The General Ontology for Linguistics Description (GOLD)

WG 4 suggested revisions (as of 3 July 2005)

General suggestions

Cross refs need to be supported

-form/function, morphology/syntax...

-featural distinctions can be more useful than a hierarchy

e.g. Case

{Include prototypical lgs

Higher-level domains or multiple intersecting trees?

1. Historical Linguistics

Problem: the use of labels based on historical criteria rather than modern

Finnish: "Essive" is historical essive, but not used in the way that current linguists (and GOLD) define an essive

Georgian: historically had an ergative case, today this case is not ergative, but much more complex and essentially unlabelable.

2. Language variation

a. Dialectology

b. Sociolinguistics

i. Honorifics - Muna (Austronesian), Japanese, Uyghur (Turkic), Maithili (I-E) (Recommend making a separate class, cf. Gender, which can

also show up on Vs, Adjs etc)q

Ref: Duranti 1994.

3. Pragmatics/Discourse (NOT discourse analysis)

a. Discourse Form (cf. 1.1.3) text unit

Cleft (not mentioned)

Ref: Harris, Alice C. and Lyle Campbell. 1995. Historical syntax in cross-linguistic perspective. Cambridge: CUP.

Prototypical languages: Japanese, Austronesian, NE Caucasian

Particles (x-ref 5.10 Particles)

Affixes

...(form x, y, z,...) - leave these possible forms open

b. Discourse Function

Topic

Discourse Topic - need concept of topic to anchor references to topic in ontology 6.14.9, 6.14.18, 6.14.26, 6.14.28

Topic hierarchy

Focus (currently under 6.14.9, 6.14, 11) Focus Antipassive Voice

Ref: Terrill, Angela. A Grammar Lavukalebe. Mouton.

Kazenin, Konstantin. I. 1995. Focus constructions inNorth Caucasian languages. Unpublished ms., Moscow State University.

1. Foundational Concepts from GOLDClasses:

1.1 Sign: [Note: these definitions and structures will be revised.]A sign is an abstract structure whose instances participate in a linguistic system, or `language'. 1.1.1 MorphologicalUnit:

The form units below the level of the syntactic word, i.e. those form units not participating in syntactic relations, but only morphological relations.

1.1.2 SyntacticUnit:A form unit that participates in syntactic relations.{Metacomment: constitutes a hook on which one can hang cross-refs with the morphology

1.1.3 TextUnit:A text is a linguistic sign above the level of the clause, that is, at the discourse level.

1.2 SemanticUnit:

1.3 LinguisticFeature:The class of all linguistic features, including morphosyntactic, phonological, and semantic features. Linguistic features are predicated of LinguisticSign and can be used to define their formal, semantic, or phonological behavior.1.3.1 MorphosyntacticFeature:

The class of all grammatical categories, e.g., tense, aspect, number, grammatical gender, etc. These can be used in the definition of formal behavior of signs.

1.3.2 PhonologicalFeature:The class of all phonological features. These can be used in the definition of the phonological behavior of signs. (under construction)

1.3.3 SemanticFeature:The class of all semantic features, e.g., animate, bounded, notional gender, etc. These can be used in the definition of the semantic behavior of signs.

2. Concepts from MorphologicalUnit (from Core)The class of form units below the level of the syntactic word, i.e., those form units not participating in syntactic relations, but only morphological relations.

Classes: 2.1 BoundRoot:

BoundRoot is the class of bound units whose members are common to a set of derived or inflected units, if any, when all bound units are removed. They are not further analyzable into meaningful elements, being morphologically simple. Also, they designate the principle portion of meaning of the unit to which it belongs (Crystal 1985:268; Hartmann and Stork 1972:199; Pei and Gaynor 1954:187-188; Mish et al. 1990:1023; Matthews 1991:64).

2.2 BoundStem:BoundStem is the class of units whose members are decomposable into a root or roots and a derivational unit, and are only expressed by bound forms in the language (Crystal 1985:287; Mish et al. 1990:1154).

2.3 Clitic:Clitic is the class of units which members exhibit syntactic characteristics of a lexical unit, but show evidence of being morphologically bound to another lexical unit, the host, by being unstressed or subject to word-level phonological rules (Crystal 1980:64; Hartmann and Stork 1972:38; Anderson 1985:158; Klavans 1982: xi-xiv, 74-76,83,93-95,100-101; Zwicky 1977:5).2.3.1 Enclitic:

An enclitic is a clitic that is phonologically joined at the end of a preceding lexical unit to form a single phonological unit (Crystal 1980:64; Pei and Gaynor 1954:65; Mish et al.

1990:409).2.3.2 Proclitic:

A proclitic is a clitic that precedes the lexical unit to which it is phonologically joined (Crystal 1980:64; Hartmann and Stork 1972:185; Pei and Gaynor 1954:176; Mish et al. 1990:938).

2.3.3.1 EndocliticsA clitic that goes inside a word.

Reference: Harris, Alice. 2002. Where in the Word is the Udi Clitic? Language.2.4 DerivationalUnit:

DerivationalUnit is the class of sublexical units whose members function to derive a new lexical unit from an existing one, by systematically changing the meaning and possibly altering the partOfSpeech feature of the Root or Stem it attaches to (Hartmann and Stork 1972:62; Crystal 1985:89; Mish et al. 1990:342; Bybee 1985:81-82, 99).

2.5 InflectionalUnit:InflectionalUnit is the class of sublexical unit whose members designate such grammatical categories as tense, aspect, mood etc. The various forms of an InflectionalUnit plus the stem forms a grammatical paradigm and express a grammatical contrast that is obligatory for its stem's part of speech in some given grammatical context. An InflectionalUnit does not alter the partOfSpeech feature of the Root or Stem it attaches to. It is typically located farther from its Root than a derivational unit and produces a predictable, nonidiosyncratic change of meaning (Crystal 1980:184; Hartmann and Stork 1972:112; Mish et al. 1990:620; Bybee 1985:2, 99).

