THE GRAMMAR THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISHOF ENGLISH

CHAPTER CHAPTER 33

WHAT IS “GRAMMAR”?WHAT IS “GRAMMAR”?

Different meanings:Different meanings:• ETYMOLOGICALLY LINKED TO “WRITTEN ETYMOLOGICALLY LINKED TO “WRITTEN

LETTERS”, BUT GRADUALLY HAS LETTERS”, BUT GRADUALLY HAS ACQUIRED A WIDER MEANING ACQUIRED A WIDER MEANING

• IMPLICIT KNOWLEDGE OF HOW IMPLICIT KNOWLEDGE OF HOW LANGUAGE WORKSLANGUAGE WORKS

• EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE OF HOW EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE OF HOW LANGUAGE WORKSLANGUAGE WORKS

• THE RULES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF THE RULES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF CORRECT LANGUAGECORRECT LANGUAGE

• DIFFERENT TYPES OF GRAMMAR: DIFFERENT TYPES OF GRAMMAR: PEDAGOGICAL/NORMATIVE, DESCRIPTIVE, PEDAGOGICAL/NORMATIVE, DESCRIPTIVE, THEORETICAL (e.g. Halliday’s systemic THEORETICAL (e.g. Halliday’s systemic grammar)grammar)

WHAT IS “GRAMMAR” MADE WHAT IS “GRAMMAR” MADE OF?OF?

Grammar= Grammar= languagelanguage

PhonologyPhonology MorphologyMorphology Word-formationWord-formation SyntaxSyntax Lexis and phraseologyLexis and phraseology SemanticsSemantics Text and discourseText and discourse PunctuationPunctuation

The central The central core of core of grammar=grammar=

morphology morphology

inflectional (and inflectional (and derivational, see derivational, see Chapter 4)Chapter 4)

syntaxsyntax

MORPHOLOGYMORPHOLOGY

THE STUDY OF THE THE STUDY OF THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF WORDS OF WORDS

e.g. the plural –s e.g. the plural –s inflection for nouns and inflection for nouns and the –ed inflection for the –ed inflection for verbsverbs

SYNTAXSYNTAX

THE WAY IN WHICH WORDS COMBINE THE WAY IN WHICH WORDS COMBINE TO FORM LARGER UNITS OF MEANINGTO FORM LARGER UNITS OF MEANING

e.g. phrases, clauses, sentencese.g. phrases, clauses, sentences

Example: word order in a noun phrase or Example: word order in a noun phrase or in statements and questionsin statements and questions

e.g. She is a beautiful girle.g. She is a beautiful girl

NOT She is a girl beautifulNOT She is a girl beautiful

IN PRESENT-DAY IN PRESENT-DAY ENGLISH…ENGLISH…

limited presence of inflectional limited presence of inflectional morphology compared to Old English morphology compared to Old English (and other languages such as Italian or (and other languages such as Italian or German) German)

and and

greater importance of syntax and word greater importance of syntax and word order in signalling grammatical order in signalling grammatical relationsrelations

GRAMMATICAL UNITSGRAMMATICAL UNITS

TEXTTEXT SENTENCE (SENTENCE (frase complessafrase complessa)) CLAUSE (CLAUSE (frase semplice frase semplice /principale o /principale o

subordinatasubordinata)) PHRASE ( *not PHRASE ( *not frasefrase but but

sintagma/grupposintagma/gruppo) ) WORD WORD MORPHEMEMORPHEME

What is a MORPHEME?What is a MORPHEME?

Unhappy Unhappy un-happyun-happy CatsCats cat-s cat-s

A A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning or morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning or grammatical functiongrammatical function

Lexical e.g. Lexical e.g. pen, bookpen, book Functional or grammatical e.g. Functional or grammatical e.g. if, the if, the

free: can stand alone as a word e.g. free: can stand alone as a word e.g. basket, basket, womanwoman

bound: cannot stand alone and must be linked to bound: cannot stand alone and must be linked to another morpheme (called base or root) e.g. -another morpheme (called base or root) e.g. -ly, ly, un-, -able, -eeun-, -able, -ee

MORPHEMES and MORPHEMES and MORPHS MORPHS

Played play-Played play-ed ed PLAY+ PLAY+ pastpast

Unhelpful Unhelpful unun-help--help-ful ful negativenegative+HELP+ +HELP+ adjectiveadjective

WORDS MORPHS WORDS MORPHS MORPHEMESMORPHEMES

(concrete) (concrete) (abstract)(abstract)

ALLOMORPHSALLOMORPHS

--eded

the morph that indicates past the morph that indicates past tense can be realised phonetically tense can be realised phonetically in different ways in different ways (allomorphs)(allomorphs) depending on the phonological depending on the phonological contextcontext::

e.g. e.g. Raised [d]Raised [d] looked [t]looked [t] decided [decided [IId]d]

TWO BRANCHES OF TWO BRANCHES OF MORPHOLOGYMORPHOLOGY

INFLECTIONAL : DEALS WITH INFLECTIONAL : DEALS WITH CHANGES THAT HAVE CHANGES THAT HAVE GRAMMATICAL MEANING GRAMMATICAL MEANING

e.g. e.g. –est –est signalling the superlative of signalling the superlative of adjectivesadjectives

DERIVATIONAL: DEALS WITH THE DERIVATIONAL: DEALS WITH THE PROCESS OF NEW WORD PROCESS OF NEW WORD FORMATIONFORMATION

e.g. e.g. unun-happ(y)i--happ(y)i-nessness ( (see Chapter 4)see Chapter 4)

WHAT IS A WORD?WHAT IS A WORD?

Mary’s brother-in-law Mary’s brother-in-law lost his identity card lost his identity card during the week-endduring the week-end

How many words are How many words are there in this clause? there in this clause?

HOW MANY ‘WORDS’ ARE HOW MANY ‘WORDS’ ARE THERE IN THIS THERE IN THIS

SENTENCE?SENTENCE? I asked him to list all I asked him to list all his books, but instead his books, but instead of listing them all, he of listing them all, he listed only his listed only his favourite bookfavourite book

20 or 14 or a 20 or 14 or a number in between?number in between?

Phonological : a word is preceded and followed by pauses

Orthographic : a word is preceded and followed by spaces or punctuation marks

Prosodic : a word takes one main stress Internal integrity : a word is an

indivisible unit Semantic : a word has a single meaning

IT DEPENDS ON THE CRITERIA IT DEPENDS ON THE CRITERIA

OF “WORDHOOD” USEDOF “WORDHOOD” USED

Word/word Word/word forms/lexemesforms/lexemes

List/listing/listed = 3 word List/listing/listed = 3 word forms of the LEXEME TO forms of the LEXEME TO LISTLIST

Book/books = 2 word forms of Book/books = 2 word forms of the LEXEME BOOK the LEXEME BOOK

He/him = two word forms of He/him = two word forms of the LEXEME HEthe LEXEME HE

WORDS IN WORDS IN DICTIONARIESDICTIONARIES

ENTRY: an independent lexical unit ENTRY: an independent lexical unit in alphabetical orderin alphabetical order

HEADWORD: the main word of the HEADWORD: the main word of the entryentry

LEMMA: the canonical form, e.g. the LEMMA: the canonical form, e.g. the singular for nounssingular for nouns

Words are traditionally Words are traditionally grouped intogrouped into

WORD CLASSES WORD CLASSES

OR OR

PARTS OF PARTS OF SPEECHSPEECH

HOW MANY AND WHAT HOW MANY AND WHAT ARE THEY?ARE THEY?

