the global impact of british industrialization
TRANSCRIPT
Britain's history is linked, in many ways, to global history. It has followed the
classic patterns for the rise and fall of an empire, as well as shaping new patterns.
Across the centuries of human existence, it has commonly been found that the most
technologically advanced nation holds the greatest world power. Due to advanced
weaponry more technologically advanced nations were able to conquer and maintain
rule over other less advanced nations. Through this process these advance nations
have gained wealth and influence over their neighbors. Their technology and
knowledge slowly spread outside the borders of their empire until they are surpassed by
another nation. Britain has enjoyed a slow decline and although no longer the world
power it once was, still has influence in the international markets.
The British people have significantly contributed to what we consider the modern
world, and without their influence life on this planet would probably be very different
from what it is today. Their ideas have moved across every continent and their actions
have changed the lives of millions. Their technological advancement is most
prominently linked to their industrialization, an event which began a new era of
production and consumption that has changed almost every aspect of human life. The
history of modern Britain can be viewed in three major phases: colonization and the rise
of entrepreneurship; industrialization and the pride of the empire; and reduced share of
the world market and political decline. At each phase the technological standing of
Britain played a crucial role in shaping the character of that period. The period during
which Britain had the greatest global influence was also the period during which they
were the most prosperous. An air of moral superiority that is common to great nations
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marked their prosperity and distracted them from the true reasons for their international
success.
Like many great nations before it, the British Empire grew due to a need to
secure its economic interests; specifically to ensure stability of its shipping lanes. It did
this through war and social domination. Just as the Romans had, they invaded foreign
lands and established their system of culture. Because the British military was more
technologically advanced than the peoples it was fighting against the British won most
of their goals, which helped to boost national moral. Although war was a costly
undertaking the results were well worth the investment. A good example of this is the
Seven Yearsʼ War.
The war interfered very little with trade, and it stimulated
many industries associated with shipbuilding, weapons
manufacturing, and military supply. A loss in the Seven
Yearsʼ War would have deprived the British of many of the
possessions that made Britain a great maritime and colonial
power and fueled the commercial sector of the economy. 1
Wining wars helped to make both the Empire and individuals within it wealthy,
driving a boom in business. There was more money to invest, and the marketplace
was expanding as wealth was brought to the ports that Britain was trading with. The
group of professional businessmen grew and attitudes towards manufacturing and
production began to change.
1 Thomas William Heyck, The Peoples of the British Isles: A New History from 1688 to 1870(Chicago:Lyceum Books, Inc., 2002) 136
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While Britainʼs business world was changing their social world was changing
also. One of the steps that the empire employed in securing itʼs trading routes was the
establishment of colonies. Within these colonies British citizens began setting up new
towns, in the British style, for themselves. Most significant for these Britons was that
they were able to overcome social boundaries and start new lives by moving to a
colony. They interacted with the resident populace, changed the political structure, and
introduced the British way of life. Some of the areas most significantly impacted by
British colonization are India, North America, and Australia. India was unified then
divided into two nations (India & Pakistan) that are still in existence today. North
America and Australia were both over run by the British and made into new nations of
significantly Anglo-Saxon decent. In each colony the populace became more British
and the British became less British, which has created long-term changes in the
traditions and social structure of many nations.
The new mobilization of the economy and the British people nurtured a spirit of
industry and invention. The agricultural and industrial revolutions thrust Britain far into
the lead in technological advancements while enabling the population to grow to record
numbers.
Without the Agricultural Revolution, there would have been
no population explosion; without population growth at a
particular rate, there would have been no Industrial
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Revolution and without an Industrial Revolution, there would
have been no permanent increase in the population.2
The Agricultural and Industrial revolutions (1760 - 1850) set significant trends for the
modern world: unprecedented world population, a significant move from rural to urban
population distribution, and an almost complete move from handmade to manufactured
goods. The job market was radically redefined. It was naturally a time of great social
upheaval, as the lifestyles of many changed. Large groups of the population were living
in condensed urban areas, while those living in the rural areas struggled to find new
ways to supplement their income. Where work was originally very diverse (one person
may have been a farmer and a weaver) it was becoming much more specific (farming
was done in the country and weaving in a mill). The farmers that would supplement
their income by weaving found they were no longer able to do so, as mills produced
much cheaper fabric. The mill workers were subjected to terrible living conditions,
where disease and filth were rampant. From both perspectives “the good old days”
were gone and they were struggling to come to terms with their new world.
