈懐海の没年は、元和 9年(814)の 1月 17日で、陳翊の「百丈塔銘」の 66歳説の世寿を、私は採用している。

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 懐海は福州長楽県の出身で、俗姓を王氏という。若くして潮州(広東省)西山の慧照の下で落髪する。慧照を羅香林は『唐代文化史』(台湾商務印書館、1963年第二版)の中で、南嶽懐譲の法嗣の神照と同一人とする。羅説は認めてよいと思われる。興味深いのは、薬山惟儼も同じ西山慧照の下で上元元年(760)に得度し、二人が共に修行したことが近年明らかになったことである。現在の寺は潮州西岩路の西岩寺(海潮寺)という。その後、懐海は衡山法朝律師の下で具足戒を受ける。薬山惟儼は大暦 8年(773)に衡嶽寺希琛(澡)律師の下で受戒する。衡嶽寺は衡山(南嶽)集賢峰下にある。 やがて馬祖道一との関連が生まれる。先に言うように「馬祖塔銘」の建碑が、貞元 4年(788)2月 1日に示寂した三年後のことである。陳翊がこの「馬祖塔銘」を意識して「百丈塔銘」を撰述したことは明確である。陳翊の「百丈塔銘」には次のようにある。百丈の言葉は簡明でその教えは精緻であり、容貌は穏やかで心は厳しい。学ぶ者は尊敬し、生活は質素で、名利に近づくことはない。それ故に「馬祖碑銘」にはその名は全く見当たらない。〈言簡理精、貌和神峻。睹即生敬、居常自卑、善不近名。故先師碑文、独晦其称号。〉

 先に言うように、「馬祖碑銘」には、嗣法の門人の中に懐海の名は見出せない。この事実に対して、懐海の「塔銘」はこのような弁明が必要であったのである。1966年に泐潭宝峰禅院(石門山宝峰寺ともいう)で発見され、陳柏泉が紹介した「馬祖禅師舎利石函題記」(『文史』第 14輯、1982年)は、馬祖道一の示寂後の有力な記録である。そこには、もちろんまだ大寂禅師の諡号は無いが、そもそも、唐の貞元 7年(781)7月 17日、故馬祖道一和上の黄金の舎利で塔をこの地に建つ。大師は貞元 4年 2月 1日に入滅す。時に洪州刺史李兼、建昌県令李啓、石門法林寺門人等記す。〈維唐貞元七年歳次辛未七月庚申朔十七日景子、故大師道一和上黄金舎利建塔于此地。大師貞元四年二月一日入滅。時に洪州刺史李兼、建昌県令李啓、石門法林寺門人等記。〉

と「石門法林寺門人等記」と記すだけで、懐海が門人を代表する位置にはない。「百丈塔銘」には次のようにある。懐海大師は、初め石門法林寺にいて、大寂禅師の塔守となる。ついで

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馬祖の石門法林寺の住持を嗣いで、重ねて上乘一心の法を述べた。〈大師初居石門、依大寂之塔。次補師位、重宣上法。〉

 馬祖が示寂した時点では、懐海は四〇歳であった。馬祖門下には多くのすぐれた弟子がいて、そのうちの誰かがまず石門法林寺を継ぎ、その後に懐海が石門法林寺の住持となったのである。『禅林僧宝伝』巻 5の「九峰道虔伝」にも、「是れより先に馬大師は、豫章の開元寺で示寂した。門弟の懐海や智蔵輩は、舍利を海昏の石門に埋葬した。懐海は亦た塔に廬すること十余年なり〈先是馬大師、歿於豫章開元寺。門弟子懐海智蔵輩、塟舍利於海昏石門。海亦廬塔十余年。〉」とある。

 恐らく、懐海が馬祖に参じたのは、馬祖の晩年のことと考えられ、「百丈塔銘」では受戒後のことを、「そこで廬江に詣

いた

り、浮槎寺において大蔵経を閲覧し、禅の道場を窺わうことなく年を重ねた〈遂詣廬江、閲浮槎経蔵、不窺庭宇者積年。〉」とある。この浮槎寺の大蔵経を学んだ人に荷沢神会の法嗣の華林霊坦(709~ 816)がいるが、当時貴重な大蔵経があることが知られていたのであろう。その後、「大寂禅師を師とするや、心印を極めつくすことができた〈既師大寂、尽得心印〉」とあるから、馬祖に出会う前の年数は十数年を数えてよく、馬祖への参随の期間は多くて五年程度であり、一般に認められている宇井伯寿説の「二十年間随従」の推測は認められない。それ故に、懐海の馬祖門下に占める位置は、先の「百丈塔銘」のように弁明せざるを得ず、また、次の文面となるのである。大寂禅師には、多くの優れた弟子が多かった。ある者は天子に名声が聞こえ、都に迎えられ、ある者は地方で教化を振るい、それぞれが参禅者を指導した。百丈大師だけは隠遁を好み、人里離れた所に棲んだが、名を隠してもその力量はますます高く顕われ、独自の道を歩いても、参禅修行者はますます盛んとなった。〈大寂之徒、多諸龍象。或名聞万乗、入依京輦、或化洽一方、各安郡国。唯大師好耽幽隠、棲止雲松、遺名而徳称益高、独往而学徒弥盛。〉