NOUNSNOUNSVERBS ( LEXICAL vs. AUXILIARY VERBS ( LEXICAL vs. AUXILIARY

VERBS)VERBS)ADJECTIVESADJECTIVESADVERBSADVERBSARTICLES or DETERMINERSARTICLES or DETERMINERSPRONOUNS PRONOUNS CONJUNCTIONS CONJUNCTIONS PREPOSITIONSPREPOSITIONSINTERJECTIONS/INSERTS e.g. oh, yes, INTERJECTIONS/INSERTS e.g. oh, yes,

rightright

OPEN AND CLOSED OPEN AND CLOSED CLASSESCLASSES

open-class words open-class words lexical or lexical or content words: wide and open content words: wide and open membership; mixed etymological membership; mixed etymological origin ; 4 classes: nouns, (lexical) origin ; 4 classes: nouns, (lexical) verbs, adjectives, adverbsverbs, adjectives, adverbs

closed-class words closed-class words grammatical grammatical or function words: limited or function words: limited membership and high frequency of membership and high frequency of use; short; usually of Germanic use; short; usually of Germanic origin; 5 classes: pronouns, origin; 5 classes: pronouns, determiners, auxiliaries, determiners, auxiliaries, prepositions, conjunctionsprepositions, conjunctions

MULTIPLE CLASS MULTIPLE CLASS MEMBERSHIPMEMBERSHIP

the same word form may belong to more the same word form may belong to more than one word classthan one word classe.g.e.g. fast (adj.), fast (adv.), fast (n.)fast (adj.), fast (adv.), fast (n.)

park (n.), to park (v.)park (n.), to park (v.) can (n.), can (aux.)can (n.), can (aux.)

only the co-text, i.e. the surroundings of only the co-text, i.e. the surroundings of the word, allows the reader/listener to the word, allows the reader/listener to understand the differenceunderstand the difference

word stress helps disambiguationword stress helps disambiguation e.g. rebel (n.) [e.g. rebel (n.) [], rebel (v.) ], rebel (v.) [[]]

NOUNS NOUNS

Open class with a naming function Open class with a naming function

common common ((city, housecity, house)) or proper or proper ((London, Mary, the White HouseLondon, Mary, the White House))

Concrete Concrete ((breadbread)) or abstract or abstract ((lovelove)) Countable Countable ((book/booksbook/books)) and and

uncountable or mass uncountable or mass ((milk, furniture, milk, furniture, informationinformation))

may take the ‘s genitive case may take the ‘s genitive case ((genitivo sassone)genitivo sassone)

VERBS: lexical and VERBS: lexical and auxiliary verbs auxiliary verbs

open class denoting actions or states open class denoting actions or states

lexical /main / full verbs lexical /main / full verbs e.g. I e.g. I likelike English English

He He walkedwalked to schoolto school

auxiliary verbs (or auxiliaries) are added to auxiliary verbs (or auxiliaries) are added to lexical verbs for various purposeslexical verbs for various purposes

e.g. I e.g. I couldcould go go faster. (modality)faster. (modality)

John John isis goinggoing nowhere. (progressive nowhere. (progressive aspect)aspect)

DoDo you goyou go to school? (question) to school? (question)

I I dodo lovelove him! (emphasis) him! (emphasis)

LEXICAL VERBSLEXICAL VERBS

dynamic: referring to physical processesdynamic: referring to physical processes= = allow the progressive formallow the progressive forme.g. e.g. to play, to walk, to drinkto play, to walk, to drink

Stative/state : referring to states and conditions = do not allow the progressive formStative/state : referring to states and conditions = do not allow the progressive forme.g. e.g. to know, to love, to believeto know, to love, to believe

Some can be bothSome can be both , , e.g.e.g. to feel to feel

ADJECTIVESADJECTIVES Open-class with a descriptive functionOpen-class with a descriptive function

attributive function, before a nounattributive function, before a noune.g. e.g. the the extraordinaryextraordinary boyboy

predicative function, after copular verbs (to be, to predicative function, after copular verbs (to be, to seem, to appear) e.g. seem, to appear) e.g. John is John is talltallsome adjectives are only used in either attributive some adjectives are only used in either attributive or predicative functionor predicative functione.g.e.g. the child is the child is afraidafraid (predicative) (predicative)

*the *the afraidafraid child but the freightened child child but the freightened childe.g.e.g. the the main taskmain task (attributive)(attributive)

*the task is main but the task is crucial / *the task is main but the task is crucial /

importantimportant

GRADABILITY OF GRADABILITY OF ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVES

most adjectives are gradable most adjectives are gradable it is possible to indicate to what it is possible to indicate to what

extent the quality referred to by an extent the quality referred to by an adjective applies by using adjective applies by using intensifiersintensifierse.g.e.g. luckylucky

veryvery lucky extremely lucky lucky extremely lucky

some adjectives are not gradablesome adjectives are not gradablee.g e.g huge *extremely hugehuge *extremely huge

unique *very uniqueunique *very unique

ADVERBS ADVERBS

A very heterogeneous A very heterogeneous classclass

FortunatelyFortunately, , todaytoday the dog has eaten his foodthe dog has eaten his food very very quietlyquietly o outsideutside

comment when how / comment when how / how /wherehow /where

……provide information about how, provide information about how,

when, and wherewhen, and where ……allow the speaker to comment on the allow the speaker to comment on the

whole utterancewhole utterance ……express degree with adjectives or express degree with adjectives or

other adverbsother adverbs

Subclasses of adverbsSubclasses of adverbs

• Circumstance adverbs or adjunctsCircumstance adverbs or adjuncts: give additional : give additional information about an element of the sentenceinformation about an element of the sentence

e.g. The surgeon completed the operation e.g. The surgeon completed the operation carefullycarefully

• Stance adverbs or disjunctsStance adverbs or disjuncts: provide a comment : provide a comment on the sentence on the sentence

e.g. e.g. FranklyFrankly, , I should have told her what happenedI should have told her what happened

• Linking adverbs or conjunctsLinking adverbs or conjuncts: connect one : connect one sentence or part of a sentence to anothersentence or part of a sentence to another

e.g. She wasn’t free to go to New York at e.g. She wasn’t free to go to New York at Christmas and Christmas and besidesbesides she couldn’t afford it.she couldn’t afford it.

CONJUNCTIONSCONJUNCTIONS

… … join linguistic elementsjoin linguistic elements

coordinating conjunctions, or coordinating conjunctions, or coordinatorscoordinatorse.g. e.g. and, but, orand, but, or

subordinating conjunctions, or subordinating conjunctions, or subordinatorssubordinators- simple,- simple, e.g. e.g. because, although, when because, although, when

- complex- complex, e.g. , e.g. as far as, in order toas far as, in order to

PREPOSITIONSPREPOSITIONS

show the relationship between two itemsshow the relationship between two items typically followed by a noun phrase with typically followed by a noun phrase with

which they form a Prepositional Phrase which they form a Prepositional Phrase (PP)(PP)

e.ge.g. the dog ran . the dog ran underunder the table the table simplesimple: single word: single word

e.g. e.g. under, over, at, onunder, over, at, on complexcomplex: more than one word: more than one word

according to, on behalf of, with regard toaccording to, on behalf of, with regard to

DETERMINERSDETERMINERS

Function words used before a noun to Function words used before a noun to indicate definiteness or indefiniteness, indicate definiteness or indefiniteness, quantity, possessionquantity, possession

e.g. e.g. all theseall these sugary cookies filled with jam and sugary cookies filled with jam and creamcream

The main subclasses are : The main subclasses are : Articles (indefinite and definite):Articles (indefinite and definite): a, an, thea, an, the demonstrativesdemonstratives: : this, that, these, thosethis, that, these, those possessivespossessives: : my, your, his, her, their, our, my, your, his, her, their, our,

its etc.its etc. quantifiersquantifiers: : all, few, many, several, some, all, few, many, several, some,

every, each, any, etc.every, each, any, etc. cardinal numbers:cardinal numbers: one, two, fifty, etc.one, two, fifty, etc. ordinal numbersordinal numbers: : first, second, third, etc.first, second, third, etc.

