the history of aboriginal spirituality -...

The Aboriginal peoples of Canada have a long, rich, and varied context for their spiritual traditions. Aboriginal peoples in the land that is now Canada were—and are—diverse. They live in diverse environments and have a great variety of rituals, symbols, and practices. However, the spiritual traditions are deeply connected to the physical environment in which the Aboriginal peoples have traditionally lived—including the animals and plants of the environments—and life is seen as interconnected.

Until very recently, Aboriginal cultures have been oral ones. Traditionally, Aboriginal peoples have relied on memory and memory keepers—people who have received the sacred teachings from the elders and other spiritual leaders. As a result, the history of Aboriginal spiritual traditions is contained in teachings and practices passed down orally through the centuries as well as those shown in some archaeological fi ndings.

Aboriginal peoples have a long tradition of seasonal food growing and gathering, hunting, fi shing, and spiritual and cultural activities. Their oral traditions refl ect the knowledge and wisdom of generations.

Some First Nations, like theTsleil-Waututh Nation of theBurrard Inlet area on the West Coast, have described their origins inwritten form in the Declaration ofthe Tsleil-Waututh Nation.

7000−4000 BCE Aboriginal peoples develop tools and weaponsfor hunting and fi shing

1500 Extensive trading networks develop

1000 Some Aboriginal peoples develop pottery; village settlements develop

1000 CE Cultivation of crops begins

1450 The beginning of the most powerful political alliance in North America, the Iroquois (Haudenosaune) Confederacy

1523 French explorer Jacques Cartier arrives in North America and makes contact with Aboriginal peoples

1615 French missionary efforts begin

1640 The Huron Nation is destroyed

1674 Kateri Tekakwitha arrives inthe Catholic mission village Kahnawake, Québec

1829 The last of the Beothuk people dies

1871 Canada signs the fi rst treaty with First Nations

1876 Indian Act

1973 Aboriginal land claims are recognized by the Supreme Court of Canada

1980 Kateri Tekakwitha is beatifi ed

1982 Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees the rights of Aboriginal peoples

1998 The government of Canada apologizes for its past treatment of Aboriginal peoples

1999 Nunavut is established

2008 Prime Minister Stephen Harper apologizes to Aboriginal peoples for past mistreatment; the Truth and Reconciliation Commission is established to investigate the legacy of residential schools

The History of Aboriginal Spirituality Fast FactThe word “religion” is not one that most indigenous people use to describe their spiritual practices. For some Aboriginal peoples of Canada, the terms “spirituality” and

“spiritual traditions” are preferred.

Fast FactToday, some sacred ceremonies and teachings are not considered appropriate to pass on in written form.

EldersAboriginal men or women who are recognized, respected, and consulted for their wisdom, experience, knowledge, background, and insight; an elder is not necessarily one of the oldest people in the community

Timeline of Some Important Events for Aboriginal Peoples in Canada

7000

1500

1000

1000

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1450

1500

1550

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1650

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1850

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BCE

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There is great diversity among Aboriginal peoples of Canada and the environments of their traditional lands, yet their worldviews are similar to those of indigenous peoples everywhere on Earth. The traditional worldview shows a deep sense that all that exists—trees, plants, animals, humans, the earth, even certain rocks—is alive.

A Closer Look“The traditional way of education was by example, experience, and storytelling. The fi rst principle involved was total respect and acceptance of the one to be taught, and that learning was a continuous process from birth to death. It was total continuity without interruption. Its nature was like a fountain that gives many colours and fl avours of water and that whoever chose could drink as much or as little as they wanted to whenever they wished. The teaching strictly adhered to the sacredness of life whether of humans, animals, or plants.”

—Art Solomon, Ojibwa Elder

IndigenousRefers to native, original, or earliest known inhabitants of a region

Ojibwa Rock Painting. This Ojibwa rock painting is found at Agawa Bay, in Lake Superior Provincial Park, Ontario. Some of the 35 rock paintings in this area are

estimated to be at least 1500 years old. According to one interpretation, some paintings show the spirit of the Ojibwa sea monster Mishipizheu (a spirit also called Great Horned Lynx), and one of a fl eet of canoes that was able to cross the dangerous eastern Lake Superior with the spirit’s blessing.