Even as late as 1850, Britain remained the only industrialized nation in the world;
thus it dominated world trade.3 This period of dominance encouraged the sentiment of
British superiority and made the Britons relatively comfortable in the strength of their
economics. They had the best technology and the best global position. One of their
most treasured ideals was that of Free Trade. Why would there be any reason to
2 Thomas William Heyck, The Peoples of the British Isles: A New History from 1688 to 1870(Chicago:Lyceum Books, Inc., 2002) 1733 Thomas William Heyck, The Peoples of the British Isles: A New History from 1688 to 1870(Chicago:Lyceum Books, Inc., 2002) 241
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regulate the market when things were going so splendidly? Free trade allowed British
manufacturers to enjoy low prices for raw materials and allowed them to sell their
finished goods where- ever they pleased. Even late into the Empireʼs decline, the
British middle class held firmly to their ideal of free trade; even as it began to work
against them. It is quite ironic that although Free Trade did not initially hinder British
business, it is now an idea that few nations favor. As without tariffs domestic
manufacturing and markets are not secure. Free Trade creates a dynamic market place
in which the most innovative and cost efficient manufactures enjoy the most success.
On the other hand the concept of Free Trade continues to be popular with idealists,
where the major perspective has shifted to the idea of fair markets for developing
countries.
With the rise of industry, national politics within Britain began to shift from the
aristocracy to the business leaders, and even the general populace eventually gained
voting rights. Wealthy businessmen bought land in their attempt to achieve the lifestyle
of the gentry and aristocracy. As more and more of the populace became upwardly
mobile, the House of Commons grew in size and diversity. The distribution of political
power was shifting also, from the nobility to the industrious. This trend was happening
across Europe as more and more the growing middle classes were looking for
representation in the government. The change in political structure lead to a
government that was more socialist, that is more concerned with the well being of the
populace as whole. There was a genuine shift in the attitudes of the elite towards the
poor. Essential to this is that a new class (the middle class) had formed, the less
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affluent portion (working class) of the population had grown very large. That coupled
with them living in close quarters and the success of business being largely dependent
on their cooperation gave the working class a voice they did not have before. The birth
of the middle class and increase in non-noble politicians was largely dependent on the
developing technological advances that Britain was making. More and more middle
management positions were being created as factories needed managers, which was a
job too lowly for the aristocracy (they did not work) and too specialized for the working
class (who was mainly unskilled labor). Also, as the government grew, the public
service positions were revamped from being based on status and influence to being
based on competence.
Beyond the changes in government the new era of mass produced goods meant
that the standard of living for most was raised. More people had money to spend and
goods were being made inexpensively in large quantities, which meant that they could
be bought for low prices. As government support of the poor increased they were more
and more able to maintain a standard of living that was acceptable (although it was a
very slow improvement).
The youth who leaves school at fourteen and gets a blind-
alley job is out of work at twenty, probably for life; but for two
pounds ten on the hire-purchase system he can buy himself
a suit which, for a little while and at a little distance, looks as
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though it had been tailored in Savile Row. The girl can look
like a fashion plate at an even lower price.4
The Bourgeoisie in their struggle to become upper class began a fierce
obsession with material goods. Because factories were producing jobs and goods there
was a supply equal to their demand for merchandise. Status was shown through
manners and through possessions. As long as you had the look and the mannerisms
you could be socially respectable, even if you were bankrupt. This trend of materialism
continues today. It is generally found that you can behave almost any way you like, so
long as you are well dressed and well spoken. Keeping up appearances has led many
families into bankruptcy, and during the decline of the Empire it hurt Britain more than it
helped.