PRONOUNSPRONOUNS

closed class of words which replace words thus avoiding repetitionsclosed class of words which replace words thus avoiding repetitionse.g. e.g. MichelleMichelle was offered an exciting new was offered an exciting new jobjob and and sheshe decided to take decided to take itit

Main subclasses : Main subclasses : personal pronouns personal pronouns e.g. e.g. TheyThey love football (subject) She loves love football (subject) She loves themthem (object)(object) possessive pronounspossessive pronouns e.g. This book is e.g. This book is minemine Demonstrative pronounsDemonstrative pronouns e.g. e.g. ThisThis is my friend Tom is my friend Tom reflexive pronounsreflexive pronouns e.g. She hurt e.g. She hurt herselfherself interrogative pronounsinterrogative pronouns e.g. e.g. WhoseWhose car is this? car is this? relative pronounsrelative pronouns e.g. This is the car e.g. This is the car which/thatwhich/that I want to buyI want to buy

AUXILIARIESAUXILIARIES

A closed class of verbs which accompany lexical verbsA closed class of verbs which accompany lexical verbs

Two subclasses:Two subclasses:

primary auxiliariesprimary auxiliarieshave, be, dohave, be, doe.g. Liz e.g. Liz isis looking flooking for a job, or a job, Do Do you speak you speak English? English? She She has has studied studied a lota lot

modal auxiliaries (modality)modal auxiliaries (modality)can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must, must, e.g. Ie.g. I mustmust gogo now! now! Would Would you like you like a cup of coffee?a cup of coffee?

WHWH-WORDS-WORDS

A frequently used expression to refer to A frequently used expression to refer to function words beginning with function words beginning with whwh-: -:

adverbs adverbs (interrogative, relative, exclamative)(interrogative, relative, exclamative)e.g. e.g. WhenWhen did you call her? did you call her?

pronouns pronouns (interrogative, relative, exclamative)(interrogative, relative, exclamative) e.g. e.g. WhoseWhose car is that? car is that?

determiners determiners (interrogative, relative, (interrogative, relative, exclamative)exclamative)

e.g. e.g. WhichWhich book did you choose?book did you choose?

NUMERALSNUMERALS

cardinal, e.g. cardinal, e.g. one, two, three,one, two, three, etc.etc.

ordinal, e.g. ordinal, e.g. first, second, third,first, second, third, etc.etc.

numerals may function as nounsnumerals may function as nouns

e.ge.g. . The Magnificent SevenThe Magnificent Seven

PDE REGULAR PDE REGULAR INFLECTIONS INFLECTIONS

NOUNS NOUNS - s- s plural, plural, NOUNS NOUNS -’s-’s possessive or possessive or

genitive genitive casecase VERBS VERBS - s- s 3 3rdrd pers. sing. pers. sing. VERBS VERBS - ed- ed past tense, past tense, VERBS VERBS - - eded past participle past participle VERBS VERBS -ing-ing -ing form, -ing form,

gerundgerund ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVES -er-er comparativecomparative ADJECTIVES ADJECTIVES -est-est superlativesuperlative

NUMBER in English NUMBER in English NOUNSNOUNS

Most nouns add -s Most nouns add -s e.g.e.g. girlgirlss, toy, toyss, car, carss some nouns add -es some nouns add -es e.g.e.g. tomatotomatoeses, branch, brancheses, kniv, kniveses the pronunciation of the inflectional ending -the pronunciation of the inflectional ending -s/-ess/-es

depends on the phonetic context, i.e. there are three depends on the phonetic context, i.e. there are three allomorphsallomorphs of the plural morpheme -s of the plural morpheme -se.g.e.g. cakecakess = /s/ = /s/ (preceded by the voiceless (preceded by the voiceless consonant /k/)consonant /k/)beanbeanss = /z/ = /z/ (preceded by the voiced consonant /n/) (preceded by the voiced consonant /n/)

judges=judges= /iz/iz//

some nouns have irregular plural endingssome nouns have irregular plural endings e.g.e.g. children, teeth, mice, oxen, curricula, sheep children, teeth, mice, oxen, curricula, sheep

(see p. 131)(see p. 131)

uncountable nouns: uncountable nouns: e.ge.g. evidence, advice, equipment, information. evidence, advice, equipment, information

POSSESSIVE CASE IN ENGLISH POSSESSIVE CASE IN ENGLISH NOUNSNOUNS

The ‘s genitive versus the of-form.The ‘s genitive versus the of-form. Synthetic versus analytic option Synthetic versus analytic option

SAY WHETHER THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES ARE ALL SAY WHETHER THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES ARE ALL ACCEPTABLE AND DISCUSS THE RULE OF THE ‘s ACCEPTABLE AND DISCUSS THE RULE OF THE ‘s GENITIVE versus THE “OF FORMGENITIVE versus THE “OF FORM” ”

John’s car is fast John’s car is fast the car of John is fastthe car of John is fast the students’ protest is still going onthe students’ protest is still going on the protest of the students is still going onthe protest of the students is still going on the car of the friend who is visiting me was stolen last the car of the friend who is visiting me was stolen last

nightnight The friend who is visiting me’s car was stolen last nightThe friend who is visiting me’s car was stolen last night yesterday’s newspaperyesterday’s newspaper the newspaper of yesterdaythe newspaper of yesterday the journey’s end the journey’s end The end of the journeyThe end of the journey The legs of the table The legs of the table the table’s legsthe table’s legs

‘‘S or of GENITIVE S or of GENITIVE John’s car is fast John’s car is fast NO the car of John is fastNO the car of John is fast the students’ protest is still going onthe students’ protest is still going on the protest of the students is still going onthe protest of the students is still going on the car of the friend who is visiting me was the car of the friend who is visiting me was

stolen last nightstolen last night NO The friend who is visiting me’s car was NO The friend who is visiting me’s car was

stolen last nightstolen last night yesterday’s newspaperyesterday’s newspaper NO the newspaper of yesterdayNO the newspaper of yesterday the journey’s end the journey’s end The end of the journeyThe end of the journey The legs of the table The legs of the table NO the table’s legsNO the table’s legs

VERB INFLECTIONS VERB INFLECTIONS MOST ENGLISH VERBS ARE REGULAR AND HAVE A PARADIGM OF 5 MOST ENGLISH VERBS ARE REGULAR AND HAVE A PARADIGM OF 5

WORD FORMS and 4 VERB INFLECTIONSWORD FORMS and 4 VERB INFLECTIONS e.g. Love/loves/loved/loved/lovinge.g. Love/loves/loved/loved/loving

THERE IS A SMALLER NUMBER OF VERY FREQUENTLY USED THERE IS A SMALLER NUMBER OF VERY FREQUENTLY USED IRREGULAR VERBSIRREGULAR VERBS

e.g. e.g. put, put, putput, put, put lose, lost, lostlose, lost, lost take, took, takentake, took, taken speak, spoke, spokenspeak, spoke, spoken go, went, gonego, went, gone

AUXILIARIES ARE VERY IRREGULAR, e.g. The verb AUXILIARIES ARE VERY IRREGULAR, e.g. The verb to be to be has forms that has forms that differ from one another , e.g. differ from one another , e.g. am, are, is, was, were, beenam, are, is, was, were, been ( PROCESS OF ( PROCESS OF SUPPLETION) SUPPLETION)

MOST MODAL VERBS DO NOT INFLECT AND HAVE ONLY TWO FORMS, MOST MODAL VERBS DO NOT INFLECT AND HAVE ONLY TWO FORMS, e.g. e.g. may, might, can, couldmay, might, can, could

GRADABILITY OF GRADABILITY OF ADJECTIVES AND ADJECTIVES AND

ADVERBSADVERBS Synthetic comparisonSynthetic comparison:: -er ending-er ending (comparative) e.g. warmer(comparative) e.g. warmer -est ending-est ending (superlative)(superlative) e.g. fineste.g. finest versusversus phraseological/analytic comparison phraseological/analytic comparison (for (for

polysyllabic words)polysyllabic words) more and most e.g. more/ most interestingmore and most e.g. more/ most interesting more quickly more quickly

irregular comparison (process of suppletion)irregular comparison (process of suppletion)e.g. e.g. good better best; little, less, least; much, good better best; little, less, least; much, more, most; more, most;

well, better, best; bad, worse, worstwell, better, best; bad, worse, worst

PRONOUN INFLECTION PRONOUN INFLECTION

Pronouns, and personal Pronouns, and personal pronouns in particular, have pronouns in particular, have retained a certain degree of retained a certain degree of inflection in PDE.inflection in PDE.

