The Abbasid caliphate (750-1258 CE) oversaw the Golden Age of Islam. Learn about the accomplishments of Muslim scholars in art, literature, science, medicine and mathematics during this time.

The Golden Age of Islam

Islamic manuscripts were written in calligraphy and illuminated

The next time you dab on some perfume, drink a cup of coffee, or write down a digit between 0-9, thank a Muslim. While Europe was groping along through the Dark Ages, diverse scholars gathered or were summoned to Baghdad's House of Wisdom to preserve knowledge of classical civilizations and to make advances in many academic disciplines that are still relevant today. And, that was just one of many centers of learning established during Islam's Golden Age.

Islam began in the Arabian Peninsula in 610 CE and spread quickly through conquest and conversion, whether willing or forced. Within a century, Muslims controlled an empire stretching from Spain to China. The Abbasid caliphate gained control in 750 and moved the empire's capitol from Damascus to Baghdad. During this dynasty, trade and ideas flowed freely across the empire, which spanned three continents.

The Abbasids appropriated many of the best ideas from lands they conquered, as well as those of Late Antiquity, to form an advanced Islamic culture, with participation and contributions from people of many ethnicities and religions. Despite some ethnic conflict, such as the 1066 massacre of Spanish Jews, the Arab world promoted both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars who made significant achievements in art and literature, science and medicine and mathematics. Islam's Golden Age began with the Abbasid caliphate in 750 CE and lasted until the Mongol invasion in 1258.

Arts & Literature

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The Dome of the Rock was built in 691 CE

Islamic religious tradition discourages the depiction of human figures in religious art, so Muslim artists developed or adopted many unique decorative elements. The art of glass blowing was perfected. Miniature paintings adorn glass, silver, brass and ivory objects. Manuscripts were often written in calligraphy and painstakingly illuminated. Royal robes and other textiles feature lavish embroidery. But The Golden Age of Islam is especially well-known for architecture, which combines many of these other art forms.

Islamic buildings of this era borrow domes and arches from the Byzantine Empire and are adorned with calligraphy, geometric designs and arabesques. A good example is the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Built in 691 CE on top of Judaism's holiest site, this shrine is at once a political statement, a religious monument and a display of grandeur. Its outer walls were originally tiled, as seen in a modern restoration. The exterior of the dome was once lead and was replaced by varying metals throughout time. Today the dome is covered in gold leaf. The interior of the dome is decorated with mosaics and calligraphy.

The Golden Age also produced many literary achievements, beginning with the fifth Abbasid ruler when the House of Wisdom opened. After learning the Chinese art of papermaking, Islamic scholars tried to gather and translate all of the world's knowledge into Arabic, resulting in the preservation of many classical works of antiquity from China, India and Greece, including Aristotle and Plato. Muslim writers also made commentaries, adapted folk tales from around the empire and composed original literature. The most famous literary achievement from this era may be One Thousand and One Nights, known to many westerners as The Arabian Nights, which is a collection of both original and adapted stories, including Aladdin and the magic lamp, Sinbad and Ali-Baba. Libraries and bookstores were common in Baghdad, suggesting an uncommonly high literacy rate among the public.

Science & Medicine

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The Canon of Medicine was used as a medical text in Europe for centuries

Scholars at the Islamic learning centers also contributed to the scientific world. They dabbled in chemistry and alchemy, and excelled in astronomy and medicine. They studied ideas from Greece, Iran and Persia to improve scientific instruments, such as an astrolabe for telling time. They refined earlier methods for recording scientific observations, leading to accurate calculations for the movements of the sun, moon and the five known planets. Islamic scholars analyzed Ptolemy's model of the universe. They studied eclipses and calculated the circumference of the earth. These achievements were applied to other disciplines, including agriculture, physics and even astrology.

Pursuing the philosophy that, 'for every disease, Allah has given a cure,' Islamic scientists made significant achievements in medical practice and education, as well as pharmacology. Once again, they made extensive study of existing work, and then built upon that knowledge with their own experience and theory. Especially in Baghdad, but also in other areas of the empire, specialists, in fields ranging from ophthalmology to dentistry or psychiatry to orthopedics, treated injuries and illness. There were hospitals with emergency rooms and surgical facilities, which paid attention to hygiene and sanitary conditions.

They experimented with cardiology and neurology. One doctor named Avicenna compiled The Canon of Medicine, which became Europe's authoritative medical textbook for more than 500 years. Physicians attended medical school and had to pass exams before getting a license to treat patients. By the 12th century, pharmacology emerged as a separate discipline, with achievements as fundamental as mixing sweet syrup with bitter medicine and as radical as anesthesia.