3. Concepts from SyntacticUnitA form unit that participates in syntactic relations.

Classes:3.1 SyntacticConstruction:

Syntactic constructions are elements of syntactic structure that consist of more than one syntactic word or phrase in some syntactic configuration (Crystal 1980: 85-86).. 3.1.1 Clause: (cf. also 5.4. for the morphology)

A clause is a minimal sentential unit including a predicate, all arguments of the predicate, and all modifiers of the predicate and the arguments.3.1.1.1 MainClause:

A main clause is an independent clause that can stand on its own as a sentence. If a sentence contains any embedded clauses, the main clause is understood as the matrix plus the embedded clauses. In the sentence 'John thinks that Mary is sick', 'John thinks that Mary is sick' is the main clause (Crystal 2001: 231).

3.1.1.1 SubordinateClause:A subordinate clause is a dependent clause that cannot stand on its own as a sentence. A matrix clause combined with a subordinate clause form a clause. In the sentence 'John thinks that Mary is sick', 'Mary is sick' is the subordinate clause.- Complement subordinate -Adjunct subordinate- RelativeRefs: R+R grammar: Coord, Subord, Cosubordination - See Foley and VanValin; Haspelmath, Martin and Ekkehard König, eds. 1995. Converbs in a Cross-Linguistic Perspective: Structure and Meaning of Adverbial Verb forms. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter)

3.1.2 Phase:A phrase is a syntactic construction that consists of more than one LexicalUnit but lacks the subject - predicate organization of a Clause (Crystal 1980: 232-233; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 169; Pike and Pike 1982: 453; and Mish et al. 1990: 886).

3.2 SyntacticWord:SyntacticWord is a syntactic unit occupying the lowest position in a syntactic construction. They are expressed as elements, or words, in a language. They are sometimes identifiable according to such criteria as: (1) they are the minimal possible units in a reply; (2) their phonological expressions have features such as a regular stress pattern, and phonological changes conditioned by or blocked at Word boundaries; (3) they are the largest units resistant to insertion of new constituents within their boundaries; or (4) they are the smallest constituents that can be moved within a Sentence without making the Sentence ungrammatical (Hartmann and Stork 1972: 256; Crystal 1980: 168, 383, 384; Cruse 1986: 3536; Mish et al. 1990: 1358; Pike and Pike 1982: 462).3.2.1 ComplexSyntacticWord:

A syntactic word that is morphologically complex, e.g., a compound, free stem, or inflected lexical item.3.2.2.1 Compound:

A compound has at least two roots. NOTE: more development here.3.2.2.2 DerivedWord:

A free form of a language consiting of a root or stem plus at least one derivational unit.

3.2.2.3 FreeStem:FreeStem is the class of form units whose members are decomposable into a root or roots and a derivational unit. They are expressed by the free forms of the language (Crystal 1985:287; Mish et al. 1990:1154).

3.2.2.4 InflectedWord:A free form of a language consiting of a root or stem plus at least one inflectional unit.

3.2.2 SimpleSyntacticWord:Simple syntactic word is the class of formal units whose members are common to a set of derived or inflected units, if any, when all bound units are removed. They are not further analyzable into meaningful elements, being morphologically simple. Also, they designate the principle portion of meaning of the unit to which it belongs (Crystal 1985:268; Hartmann and Stork 1972:199; Pei and Gaynor 1954:187-188; Mish et al. 1990:1023; Matthews 1991:64).

4. Concepts from LinguisticDataStructureA linguistic data structure is an abstract container for grouping together instances of linguistic data, usually to suit a particular theory or computational implementation. Examples include: feature structures, lexical entries, and paradigms.

Classes:4.1 Constituent:

A node in a StructuralDescription.4.2 FeatureConstraint:

A FeatureConstraint is a LinguisticDataStructure which groups a part of speech value with a set of features. Within a FeatureSystem of some language, it indicates which Features may be associated with a particular linguistic unit based on the unit's part of speech.

4.3 FeatureSpecification:A FeatureSpecification is a data structure that groups together a linguistic feature and with a value (Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001). 4.3.1 ComplexSpecification:A ComplexSpecification is a kind of FeatureSpecification whose value must be a FeatureStructure. This class gives a feature system its recursive properites (Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).4.3.2 SimpleSpecification:

A SimpleSpecification is a kind of FeatureSpecification whose value must be a simple linguistic attribute (Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

4.4 FeatureStructure:A FeatureStructure is a set of one or more FeatureSpecifications. A FeatureStructure is a kind of information structure, a container or data structure, used to group together qualities or features of some object. In a grammatical feature system, a FeatureStructure holds the grammatical information associated with some linguistic unit. In a typed feature system, a FeatureStructure has an associated type, usually a PartOfSpeech. (Shieber 1986; Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

4.5 FeatureSystem:FeatureSystem is a kind of LinguisticDataStructure that declares what kinds of FeatureStructures exist in the language. It can be assumed that only one feature system exists per language. A FeatureSystem consists of a set of FeatureConstraints (based on Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

4.6 LexicalItem:The information structure used to encode all the information associated with an entry in a dictionary.

4.7 Lexicon:A collection of LexicalItems.

4.8 StructuralDescription:This is a data structure commonly associated with morphosyntactic analysis. It is usually represented graphically as a tree.

5. Concepts from PartOfSpeechAs matters now stand, the individual PartOfSpeech classes are subclasses of SyntacticUnit.Separate out the notion of connectivity from PoS. Affixes may mark connectivity (FORM/FUNCTION)

Classes:5.1 Adjective:

An adjective is a part of speech whose members modify nouns. An adjective specifies the attributes of a noun referent. Note: this is one case among many. Adjectives are a class of modifiers (Crystal 1997:8; Mish et al. 1990:56; Payne 1997:63).5.1.1 Plain5.1.2 Comparative5.1.3 Superlative5.1.4 Elative (comparative and superlative)5.1.5 Relative adjectives

Refs: Dixon 2004, Wetzer 1996, The Typology of Adjectival Predication. Berlin: Mouton.

(Cross-References: 5.1.5 rel adjectives to a higher level concept Relativity)5.2 Adposition:

An adposition is a part of speech whose members are of a closed set and occur before or after a complement composed of a noun phrase, noun, pronoun, or clause that functions as a noun phrase and forms a single structure with the complement to express its grammatical and semantic relation to another unit within a clause (Comrie 1989:91; Crystal 1997: 305; Mish et al. 1990:929; Payne 1997:86).5.2.1 Postposition:

A postposition is an adposition that occurs after its complement (Crystal 1997:300; Payne 1997:86).