e.g. personal pronouns express e.g. personal pronouns express NUMBER, GENDER and CASE NUMBER, GENDER and CASE often through suppletive formsoften through suppletive formsI-me; we-us, you-you, he-him, she-her, it-I-me; we-us, you-you, he-him, she-her, it-it, they-themit, they-them

PHRASE ( PHRASE ( SINTAGMA/GRUPPOSINTAGMA/GRUPPO))

a unit of syntax made up of a unit of syntax made up of one or more wordsone or more words

it contains an it contains an obligatory obligatory head head and and optional modifiersoptional modifiers

The black labrador (NP) was The black labrador (NP) was chewing (VP) a juicy bone chewing (VP) a juicy bone (NP) very noisily (AdvP(NP) very noisily (AdvP))

TYPES OF PHRASESTYPES OF PHRASES

NOUN PHRASE (NP) my friend Paul / TomNOUN PHRASE (NP) my friend Paul / TomVERB PHRASE (VP) is/ is laughingVERB PHRASE (VP) is/ is laughingADJECTIVE PHRASE (AdjP) very tall/ absolutely ADJECTIVE PHRASE (AdjP) very tall/ absolutely

brilliantbrilliantADVERB PHRASE (AdvP) quietly, neverADVERB PHRASE (AdvP) quietly, neverPREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP) in the garden/ on PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP) in the garden/ on

MondayMonday

except for prepositional phrases (PP) phrases except for prepositional phrases (PP) phrases can be constituted by a single lexical itemcan be constituted by a single lexical item

all phrases can be extended by pre-modification all phrases can be extended by pre-modification or post-modificationor post-modification

TYPES OF NOUN TYPES OF NOUN PHRASESPHRASES

determinerdeterminer pre-pre-modifiermodifier

HEADHEAD post-post-modifiermodifier

-- -- JohnJohn --

mymy leather (n.)leather (n.) suitcasesuitcase --

aa large, old, large, old, blue blue

(size, age, (size, age, colour)colour)

suitcasesuitcase with wheelswith wheels

MORE NOUN PHRASESMORE NOUN PHRASES

det.det. pre-modifierpre-modifier HEADHEAD post-post-modifiermodifier

The The LondonLondon experienexperiencece

--

-- London’sLondon’s churcheschurches --

TheThe -- LondonLondon I knowI know

AMBIGUITY in NPsAMBIGUITY in NPs

The French history teacherThe French history teacher

the (det.) French (pre-mod.) history the (det.) French (pre-mod.) history (pre-mod.) teacher (head)(pre-mod.) teacher (head)

[the] [French] [history teacher][the] [French] [history teacher] (the teacher of history is French)(the teacher of history is French)

[the] [French history] [teacher][the] [French history] [teacher]((the teacher teaches French history)the teacher teaches French history)

tree diagramtree diagramThe French history teacher : the teacher of The French history teacher : the teacher of

history is Frenchhistory is French

NPNP

det. Pre-mod.:Adj det. Pre-mod.:Adj head:NPhead:NP

mod:N + mod:N + head :Nhead :N

The French The French history history teacherteacher

tree diagramtree diagramThe French history teacher = the teacher The French history teacher = the teacher

teaches French historyteaches French history

NPNP

det. Pre-mod.:NP det. Pre-mod.:NP Head:NHead:N

Pre-mod:Adj. Head:NPre-mod:Adj. Head:N

The The French historyFrench history teacher teacher

COMPLEX POST-COMPLEX POST-MODIFICATIONMODIFICATION

The The proposalproposal for a new building for a new building which the committee put forward which the committee put forward last weeklast week

-for a new building (PP)-for a new building (PP)

-which the committee put forward -which the committee put forward last week (relative clause)last week (relative clause)

TREE DIAGRAM TREE DIAGRAM ““An interesting government report An interesting government report

about air pollutionabout air pollution””

NPNP

Det. Mod.(adj.) Mod.(N.) Head:N Post-Mod:PPDet. Mod.(adj.) Mod.(N.) Head:N Post-Mod:PP

Head:Prep C :NPHead:Prep C :NP Mod.:N Mod.:N

Head:NHead:N

An An interesting government report about air interesting government report about air pollutionpollution

FREQUENCY OF NPs IN FREQUENCY OF NPs IN ENGLISHENGLISH

PRE-MODIFICATION IS MORE PRE-MODIFICATION IS MORE COMMON THAN POST-COMMON THAN POST-MODIFICATION IN ALL MODIFICATION IN ALL REGISTERSREGISTERS

COMPLEX PRE- AND POST-COMPLEX PRE- AND POST-MODIFICATION IS TYPICAL OF MODIFICATION IS TYPICAL OF SOME REGISTERS SUCH AS SOME REGISTERS SUCH AS WRITTEN ACADEMIC PROSE WRITTEN ACADEMIC PROSE AND NEWSPAPER HEADLINESAND NEWSPAPER HEADLINES

ENGLISH/ITALIAN NPsENGLISH/ITALIAN NPs

Translate these noun phrases into Italian and notice the Translate these noun phrases into Italian and notice the differences between the two languagesdifferences between the two languages

11.. The Los Angeles Police DepartmentThe Los Angeles Police Department Il Dipartimento di Polizia di Los AngelesIl Dipartimento di Polizia di Los Angeles2. Air pollution 2. Air pollution L’inquinamento dell’aria/atmosfericoL’inquinamento dell’aria/atmosferico3. The Birmingham train 3. The Birmingham train Il treno per/da /di (?) Birmingham Il treno per/da /di (?) Birmingham 4. The proposal of a national curriculum 4. The proposal of a national curriculum La proposta di un curricolo nazionale La proposta di un curricolo nazionale 5. The country’s leading expert on youth culture5. The country’s leading expert on youth culture Il maggior esperto del paese sulla cultura Il maggior esperto del paese sulla cultura

giovanile /Il maggior esperto di cultura giovanile giovanile /Il maggior esperto di cultura giovanile del paesedel paese

Italian versus English Italian versus English NPs NPs

English favours premodification (to English favours premodification (to the left of the head). NPs are the left of the head). NPs are concise and at times ambiguous concise and at times ambiguous

Italian favours postmodification Italian favours postmodification (to the right of the head) and the (to the right of the head) and the use of prepositional phrases. NPs use of prepositional phrases. NPs are longer and more explicitare longer and more explicit

VERB PHRASEs : finite/ VERB PHRASEs : finite/ non-finitenon-finite

finitefinite verbs or VPs: marked by tense verbs or VPs: marked by tensee.g. e.g. John John playplayss the guitarthe guitar

I I enjoyed enjoyed the concertthe concert non-finitenon-finite verbs or VPs: not marked by tense, verbs or VPs: not marked by tense,

person or numberperson or numbere.g. e.g. To arrive To arrive on time was their objectiveon time was their objective

She traveled She traveled accompanied accompanied by her by her fatherfather

She broke her leg while She broke her leg while skiingskiing

VERB PHRASES: VERB PHRASES: TENSE versus TIMETENSE versus TIME

TENSETENSE: property allowing the verb to : property allowing the verb to differentiate between differentiate between presentpresent and and past past TIMETIME

e.g. Jane e.g. Jane likelikess music / Jane music / Jane liklikeded musicmusic

Unlike in Italian, there is no Unlike in Italian, there is no morphologically marked form to express morphologically marked form to express future time in English (but a range of future time in English (but a range of forms such as forms such as will/shall+ infinitive, going will/shall+ infinitive, going to, simple present, present progressiveto, simple present, present progressive etc. see 148-149)etc. see 148-149)

