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The Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson Adam Storeygard Tim Squires David N. Weil Prepared for: “Historical Persistence in Comparative Development” Williams College, October 2014

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Page 1: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson

The Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration

Vernon HendersonAdam Storeygard

Tim SquiresDavid N. Weil 

Prepared for: “Historical Persistence in Comparative Development” Williams College, October 2014

Page 2: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson
Page 3: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson
Page 4: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson

Data Underlying the Picture

• US Air Force weather satellites• Each satellite observes every location on planet between 8:30 and 10pm local time

• Use dark half of lunar cycle.  Only data from cloud‐free nights.  Remove effects of forest fires, auroral activity.

• Data are annual averages (sometimes more than one satellite per year) from 1992‐2012

• 30 arc‐second square pixels – slightly less than  1 km x 1 km at equator

Page 5: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson
Page 6: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson

Raw Data

% in each cellBangla-desh USA Canada

Nether-lands Brazil

CostaRica

Guate-mala

Mada-gascar

Mozam-bique Malawi

0 66.72% 71.79% 95.24% 1.00% 94.02% 59.26% 79.23% 99.73% 99.47% 97.67%1-2 0.64% 0.10% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 1.06% 0.24% 0.00% 0.03% 0.00%3-5 24.48% 9.96% 1.29% 3.45% 2.60% 24.79% 13.84% 0.15% 0.28% 0.93%6-10 5.27% 8.83% 1.94% 24.04% 1.83% 9.26% 4.17% 0.06% 0.11% 0.85%11-20 1.69% 4.17% 0.85% 28.83% 0.77% 3.00% 1.46% 0.03% 0.05% 0.27%21-62 1.13% 4.62% 0.64% 41.10% 0.73% 2.33% 0.95% 0.03% 0.05% 0.27%63 0.06% 0.53% 0.04% 1.58% 0.06% 0.31% 0.10% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%% area unlit 66.94% 67.68% 93.72% 1.05% 94.31% 60.70% 80.42% 99.74% 99.51% 97.15%avg. DN 2.0108 4.4622 0.7869 23.5244 0.6342 3.1401 1.4059 0.0233 0.0435 0.3010pop. den. (sq. km) 1080 31 3 469 21 76 105 26 23 125percent urban 24 79 79 76 81 59 45 27 30 15GDP p.c. PPP 05 917 37953 31232 32226 8046 8167 3905 892 546 672GDP p. c. (2000 $) 344 33582 22657 23208 3760 4084 1693 249 252 143

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Annual Total GDP GrowthPoland       4.2%                                   Ukraine    0%Hungary     3.4%                                   Moldova  ‐1.2%Romania    2.5%

Page 9: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson

What the Lights Tells Us

• Almost all light visible from space is the result of electric lighting– Data can be adjusted to remove gas flares and forest fires

• Electric light visible from space is a function of both population density and income per capita

• Previous paper: growth of lights in a country is a good proxy for growth of GDP

Page 10: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson
Page 11: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson

This Paper• Looking at lights or lights growth at the level of countries throws away 99% of the interesting stuff in the data

• Cross‐country income differences are measured pretty well, and cross‐country empirics have been beaten to death

• We use lights as a tool for measuring and understanding the spatial distribution of economic activity and population within countries

• Most spatial variation in income is across countries, so within a country, lights are a good proxy for population distribution

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What Can We Say About the Spatial Distribution of Population 

• A thought experiment……. 

Page 13: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson

Thought Experiment: Alien Abduction

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Page 15: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson

Forces Shaping the Spatial Distribution of Population

• Natural Characteristics: Some places are better to produce or live in than others.

• Agglomeration/Congestion: increasing returns, gains from trade, positive spillovers, but also transport costs for food and local negative spillovers (pollution, etc.). So people agglomerate, but not in just one place.   

• Persistence  (second nature): long‐lived capital, equilibrium selection, and political power all lead to inertia in the locations of agglomeration.

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First Nature

• Natural characteristics are persistent, but the “prices” attached to them change with technology and development– Air conditioning, irrigation – Value attached to amenities like pleasant climate– Food declines as a share of the consumption basket– Falling transport costs reduce the benefit of living in a food‐producing area 

– Rising trade opportunities increase value of living near harbor

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Agglomeration/Congestion

• Benefits and costs of agglomeration also change with technology and development– Clean water, sewage, and antibiotics lower congestion costs

– Industrial structure and type determines benefits of agglomeration

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Persistence

• Cities: we have many examples of city locations today determined by history– Mexico City: founded 1325 by Aztecs; population reached 200,000 before Spanish conquest in 1521; today 8.9 million.