5.2.2 Preposition:A preposition is an adposition that occurs before its complement (Crystal 1997:305; Mish et al. 1990:929; Payne 1997:86).

5.3 Adverb:

An adverb, narrowly defined, is a part of speech whose members modify verbs for such categories as time, manner, place, or direction. An adverb, broadly defined, is is a part of speech whose members modify any constituent class of words other than nouns, such as verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, clauses, or sentences. Under this definition, the possible type of modification depends on the class of the constituent being modified (Crystal 1997:11; Mish et al. 1990:59; Payne 1997:69).

5.4 Connective: (see 3.1 for the clause level)Also known as a conjunction, a Connective is a class of parts of speech whose members syntactically link words or larger constituents, and expresses a semantic relationship between them. A conjunction is positionally fixed relative to one or more of the elements related by it, thus distinguishing it from constituents such as English conjunctive adverbs (Crystal 1997:81; Mish et al. 1990:277-278).5.4.1 CoordinatingConnective:

A coordinating connective is a connective that links constituents without syntactically subordinating one to the other (Crystal 1997:93; Mish et al. 1990:288).5.4.1.1 CorrelativeConnective:

A correlative connective is either of a pair of coordinating conjunctions (connectives) used in ordered fashion. Typically, one is used immediately before each member of a pair of constituents (Crystal 1997:96; Mish et al. 1990:293).

5.4.2 SubordinatingConnective:A subordinating connective is a connective that links constructions by making one of them a constituent of another. The subordinating conjunction typically marks the incorporated constituent (Crystal 1997:370; Mish et al. 1990:1175).

5.5 Determiner:A Determiner is a part of speech whose members belong to a class of noun modifiers and express the reference, including quantity, of a noun (Crystal 1997:112; Mish et al. 1990:346).5.5.1 Article:

An article is a member of a small class of determiners that identify a noun's definite or indefinite reference, and new or given status (Crystal 1997:26; Mish et al. 1990:105).5.5.1.1 DefiniteArticle:

An definite article is a part of speech whose members refer to a specific, identifiable entity (or class of entities) (Crystal 1997:107).

5.5.1.2 IndefiniteArticle:An article is a part of speech whose members are used to refer to an entity (or class of entities) which is not capable of specific identification (Crystal 1997:193).

5.5.2 Demonstrative:A demonstrative is a determiner that is used deictically to indicate a referent's spatial, temporal, or discourse location. A demonstrative functions as a modifier of a noun, or a pronoun (Crystal 1997:312; Mish et al. 1990:338).

5.5.3 Quantifier:A quantifier is a determiner that expresses a referent's definite or indefinite number or amount. A quantifier functions as a modifier of a noun, or a pronoun (Crystal 1997:317; Mish et al. 1990:963).5.5.3.1 Numeral:

A numeral is a partOfSpeech whose members function most typically as adjectives or pronouns and express a number, or relation to the number, such as one of the following: quantity, sequence, frequency, fraction (Hartmann and Stork 1972:155; Pei and Gaynor 1954:149).5.5.3.1.1 CardinalNumeral:

A cardinal numeral is a numeral of the class whose members are considered basic in form, are used in counting, and are used in expressing how many objects are referred to (Crystal 1997:52; Mish et

al. 1990:207).5.5.3.1.2 DistributiveNumeral:

A distributive numeral is a numeral which expresses a group of the number specified.

5.5.3.1.3 MultiplicativeNumeral:A multiplicative numeral is a numeral that expresses how many fold or how many times (Pei and Gaynor 1954:149; Hartmann and Stork 1972:147).

5.5.3.1.4 OrdinalNumeral:An ordinal numeral is a numeral belonging to a class whose members designate positions in a sequence (Crystal 1997:272; Mish et al. 1990:831).

5.5.3.1.5 PartitiveNumeral:A partitive numeral is a numeral that expresses a fraction (Pei and Gaynor 1954:149; Hartmann and Stork 1972:165).

5.6 ExistentialMarker:An existential marker is a partOfSpeech whose members are found in distinct clause types and which mark a referent's existence (Crystal 1997:142).

5.7 Expletive:An expletive (also known as a dummy word) is a part of speech whose members have no meaning, but complete a sentence to make it grammatical (Crystal 1997:127; Mish et al. 1990:437).

5.8 Interjective:An interjection is a part of speech, typically brief in form, such as one syllable or word, whose members are used most often as exclamations or parts of an exclamation. An interjection, typically expressing an emotional reaction, often with respect to an accompanying sentence, is not syntactically related to other accompanying expressions, and may include a combination of sounds not otherwise found in the language (Crystal 1997:200).

5.9 Noun:A noun is a broad classification of parts of speech which include substantives and nominals (Crystal 1997:371; Mish et al. 1990:1176).5.9.1 Nominal:

A nominal is a partOfSpeech whose members differ grammatically from a substantive but which functions as one (Crystal 1997:260; Mish et al. 1990:801).5.9.1.1 Gerund:

A part of speech derived from a verb and used as a noun, usually restricted to non-finite forms of the verb (Crystal 1997: 279).

5.9.2 Substantive:A substantive is a member of the syntactic class in which the names of physical, concrete, relatively unchanging experiences are most typically found whose members may act as subjects and objects, and most of whose members have inherently determined grammatical gender (in languages which inflect for gender) (Crystal 1997:264; Mish et al. 1990:808; Givón 1984:51-52; Payne 1997:33).

5.10 Particle:A particle is a part of speech whose members do not belong to one of the main classes of words, is invariable, and typically has grammatical or pragmatic meaning.5.10.1 NominalParticle:

A nominal particle is a member of a closed class of particles that co-occur with nouns.5.10.1.1 Classifier:

A classifier is a partOfSpeech whose members express the classification of a noun (Crystal 1997:61; Mish et al. 1990:246; Payne 1997:107).