 先に紹介した元和 17年(817)に示寂した興善惟寛の「西京興善寺伝法堂碑銘」では、懐海を百丈が主要な活躍地とも記してはいない。そこには、興善惟寛と西堂智蔵・甘泉志賢・泐潭懐海・章敬(百巌)懐暉が共に大寂禅師に師事していた。〈即師与西堂(智)蔵・甘泉(志)賢・泐潭(懐)海・百巌(懐)暉、倶父事大寂〉

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とあって、懐海を泐潭宝峰寺の住持として伝えている。もちろん懐海と百丈山との関係を否定する必要はない。大和 4年(830)頃成立した裴休(791

~ 864)が質問し、圭峰宗密(780~ 841)が答えた『裴休拾遺問』の中の「中華伝心地禅門師資承襲図」では、興善惟寛・章敬懐暉・百丈懐海・西堂智蔵・汾州無業(672~ 824)・天皇道悟の六人が挙げられている。 更に、一夜本『碧巌録』第 53則の「百丈野鴨」で有名な百丈の大悟の話は、『祖堂集』にも『景徳伝燈録』にもなく、『天聖広燈録』巻 8「百丈懐海章」で始めて現れるのもである。百丈懐海は馬祖の侍者となった。ある日、馬祖にお供して路地を歩いている時、野鴨の声を聞いた。馬祖が問うた、「何の声か」。百丈は、「野鴨の声です」と答えて、しばらく無言であった。馬祖、「先ほどの声はどこに去ったか」。百丈、「飛び去ってしまいました」。馬祖は振り返るなり、百丈の鼻をつかんでねじった。百丈は「痛い」と声をあげた。馬祖は言った、「それでも飛び去ってしまったと言うのか」。百丈はその語を聞いて大悟した。〈師為馬祖侍者。一日、随侍馬祖路行次、聞野鴨声。祖云、什麼声。師云、野鴨声。良久。祖云、適来声向什麼処去。師云、飛過去。祖迴頭、将師鼻使扭。師作痛声。祖云、又道飛過去。師於言下有省。〉(続蔵巻 135─ 328右上)

 この話は『祖堂集』巻 15の「五洩霊黙章」では、百丈惟政の機縁と伝えている。この話に限らず、それ故に百丈懐海と馬祖との話は、増補されていることが知られているのである。懐海の活躍地は百丈山で、元和 9年1月 17日に世寿 66歳で示寂した。『宋高僧伝』や『景徳伝燈録』の 95歳説との大きな相違も問題となるところである。大智禅師の諡号が下賜されたのは、穆宗の長慶元年(821)のことである。 さて、今日の百丈懐海に関わる話には、その法嗣の潙山霊祐の活躍とその顕彰運動と無関係ではない。霊祐については、咸通 7年(867)に鄭愚が撰述した「潭州大潙山同慶寺大円禅師碑銘并序」(『唐文粹』巻 63)が基本である。潙山教団の問題は、私も「潙仰宗の盛衰(一)~(六)」(『駒澤大学仏教学部論集』第 18~ 24号、1987~ 1993年)などで研究したこともあるが、重要な問題に発展するので、ここでは詳細に論じることはできない。柳田聖山も臨済宗の発展においても潙仰宗の権威を借りる必要があったことを何度も指摘している。それほどに潙仰宗の勢力が大きいもの

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であったことをここでは指摘するに留めておきたい。それらの問題とも関係すると思われるが、『景徳伝燈録』巻九の潙山霊祐が潙山に住持するに至る有名な次の話における百丈懐海の評価が気になるところである。ある時、司馬頭陀という人が、湖南から百丈へやって来た。〈司馬頭陀は、参禅した人で、その外に、人相を見抜く目を修養しており、同時に地理を窮めていた。諸地方で、寺院の開創の地相の判断に関わった。〉百丈は司馬頭陀に問うた、「老

わ し

僧は潙山に行きたい、よいだろうか」。司馬頭陀、「潙山はすばらしい山で、千五百の修行者を集めることができるが、和尚の住む所ではございません」。百丈、「どうして」。司馬頭陀、「和尚は貧相で、潙山は豊かな山です。たとい和尚が住まわれても、千人を越える修行者は集まりますまい」。百丈、「うちの修行者の中に、住める者がいるだろうか」。司馬頭陀、「ひとつ、弟子たちを拝見しましょうか」。百丈は、そこで侍者に命じて第一座〈華林和尚〉を喚んで来させた。百丈、「この人は、どうだろうか」。司馬頭陀は、第一座に咳ばらいさせて数歩あるかせて、答えた、「この人は駄目だ」。次に典座〈霊祐〉を喚んで来させた。司馬頭陀、「この人こそ潙山の主人だ」。百丈は、その夜に霊祐を召して入室させた。頼