VERB PHRASE : ASPECTVERB PHRASE : ASPECT

Property allowing the verb to give information Property allowing the verb to give information about the state or the actionabout the state or the action

Progressive ( or continuous)Progressive ( or continuous) : the action is in : the action is in progress at the time of utteranceprogress at the time of utteranceSarah Sarah is helpingis helping her sister her sister

perfectperfect: the action is complete, that is it occurred : the action is complete, that is it occurred at an earlier time and continues to the time of at an earlier time and continues to the time of utterance or is relevant to itutterance or is relevant to itSarah Sarah has helpedhas helped her sister when she was in her her sister when she was in her teensteens

perfect+progressiveperfect+progressive: ( often called ‘duration form’) : ( often called ‘duration form’) stresses stresses

continuity in the past and includes the time of continuity in the past and includes the time of utterance utterance Sarah Sarah has been helpinghas been helping her sister since she was 12 her sister since she was 12

Translate into Italian and identify Translate into Italian and identify the main differences between the the main differences between the

two languagestwo languages 1.1. Sarah helps her sister every ThursdaySarah helps her sister every Thursday2.2. Sara aiuta sua sorella tutti i giovedìSara aiuta sua sorella tutti i giovedì3.3. Lately Sarah is helping her sister a lotLately Sarah is helping her sister a lot4.4. Ultimamente Sara sta aiutando/aiuta molto sua sorellaUltimamente Sara sta aiutando/aiuta molto sua sorella5.5. Sarah has helped her sister to recover from her illnessSarah has helped her sister to recover from her illness6.6. Sara ha aiutato sua sorella a riprendersi dalla malattia Sara ha aiutato sua sorella a riprendersi dalla malattia 7.7. Sarah helped her sister one year ago when she was illSarah helped her sister one year ago when she was ill8.8. Sara ha aiutato/aiutò sua sorella un anno fa quando Sara ha aiutato/aiutò sua sorella un anno fa quando

era malataera malata9.9. Sarah has been helping her sister since last MaySarah has been helping her sister since last May10.10. Sara sta aiutando/aiuta/sua sorella dal maggio scorso.Sara sta aiutando/aiuta/sua sorella dal maggio scorso.

Translate from Italian Translate from Italian into English into English

1.1. Sono andata a Londra molte volteSono andata a Londra molte volte

2.2. I have been to London several timesI have been to London several times

3.3. Vivo a LondraVivo a Londra

4.4. I live in LondonI live in London

5.5. Vado a Londra ogni annoVado a Londra ogni anno

6.6. I go to London every yearI go to London every year

7.7. Vivo a Londra da 5 anni e continua a piacermi moltoVivo a Londra da 5 anni e continua a piacermi molto

8.8. I have been living in London for 5 years and I still enjoy I have been living in London for 5 years and I still enjoy it a lotit a lot

9.9. Ho vissuto a Londra per 5 anni prima di tornare in Ho vissuto a Londra per 5 anni prima di tornare in ItaliaItalia

10.10. I lived in London for 5 years before coming back to ItalyI lived in London for 5 years before coming back to Italy

11.11. Vivevo a Londra quando ho incontrato JohnVivevo a Londra quando ho incontrato John

12.12. I was living in London when I met JohnI was living in London when I met John

VERB PHRASE : VOICEVERB PHRASE : VOICE The singer performed the songThe singer performed the song The song was performed by the The song was performed by the

singersinger

NPNP11+VP+ NP+VP+ NP22 NP NP22 +be+VP +be+VPeded+ + by+NPby+NP11

The singer was performing the songThe singer was performing the song The song was being performed by The song was being performed by

the singerthe singer

FUNCTIONS OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE PASSIVEPASSIVE

the agent is unknown or irrelevantthe agent is unknown or irrelevantMr Constable has been murderedMr Constable has been murdered the focus is on the process to convey the focus is on the process to convey

objectivity, especially in academic prose objectivity, especially in academic prose The results of the tests have been checked The results of the tests have been checked

several timesseveral times to disclaim responsibilityto disclaim responsibilityHe is said to be a womanizer He is said to be a womanizer

More frequent in scientific writing and in More frequent in scientific writing and in the Pressthe Press

MODAL VERBS AND MODAL VERBS AND MODALITYMODALITY

MODALS ARE FREQUENTLY USED IN MODALS ARE FREQUENTLY USED IN ENGLISH AND BELONG TO THE ENGLISH AND BELONG TO THE GERMANIC CORE OF THE LANGUAGE.GERMANIC CORE OF THE LANGUAGE.

THEY EXPRESS A WIDE RANGE OF THEY EXPRESS A WIDE RANGE OF

MEANINGS referring either to actions MEANINGS referring either to actions controlled by humans ( DEONTIC controlled by humans ( DEONTIC MODALITY) or to the levels of MODALITY) or to the levels of certainty of an event (EPISTEMIC certainty of an event (EPISTEMIC MODALITY). The same modals can MODALITY). The same modals can express different meanings. The same express different meanings. The same meanings can be expressed in different meanings can be expressed in different ways.ways.

THE MAIN MEANINGS OF THE MAIN MEANINGS OF MODAL VERBSMODAL VERBS

1.1. PERMISSION e.g. PERMISSION e.g. Can I go to the loo? Could Can I go to the loo? Could I borrow your notes? (Am I allowed to ask a I borrow your notes? (Am I allowed to ask a question?) question?)

2.2. ABILITY e.g. ABILITY e.g. I can ski, (I know how to do it) I can ski, (I know how to do it) 3.3. POSSIBILITY e.g. POSSIBILITY e.g. She may be ill . She might She may be ill . She might

be ill (Perhaps she is ill) be ill (Perhaps she is ill) 4.4. OBLIGATION e.g. OBLIGATION e.g. You must stop talking. You You must stop talking. You

should pay attention, You have to do it. This should pay attention, You have to do it. This needs to be done needs to be done

5.5. LOGICAL NECESSITY e.g. LOGICAL NECESSITY e.g. She must be ill She must be ill (She is very likely to be ill) (She is very likely to be ill)

6.6. VOLITION e.g. VOLITION e.g. I’ll do it for youI’ll do it for you7.7. PREDICTION e.g. PREDICTION e.g. It will rain tomorrowIt will rain tomorrow

WHAT ABOUT MODAL WHAT ABOUT MODAL VERBS IN ITALIAN?VERBS IN ITALIAN?

Translate the following expressions into English:Translate the following expressions into English:

Devi smettere di fumareDevi smettere di fumareYou must stop smokingYou must stop smokingDovresti smettere di fumareDovresti smettere di fumareYou should stop smokingYou should stop smokingPosso fumare?Posso fumare?Can I smoke ? May I smoke?Can I smoke ? May I smoke?Potrei fumare?Potrei fumare?Could I smoke? Might I smoke?Could I smoke? Might I smoke?Domani può piovereDomani può piovereIt may rain tomorrowIt may rain tomorrowDomani potrebbe piovereDomani potrebbe piovereIt might rain tomorrowIt might rain tomorrowDomani pioveràDomani pioveràIt will rain tomorrowIt will rain tomorrowSa sciare molto beneSa sciare molto beneShe can ski very wellShe can ski very wellSapeva sciare bene quando era giovaneSapeva sciare bene quando era giovaneShe could /was able to /ski very well when she was youngShe could /was able to /ski very well when she was young

In Italian there are the verbs In Italian there are the verbs potere, sapere e doverepotere, sapere e dovereSome modal expressions are expressed in Italian through Some modal expressions are expressed in Italian through the conditional moodthe conditional mood or the or the future future

tensetense, which do not exist as morphologically marked forms in English, which do not exist as morphologically marked forms in English

OTHER PHRASESOTHER PHRASES

ADJECTIVE PHRASEADJECTIVE PHRASE

e.g. Beautiful/ (really) beautifule.g. Beautiful/ (really) beautiful ADVERB PHRASEADVERB PHRASE e.g. Slowly/ (fairly) slowly e.g. Slowly/ (fairly) slowly PREPOSITIONAL PHRASEPREPOSITIONAL PHRASE at University / at (Turin) at University / at (Turin)

University ( see pp. 153-158)University ( see pp. 153-158)

Analysis of prepositional Analysis of prepositional phrasesphrases

in the classroomin the classroom

In ( Head: prep) + the classrom (C: In ( Head: prep) + the classrom (C: NP)NP)

near Rome near Rome

Near ( Head: prep) + Rome (C : NP)Near ( Head: prep) + Rome (C : NP)

HOW CAN A CLAUSE BE HOW CAN A CLAUSE BE ANALYSED?ANALYSED?