5.10.2 QuestionParticle:A particle is a part of speech whose members signal a yes/no question (Payne 1997:296).

5.10.3 VerbalParticle:A verbal particle is a member of a closed class of particles which co-occur with some verbs to form phrasal verbs. In some languages, verbal particles are identical to certain adpositions.

5.11 Prenoun:An element which may be compounded to the front of a noun to signal information such as size, color, etc. (Valentine 2001: 152-154).

5.12 Preverb:An element which may be compounded to the front of a verb, to signal information such as tense, direction, etc. (Valentine 2001: 154-158).

5.13 ProForm:A ProForm is a partOfSpeech whose members usually substitute for other constituents, including phrases, clauses, or sentences, and whose meaning is recoverable from the linguistic or extralinguistic context (Schachter 1985:24-25; Crystal 1997:310).5.13.1 InterrogativeProform:

An InterrogativeProform is a Proform that is used in questions to stand for the item questioned.

5.13.2 Proadjective:A Proadjective is a proForm that substitutes for an adjective or adjective phrase.

5.13.3 Proadverb:A Proadverb is a Proform that substitutes for an adverb or other expression having an adverbial function.

5.13.4 Pronoun:A Pronoun is a ProForm which functions like a noun and substitutes for a noun or noun phrase (Crystal 1997:312; Mish et al. 1990:942).5.13.4.1 IndefinitePronoun:

An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that belongs to a class whose members indicate indefinite reference (Crystal 1997: 312; Mish et al. 1990:612).

5.13.4.2 PersonalPronoun:A personal pronoun is a pronoun that expresses a distinction of person deixis (Mish et al. 1990:878).5.13.4.2.1 EmphaticPronoun:

An emphatic pronoun is a personal pronoun that is used to emphasize its referent.

5.13.4.2.2 PossessivePronoun:A possessive pronoun is a pronoun that expresses ownership and relationships like ownership, such as kinship, and other forms of association (Crystal 1997:312; Mish et al. 1990:918).

5.13.4.2.3 ReflexivePronoun:A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that has coreference with the subject (Mish et al. 1990:990).

5.13.4.3 ReciprocalPronoun:A reciprocal pronoun is a pronoun that expresses a mutual feeling or action among the referents of a plural subject (Crystal 1997:323; Mish et al. 1990:982).

5.13.4.4 RelativePronoun:A relative pronoun is a pronoun that marks a relative clause, functions grammatically within the relative clause, and is coreferential to the word modified by the relative clause (Crystal 1997:329).

could be put somewhere else but this is where we think

Sound symbolism

Ideophones.

Refs: Angela Bartens, 2003. Ideophones and Sound Symbolism in Atlantic Creoles. Suomil.... (Finnish Acad.scis)

Erhard Foeltz, Kilian Hatz Ideophones, Benjamins.

Onomatopoeia. 5.14 Verb:

A Verb is a part of speech whose members typically signal events and actions; constitute, singly or in a phrase, a minimal predicate in a clause; govern the number and types of other constituents which may occur in the clause; and, in inflectional languages, may be inflected for tense, aspect, voice, modality, or agreement with other constituents in person, number, or grammatical gender (Crystal 1997:409; Mish et al. 1990:1309; Givon 1984:52; Payne 1997:47).

5.14.1 Transitivity5.14.1.1 DitransitiveVerb:

A ditransitive verb is a verb that takes two objects (Crystal 1997:397).5.14.2 IntransitiveVerb:

An intransitive verb is a verb that cannotdoes not [at the moment!] take a direct object, and describes a property, state, or situation involving only one participant (Crystal 1997:397; Payne 1997:171).5.14.2.1 Unergative and Active intransitive5.14.2.2 Unaccusative and Active intransitive

5.14.3 TransitiveVerb:A transitive verb is a verb that takes a direct object, and describes a relation between two participants (Crystal 1997:397; Mish et al. 1990:1254; Payne 1997:171).

5.14.4 Monotransitive5.14.2 ??Semantic Arguments 5.14.2.1 Sense verbs,

5.14.2.2. Action verbs....Def: Arguments realized based on verbal arguments rather than syntactic configurations; semantically not syntactially driven.Ref: Autotype, Hidden Syntax

6. Concepts from MorphosyntacticFeature (listed alphabetically)Class:

6.1 AspectFeature:Aspect is the grammatical encoding of various characteristics of the event referred to in an utterance. Aspect does not form a semantically contiguous class (Comrie 1976; Bybee 1985; Sasse 2002).

ANY

IMPERFECTIVE PERFECTIVE SEMELFACTIVE OTHER

PHASAL QUANTITATIVE

INCEPTIVE CONTINUATIVE PROGRESSIVE TERMINATIVE HABITUAL DURATIVE ITERATIVE

FREQUENTATIVE

Figure 1. Entailment relations among Aspect feature values

Instances:[Note: Throughout, we have omitted definitions for the values AnyF and OtherF, where F is a feature.]

6.1.1 ContinuousAspect:Similar to progressive, however an aspect is continuous versus progressive when it is anchored to non-punctual time reference. (Salaberry 2002:264)

6.1.2 DurativeAspect:Events which involve some duration. (Bhat 1999:58)

6.1.3 FrequentiveAspect: (xref with pluractional)Events which are frequently repeated, differs from habitual in that it can only be based upon the observation of several occurrences of the event concerned, whereas habitual can be based upon the observation of a single occurrence. (Bhat 1999: 53)

6.1.4 HabitualAspect:Refers to the internal temporal contour of a situation — a repeated situation that occupies a large slice of time. Can be based on the observation of a single occurrence. (Bhat 1999:177)

6.1.5 ImperfectiveAspect:A viewpoint aspect which encodes the speaker’s lack of attention to the endpoints of the situation referred to. Imperfective aspect is the prototypical mode of presentation for states. (Michaelis 1998:xiv)

6.1.6 InceptiveAspect:Denotes the beginning of an event. (Bhat 1999:176)

6.1.7 IterativeAspect:Portrays events repeated on the same occasion (like the iterative knocking on the door). (Bhat 1999: 53)