Petroglyphs in Nova Scotia. These

petroglyphs can be seen in Kejimkujik National Park, Nova Scotia. They are part of the legacy from 4000 years of the Mi’kmaq people’s spiritual relationship to this land.

Petroforms in Manitoba. Petroforms are arrangements of rocks or boulders

made by Aboriginal people and understood to be for teaching, healing, and other spiritual practices. Some petroforms show turtles, humans, fi sh, and a giant serpent. This petroform at Whiteshell Provincial Park in Manitoba may date back to the same time a nearby camp was created—500 CE.

The Story of Canadian Aboriginal Spirituality The Story of Canadian Aboriginal Spirituality 71 71NEL


Aboriginal Language Families of Canada, Showing Their Approximate Location at the Time of European Contact

Aboriginal Nations in Canada. Each of the Aboriginal nations at the time of contactin 1534 had its own language, spiritual beliefs, and practices. There are now more than

60 Aboriginal languages and dialects in Canada.

Check Your Understanding1. Defi ne the term “Aboriginal peoples” and describe the recent trend in Aboriginal

population growth in Canada.

2. How have spiritual traditions been passed down from one generation to the next?

Think About It 3. Review the pages you have read in this chapter so far. What key ideas and

questions do you have to this point? How might you fi nd answers to your questions?

Making It Personal4. Aboriginal spiritual traditions are very connected to the physical environment.

In what ways is your own religion or faith connected to the natural world? What might that fact mean in your natural environment? Express your ideas in an illustration, collection of photos, or journal entry.

5. Looking at the map above, identify which Aboriginal peoples in 1534 lived closest to where you live now. What do you know about the Aboriginal history of your community?

Inuit

Athapaskan

Tlingit

Haida

Tsimshian

Wakashan

Salishan

Kootenayan

Algonkian

Siouan

Iroquoian

Beothukan

Aboriginal Nation

Woodlands First Nations

Iroquoian First Nations

First Nations of the Plains

First Nations of thePlateau

Pacific Coast First Nations

First Nations of theMacKenzie andYukon River Basins

Inuit and Inuvialuit

Language Group

Algonkian

Iroquoian

AlgonkianSiouan Athapaskan

SalishanKootenayanAthapaskanTlingit

HaidaTsimshian Wakashan Salishan

Athapaskan

Inuit

HudsonBay

ATLANTICOCEAN

ARCTICOCEAN

0 1000 km500

N

EW

S

Language groups in Canada at the time of European contact

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European Contact and Aboriginal Spiritual Traditions As you read in Chapter 2, the Europeans came to North America as explorers, traders, colonizers, settlers, and missionaries. Over time, the contact between Europeans and Aboriginal peoples had a range of impacts. In some cases, for example, Aboriginal peoples helped early Europeans by teaching them survival skills. As you read below about some of the attitudes and actions of the Europeans, think about the possible effects on the Aboriginal spiritual traditions you have read about so far in this chapter.

• Many Europeans considered their own ways “civilized” but Aboriginal ways “uncivilized.” They believed that Aboriginal peoples should give up their own traditions.

• As early as 1701, treaties were signed to defi ne promises, obligations, and benefi ts. They covered land, hunting and fi shing rights, and other issues concerning Aboriginal peoples and Europeans.

• Reserves were created, which set aside parcels of land for specifi c First Nations peoples to use.

• The Gradual Civilization Act (1857) was passed to assimilate Aboriginal peoples into European culture.

• The Indian Act (1876) set out the federal government’s responsibility for education of Status Indian children aged 6 to 18. It allowed for the setting up of residential schools run by Anglican, United, Presbyterian, and Catholic churches.

• Starting in 1885, one West Coast Aboriginal ceremony—the potlatch—was banned. In 1895, Aboriginal ceremonies, dances, and festivals were banned.

In the words of Black Elk, a Sioux spiritual leader and a Catholic, the arrival of the Europeans broke the sacred circle of life: “The Wasichus [white men] have put us in these square boxes. Our power is gone and we are dying, for the power is not in us anymore.” What do you think Black Elk might mean by “square boxes”?