While enjoying the benefits of their status as a world leader in technology and
industrialization the British spread their knowledge. They built railways in Britain and
India, allowing for easier travel and increasing the speed at which news traveled.
Improved printing meant that more books and newspapers were being published, and
the spread of literacy meant that there were more people reading. Britons valued
education and were in general becoming more informed while at the same time being
given an outlet to voice their ideas. Philosophizing gained popularity, and many of the
brightest minds were focused on the questions of their moral and social situation. The
ideals of feminists, socialists, and conservatives all found their way into more and more
homes. Popular culture was born as people became interconnected with each other on
a massive scale. In a way the impersonal connection of media was replacing the 4 George Orwell, The Road to Wigan Pier (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1958) 88
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personal connections that had existed in small communities. Mass media has grown to
such a point, now, that hardly a person on this planet is not regularly confronted with it.
The philosophies, thoughts, and messages of everyone who cares to voice them flow
out in every manner.
Proud of their technological advancements Britain held the first worldʼs fair in
1851.
Prince Albertʼs dream was to invite all the nations to put on
the material evidence of the advance of civilization. In fact,
the Great Exhibition boosted British pride, for the exhibits in
manufactures, machinery, and fine arts demonstrated
Britainʼs industrial and commercial preeminence.5
The worldʼs fair was viewed by the British of that age as the pinnacle of their
achievements, but it was perhaps the precipice from which they were about to fall. The
general pride and confidence in their success blinded the British to the need to focus on
continuing in that success. It was as though they viewed their success and continued
prosperity as inevitable. Britons generally believed that they were a superior race and
the natural world leaders, a ghostly foreshadowing of the Nazi regime in Germany. But
unlike Hitlerʼs Germany, Victorian Britain existed during a time of good economics and a
bright outlook. Their technological advances began to slow for two major reasons.
They were comfortable in their lead, and they had good reason to be so comfortable. It
cannot be contested that they were far ahead of the rest of the world in industrializing
5 Thomas William Heyck, The Peoples of the British Isles: A New History from 1688 to 1870 (Chicago:Lyceum Books, Inc., 2002) 301-302
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They were also heavily invested in the technology of their age. The machines they had
built were not cheap or easy to develop. And they were being faced with social issues
as the morality of child labor and dangerous working conditions began to surface. So
with a substantial lead, and little encouragement to continue struggling for progress they
enjoyed their success.
Comfortable in their industrial standing, Britons began spending more time
developing, debating, and expounding their moral ideas at home and abroad. They
justified their actions in the colonized regions in terms of moral obligation, leading to
deteriorating relationships with the natives. The middle class adjusted and readjusted
their relationship with the lower class, leading to class conflicts. Most damaging of all
the business leaders who had been focused on making money through innovation,
became more concerned with obtaining the lifestyle of the nobility by sending their heirs
to public school where they learned more of Latin and philosophy than of science and
technology. The late-Victorian economy grew more slowly, and newly industrializing
nations began to overtake the British head start.6 While Britain lost focus on improving
their technology and staying ahead of their rivals, America and Germany began to
surpass them in production of goods and trade.
As other nations began to industrialize Britain was put even further behind by
their dependence on the technology and industry that they had been successful with.
The problems in all three areas (cotton textiles, iron,
and coal) resulted from competition from newly
6 Thomas William Heyck, The Peoples of the British Isles: A New History from 1870 to Present (Chicago:Lyceum Books, Inc., 2002) 4
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industrializing countries, all of which adopted the most up-to-
date technologies, while the British lagged behind in
technical innovation. Of the older industries, only in
shipbuilding did the British increase their lead. At the same
time, the British failed to keep pace in several new heavy
industries based on advanced technologies.7
The decline of the British Empire was most clear during the world wars, where
Britain sustained huge losses. Of the reasons for this the two most significant are that
Britain was fighting an enemy that had superior weapons technology and they were in a
weakened economic position. They had already been loosing ground in the world
markets, to Germany and America, and were in a significantly less economically
favorable position. The government had to fund the wars through high taxes, which the
populace could not entirely afford and loans that they had no means to pay back. As
Britainʼs weakening state became obvious, they reduced the size of their empire. But it
was too little too late. They were already in a significant recession, and had over
extended themselves. They could not afford to produce the weapons and supplies their
soldiers needed, let alone to invest in the research and development necessary for
them to remain ahead in war manufacturing. Germany who had been enjoying the
benefits of trade that Britain had lost had soldiers whose needs were met, and who had
the time to develop new weapons technology. In his book “Good-bye to All That”
7 Thomas William Heyck, The Peoples of the British Isles: A New History from 1870 to Present (Chicago:Lyceum Books, Inc., 2002) 6-7
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Graves discusses the gas bombs the Germans would devastate battalions with. The
British on the other hand were unable to even develop a workable gas mask.