6.1.8 PerfectiveAspect:A viewpoint aspect which encodes the speaker’s willingness to attend to the endpoints of the situation referred to. Perfective aspect is the canonical mode of presentation for events.(Michaelis 1998: xv)

6.1.9 PhasalAspect:A set of aspectual distinctions involving relations between a background situation (the reference situation) and a situation located relative to the reference situation (the denoted situation). In English, phasal distinctions are expressed by auxiliary-headed constructions, like the inceptive, progressive, and perfect constructions, whose head verbs express the aspectual class of the denoted situation. The aspectual class of the denoted situation differs from that of the reference situation.(Michaelis 1998:xv)

6.1.10 ProgressiveAspect:An exponent of phasal aspect which expresses a stative situation that holds during the time at which an event is occurring (e. g., He is fixing the fence). (Michaelis 1998:xv)

6.1.11 QuantificationalAspect:A speaker may report an event as occurring once only (semelfactive) or several times (iterative); he may view it as a specific event or as part of a general habit of carrying out similar events; he may also differentiate between different degrees of frequency with which the event occurs. The markers that a given language provides for one or more of these meaning distinctions can be grouped under a subcategory called “quantificational aspect”, as all of them refer to the quantitative aspect of the event concerned. (Bhat 1999:53)

6.1.12 SemelfactiveAspect:Momentaneous, without an inherent end-point, as sneeze. (Michaelis 1998:xvi)

6.1.13 TerminativeAspect:Denotes the termination of an event. (Bhat 1999: 92).

Class: 6.2 CaseFeature:

Case is a system of marking dependent nouns for the type of relationship (syntactic or semantic) they bear to some other element in the sentence, such as a verb, noun, pronoun, or adposition(Pei and Gaynor 1954: 35; Crystal 1980: 5354; Anderson 1985: 179180; Andrews 1985: 7172; Mish et al. 1990: 211; Kuno 1973: 45; Blake 2001).

We suggest using a featural system rather than the hierarchical one you have hereMany lgs, like Avar, shows that you sometimes have to combine the features of location and motion, which you currently have separate.

Liquid locative in Ingush (anything that can surround you, e.g. trees)

cf. Avar, Samiin (illative) on (allative) under (sub at, beside in

X -in -on -under -at -into -in-to ....from -in-from etcto/from -in-to/from etc

cf. Hungarian: in something, on top of something, on top of something else* Refs: Abondolo, Daniel. 1998. The Uralic Languages. Routledge. Alice Harris can provide refs for Caucasian lgs. Grünthal, Riho. Finnic adpositions and cases in Change. Mem Soc. Finno-Ou.(Refs about case in balto-finnish in general / Veps)

If you have a hierarchy as below, also: Core:Oblique opposition should be supported higher up (or as a feature of the case system). The Core:Oblique opposition includes a different notion of "Core" than the Core:Loc/Mo:Other.

ANY

CORE LOCATIONAL MOTION OTHER

ARG ADJ POSS MISC ABL ESS LAT TERM ALL TRANS

Figure 2. Entailment relations among highest level Case feature values

Instances:6.2.1 CoreCase: {?Grammatical cases}

Category of case that includes those that marks the relations between subjects, objects, direct and indirect objects and adjuncts. Nominative, dative, instrumental, ergative absolutive.

6.2.2 LocationalCase/ MotionCase::{We suggest combining these two and defining them in feature based terms when a language needs to distinguish between motions vs. locationsCategory of case that denotes that the referent of the noun it marks is a location.6.2.3 MotionCase:Category of case that denotes motion involving the referent of the noun it marks.

6.2.3 ? (SemanticCase): Instrumental, Genitive, Possessive, Comitative, Partitive*,

(in the semantic sense. This is a core case in Finnic (marks the object) - which shows why Case should be described in terms of features. One way to deal with the Finnic case is to say that Finnic "partitive" is not a prototypical partitive, but rather combines (GOLD) features of partititve and Accusative. ) Barry Blake, Case.

6.2 (continued):CaseFeature values entailed by CoreCase

CORE

ARGUMENT ADJUNCT POSSESSION MISCELLANEOUS

NOM ACC DAT ERG ABS BENEF MALEF PARTITIVE VOCATIVE

ABESS COMIT INSTRUM GENITIVE POSSESSOR

Figure 3. Entailment relations among CoreCase feature values

(where??Affective case (Georgian) - corresponds to Ru, Ger. locative (mir gefällt das) - "experiencer datives", stimulus

Instances:6.2.4 AbessiveCase:

AbessiveCase expresses the lack or absence of the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning of the English preposition 'without' (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 3,35; Gove, et al. 1966: 3).

6.2.5 AbsolutiveCase:AbsolutiveCase in ergative-absolutive languages mark referents that would generally be the subjects of intransitive verbs or the objects of transitive verbs in the translational equivalents of nominative-accusative languages (Anderson 1985: 181; Crystal 1985: 1; Andrews and Avery 1985: 138).

6.2.6 AccusativeCase:AccusativeCase in nominative-accusative languages marks certain syntactic functions, usually direct objects (Hartmann and Stork 1972: 3,156; Crystal 1980: 11,246; Andrews and Avery 1985: 75; Anderson; 1985: 181; Mish et al. 1990: 50).

6.2.7 AdjunctCase:Core case that marks relations between adjuncts and verbs.

6.2.8 ArgumentCase:Core cases that mark the relation between arguments and the verb, those which denote subject, object and indirect object.

6.2.9 BenefactiveCase:BenefactiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks receives the benefit of the situation expressed by the clause (Crystal 1980: 43; Gove, et al. 1966: 203).

6.2.10 ComitativeCase:ComitativeCase expresses accompaniment. It carries the meaning 'with' or 'accompanied by' (Anderson, Stephen 1985: 186; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 42;Dixon, R. 1972: 12; Gove, et al. 1966: 455).

6.2.11 DativeCase:DativeCase marks 1) Indirect objects (for languages in which they are held to exist) or 2) nouns having the role of recipient (as of things given), beneficiary of an action, or possessor of an item (Crystal 1980: 102; Gove, et al. 1966: 577).