– Presumably, factors that attracted the Aztecs no longer relevant today

• Other examples: New England Colleges, etc.

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Big Idea

• Because of  the importance of agglomeration, there are many possible equilibrium locations cities.  – Equilibria can vary in efficiency – Historical persistence can then “select” a particular equilibrium

– In not‐yet‐urbanized countries, potential role for policy in selecting efficient equilibrium

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Persistence: Agglomeration vs. Natural Advantage

• Simply observing persistence does not tell us the relative importance of “inertia” vs. persistent natural advantage. 

• Literature has looked at various examples to argue for importance of one or the other. 

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Bleakley and Lin: “Portage and Path Dependence” (2012)

• The “fall line” is the last set of falls or rapids on a river before it enters the ocean.

• The feature is particularly pronounced in the US southeast.

• In early development, fall line was the limit of inland travel for oceangoing ships, and thus a natural location for trans‐shipments and markets.

• In early industrialization, falls provided power for mills.

• None of this has mattered for more than 100 years!

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Bleakley and Lin (continued)

• Many big US cities are at fall line or portage locations (Washington, Richmond, Chicago, Sacramento, Albany, etc.)

• Cities on the fall line do not grow more slowly than others (that presumably have not lost their natural advantages). 

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Davis and Weinstein (2002)

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Davis and Weinstein (continued)

• Find a great deal of persistence in the regions of Japan that are most densely populated, going back 1500 years

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Our Goals

• Assess “agglomeration vs. natural advantage” in a more systematic fashion. 

• Assess impact on spatial settlement pattern of– changing “prices” of natural characteristics– changing transport costs and production technology

• Derive implications for future settlement pattern 

• Examine possible inefficiencies; role for policy

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Our Empirical Setup

• Lights data aggregated to 0.25 x 0.25 degree (longitude/latitude) grid cells. 

• Each grid cell has 900 pixels (30x30) lights data• Grid cells are 777 km2  at the equator • Approx. 250,000 observations (on land)

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Lights Data

• radiance2010=sum of all light in a grid cell• 36% of observations non‐zero• Our dependent variable:

• landarea adjusts for water and latitude • Min: ‐6.66,    Max: 9.76,  mean: 4.05,  sd: 3.68

2010 1ln777

radiancelandarea

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Page 30: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson

Effects of “First Nature” 

• Covariate Sets– “Agriculture”

• elevation, rugged, biome dummies, temperature, precipitation, growing days, land suitability (Ramankutty et al.),  latitude 

– “Trade”• Coastal dummy, distance to a coast, dummies for within 25 km of a natural harbor, ocean‐navigable river, or very large lake.  

• All aligned on same .25 degree grid as lights

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Page 32: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson
Page 33: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson

Basic First Nature Results

Covariate Set R‐Squared

Agriculture .439

Trade .052

Agriculture, Trade .460

County Fixed Effects .335

Country FE, Agriculture .550

Country FE, Trade .351

Country FE, Agriculture, Trade .563

Page 34: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson

How to Think About Country F.E. 

• Much of the effect of climate variables on lights may be due to Europeans brining their institutions/human capital/etc. to some regions and not others (example: Argentina).

• Including country fixed effects picks up the effect of nature holding this effect constant.

• Surprisingly, country F.E. don’t change the coefficients on nature terms by much. 

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Selected Biome CoefficientsBiome Percentage of 

observationsCoefficient: no country FE

Coefficient: with country FE

moist broadleaf 11.5% ‐0.06 ‐0.33

grass savannah shrub 11.9% ‐1.21 ‐0.28

temperate broadleaf 10.3% 1.96 1.51

tundra 11.7% ‐1.34 ‐1.95

boreal taiga 16.5% ‐0.68 ‐1.60

temperate coniferous 3.2% 0.76 0.14

montane grass shrub 3.2% 0.58 0.73

Mediterranean forest 2.4% 0.88 1.61

Reference group is desert and xeric shrub, 17.4% of observations

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Page 37: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson
Page 38: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson
Page 39: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson
Page 40: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson

Extensive vs. Intensive Margins

Dependent Variable No Country Fixed Effects Country Fixed Effects

Log radiance .460 .563

Dummy for Being lit .390 .477

Log radiance (lit only) .284 .378

Table shows the R‐Squared from each specification.  Independent variables are full set of agriculture and trade variables.  