First into Subject + predicateFirst into Subject + predicate John John ( what is talked about) ( what is talked about) is English is English

(what is said about the topic)(what is said about the topic)Then into the 5 main functional elements Then into the 5 main functional elements

of the clause: of the clause: S (Subject), S (Subject), V (Verb or Verb Phrase or Predicator ), V (Verb or Verb Phrase or Predicator ), O (Object) O (Object) complemento oggettocomplemento oggettoC (Complement) C (Complement) predicato nominale, del predicato nominale, del

soggetto o dell’oggettosoggetto o dell’oggettoA (Adverbial) A (Adverbial) vari tipi di complementi . vari tipi di complementi .

They are often optional.They are often optional.

WORD ORDER in PDEWORD ORDER in PDE Translate the following clauses into English:Translate the following clauses into English:

Seguiranno alcuni esempi Seguiranno alcuni esempi Some examples will followSome examples will follow Nel capitolo 3 verrà presentata la grammatica Nel capitolo 3 verrà presentata la grammatica Grammar will be presented in Chapter 3Grammar will be presented in Chapter 3 Giovanni parla molto bene l’italiano /l’italiano molto bene Giovanni parla molto bene l’italiano /l’italiano molto bene John speaks Italian very wellJohn speaks Italian very well Odio stirare Odio stirare I hate ironingI hate ironing Piove forte da molte ore Piove forte da molte ore It’s been raining heavily for many hoursIt’s been raining heavily for many hours• C’è un gatto in giardinoC’è un gatto in giardino There is a cat in the gardenThere is a cat in the garden

CONCLUSION:CONCLUSION: The unmarked word order in English in SVO, while in Italian this The unmarked word order in English in SVO, while in Italian this

order can vary to a certain extent order can vary to a certain extent The subject is compulsory in English , and not in Italian. If there is The subject is compulsory in English , and not in Italian. If there is

no subject, a ‘dummy’ (empty) subject will be used no subject, a ‘dummy’ (empty) subject will be used (it/there).(it/there).

THE VERBTHE VERB

……IS THE CENTRAL PART OF THE IS THE CENTRAL PART OF THE CLAUSE SINCE IT DETERMINES THE CLAUSE SINCE IT DETERMINES THE OTHER ELEMENTS (OTHER ELEMENTS ( e.g. verb e.g. verb complementation or valency)complementation or valency)

She was laughing She was laughing one-place verbone-place verbShe was playing the piano She was playing the piano two-place verbtwo-place verbShe was very beautiful She was very beautiful two-place verbtwo-place verbShe gave him a kiss She gave him a kiss three-place three-place

verbverbShe made him happy She made him happy three-place three-place

verbverb

CLAUSE ELEMENTSCLAUSE ELEMENTS

SS VV OO CC AAThe The black black labradolabrador (NP)r (NP)

has has bitten bitten (VP)(VP)

Mr Mr AllingtoAllington (NP)n (NP)

He He (NP)(NP)

put put (VP)(VP)

the the keyskeys

(NP)(NP)

in his in his bagbag

(AdvP)(AdvP)

Sue Sue (NP)(NP)

is is feeling feeling (VP)(VP)

very very sleepy sleepy (AdjP)(AdjP)

SS VV OO CC AAIt (dummy It (dummy subject)subject)

is going is going to rain to rain (VP)(VP)

ArmstronArmstrong (NP)g (NP)

became became (VP)(VP)

the first the first man on man on the the moon moon (NP)(NP)

Chris Chris (NP)(NP)

made made (VP)(VP)

Sara Sara (NP)(NP)

really really angry angry (AdjP)(AdjP)

yesterdayesterday (AdvP)y (AdvP)

What I What I don’t don’t understanunderstand (clause)d (clause)

is (VP)is (VP) Why you Why you lied to lied to meme

( clause)( clause)

S+V+Oi+OdS+V+Oi+Od

SS VV OiOi

(Indire(Indirect ct Object)Object)

OdOd

(Direct (Direct Object)Object)

She She

gavegave me me a kissa kiss

She She gavegave her her sistersister

a glass a glass of wineof wine

She She gavegave Od Od

a glass a glass of wineof wine

Oi Oi

to her to her sistersister

SV (intransitive verb). No SV (intransitive verb). No complementationcomplementation

The black labrador was barking The black labrador was barking

clauseclause

S:NP P:VPS:NP P:VP

det. mod.(adj.) head (n.) aux. head det. mod.(adj.) head (n.) aux. head (v.)(v.)

the black labrador was the black labrador was barkingbarking

SVOSVOdd (monotransitive) (monotransitive)Andrew bought a sports carAndrew bought a sports car

clauseclause

S:NP P:VP S:NP P:VP

V OV Odd:NP:NP

head (n.) head (v.) head (n.) head (v.) det. mod. (n..) det. mod. (n..) head (n.)head (n.)

Andrew bought a sports Andrew bought a sports carcar

SVOSVOdd (monotransitive) (monotransitive)Andrew bought a sports carAndrew bought a sports car

clauseclause

S:NP P:VP S:NP P:VP

V OV Odd:NP:NP

head (n.) head (v.) head (n.) head (v.) det. mod. (adj.) det. mod. (adj.) head (n.)head (n.)

Andrew bought a sports Andrew bought a sports carcar

SVA (+ an obligatory Adverbial)SVA (+ an obligatory Adverbial)The taxi is waiting outsideThe taxi is waiting outside

clauseclause S:NP P:VP S:NP P:VP

V A:AdvPV A:AdvP

det. head (n.) aux. head (v.) det. head (n.) aux. head (v.)

head (adv.)head (adv.)

The taxi is waiting The taxi is waiting outsideoutside

SVCSVCs s (copular verb)(copular verb)The weather has turned very nastyThe weather has turned very nasty

clauseclause

S:NP P:VP S:NP P:VP

V C:AdjPV C:AdjP

det. head (n.) aux. head(v.) mod.(adv.) det. head (n.) aux. head(v.) mod.(adv.) head(adj.)head(adj.)

The weather has turned very nastyThe weather has turned very nasty

Copular verbsCopular verbs

be, feel, seem, appear, look, remain, be, feel, seem, appear, look, remain, stay, become, sound, tastestay, become, sound, taste

e.g. I am / feel e.g. I am / feel rather tiredrather tired (C: AdjP) (C: AdjP) She became She became a nursea nurse (C:NP) (C:NP)

You look You look extremely happyextremely happy (C:AdjP) (C:AdjP) Mary appeared Mary appeared in good healthin good health

(C:PP)(C:PP) That is That is what I meanwhat I mean (C: clause) (C: clause)

SVOSVOiiOOd d (di-transitive)(di-transitive)Gill told her child a bedtime storyGill told her child a bedtime story

clauseclause

S:NP P:VPS:NP P:VP

V OV Oii:NP O:NP Odd:NP:NP

head(n.) head(v.) det. head(n.) det. mod.head(n.) head(v.) det. head(n.) det. mod.(n.) h(n.)(n.) h(n.)