たの

んで言った、「わしの教化の場所はここにある。潙山はすばらしい場所だ。あなたが潙山に住し、わしの正伝の仏法を受け継いで、広く後学を済度して欲しい」。その後、華林はこのことを聞きつけて言った、「わたくしは、恐れ多くも第一座を引き受けております。霊祐さんがなぜ住持することができるのですか」。百丈、「もし修行者に一転語を言うことができて出格ならば、住持を許そう」。そこで浄

じょうびょう

瓶を指して問うた、「それを浄

じょうびょう

瓶と呼べないならば、あなたは何と喚ぶか」。華林、「棒ぎれと呼ぶこともできますまい」。百丈は認めなかった。そこで霊祐に問うた。霊祐は浄瓶を蹴

けた お

倒した。百丈は笑って言った、「第一座は山やま ご

子にやられたな」。こうして霊祐を潙山に住持させた。〈時司馬頭陀自湖南来。百丈謂之曰、老僧欲往潙山可乎〈司馬頭陀参禅外、蘊人倫之鑑、兼窮地理。諸方剏院多取決可。〉。対云、潙山奇絶可聚千五百衆。然非和尚所住。百丈云、何也。対云、和尚是骨人。彼是肉山。設居之徒不盈千。百丈云、吾衆中莫有人住得否。対云、待歴観之。百丈乃令侍者喚第一坐来〈即華林和尚也〉。問云、此人如何。頭陀令謦欬一声行数步。対云、此人不可。又令喚典坐来〈即祐師也〉。

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頭陀云、此正是潙山主也。百丈是夜召師入室、嘱云、吾化縁在此。潙山勝境、汝当居之嗣続吾宗、広度後学。時華林聞之曰、某甲忝居上首。祐公何得住持。百丈云、若能対衆下得一語出格、当与住持。即指浄瓶問云、不得喚作浄瓶、汝喚作什麼。華林云、不可喚作木 也。百丈不肯。乃問師。師蹋倒浄瓶。百丈笑云、第一坐輸却山子也。遂遣師往潙山。〉(禅文化本 133頁)

 原文の百丈が「骨人」とあるのを貧相の意味に取り、潙山が「肉山」とあるのを豊かな山の意味に取った。人相を見たり、風水に関係する語から来るのかも知れないが、詳しくは不明である。ここでは「骨人」の語は注意してもよいだろう。その潙山霊祐が開創するに当たって、大安が共に苦労し、霊祐示寂後に住持したことを先に示した。 潙山霊祐と言えば、仰山慧寂(807~ 883)がすぐに思い出される。五家最初の成立とされる潙仰宗の祖と数えられる人である。乾寧 2年(895)に陸希声が撰述した「仰山通智大師塔銘」(『全唐文』巻 813)によると、潙山霊祐の門下として三人(仰山慧寂・長慶大安・香厳智閑)をあげ、「仰山は、江西で活躍して水の神の龍を支配し、大安は、閩越で活躍して恵みの雨を降らし、香厳は、南陽で活躍して災害となる霰

あられ

を止ませた〈仰山龍従於江西、大安雨聚於閩越、香厳霰 於南陽。〉」と述べ、三人の「同体異用」を論じている。当時、大安が、霊祐の三人の門人としてあげられているのに、大安を百丈門下として立伝し、百丈の顕彰運動の加えられて行ったことは注目してよかろう。また、百丈といえば、「清規」の制定者として知られ、禅宗の開祖の達磨と共に、禅宗教団の独立を完全に果たした人として、禅宗の両祖に数えられるにいたっている。だが、私は「百丈清規の研究─「禅門規式」と『百丈古清規』─」(『駒澤大学禅研究所年報』第6号、1995年)でも明らかにしたように、百丈懐海の時代には成文化された清規もなく、また、禅宗全体はその清規に統一されてはいなかったと結論づけている。 このように、百丈懐海が禅宗史上に位置づけられるようになったのは、その後の顕彰運動の結果と考えてよいと思われる。

三 馬祖白黒の公案をめぐって

 最初期における馬祖教団における西堂智蔵と百丈懐海の位置づけを検討

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してみた。やがて百丈懐海と西堂智蔵が並称されてくるようになる。四部叢刊本の宋版の『景徳伝燈録』巻 6の「百丈懐海章」は、次のように始まり、馬祖翫月の話が伝わっている。洪州百丈山懐海禅師は、福州長楽の人なり。丱

おさなく

歲して俗塵を離れ、三学に広く通じ習熟した。大寂禅師が南康郡龔公山で教化するに及んで、心を傾けて参学した。西堂智蔵禅師と共に同じく法嗣と呼ばれ、当時、二大士と並び称された。ある夕、二大士が馬祖のお供をして満月を観賞している時、馬祖が問うた、「正にこの満月(完全な悟り)の時はどうだろう」。西堂は答えた、「供養するにもってこいだ」。百丈は答えた、「修行するにもってこいだ」。馬祖は言った、「経蔵は智蔵に入り、禅定は懐海に修まった」。〈洪州百丈山懐海禅師者、福州長楽人也。丱歲離塵、三学該練。属大寂闡化南康、乃傾心依附。与西堂智蔵禅師同号入室。時二大士為角立焉。一夕二士随侍馬祖翫月次、祖曰、正恁麼時如何。西堂云、正好供養。師云、正好修行。祖曰、経入蔵、禅帰海。〉