• Our data do a better job of predicting extensive margin than intensive

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How the Path of Development Affects Spatial Distribution

• In a world without spatial inertia:– Fraction of the population urbanized depends on agricultural productivity

– Number of cities depends on agglomeration/congestion as well as transportation costs

– Location of cities depends on transportation costs

• In a world with spatial inertia, the history of these things matters as well

Page 42: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson

The Model: Narrow Version(in pictures)

• Two goods: agriculture and manufacturing• Two regions: coast and interior• Coast is better for manufacturing• No difference between the regions in terms of agriculture

• Population can  move between regions such that utility is equalized

• Each region can have at most one city

Page 43: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson

Technological Change

• There are two dimensions of technology– A is agricultural productivity– τ is cost of inter‐regional trade

• In the “pre‐development” era:– A is low  most people work in agriculture– τ is high   no inter‐regional trade

• In the “developed” era:– A is high most people work in manufacturing– τ is low   can observe inter‐regional trade

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Production/Preferences

• Agriculture: – Uses land (immobile) and labor; constant returns– Preferences such that share of expenditure on food declines with income

• Manufacturing:– Takes place in cities– Subject to both positive agglomeration effects and negative congestion effects

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Agglomeration/Congestion

City Population

Manu‐facturingProduct‐ivity

Page 46: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson

Equilibrium

• Individuals move between regions and occupations such that utility equalized in all.

• We don’t model formally model inertia in locations, but assume that the past can determine which of multiple equilibria is selected.  

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Equilibrium with Low A and high τ

City Population

Manu‐facturingProduct‐ivity

City Population

Coast                                                Interior

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Equilibrium with high A and low τPossibility #1: Symmetric

City Population

Manu‐facturingProduct‐ivity

City Population

Coast                                                Interior

Page 49: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson

Equilibrium with high A and low τPossibility #2: Corner

City Population

Manu‐facturingProduct‐ivity

City Population

Coast                                                Interior

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Path #1: A rises before τ falls

City Population

Manu‐facturingProduct‐ivity

City Population

Coast                                                Interior

Initial After A rises but before τ fallsFinal

Page 51: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson

Path #2:  τ falls before A rises

City Population

Manu‐facturingProduct‐ivity

City Population

Coast                                                Interior

Initial After τ falls but before A risesFinal

Page 52: The Global Spatial Distribution of Economic Activity: … Global Spatial Distribution of Population and Economic Activity: Effects from Nature, History, and Agglomeration Vernon Henderson

Our Theory• In countries that agglomerated early

– A rose before  fell– Agglomeration took place where it was good to grow food (path #1)

– Current distribution of population reflects agricultural productivity

• In countries that agglomerated later– fell before A rose– Agglomeration took place where it was good to manufacture/trade (path #2)

– Current distribution of population reflects trade possibilities

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Applying the Model to the Data

• We use “agriculture” variables as a proxy for “stuff that mattered more for early agglomeration”

• We use “trade” variables as a proxy for “stuff that mattered more for late agglomeration”

• Model says that agriculture variables should determine locations relatively more in “early agglomeration” countries than in “late agglomeration” countries

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Applying the Model to the Data

• How do we determine which countries are “early agglomeration” vs. “late agglomeration” ?

• We use two measures: – Education in 1950– Population in 1950/population in 1990– In both cases, low value indicates later agglomeration

• In each case, we let the data choose a cutoff between the “early” and “late” groups (ala Durlauf and Johnson, 1995)– Loop through different division points and find the one that minimized sum of squared residuals

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0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

0.0000 0.2000 0.4000 0.6000 0.8000 1.0000 1.2000

Average years o

f schoo

ling in 195

0 (B&L, pop

ulation ab

ove 15

)

Cumulative Fraction of the World Population in 2010 

distribution of education in 1950

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Dividing Sample by Educationwithout country fixed effects

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Dividing Sample by Educationwith country fixed effects

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Dividing Sample by Population Growthwithout country fixed effects

Population in 1950 / Population in 1990

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Dividing Sample by Population Growthwith country fixed effects 

Population in 1950 / Population in 1990

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Differential Contribution to R‐Squared from Agriculture vs. Trade

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