Gill told her child a Gill told her child a bedtime storybedtime story

Di-transitive verbsDi-transitive verbs

Give, tell, bring, buy, showGive, tell, bring, buy, show

e.g. John showed e.g. John showed meme (Oi) his new car (Oi) his new car (Od)(Od)

They bought They bought himhim (Oi) a new racket (Oi) a new racket (Od)(Od)

Tell Tell usus (Oi) the truth (Od) (Oi) the truth (Od)

SVOSVOddCCo o (complex transitive)(complex transitive)The judges declared Jackie the The judges declared Jackie the

winnerwinner clauseclause

S:NP P:VP S:NP P:VP

V O:NP CV O:NP Coo:NP:NP

det. head (n.) head (v.) head(n.) det. h(n.)det. head (n.) head (v.) head(n.) det. h(n.)

The judges declared Jackie the The judges declared Jackie the winnerwinner

SVOSVOddAATerry put the rubbish in the Terry put the rubbish in the

dustbindustbin clauseclause

S:NP P:VP S:NP P:VP

V O:NP A:PPV O:NP A:PP

head (n.) head(v.) det. h(n.) head (n.) head(v.) det. h(n.) h (prep) C:NPh (prep) C:NP

det. det. h(n.)h(n.)

Terry put the rubbish in the Terry put the rubbish in the dustbindustbin

AdverbialAdverbial

Optional elements added to the obligatory Optional elements added to the obligatory elements of the clauseelements of the clause

Circumstance adverbial: additional Circumstance adverbial: additional informationinformation

e.g. The taxi is waiting e.g. The taxi is waiting outside outside Stance adverbial: speaker’s feeling / attitudeStance adverbial: speaker’s feeling / attitude

e.g. e.g. HopefullyHopefully I will pass all my exams in June I will pass all my exams in June Linking adverbialLinking adverbial

e.g. e.g. In conclusionIn conclusion, all’s well that ends well., all’s well that ends well.

Obligatory adverbialObligatory adverbial

Adverbials that are required to Adverbials that are required to complete the meaning of the verbcomplete the meaning of the verb

E.g. Sally E.g. Sally putput the bread the bread on the table on the table (obligatory Adverbial)(obligatory Adverbial)

vs. Sally vs. Sally cutcut the bread on the table the bread on the table (optional Adverbial)(optional Adverbial)

Verbs: put, last, liveVerbs: put, last, live

Adverbials vs. Adverbials vs. complementscomplements

John was John was very quietvery quiet (C) (C) John was in bed (A)John was in bed (A) They are They are in good healthin good health (C) (C) They are in the garden (A)They are in the garden (A) You should stay You should stay sobersober (C) (C) You should stay here (A)You should stay here (A)

Complements describe or characterize the S Complements describe or characterize the S (or O)(or O)

Adverbials typically express place or Adverbials typically express place or direction.direction.

TO SUM-UP THE CLAUSE TO SUM-UP THE CLAUSE ELEMENTS : S/V/O/C/AELEMENTS : S/V/O/C/A

1.1. S+V S+V

2.2. The baby is cryingThe baby is crying

3.3. S+V+A S+V+A

4.4. The concert lasted three hoursThe concert lasted three hours

5.5. S+V+Od S+V+Od

6.6. She is playing tennisShe is playing tennis

7.7. S+V+Od+A S+V+Od+A

8.8. She put the rubbish in the dustbinShe put the rubbish in the dustbin

9.9. S+V+CsS+V+Cs

10.10. She is IndianShe is Indian

11.11. S+V+Oi+OdS+V+Oi+Od

12.12. He gave her a kissHe gave her a kiss

13.13. S+V+ Od+Co S+V+ Od+Co

14.14. They elected her dean of the facultyThey elected her dean of the faculty

MAIN AND SUBORDINATE MAIN AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSESCLAUSES

1.1. Mary had been waiting for more than an hourMary had been waiting for more than an hour2.2. Suddenly, she stood up and went outSuddenly, she stood up and went out3.3. She said that she was not feeling well because the air She said that she was not feeling well because the air

in the room was stuffyin the room was stuffy4.4. She wanted to get some fresh airShe wanted to get some fresh air

a main clause always contains a finite verb and typically a main clause always contains a finite verb and typically contains an overt subjectcontains an overt subject

a subordinate clause cannot stand alone and needs to be a subordinate clause cannot stand alone and needs to be attached to a free-standing clauseattached to a free-standing clause

a non-finite clause is always subordinatea non-finite clause is always subordinate simple clauses consist of a clause, compound clauses simple clauses consist of a clause, compound clauses

consist of two coordinate clauses, complex clauses consist consist of two coordinate clauses, complex clauses consist of a main and one or more subordinate clauses.of a main and one or more subordinate clauses.

TYPES of CLAUSESTYPES of CLAUSES

TYPICAL FUNCTIONS OF CLAUSE TYPESTYPICAL FUNCTIONS OF CLAUSE TYPES FORMFORM FUNCTION FUNCTIONdeclarativedeclarative statement statement

interrogativeinterrogative question question imperativeimperative directive directive exclamativeexclamative exclamation exclamation

She’s wearing a new dress. She’s wearing a new dress. Is she wearing a new dress?Is she wearing a new dress?Buy yourself a new dress!Buy yourself a new dress!What a lovely dress she’s wearing!What a lovely dress she’s wearing!

DECLARATIVE CLAUSESDECLARATIVE CLAUSES

declarative clauses are normally declarative clauses are normally used to make statementsused to make statements

declarative clauses typically have declarative clauses typically have an overt subject, a verb element an overt subject, a verb element and any necessary verb and any necessary verb complementation and may also complementation and may also have optional adverbialshave optional adverbials

Philip will visit his dentist in London Philip will visit his dentist in London todaytoday

INTERROGATIVE INTERROGATIVE CLAUSESCLAUSES

yes-no questions: Are you happy?yes-no questions: Are you happy? wh- questions: wh- questions: Where do you live? Where do you live? Question-tag : She’s Australian, isn’t she? Question-tag : She’s Australian, isn’t she? She doesn’t love him, does She doesn’t love him, does

she?she? So, you have changed your So, you have changed your

mind, mind, have you/haven’t you?have you/haven’t you?

the interrogative structure implies a the interrogative structure implies a subject-operator subject-operator inversioninversion

any auxiliary which is used to make interrogative any auxiliary which is used to make interrogative sentences is labelled sentences is labelled operatoroperator (be, have, do) (be, have, do)

Questions tags may have Questions tags may have contrastive or constant polarity contrastive or constant polarity ( p. 166)( p. 166)

MARKED SENTENCE MARKED SENTENCE STRUCTURESSTRUCTURES

This book, I really liked itThis book, I really liked itEMPHASIS IN SPEECH EMPHASIS IN SPEECH

Terry plays jazz piano for fun.Terry plays jazz piano for fun.It is Terry whoIt is Terry who plays jazz piano for fun. plays jazz piano for fun.It’s jazz piano thatIt’s jazz piano that Terry plays for fun Terry plays for funIt’s for funIt’s for fun thatthat Terry plays jazz piano Terry plays jazz piano

It-CLEFTIt-CLEFT

I would like a book for my birthdayI would like a book for my birthdayWhat I would likeWhat I would like for my birthday is a book for my birthday is a book

WH-CLEFTWH-CLEFT

CLEFTING CLEFTING to highlight a particular element of the sentenceto highlight a particular element of the sentence the focussed element is introduced by a dummy the focussed element is introduced by a dummy

Subject and followed by a relative clauseSubject and followed by a relative clause

SENTENCESENTENCE

I agreed to go with them I agreed to go with them (main clause)(main clause) although I wasn’t really happy with the although I wasn’t really happy with the idea. (idea. (subordinate clause)subordinate clause)

the largest unit of syntactic structurethe largest unit of syntactic structure a sentence must consist of at least a sentence must consist of at least

one clause (main clause)one clause (main clause) in writing, a sentence starts with a in writing, a sentence starts with a

capital letter and ends with a full stopcapital letter and ends with a full stop in speech sentences are not always in speech sentences are not always

completecomplete

TYPES OF SUBORDINATE TYPES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSESCLAUSES

1.1. NOMINAL NOMINAL I just hope (that) I just hope (that) they they will understandwill understand

2.2. RELATIVE RELATIVE The man The man who is sitting who is sitting next to Tomnext to Tom is John is John

3.3. ADVERBIAL ADVERBIAL Call me Call me as soon as you as soon as you get home get home (time)(time) because I have to because I have to talk to you talk to you (reason)(reason) .The boy stood .The boy stood on the box on the box so that he could see so that he could see better better (purpose). (purpose). Even though I am Even though I am tired tired (concession), I’ll do it.(concession), I’ll do it.