馬祖の評価は、それぞれを認めたことになろう。ここには二人の弟子の優劣はないと見るべきと思われる。 ところが、馬祖翫月の話は、『天聖広燈録』巻 8の「百丈懐海章」では、南泉普願(748~ 835)が加わることになる。南泉普願が馬祖道一の門下であることは疑いないとしても、先述の通り、最初期の馬祖教団でその名が現れることはない。それが加わる理由として考えられることは、南泉の門下に趙州従諗(778~ 897)が活躍するからである。潙仰宗に継いで注目すべきは、「南の雪峰・北の趙州」(『中国禅宗史話』所収)で明らかにしたように、南方の雪峰義存(822~ 908)の勢力に対して、北の代表は、決して臨済義玄(?~ 866)ではなく、趙州従諗だったのである。更に宋代になって特に無字の看話禅が広まると、ますます趙州が大きな影響を与えたことと関係することは間違いなかろう。今一つ、馬祖教団の南北の集団とは別に、南泉普願のように馬祖とは不即不離の第三の集団が考えられ、この集団と曹洞宗教団の関係が指摘できるが、大問題に発展するので、ここでは当面の課題から外れるので割愛することにしよう。百丈懐海は西堂智蔵と南泉普願が共に同じく馬祖の法嗣の三大士と称された。ある夕、三大士が馬祖のお供をして満月を観賞している時のことである。馬祖が問うた、「正にこの満月(完全な悟り)の時はど

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うだろう」。西堂は答えた、「供養するのにぴったりです」。百丈は答えた、「修行するのにぴったりです」。南泉は、訣別して袖を払ってすぐさま出て行った。馬祖は評価した、「経蔵は智蔵に入り、禅定は懐海に修まった。ただ普願だけが俗世間の外に超え出た」。〈(百丈懐海)与西堂智蔵、南泉普願、同号入室三大士焉。一夕三大士随侍馬祖翫月次、祖問、正当与麼時如何。西堂云、正好供養。師云、正好修行。南泉払袖便去。 祖云、経入蔵、禅帰海、唯有普願独超物外。〉(続蔵巻 135─ 328右上)

この公案に対して、三者三様のはたらきを示して、三者に優劣はないとする解釈も伝統的にはあるようである。しかし、南泉普願の高い評価は同時に趙州従諗の評価につながり、あらたな禅の意味づけが行われたとすべきであろう。ここに禅宗の流れに沿って、二大士が釈尊の教えを経蔵で学ぶことが最初であり、それより禅定を学ぶことの方がより優位であることを示し、更に、南泉の無言のはたらきの解答こそ禅の第一義を示したものと解釈されるようになったものと思われる。 この問題を万松行秀(1166~ 1246)の『従容録』の第六則の「馬祖白黒」を取り上げて検討してみよう。 天童正覚(1091~ 1157)が『宗門統要集』巻 3の「馬祖道一章」に基づいた宋版『宏智録』巻 2の本則は、次のようにある。ある僧が馬祖大師に問うた、「四句を離れ、百非を絶ったところで、どうか、わたくしに達磨がインドから来られた意図をズバリお示し下さい」。馬祖、「わしは今日へとへとだ、君の為に説くことができぬ。智蔵に問うてくれ」。僧が智蔵に問うた。智蔵、「どうして馬祖和尚に問わないのだ」。僧、「和尚があなたに問うように来させたのです」。智蔵、「わしは今日頭が痛い、君の為に説くことができぬ、懐海師

すひん

兄に問うてくれ」。僧が懐海に問うた。懐海、「わしはここへ来て、逆にわからなくなってしまった」。僧は馬祖大師に報告した。馬祖は言った、「智蔵の頭は白く、懐海の頭は黒い」。〈挙。僧問馬大師、離四句絶百非、請師直指某甲西来意。大師云、我今日労倦、不能為汝説。問取智蔵去。僧問蔵。蔵云、何不問和尚。僧云、和尚教来問。蔵云、我今日頭痛、不能為汝説。問取海兄去。僧問海。海云、我到這裏却不会。僧挙似大師。大師云、蔵頭白、海頭黒。〉

 その天童の頌は、次のようになる。

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インドで乳という薬が逆に病気となる。前の聖人を手本とせよ。病人がすぐれた医者となる。その人は誰か。(それは家父の馬祖しかいない)。白頭の智蔵と黒頭の懐海とが馬祖の家をよく治める弟子。有句も無句もみごとな名剣で流れる水を断ち切るはたらき。堂堂と言語の路を断ち切った。(馬祖を加えた三人は)おそらく毘耶離城の維摩の一黙はなんとチャチなものと笑っている。〈頌曰。薬之作病、鑑乎前聖。病之作医、必也其誰。白頭黒頭兮克家之子、有句無句兮截流之機。堂堂坐断舌頭路、応笑毘耶老古錐。〉(名著普及会本 83~ 84頁)