6.2.12 ErgativeCase:ErgativeCase in ergative-absolutive languages generally identifies the subject of transitive verbs in the translation equivalents of nominative-accusative Languages such as English (Crystal 1980: 134; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 78; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 67; Andrews and Avery 1985: 138).

6.2.13 GenitiveCase:GenitiveCase is used to mark the noun whose referent is the possessor of the referent of another noun (Crystal 1980: 161; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 9495,180; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 82,172; Anderson 1985: 185; Mish et al. 1990: 511; Fleming 1988: 10).

6.2.14 InstrumentalCase:InstrumentalCase indicates that the referent of the noun it marks is the means of the accomplishment of the action expressed by the clause (Crystal 1980: 187; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 114; Mish et al. 1990: 627).

6.2.15 MalefactiveCase:Opposite of BenefactiveCase; used when the marked noun is negatively affected in the clause.

6.2.16 MiscellaneousCase:Core cases which do not fit into the other core groupings.

6.2.17 NominativeCase:NominativeCase identifies clause subjects in nominative-accusative languages. It is usually the unmarked case. Nouns used in isolation often have this case (Crystal 1980: 242; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 147; Mish et al. 1990: 801; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 224).

6.2.18 PartitiveCase:PartitiveCase expresses the partial nature of the referent of the noun it marks, as opposed to expressing the whole unit or class of which the referent is a part. This case may be found in items such as the following: existential clauses, nouns that are accompanied by numerals or units of measure, or predications of material from which something is made. It often has a meaning similar to the English word 'some' (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 161; Richards, Platt, and Weber 1985: 208; Quirk, et al. 1985: 249; Gove, et al. 1966: 1648; Sebeok 1946: 1214).

6.2.19 PossessedCase:PossessedCase is used to mark the noun whose referent is possessed by the referent of another noun.

6.2.20 PossessionCase:Case that marks the members in a possessive relation.

6.2 (continued):CaseFeature values entailed by LocationalCase

LOCATIONALCASE

ABLATIVE LATIVE ESSIVE

CONT IN INTER SUB SUPER AD IN INTER SUB SUPER

CONT EL ILL INTER SUB SUPER PER DEL

Figure 4. Entailment relations among LocationalCase feature values

Instances:6.2.21 AblativeCase:

AblativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from'.

6.2.22 AdessiveCase:AdessiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location near/at which another referent exists. It has the meaning of 'at' or 'near' (Crystal 1997: 8).

6.2.23 ContablativeCase:ContablativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from near which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from near'.

6.2.24 ContlativeCase:ContlativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location in the vicinity of which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'in the vicinity of'.

6.2.25 DelativeCase:DelativeCase expresses motion downward from the referent of the noun it marks (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 53; Gove, et al. 1966: 595).

6.2.26 ElativeCase:ElativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location out of which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'out of' (Lyons 1968: 299; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 64; Crystal 1985: 106; Gove, et al. 1966: 730).

6.2.27 EssiveCase:EssiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location at which another referent exists (Lyons 1968: 299,301; Gove, et al. 1966: 778; Crystal 1985: 112; Blake 1994: 154-5). {Finnic essive notion is different.}

6.2.28 IllativeCase:IllativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location into which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'into' (Lyons 1968: 299; Gove, et al. 1966: 1126; Crystal 1985: 152).

6.2.29 InablativeCase:InablativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from within which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from within'.

6.2.30 InessiveCase:InessiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location within which another referent exists. It has the meaning of 'within' or 'inside' (Lyons 1968: 299; Gove, et al. 1966: 1156; Crystal 1985: 156). X in Y.

6.2.31 InterablativeCase:InterablativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from between which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from inbetween'.

6.2.32 InteressiveCase:InteressiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location between which another referent exists. It has the meaning of 'between'.

6.2.33 InterlativeCase:

InterlativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location between which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'to the middle of'.

6.2.34 LativeCase:LativeCase expresses 'motion up to the location of,' or 'as far as' the referent of the noun it marks (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 121; Gove, et al. 1966: 1277).

6.2.35 PerlativeCase:PerlativeCase expresses that something moved 'through','across', or 'along' the referent of the noun that is marked (Blake 1998: 38, 203).

6.2.36 SubablativeCase:SubablativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from under which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from under'.

6.2.37 SubessiveCase:SubessiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location under which another referent exists. It has the meaning of 'under' or 'beneath'.

6.2.38 SublativeCase:SublativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location under which another referent is moving toward. It has the meaning 'towards the underneath of'.

6.2.39 SuperablativeCase:SuperlativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from over which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from over'.

6.2.40 SuperessiveCase:SuperessiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location on which another referent exists. It has the meaning of 'on' or 'upon'. (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 207, Gove, et al. 1966: 2293).

6.2.41 SuperlativeCase:SuperlativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location onto which another referent is moving. It has the meaning of 'onto'. Unfortunate name clash with 'Superlative' as a property of adjectives.

6.2 (concluded):CaseFeature values entailed by MotionCase

MOTIONCASE

ALLATIVE TRANSLATIVE TERMINATIVE

CONT IN INTER SUB SUPER CON INTER SUB SUPER

INTER SUB SUPER

Figure 5. Entailment relations among MotionCase feature values

{The following is also an area which needs to be x-ref'd to historical info.}Instances:

6.2.42 AllativeCase:AllativeCase expresses motion to or toward the referent of the noun it marks (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 6,9,216; Lyons 1968: 299; Crystal 1985: 1213; Gove, et al. 1966: 55,2359).

6.2.43 ContallativeCase:ContallativeCase expresses that something is moving toward the vicinity of the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'towards the vicinity of'.

6.2.44 ConterminativeCase:ConterminativeCase expresses the notion of something moving into the vicinity of the referent of the noun it marks, but not through that region. It has the meaning 'moving into the vicinity of'.

6.2.45 InallativeCase:InallativeCase expresses that something is moving toward the region that is inside the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'towards in(side)'.

6.2.46 InterallativeCase:InterallativeCase expresses that something is moving toward the region that is in the middle of the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'towards the middle of'.