Mathematics

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Islamic scholars made major contributions in algebra and other math disciplines

Despite all of these accomplishments, perhaps the most significant Islamic contribution to the West was in mathematics. Most of the developed world today writes numbers using the digits 0-9. We commonly call them Arabic numerals, but they were actually adapted from India. An Italian scholar studying in a Muslim library encountered the digit system and recognized its significant improvement over the Roman numeral system. His publication of Arabic numbers in 1202 resulted in their widespread acceptance across Europe. An Islamic scholar perfected modern algebra, again based on the work of ancient scholars. His textbook distinguished algebra as a separate discipline and became the defining authority on the subject for hundreds of years. Other mathematicians pursued geometry and trigonometry. They also used the decimal system.

Lesson Summary Between the 8th and 13th centuries, the Abbasid dynasty oversaw the Golden Age of Islam. Muslim scholars, especially in Baghdad's House of Wisdom, studied the works of classical antiquity and other cultures throughout the empire, and then added their own experience, insight and analysis. The result was a flowering of Islamic culture, the preservation of knowledge through Europe's Dark Ages and important achievements in the fields of art & literature, science and medicine. The most significant Islamic contribution to the West may be in mathematics, as Muslim scholars refined the Arabic number system used by most of the world today and developed algebra.

Learning Outcomes After completing this lesson, you will likely recognize the significant contribution of the Abbasid dynasty and Islamic scholars such as doctors and scientists. In fact, you could be able to identify specific contributions by Muslims in the areas of art, architecture, medicine and math.

 

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The Spread of Islam and the Rise of the Caliphates After the death of Mohammed, Islam continued to spread through Arabia, the Middle East and Africa. This lesson is an overview of Islam's progress from the faith of Mecca to a faith for all the world.

Mohammed's Successors

These two men were in line to become the first caliph of Islam.

After the death of Mohammed, the new religion of Islam was at a crossroads. Having unified the tribes of Arabia and solidified Mecca as the capital of their faith, the followers of Islam were faced with their first leadership crisis. Who would take up the mantle of Mohammed and lead?

The successor to Mohammed, given the title of caliph, was destined to be one of two men. The first man, named Ali, was believed by some to be Mohammed's personal choice. He was a cousin and a son-in-law to the prophet. Yet others believed Abu Bakr had a stronger claim. Abu Bakr, a longtime friend, confidant and father-in-law to Mohammed, had been the first male convert to Islam. Ultimately, it was Abu Bakr who got the nod from the majority of the elders to become the first caliph of Islam.

He would serve in this position for two years until his death in 634 CE. But during those two years, Abu Bakr proved himself an able leader, subduing the entire Arabian Peninsula and converting the population to Islam. What is more, those around Abu Bakr were well-schooled in the arts of war and conflict and understood the importance of strengthening their borders against encroachment from foreign armies and foreign faiths. They also understood the importance of preventing internal dissent. Soon, the armies of Islam would set their sights on expansion beyond Arabia, and two unsuspecting empires would be their choice targets.

Targeting the Infidels The first was the Sassanid Empire, a wealthy and prosperous kingdom built upon trade and commerce that controlled Persia (modern-day Iran) and Iraq. The Sassanids were inheritors of the great tradition - the tradition of the Parthians, who were master craftsmen, warriors, artists and followers of the Zoroastrian religion.

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The second empire was Byzantium, an empire based in Constantinople. They were equally wealthy, prosperous and as culturally rich as the Sassanids, but they were Christians. Byzantium controlled much of the former lands of Romans, including what is now modern-day Palestine, Israel and Syria, as well as extending their power into Egypt.

Believing that both empires posed a threat to Islam, Abu Bakr declared a religious jihad against them. He felt that the expansion of Islam would be key to its survival. These wars were welcomed by true believers as a sign of God's will, a desire to root out the paganism of the Persians and the corrupted Christianity of the Byzantines. Even after Abu Bakr's death, the wars would continue.

The Second Caliphate 634-644 CE

Umar instituted an Islamic government in Jerusalem and Damascus.

The second caliphate (from 634 - 644 CE) was led by Umar, another father-in-law to Mohammed, and was marked by several successful military campaigns against the Byzantine Empire, including the capture of Damascus in the year 635 and the capture of Jerusalem in the year of 637 CE. Once he had conquered these lands, he instituted a modern form of Islamic government, allowing for both Jews and Christians (as well as others) to practice their faith if they paid the jizya (religious tax).

To the east, Umar's forces moved against the Sassanid and captured the capital city of Ctesiphon in 637 CE. Historical records of this time tell us that while the inhabitants of the city were not harmed, their palaces and libraries were burned. As a result, ancient knowledge and countless artifacts were lost forever. Sadly, this marked a disturbing trend in warfare for centuries to come, where priceless works of human culture were burned in the name of religion from Persia to as far east as India.