 この同じ則は、『祖堂集』巻 14の「馬祖道一章」以来、従来、検討してきた百丈懐海の馬祖教団の位置づけとは異なって、百丈は既に西堂の兄弟子となっている。 しかし、二大士の馬祖教団の位置づけに歴史的に変化が生まれても、天童が選んだ本則もそれに基づく頌も、西堂は頭白であり、白頭なのであり、一方の百丈は頭黒であり、黒頭なのである。馬祖の言った、「智蔵の頭は白く、懐海の頭は黒い」の語の意味するところは、正確にはよく解らないところもあるけれども、天童が頌の中で、「白頭の智蔵と黒頭の懐海とが馬祖の家をよく治める弟子」と言ったのは、そこに優劣がないと理解できる。 ところが、万松は評唱の中で、黒白を緇素の意味と解し、百丈を西堂より一段上手であると古則に新たな解釈を展開した。この僧は質問した、「四句を離れ、百非を絶ったところで、どうか、わたしに達磨がインドから来た意図をズバリお示し下さい」と。諸方、之れを鎖口問(言語で答えることを最初から拒否した問)と謂う。馬祖は、ゆったりと「わしは、今日へとへとだ。君が為めに説くことができぬ。智蔵に問うてくれ」とだけ言った。馬祖が敢えて説法せずに、質問の僧を思い通りに動かそうとした。その僧は、馬祖に引っかき回されるしかなかった。まじめに指示通りに行きて問うと、智蔵もあれこれやりとりしないで、馬祖の言葉に合わせて「どうして馬祖和尚に問わないのだ」と言った。この僧は、糸口も見つけられずに「和尚があなた質問に来させたのです」と答えた。智蔵は、「わしは、今日頭が痛い、君の為に説くことができぬ。懐海師兄に問うてくれ」と指示した。まさにこの父(馬祖)にしてこの子(智蔵)ありと言うに値す

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る。その僧は、懐海に問うた。懐海は、「わしはここへ来て、逆にわからなくなってしまった」と答えた。侯白(智蔵)というやり手がいると思ってたら、どっこい更に上手の侯黒(懐海)がいた。この僧は血の気が無いと言っても、事の成り行きは心得ている。再び帰って来て、馬祖大師に報告した。馬祖は、「智蔵もやり手だが、懐海はもっと上

うわて

手だ」と評価した。

〈這僧道、離四句絶百非、請師直指西来意。諸方謂之鎖口問。馬祖不忙只道、我今日労倦、不能為汝説。問取智蔵去。惜得自己眉毛、穿却那僧鼻孔。那僧不免被他躯使。真箇去問。智蔵亦不謀而合道、何不問和尚。這僧不開眉眼道、和尚教来問。蔵云、我今日頭痛、不能為汝説。問取海兄去。可謂非父不生其子也。僧問海。海云、我到這裏却不会。将謂侯白、更有侯黒。這僧雖無血性、却有首尾。還来挙似馬祖。祖云、蔵頭白、海頭黒。」〉(大正蔵巻 48─ 230 c)

 ここに万松は、智蔵を侯白に、懐海を侯黒になぞられたのである。ここに登場する侯白と侯黒には、当時、秦観(1049~ 1100)撰『淮海集』巻25に「二侯説」が知られていたのである。閩の国に侯白という盗賊がいた。彼はしばしば人に気づかれない策で人を誑

たぶら

かしていた。鄉里の者も大変憎み畏れて、敢て太刀打ちできるものはいなかった。ある日、女の盗賊の侯黒に路上でばったり出会った。彼女は井戸の周りをうろついて、何か物を無くした様子であった。侯白は怪しんで侯黒に問うた。侯黒は答えた、「不幸にイヤリングを井戸に落とした。その値段は百金で、これを拾い取る者がいれば、半分の金を分けてお礼がしたい。あなたにはその気はありませんか」。侯白は、しばらく無言で考えた、「あの女はイヤリングを無くしている。イヤリングを手にしたら騙

だま

して奪い取ろう」。そこで侯黒の願いを聞き入れた。着ている衣を井戸の側に脱ぎ、縄を垂らして井戸の中に下りて行った。侯黒は、侯白が水面に至ったのを見計らって、すぐさま彼の衣を全て取ってただちに逃げ、行方は解らなかった。このことから、現在、閩の人達は、互いに欺き合うのを、「われは侯白であるが、彼はその上手の侯黒だ」と言うのである。〈閩有侯白。善陰中人以数。鄉里甚憎而畏之、莫敢与較。一日遇女子侯黒於路、拠井傍佯、若有所失。白恠而問焉。黒曰、不幸堕珥於井。其直百金、有能取之、当分半以謝。夫子独無意乎。白良久計曰、彼女

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子亡珥、得珥固可紿而勿与。因許之。脱衣井旁、縋而下。黒度白已至水、則尽取其衣亟去。莫知所塗。故今閩人呼相売曰、我已侯白、伊更侯黒。〉(四部叢刊本 6丁左)