Buffalo Meat Drying. Many early Métis hunted

buffalo and made pemmican with the meat. They supplied pemmican to European traders. This painting shows Métis drying buffalo meat.

Aboriginal Residential Schools. These Aboriginal

children are in class at a residential school on the Stoney Reserve, Morley, Alberta, around 1950. Many Aboriginal children were taken far distances away from their families for many years at a time. Many residential schools did not allow students to speak Aboriginal languages.

AssimilateAbsorb one group into the culture of another

Fast Fact“Status Indian” is a term used in the Indian Act. Registered Status Indians are entitled to services from the federal government.



Recent HistoryThrough the twentieth century and into the twenty-fi rst century, Aboriginal peoples in Canada have faced many challenges and made many changes. Here are some examples that relate to Aboriginal spiritual traditions.

• Many banned Aboriginal ceremonies continued in private. The ban was offi cially lifted in 1951.

• The creation of the territory of Nunavut in 1999 was the largest land claim settlement in Canada’s history. Nunavut has three offi cial languages (Inuktitut, English, and French) and a territorial government that favours making decisions by consensus—a traditional practice among Inuit.

• Elder Noel Knockwood has been active in reviving Aboriginal spirituality in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. For example, he has published a book titled Mi’kmaq Teaching and Prayers, helped Aboriginal spirituality become recognized as an offi cial religion in Nova Scotia, and participated in the Eagle Feather project, which allows for the eagle feather to be used in the provincial justice system in place of a Bible.

• After the Canadian public became aware of the cultural, physical, emotional, and sexual abuse that had occurred at residential schools, the schools were eventually closed. Both the federal government and the churches involved apologized to Aboriginal peoples. In 2008, the federal government set up a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to document the legacy of the residential schools.

• In 1982, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guaranteed the rights of Aboriginal peoples and had a powerful and positive effect on legal issues relating to Aboriginal peoples.

Federal Government Apology to Aboriginal

Peoples. In 2008, on behalf of the government of Canada, Prime Minister Stephen Harper asked “the forgiveness of the Aboriginal peoples of this country for failing them so profoundly,” and added, “We are sorry.” He is shown here presenting a citation to Assembly of First Nations Chief Phil Fontaine.

Meeting between thePope and Aboriginal Elders.

In April 2009, Pope Benedict XVI expressed his sorrow over the abuse suffered by some at residential schools. Assembly of First Nations Chief Phil Fontaine, Aboriginal elders, and survivors met with the pope.

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Aboriginal Peoples in Canada Today Today, Aboriginal peoples in Canada are a fast-growing group. Many Aboriginal peoples are trying to address the negative impacts of contact, recover and revive traditional practices, and move toward a stronger future. Recognizing and taking pride in Aboriginal achievements is part of this movement. Another part is the revival of Aboriginal spiritual traditions.

The history of the encounter between Aboriginal peoples and European colonizers of Canada made it diffi cult for Aboriginal peoples to express their ancient spiritual traditions. In part, the federal government’s apology to Aboriginal peoples was due to the increasing interest and success of many Aboriginal people in rediscovering their traditional spiritual roots.

For Aboriginal peoples reviving Aboriginal spiritual traditions, this can mean

• embracing once again the healing spiritual values and practices of their ancestors after decades of treatment as second-class citizens

• reviving spiritual traditions in the midst of an increasingly secular Canada

• integrating Aboriginal spiritual heritage with Christianity

For Aboriginal Canadians who are Christian, this revival can mean struggling with the question of whether they can be true to their own Aboriginal spiritual traditions while remaining faithful to the Gospel as followers of Christ. This is an intra-religious dialogue—a dialogue within a religion. There are no easy answers.

Aboriginal Culture, Tradition, and History.

In 1998, Joe and Josephine Crowshoe were honoured with a National Aboriginal Achievement Award. As elders of the Piegan Nation in southern Alberta, they worked to educate Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal peoples about Aboriginal culture, tradition, and history, and to promote a harmonious relationship between Aboriginal andnon-Aboriginal peoples.