The technological status of Britain helped to promote their interests abroad, and
then to drive new industry at home. In the past three decades Britain has been in a
constant state of flux. That has revolved around their industrial revolution and the
aftermath of that revolution. The industrial revolution changed not only how Britonʼs did
business but also how they lived. They were forced to redefine their society, their
lifestyle, and their worldview. They moved with an alarming speed from a personal
agrarian society to an anonymous world power. In this transition they have constantly
been in search for the personal community they have lost. Sadly this is not an issue
confined to Britain. As other developed nations have adopted new technology that has
allowed mass production of goods and food populations have soared and cities have
grown to massive sizes.
As long as Britain was wining at war and in trade the Empire maintained its world
status, despite internal conflict. Some of the most striking problems though are ones
that are familiar to the United States and other developing countries. A disharmonious
domestic population has depleted much needed government resources and weakened
the national structure from within. The citizens should manage to reach some internal
equilibrium before going to war with foreign nations. United the front is much stronger,
and a divided country is easy to defeat. Britain leaned this lesson particularly when
Ireland forced its independence. Unless a nation is able to loose a war and still be on
strong footing, it should not go to war. Britain did not loose the world wars, but it is not
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fair to say they won either. Although their side won, Britain sustained huge economic
loss that they were not able to recoup. Finally, technological advance can never be
allowed to slow. Investment in new technology drives internal and external business; it
gives the populace a point of pride, and makes the nation competitive in the global
market.
The United States, India, and Australia hold some of the greatest evidence of
British industrialization. Porter was correct when he referred to the United States as
Britainʼs daughter, following in her footsteps. What is sad is that they seem to have the
British pride also, and cannot recognize how they have followed a little too closely.
Although the USA has been able to surpass Britain, some of the same mistakes have
been made particularly in the Middle East. India is unified, has a rail network, and the
majority of the population speaks English. The British ideal that the colonizers
promoted has lead to increased numbers of the Indian population becoming educated
and they are also treading in Britainʼs shadow as they become industrialized, capitalist,
and their middle class grows.
Britain has left the world with the damages of industrialization, but also a global
conscience for our actions. Although industrialization has led to: barely sustainable
population growth, terrible pollution, and obsessive consumerism; it has also created a
world in which the poor of developed countries can live in relative comfort. The British
have left with it a legacy of global conscience. The laborers of the world have been
gaining a voice that they never could have had if it were not for the move to large urban
areas and the rapid expansion of mass communication that the British started. The
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middle class Britonʼs, with their moral ideologies have planted ideas of hard work and
charity; that there is an obligation to use prosperity for the benefit of those who are less
prosperous. Also, by their expansive global networking they have raised every corner
of the planet into the minds of the developed world.
Like every great world power before and since, the British Empire spread its
technology and ideals across the globe. Because of their pride and willingness to share
their industrial success, other nations were able to build upon their technology to create
more and more sophisticated machinery. Just as the Romans gave us highway
construction that our roads today are reminiscent of, so did the Britonʼs help to establish
rail networks, textile manufacturing, Banking, and coal dependency. They also created
a new social ideal, of the middle class, that has spread globally. Capitalism and
consumerism are being and have been adopted by many countries, while the world
power system seems to be attempting to reach some equilibrium as more and more
countries industrialize. There is not a single continent on this planet that has not been
in some manner marked by the British Empire.