 言語や分別を離れたところで、悟りを言語表現することを求められた馬祖は疲れていると病気を理由に返事をせずに、その解答を西堂に押しつけた。西堂も同じく頭痛の病気を理由に解答を百丈に押しつけた。万松はそこを「この父(馬祖)にしてこの子(智蔵)あり」というのである。ところが百丈はそこを「不会」と言語表現したのである。 ここを万松は、「侯白(智蔵)というやり手がいると思ってたら、どっこい更に上手の侯黒(懐海)がいた」と評価したのである。それ故に、馬祖の最後の語は、「智蔵もやり手だが、懐海はもっと上

うわて

手だ」と評価した意味に深めた。百丈は禅宗史上においても馬祖教団の位置は既に不動のものだったのである。

四 おわりに 

 百丈懐海の評価は、唐末の黄巣の乱に呼応した江西省地方の王仙芝の反乱によってもたらされ、中和 2年(882)に鍾傳(?~ 906)が支配して、禅宗を保護した以降に固まったと思われる。今回取り上げた「馬祖翫月」や「馬祖白黒」の話が知られるのは、恐らく開平 5年(911)に成立した逸書の南嶽惟勁撰『続宝林伝』と想像される。また、私が主張するように、鍾傳の庇護の下に復興した百丈山で実際に行われていた清規を共通の素材として、『宋高僧伝』(988年成立)と『景徳伝燈録』(1004年成立)の「禅門規式」(=『百丈古清規』)となったものと思われる。その結果、『宋高僧伝』巻 10の次の言葉に落ち着くのである。天下の禅宗は、あたかも風が草を橫になぎ倒すようになり、禅門が独自の歩みをするようになるのは、百丈懐海に始まるのである。〈天下禅宗如風偃草、禅門独行由海之始也。〉(大正蔵巻 50─ 771 a)

今回問題にした「馬祖白黒」のそもそもの僧の問いはなんであったか。四句を離れ百

ひゃっぴ

非を絶して、請う師、某それがし

甲に(祖師)西来意を直指せよ。

論理・分別・言語を使用しないで、禅とは何か、悟りとは何かを「示せ」と逼っているのである。この問いを万松は高く評価して、次のように言うのである。

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この僧もまたよく仏法を学んだ者である。四句百非で教外別伝の禅宗の教えを吟味しようとしている。〈看來這僧、也是箇学仏法人。将四句百非、勘当教外別伝宗旨。〉

 また、万松は次のようにも言うのである。そのものずばりを詳細に体得すれば、総てが駄目ということも無い。翻ってみてくると、四句を離れなくとも、百非を絶

たなくても、達磨の西来の意図は、どこに明らかでないことがあろうか。〈万松道、端的委細会、一切無不是。翻覆看来、不離四句、不絶百非、西来祖意、於何不明。」〉(大正蔵巻 51─ 230 c)

 そのものずばり、とは、原文は「端的」とあるが、禅語ではその反対語に相当するのは「多

た す

子」であり、くだくだしい事柄のことである。臨済義玄が高安大愚に気づかされて大悟した時、「元来、黄檗の仏法多子無し」、つまり、この話を踏まえて言えば、「(黄檗の仏法とは論理・分別・言語とあれやこれやの難しい面倒なことと勘違いしていたが、)なんだ、黄檗の仏法とはそのものズバリだったのか」と叫んだことは有名である。馬祖禅の本質が「平常無事」であることは、最初に述べた通りである。それ故に、僧の問いの「四句を離れ、百非を絶ったところで、どうか、わたくしに達磨がインドから来られた意図をズバリお示し下さい」に対して、馬祖も西堂も百丈も端的に答えていたのである。 ところが、この「馬祖白黒」の話は、その成立が既に馬祖教団における百丈が不動の位置づけを得ていた時である。その為には、元来、馬祖教団を代表していた西堂と同等の位置に百丈を位置づけなければならなかったのである。 さて、このように、検討してきた「馬祖白黒」の成立に関して、小川隆『続・語録のことば─『碧巌録』と宋代の禅』(禅文化研究所、2010年)に新たな解釈が示されている。その解釈には、その前提となる論文として、李壮鷹「禅語解説─〝頭白〟与〝頭黒〟」(『北京師範大学学報』社会科学版、1996年第2期・総第 134期)が参考にされている。小川隆は言っている。論文はいう、閩北(福建北部)には、「t~」と「h~」の子音を区別しない地域があり、そこでは、したがって「頭」と「侯」の発音が同じになる。馬祖もかつてその地域に住持していて、その方言の影響を受けた可能性があり、よって「頭白、頭黒」は実は「侯白、侯黒」の転化と考えられる、と。(同書 36頁)

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この説を前提として、「侯白、侯黒」に関係する古則を取り上げ、その解釈を紹介し、更に前述の秦観『淮海集』の興味ある話にも及んでいる。もし李論文の説を認めるとすると、「蔵頭は白く、海頭は黒し」でなく、「蔵は頭白、海は頭黒」と読むべきかも知れないが、ともかく馬祖の評価は「智蔵もなかなかの狡猾さだが、懐海のほうが一枚うわての老猾さだ」ということになる。