4.4. 4. COMPARATIVE 4. COMPARATIVE This hotel is not This hotel is not so so nice as I expectednice as I expected

TYPES OF RELATIVE TYPES OF RELATIVE CLAUSESCLAUSES

IN WHAT WAYS DO THE FOLLOWING RELATIVE CLAUSES DIFFER? IN WHAT WAYS DO THE FOLLOWING RELATIVE CLAUSES DIFFER? WHICH RELATIVE PRONOUNS CAN BE USED IN EACH WHICH RELATIVE PRONOUNS CAN BE USED IN EACH CONTEXT?CONTEXT?

This is the best hotel This is the best hotel (that, which, who, whom, whose, (that, which, who, whom, whose, zero pronoun) I was able to findzero pronoun) I was able to find

This hotel, (This hotel, (which, that, who, whose, whom, zero pronoun) which, that, who, whose, whom, zero pronoun) was renewed last year, was renewed last year, is one of the best in the city is one of the best in the city

The man (The man (which,which, that, who, whose, whom, zero pronoun) you that, who, whose, whom, zero pronoun) you see in the photo see in the photo is my brother is my brother

The man (The man (which,which, that, who, whose, whom, zero pronoun) is that, who, whose, whom, zero pronoun) is coming towards us coming towards us is my brotheris my brother

The music The music (that, which, who, whose, whom, zero article) we (that, which, who, whose, whom, zero article) we are listeningare listening to is Mozart to is Mozart

We stayed in a lovely hotel, (We stayed in a lovely hotel, (which, that, who, whom, whose) which, that, who, whom, whose) owner is a good friend of mine owner is a good friend of mine

We spent the night in a farm, (We spent the night in a farm, (which, that, who, whom, whose) which, that, who, whom, whose) was very relaxingwas very relaxing

Accepted optionsAccepted options

This is the best hotel This is the best hotel (that, which, zero pronoun) I was (that, which, zero pronoun) I was able to findable to findThis hotel, This hotel, which was renewed last year, which was renewed last year, is one of the best is one of the best in the cityin the cityThe man (The man (that, who,whom, zero pronoun) you see in the that, who,whom, zero pronoun) you see in the photo photo is my brother is my brotherThe man (The man (that, who) is coming towards us that, who) is coming towards us is my brotheris my brotherThe music The music (that, which, zero article) we are listening(that, which, zero article) we are listening toto is is MozartMozartWe stayed in a lovely hotel, We stayed in a lovely hotel, whose owner is a good friend whose owner is a good friend of mine of mine We spent the night in a farm, We spent the night in a farm, which was very relaxingwhich was very relaxing

RULE OF RELATIVE RULE OF RELATIVE CLAUSESCLAUSES

Relative clauses can be either Relative clauses can be either defining ( or defining ( or restrictive) or non-defining (non-restrictive)restrictive) or non-defining (non-restrictive)

depending on whether they define the depending on whether they define the antecedent or add extra information. Commas antecedent or add extra information. Commas

are required for defining clauses.are required for defining clauses.The use of relative pronouns is conditioned by The use of relative pronouns is conditioned by

the antecedentthe antecedent , whether it is human , whether it is human ( who,whom, whose, that) or non-human ( who,whom, whose, that) or non-human ( that, whose, which), whether it plays the ( that, whose, which), whether it plays the role of subject (who, that, which) or object role of subject (who, that, which) or object (whom, that, which, zero pronoun), whether it (whom, that, which, zero pronoun), whether it is defining ( who, whose, whom, that, which) is defining ( who, whose, whom, that, which) or non-defining (who, whose, which). or non-defining (who, whose, which).

There are some fuzzy areas of usage (e.g. There are some fuzzy areas of usage (e.g. who/whom)who/whom)

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES CONDITIONAL SENTENCES ((periodo ipoteticoperiodo ipotetico))

1) If the weather 1) If the weather is niceis nice, tomorrow , tomorrow we we will gowill go to the seaside (it is an open to the seaside (it is an open possibility)possibility)

NO * If the weather NO * If the weather will bewill be nice, … nice, …

2) If the weather 2) If the weather were/was nicewere/was nice, we , we would gowould go to the seaside ( it is to the seaside ( it is unlikely)unlikely)

3) If the weather 3) If the weather had been nicehad been nice, we , we would have gonewould have gone to the seaside (it did to the seaside (it did not happen)not happen)

Activity 1: build acceptable Activity 1: build acceptable noun phrases filling all the noun phrases filling all the

boxesboxesdeterminerdeterminer pre-pre-

modifiermodifierHEADHEAD post-post-

modifiermodifier

MYMY BESTBEST FRIENDFRIEND IN TURININ TURIN

THESETHESE ELEGANTELEGANT FLATSFLATS IN THE IN THE CITY CITY CENTRECENTRE

AA NEW NEW BOOKBOOKABOUT ABOUT

SHAKESPEARSHAKESPEAREE

ACTIVITY 2: Give a top-down ACTIVITY 2: Give a top-down scale of the main grammatical scale of the main grammatical units with an example for eachunits with an example for each

SENTENCE Call two taxis, please, SENTENCE Call two taxis, please, because there are ten of usbecause there are ten of us

CLAUSE (main clause) Call two taxis CLAUSE (main clause) Call two taxis ( subordinate clause) because there are ( subordinate clause) because there are ten of usten of us

PHRASE Noun phrase: two taxis or Verb PHRASE Noun phrase: two taxis or Verb phrase: callphrase: call

WORD taxis, call, two, pleaseWORD taxis, call, two, please MORPHEME taxi (free lexical morpheme) MORPHEME taxi (free lexical morpheme)

, -s (bound grammatical morpheme), -s (bound grammatical morpheme)

ACTIVITY 3: Give examples of declarative ACTIVITY 3: Give examples of declarative clauses containing the given verbs and having clauses containing the given verbs and having

the patterns indicatedthe patterns indicated

1. Show = A time S V Oi Od 1. Show = A time S V Oi Od Last night Mary showed us a very Last night Mary showed us a very

interesting documentary interesting documentary

2. Make = S V Od Co2. Make = S V Od Co You have made me very happyYou have made me very happy

3. Be /seems = S V Cs3. Be /seems = S V Cs I am Italian or This seems a good I am Italian or This seems a good

ideaidea

ACTIVITY 4: Identify the clause ACTIVITY 4: Identify the clause elements in the following exampleselements in the following examples

1. I am getting really angry1. I am getting really angry

I (S) am getting (V) really I (S) am getting (V) really angry (Cs)angry (Cs)

2. Perhaps we should invite Mary2. Perhaps we should invite Mary

Perhaps (A) we (S) should Perhaps (A) we (S) should invite (V) Mary (Od)invite (V) Mary (Od)

3.3. It’s going to rainIt’s going to rain

It (S)’s going to rain (V)It (S)’s going to rain (V)

The woman hit the boy The woman hit the boy with the umbrella with the umbrella

Use a tree diagram to show that Use a tree diagram to show that this clause is ambiguous this clause is ambiguous

The woman (S) hit (V) the boy The woman (S) hit (V) the boy with the umbrella (Od) with the umbrella (Od)

Or Or

The woman (S) hit (V) the boy The woman (S) hit (V) the boy (Od) with the umbrella (A) (Od) with the umbrella (A)