6.2.47 InterminativeCase:'into in(side of)'.

6.2.48 InterterminativeCase:InterterminativeCase expresses the notion of something moving into the middle of the referent of the noun it marks, but not through it. It has the meaning 'into the middle of'.

6.2.49 IntertranslativeCase:IntertranslativeCase expresses the notion of something moving along a trajectory between the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'along the in between.

6.2.50 IntranslativeCase:IntranslativeCase expresses the notion of something moving through the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'along through'.

6.2.51 SuballativeCase:SuballativeCase expresses that something is moving toward the region that is under the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'towards the region that is under'.

6.2.52 SubterminativeCase:SubterminativeCase expresses the notion of something moving into the region under the referent of the noun it marks, but not through that region. It has the meaning 'into the region under'.(Michaelis 1998: xv)

6.2.53 SubtranslativeCase:SubtranslativeCase expresses the notion of something moving along a trajectory underneath the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'along the region underneath'. Unfortunate name clash with 'Superlative' as a feature of adjectives.

6.2.54 SuperallativeCase:SuperallativeCase expresses that something is moving toward the region that is above the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'towards the region that is over'.

6.2.55 SuperterminativeCase:SuperterminativeCase expresses the notion of something moving into the region over the referent of the noun it marks, but not through that region. It has the meaning 'into the region over'.

6.2.56 SupertranslativeCase:SupertranslativeCase expresses the notion of something moving along a trajectory above the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'along the region over'.

6.2.57 TerminativeCase:TerminativeCase expresses the notion of something into but not further than (ie, not through) the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'into but not through'.

6.2.58 TranslativeCase:TranslativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun, or the quality of the adjective, that it marks is the result of a process of change (Lyons 1968: 299301, Gove, et al. 1966: 813,2429, Sebeok 1946: 17, Hakulinen 1961: 70). X along, across Y.

6.2.59 VocativeCase:VocativeCase marks a noun whose referent is being addressed (Crystal 1980: 377; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 251; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 228).

Class: 6.3 EvaluativeFeature:

A feature associated with a nominal that generally indicates that the referent is viewed favorably or unfavorably by the speaker.

ANY

PEJORATIVE PREFERRED OTHER

Figure 6. Entailment relations among Evaluative feature values

Instances:6.3.1 PejorativeEvaluation:

A special form of a noun that indicates the speaker regards the person or object being referred to with distaste, contempt, or displeasure (Valentine 2001: 190-193).

6.3.2 PreferredEvaluation:A special form of a noun that indicates the speaker regards the person or object being referred to with favor or admiration.

Class: 6.4 EvidentialityFeature:

Evidentiality is the system of indicating the basis of an agent's warrant for their belief in what they say. It is closely related to Mood, some of whose values indicate the strength of the agent's belief.

ANY

DIRECT INDIRECT OTHER

VISUAL OTHERTHANVISUAL OTHERSOURCE INFERENTIAL

AUDITORY SECONDHAND HEARSAY FOLKLORE DEDUCTIVE ASSUMPTIVE

Figure 7. Entailment relations among Evidentiality feature values (seems based on Willet, Thomas(?) 1988 article in Studies in Language)

cf. Aikhenvald 2003, also grammars of Dixon ...•currently based completely on Palmer (2001), yet challenged by several re-searchers, whether or not it is totally linked to modality•instead, it also relates to the source of information, and only secondarily modalityOrthagonal reference: Form + etymon is frequently related to the perfect.(relegate to a COPE?)Instances:

6.4.1 AssumptiveEvidentiality:Assumptive encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through a possibly unsound inference procedure. That is, it is at least reasonalbe (Palmer 2001: 6-8).

6.4.2 AuditoryEvidentiality:AuditoryEvidentiality encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through direct auditory experience; they heard it. This does not include spoken reported accounts, but only direct sensory evdience, such as the situation of 'hearing a tree fall' (Palmer 2001: 38).

6.4.3 DeductiveEvidentiality:DeductiveEvidentiality encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through a sound inference procedure. (Palmer 2001: 6-8).

6.4.4 DirectEvidentiality:DirectEvidential, also called sensory, encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression by having direct sensory experience of some situation; this does not include hearing about it from someone else (Palmer 2001: 35-36).

6.4.5 FolkloreEvidentiality:FolkloreEvidentiality encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through legend, folklore or some other established tradition (Palmer 2001: 40).

6.4.6 HearsayEvidentiality:HearsayEvidentiality, also called third hand, encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression from a source generally considered less reliable than with a SecondHandEvidential (Palmer 2001: 40).

6.4.7 IndirectEvidentiality:IndirectEvidentiality, also called reported, encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression from a source other than by experiencing the situation directly (Palmer 2001: 40).

6.4.8 InferentialEvidentiality:InferentialEvidentiality encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through some kind of internal inference procedure, e.g., deduction, abduction, induction (Palmer 2001: 6-8).

6.4.9 OtherSourceEvidentiality:OtherSourceEvidentiality indicates that the agent relies on another source for their belief in what they say.

6.4.10 OtherThanVisualEvidentiality:OtherThanVisualEvidentiality encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression directly in a way other than through visual experience; they heard it, smelled it, tasted it, etc. (Palmer 2001: 36, 57). Renamed from NonVisualEvidentiality.

6.4.11 SecondHandEvidentiality:SecondHandEvidentiality, also called the quotative, encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression from communicating with someone else (Palmer 2001: 40).

6.4.12 VisualEvidentiality:VisualEvidentiality encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through direct visual experience; they saw it (Palmer 2001: 57).

Class: 6.5 ForceFeature:

Force expresses the speech act associated with a proposition. Among the traditionally defined values are Declarative, Imperative and Interrogative. Force is here distinguished from Mood, but there is a close association of Mood with Force values, e.g. between IndicativeMood and DeclarativeForce.

ANY

ACTIONAL INFORMATIONAL OTHER

IMPERATIVE HORTATORY COMMISSIVE VOLITIVE

DECLARATIVE SPECULATIVE INTERROGATIVE

JUSSIVE

Figure 8. Entailment relations among Force feature values

Instances:6.5.1 ActionalForce:

ActionalForce indicates that the speaker or hearer is to undertake some action. Subsumes Imperative, Commissive and Hortatory.