 となり、また、次のようにも言っている。馬祖や西堂の答えは言語回避にすぎず、かたや百丈は言語を活用した言語否定(言を以て言を遣る)となりえている。その意味で百丈の方が一枚うわての悪辣さだと讃えているのではなかろうか。

 私にとって興味深いのは、次の結論である。だが、かりに馬祖の語が「侯白、侯黒」の転化でなかったとしても、話頭自身の展開と「黒」という言葉の重量感からして、この則はじゅうぶんに右のように解せられると信ずる。「我れ這裏に到って却って会せず」。この一句の眼目は「却」の一字にある。「却」によって表された論理の屈折、そして「白」と「黒」の語感の対比、それらがなかったならば、この一則は、きわめて平板なものとなっていたに違いない。

 既に上述してきたように、伝承としては『宏智頌古』では、「蔵は頭白(=侯白)、海は頭黒(=侯黒)」とすることはなく、「蔵の頭は白く、海の頭は黒い」で解釈されてきた。それは『雪竇頌古』75則も同様であった。ただ、西堂と百丈の馬祖教団での位置づけが完全に百丈の優位で生まれた時の話であることから考えて、小川隆の解釈は十分に注目してよいと思われる。この公案の解釈史からみれば、「蔵は侯白、海は侯黒」としたのは、『従容録』の万松行秀の評唱に至って始めて現れたと言うべきである。 西堂が馬祖教団に重んじられることが無くなった例として、後に「石鞏捉得虚空」と呼ばれる公案がある。『祖堂集』巻 14の「石鞏慧蔵章」に次のようにある。石鞏が西堂に問うた、「君は虚空をつかまえることができるか」。西堂、「できます」。石鞏、「どのように」。西堂は手で虚空をつまむ格好をする。石鞏、「そんなことでどうして虚空をつかまえられようか」。西堂は逆に石鞏に問うた、「あなたはどのようにつかまえますか」。石鞏はそこで西堂の鼻をぐいと引っぱった。西堂は苦痛な声を出しながら言った、「ひどい、鼻を引っぱると、もげてしまいますよ」。石鞏、「こ

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うして虚空をつかまえねばならぬのだ」。〈師問西堂、你還解捉得虚空摩。西堂云、捉得。師云、作摩生捉。西堂以手撮虚空勢。師云、与摩作摩生捉得虚空。西堂却問師、作摩生捉。師便把西堂鼻孔拽著。西堂作忍痛声、云、太殺拽人鼻孔、直得脱去。師曰、直須与摩捉他虚空始得。〉(中華書局本 631頁)

 『景徳伝燈録』巻 6「石鞏慧蔵章」や『聯燈会要』巻 5「石鞏慧蔵章」の同話では、石鞏が兄弟子となって展開し、西堂はその兄弟子には全く形無しとして印象づけられている。予想されるように、先に創作されたとして紹介した「百丈野鴨子」の話は、百丈懐海の悟道の話と伝承されていくのと対象的と受け取ってよいのではなかろうか。その後のことは一夜本『碧巌録』11則「黄檗噇糟」の本則評唱によく現れている。この話は黄檗希運が百丈に参じた時の話として伝わるのである。黄檗は次の日になって別れの挨拶を百丈にした。百丈、「どこに行く」。黄檗、「江西に馬大師にお目にかかりに行きます」。百丈、「馬大師は已に遷化された」。黄檗、「さて、馬大師は日頃、どんな説法をされたか」。百丈は再び馬祖に参じた「三日耳聾」の話を報告した。黃檗は思わず舌を出した。百丈、「あなたは已後に馬大師に嗣法するのではあるまいな」。黄檗、「どういうつもりですか。今日、和尚がこの話を報告されたから、馬大師の全力量を見ることができました。もし馬祖を嗣いだとしたら、いつか我が法孫を失うことでしょう」。〈次日至礼辞丈。丈云、何処去。答云、礼拝馬祖去。丈云、馬祖已遷化。檗問云、不知馬大師在日、平日有何言句。百丈挙再参馬祖因緣。檗不覚吐舌。丈云、子莫已後嗣馬大師也。檗云、是何言歟。今日因和尚挙此話、得見馬大師大機大用。若承嗣馬祖、恐已後喪我児孫。〉(伊藤猷典本 60~ 61頁)

 更に流布本の張本系の『碧巌録』では次の語が加わるのである。百丈が言った、「そうだ、そうだ。見識が師と同じでは、師の能力を半減してしまう。智慧が師を超えてこそ、伝授することができる。あなたの今の見解は師を超えるはたらきがあるようだ」。〈丈云、如是如是。見与師斉、減師半徳。智過於師、方堪伝授。子今見処宛有超師之作。〉(大正蔵巻 48─ 151 c)