Muslim armies continued to have success in their war with the Sassanid and Byzantines, eventually capturing Babylon in 641 and the city of Alexandria, Egypt in 642 CE. Much of the Muslim armies' success was due to their internal unity. They were buoyed by their faith, and also, the internal divisions found in both the Sassanid and the Byzantine empires weakened both from the inside. By the time of Umar's death, Islam controlled a swath of territory second only to the Tang Dynasty of China.

The Third Caliphate 644-656 CE Uthman, a member of the influential Umayyad family, was chosen as Umar's successor and served as the third caliph from 644 - 656 CE. In 645, he defeated the Byzantine attempt to recover Alexandria, and in 647, he began to expand the Muslim Empire west of Egypt. He conquered Cyprus in 649, and his forces

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reached the easternmost boundary of Persia in 653 CE. His accomplishments on the battlefield were mirrored by his promotion of Islam and Arabic culture and, most importantly of all, a unified and definitive version of the Quran, which significantly reduced doctrinal differences among the faithful.

But not all Muslims were happy with this leadership. Many felt Uthman had become too powerful, manipulating religion for his benefit. When Uthman was ultimately assassinated, a civil war erupted, and Ali, Mohammed's cousin and son-in-law, was declared the fourth caliph. Ali would also face immediate opposition, but he managed to maintain control from 656 - 661 CE, when he was assassinated in violence that threatened to tear the Islamic world apart.

Uthman unified the teachings of Islam into one definitive Quran.

From this chaos, the clan of the Umayyad ultimately emerged victorious. They would establish a new caliphate that would last until 750 CE, when another challenger would prove too strong even for them to resist.

The Abbasid Dynasty 750-1258 CE The excesses of the Umayyad did not go unnoticed by many in the Islamic world, and challengers were abundant. Yet few had the power to make a real go at ruling. One group that did was the Abbasid clan, so named as they claimed descent from Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttabib, one of the younger nephews of the Prophet Mohammed.

They detested what they perceived to be secularism of the Umayyad and considered them immoral by Islamic standards. The Abbasid also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, who felt they were treated as second-class citizens within the Umayyad Empire.

The Abbasids began launching raids against the Umayyad ruling class - and finally outright war. With the support of the Persians, they were able to defeat and overthrow the Umayyad caliphate, establishing what would become the Abbasid Dynasty.

Known as the Islamic Golden Age, the Baghdad-based Abbasid Dynasty rekindled much of the secular intellectual pursuits that had suffered under previous rulers. Many classic works of philosophy, science and religion were translated from Greek and Persian into Arabic, saving much of the region's ancient knowledge for future generations and helping spur the scientific revolution that would come centuries later.

The Abbasids' empire was vast, but it was also this vastness that made controlling it problematic. What is more, the Umayyads were overthrown but not entirely destroyed, and they fled across the Mediterranean

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Sea into Muslim-controlled areas of the Iberian Peninsula, establishing themselves in what is now Spain by the year 756 CE.

Other divisions included the breaking away of the Shia sect of Islam, those believing Ali was the true successor of Mohammed. The Abbasids had at first embraced Ali's followers but later disavowed any support towards Ali's legacy and the Shia tradition.

The Islamic world was separated after the Abbasid Dynasty.

Combined with a continued fight with the Byzantine Empire, Crusaders from Europe and internal rebellions, the Abbasid's power steadily declined. It would meet its ultimate end in the mid-13th century - not at the hands of Christians or Persians, but at the hands of an unbeatable military force: the Mongols. In 1258 CE, Hulagu Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, attacked Islamic lands and destroyed the Abbasid capital of Baghdad. The last reigning Abbasid caliphate was executed on February 20 of the same year.

Islam would of course survive the Mongol onslaught, but the Abbasid dynasty would not. In its place, a fragmented Islamic world would emerge, and fragmented it would stay for the next 300 years, until once more it was unified under the Ottoman Empire of the 16th century.

Lesson Summary Islam's journey from the sandy trails of Mecca to becoming the second-largest religion in the world was one of epic turmoil, passion, power and determination. While it did oversee destruction of ancient cultures, part of its legacy was the creation of a new unified Arab identity and the construction of fabulous wonders across the Arab world, from Jerusalem to Mecca and beyond.

By the end of the 14th century, Islam had not only established itself in the Arab world, but it also spread to Persia, Europe, Africa and India. From there, it would make the jump over land and sea to Southeast Asia and China, all the while expanding, growing and gaining momentum.

The religion of the Prophet Mohammed had grown to inspire many to do great things and converted millions with its simple message of piety and of dedication to their God, Allah. The world would never be the same.

 

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