Aboriginal Christian Symbols. Many

attempts have been made to incorporate Aboriginal symbols within Christianity. What Aboriginal and Christian symbols can you identify in the photograph?



In many Aboriginal cultures, people use a talking feather, stick, or stone to help them talk and listen respectfully. Only the person holding the feather, stick, or stone may talk: other people in the group must listen attentively and respectfully. When the speaker is finished, he or she passes the feather, stick, or stone to the next person who wishes to speak. In this way, everyone has an opportunity to speak and a right to be heard with respect.

There is a well-known teaching about how the talking feather came to symbolize the power of words and communication. Crow and Magpie argued so loudly that they disturbed all the villagers. A villager asked Eagle to frighten

the squabbling birds into silence, but they were too busy arguing to notice Eagle. During their dispute, one of the birds bumped into Eagle, causing one of his feathers to fall out. Both birds were ashamed of their actions, and realized that they could solve their argument by talking instead of fighting. Eagle gave the feather to the people and from then on, when the people gathered, only the one who held the talking feather could speak.

Activity 1. With your classmates, create

your own version of a talking feather, stick, or stone to use during discussions or debates in the class. Then, create a list

of rules for how to use it. How can you and your classmates show respect for this powerful symbol?

Make It Your Own: The Talking Feather

Sacred Eagle Feathers. Many Aboriginal peoples consider

eagle feathers sacred because the eagle is viewed as a divine messenger. Its feathers represent power and protection. Because the eagle soars high in the skies, it is the only creature believed to have touched the face of the Creator.

The First Legislature of Nunavut. In this photo of the interim legislature

of Nunavut, taken in 1999, the members of the legislature are being sworn in. Unlike other legislatures, the Nunavut legislature is set up as a ring in which all members are joined, rather than having members sit on opposite sides from each other. What does this set-up tell you about how the Inuit view decision making?

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Aboriginal peoples make decisions through a process of consensus, that is, of coming to agreement as a group. If an issue requires discussion and debate, it is discussed by all the members of the group. All opinions are respected and listened to. If members disagree about the course of action, the most skilled negotiators in the group try to help the group reach a compromise.

These principles can apply to group discussions and group work in class, as well.

1. All group members are responsible for contributing to the discussion.

2. To ensure that everyone contributes, sit in a circle

and go around the group. Everyone speaks in turn according to his or her position in the circle. If your group has made a talking stick or feather, use it to determine who will speak.

3. While someone is speaking, all other group members must listen respectfully, without interrupting.

4. Accept all ideas brought forward at this point in the discussion.

5. As a group, assign the role of note taker to one or more group members. If your group has more than one note taker, combine your notes at the end of the discussion.

6. Once you have gone around the circle and everyone has had a chance to contribute, identify where you have agreed or disagreed.

7. If your group disagrees about an issue, the next step is to discuss the disagreement more fully.

• How do the two viewpoints differ?

• Are there any areas of agreement? Can your group build on those?

• Can another member suggest a compromise between both viewpoints?

Making decisions by consensus can be a long process, but in the end all members of the group achieve some of their goals.

Skill Focus: Making Decisions through Consensus

Check Your Understanding1.a) Describe at least three ways in which contact with Europeans affected

Aboriginal peoples.

b) Describe two recent positive changes in the situation of Aboriginal peoples in Canada.

Think About It2.Create a timeline or clock to mark dates for archaeological evidence, traditional

teachings, and key events noted on pages 70 to 74. How would you describe the history of Aboriginal spiritual traditions?

3.Where have you gained most of your knowledge about the Aboriginal peoples of Canada? How do your sources influence your understanding of Aboriginal peoples, their contributions to Canadian society, and their spiritual traditions?

Making It Personal4.Consider your own belief systems. If you were not allowed to practise rituals,

speak your first language, or feel pride in your heritage, how would that affect you? How would you face that challenge?

5. In 2008, Canada’s prime minister made a statement of apology to the Aboriginal peoples of Canada on behalf of the Canadian government. If you could add your own personal statement, what would you add?

The Story of Canadian Aboriginal Spirituality 77NEL

the history of aboriginal spirituality -...

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