 『天聖広燈録』巻 8の「百丈懐海章」以降に馬祖道一─百丈懐海─黄檗希運の不動の法系が確認され、臨済宗の盤石の勢力が禅宗史を占めるよう

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になるのである。 「公案」は看話禅の成立と共に、無理会話(理解できないところに意味のある問題)として悟道の手段(思考を奪い取ってからの意識の爆発)として機能して行くことになる。日本の臨済宗においては、特に白隠慧鶴(1685~ 1768)の出現により、臨済各派の修行は白隠禅の様相を呈するのである。そこには公案は時空を超えた真理追究の役割を果たすのである。 今回、公案が成立していく過程を解明して行く必要を試みたが、それは21世紀の禅研究の一つの課題ではないかと思ったからである。その究明には、恐らく全公案に対して可能とは私も思わないし、不可能なこともあろうが、一つの試みとしてみたのである。

[付記]

* この論文は、40年近く交流しているアルバート・ウェルター(Albert

Welter)教授に招かれて、アリゾナ大学(The University of Arizona)の仏教研究センター(Center for Buddist Studies)主催で、2018年 3月 28日~ 31日に開かれた国際会議の「Creating the World of Chan/Sŏn/Zen:

Chinese Chan Buddhism and its Spread throughout East Asia」で発表したものである。 その時の発表者と題目のプログラムは下記の通りである。①“An Intellectual History of Kōan: An Initial Study” Shūdō Ishii 石井修道 (Professor Emeritus of Komazawa University)

②“The Spread of Buddhism as Glimpsed Through the Lens of Language” John Jorgensen (LaTrobe University)

③“On the spread of Buddhism in the Southern Song Dynasty:Focusing on

Hangzhou” Master Guangquan 光泉大和尚 (Lingyin Monastery, Hangzhou)

④“Repositioning Chan/ Sŏn/ Zen Buddhist Studies: The Hangzhou Region

and the Spread of East Asian Buddhism” Albert Welter (University of Arizona)

⑤“Buddhist Immigration in Song Dynasty” Guodong Feng 馮国棟 (Zhejiang University)

⑥“The Lute, Lyric Poetry, and Literary Arts in Chinese Chan and Japanese

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Zen Buddhism” George Keyworth (University of Saskatchewan)

⑦“Challenges to Conceptions of Song Dynasty Wenzi Chan” Jason Protass (Brown University)

⑧“Chan Isn’t Just Meditation: The Role of Zhizheng zhuan 智證傳 in Chan

Buddhism” Yi-hsun Huang 黃繹勳 (Fo Guang University)

⑨“Relationship Between Dahui Zonggao and Monks and Layman from the

Perspective of Social Network” Gaoxing Qiu 邱高興 (China Jiliang University)

⑩“Performing Authenticity: Li Zhi 李贄 (1527-1602), Chan Buddhism,and

the Rise of Textual Spirituality” Jiang Wu 呉疆 (University of Arizona)

⑪ How a Chan Buddhist Copes with the Method of hetū-vidyā? –A Case

Study of Miyun Yuanwu (1566-1642) in the Debate on the Thesis on

No-Motion of Things” Chen-kuo Lin 林鎮国 (National Chengchi University)

⑫“Searching for Zen Roots: from Guodian to Vimalakirti” Ken Hollaway (Florida Atlantic University)

⑬“The Transmission of the Platform Sūtra to Korea and Japan” Morten Schlütter (University of Iowa)

⑭“The Origins of the Public Chan or Sŏn Monastery in Korea:The Monk

Tamjin and his Impact on Sŏn Buddhism

Juhn Ahn (University of Michigan)

⑮“Yuanwu Keqin’s Chinese Chan Influence on the Formation of Early

Japanese Zen” Steven Heine (Florida International University)

⑯“A Single Golden Dragon up my Sleeve: Chinese Emigrant Masters in

Japan, 1246-1317 ” Steffen Döll (Hamburg University)

⑰“From Center to Peripheries: Encounter Between Sŏn Buddhism and

Popular Religions in Late Chosŏn Korea” Sungwook Kim (Columbia University)

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⑱“Hongzhou Chan in the Tangut texts ” Kirill Solonin (Renmin University)

⑲“Taixu’s History of the Chan Tradition” Eric Goodell (Fo Guang University)

⑳“Decoding History: Nuns in Korean Sŏn Buddhism” Jin Y. Park (American University)

㉑“The Struggle of Chogyejong to Define its Identity as a Meditative School

in Contemporary Korea” Bernard Senécal (Sogang University)

㉒“Chan Influence on Japanese Buddhist Progressives of Late Meiji” James Mark Shields (Bucknell University)

3月 30日 公開講演Robert E. Buswell, Jr. (University of California, Los Angeles)

“Is Zen“Enlightenment”Sudden or Gradual?:Insights from the Korean

Buddhist Tradition”

* 今回も知人の Krityna Cislerovaさんに英訳をお願いした。英訳に困難な箇所にも努力していただき感謝申しあげたい。なお、英訳の為の日本語の原稿は、便宜上、原文の現代語訳と訓読文とわずかに取意訳があったが、活字化するにあたり、原文を添えることにした。

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