6.5.2 CommissiveForce:CommisiveForce indicates that the speaker promises or threatens to perform some action (Palmer 2001: 10, 72).

6.5.3 DeclarativeForce:DeclarativeForce indicates that the speaker is informing the hearer about the content of what is said.

6.5.4 HortatoryForce:HortatoryForce indicates that the hearer, possibly together with speaker, is admonished or to allow others to take action.

6.5.5 ImperativeForce:ImperativeForce indicates that the speaker requests or demands action on the part of the hearer.

6.5.6 InformationalForce:InformationalForce indicates that the hearer is to relate to the informational content of what is expressed. Subsumes Declarative, Speculative and Interrogative.

6.5.7 InterrogativeForce:InterrogativeForce indicates that the speaker lacks certain knowledge about what is expressed, and may thereby be seeking information from the hearer. In that case, it is equivalent to a type of imperative: "Tell me ...".

6.5.8 JussiveForce:JussiveForce indicates a request for permission to take action.

6.5.9 SpeculativeForce:SpeculativeForce indicates that the speaker considers, or 'entertains', the content of the expression. That is, it is in the realm of possibility, though the speaker does not necessarilty believe it (Palmer 2001: 6-8, 25).

6.5.10 VolitiveForce:VolitiveForce indicates that the speaker is willing to perform some action (Palmer 2001: 76).

Class: 6.6 GenderFeature:

GenderFeature the class of all grammatical genders found in language. It may be best subsumed under a more general class for noun classification. - we recommend indeed putting this under a higher class.-Human vs. Non-human systems, -systematic/semantic vs. arbitary systems(Corbett, Greville: "controller gender vs. target gender") Steve Wexler and Laura ?Szlotich,

Aronoff M. 1994 Morphology by itself: Stems and inflectional classes. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, Chapter ?2)distinguishes declension clearly from gender

ANY

ANIMATE INANIMATE OTHER

FEMININE MASCULINE

Figure 9. Entailment relations among Gender feature values

Instances:6.6.1 AnimateGender:

One of the two grammatical genders, or classes of nouns, the other being inanimate. Membership in the animate grammatical class is largely based on meanings, in that living things, including humans, animals, spirits, trees, and most plants are included in the animate class of nouns (Valentine 2001: 114).

6.6.2 FeminineGender:A grammatical class of nouns whose members tend to be perceived of as female. includes

6.6.3 InanimateGender:One of the two grammatical genders, or noun classes, of Nishnaabemwin, the other being animate. Membership in the inanimate grammatical class is largely based on meaning, in that non-living things, such as objects of manufacture and natural 'non-living' things are included in it (Valentine 2001: 114).

6.6.4 MasculineGender: (Cross-ref: historical etyma {Masc. gender in IE is different from a "std" semantically-based masc. gender, see Corbett})

A grammatical class of most nouns whose members tend to be perceived of as referring to but not necessarily limited to males. OR : ...a gender to which males are typically assigned.

6.6.5. Other Any number of other genders (semantically or formally defined), including neuter, vegetable, women, fire, and dangerous things, etc.{Need to separate out the relevant notions so that linguists can combine the ones that they need} (Refs: Corbett, Greville. 1991. Gender

Foley 1991. Yimas grammar. Stanford) Dobrin, Lise. 1998, The morphosyntatic reality of phonological form. Yearbook of Morphology 1997, ed. by Geert Booij and Jaap van Marle, 59-81. Dordrecht, Foris. 2003. Kibrik, Alexander. Nominal Inflection Galore EUROTYP ed. by Franz Plank.

Class: 6.7 ModalityFeature:

Modality is the theory of possibility and necessity. As a grammatical feature, it represents those dimensions in the domains of knowledge (epistemic modality), social relations (deontic modality) and ability (abilitive modality), and possibly others.

ANY

POSSIBILITY EPISTEMIC NECESSITY DEONTIC OTHER

ABILITIVE EPISTEMICPOSS PERMISSIVE EPISTEMICNEC WEAKOBLIGATIVE OBLIGATIVE

MENTALABILITIVE PHYSICALABILITIVE

CONDITIONALPHYSICALABILITIVE

Figure 10. Entailment relations among Modality feature values

Instances:6.7.1 AbilitiveModality:

AbilitiveModality indicates the capacity of an agent to perform some action, regardless of type or condition.

6.7.2 ConditionalPhysicalAbilitiveModality:ConditionalPhysicalAbilitiveModality indicates ability of an agent to perform some action, requiring the presence of conditions external to the agent (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 177; Palmer 2001: 76).

6.7.3 DeonticModality:DeonticModality indicates that an agent has permission or is under an obligation to perform some action.

6.7.4 EpistemicModality:EpistemicModality indicates that a state of affairs is known to be possible or certain (necessary).

6.7.5 EpistemicNecessityModality:EpistemicNecessityModality indicates that the expressed proposition is known to be true. Also known as CategoricalModality (Palmer 2001: 37, 68-69).

6.7.6 EpistemicPossibilityModality:EpistemicPossibilityModality indicates that the designated state of affairs is not known not to be true.

6.7.7 MentalAbilitiveModality:MentalAbilitiveModality indicates that an agent has the capacity to perform some mental action (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 192; Palmer 2001: 77).

6.7.8 NecessityModality:NecessityModality indicates that the described state of affairs is necessary, either directly, or because of a requirement on the part of an agent.

6.7.9 ObligativeModality:ObligativeModality indicates that an agent is required to perform the action expressed by the predicate (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 177; Palmer 2001: 71)..

6.7.10 PermissiveModality:PermissiveModality indicates that an agent has permission to perform the action expressed by the predicate (Palmer 2001: 10, 71).

6.7.11 PhysicalAbilitiveModality:PhysicalAbilitiveModality indicates that an agent has the physical capacity to perform some action (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 192; Palmer 2001: 77).

6.7.12 PossibilityModality:PossibilityModality indicates that the designated state of affairs is possible, either directly, or because an agent has the ability or permission to carry it out.

6.7.13 WeakObligativeModality:

WeakObligativeModality indicates that an agent is under a moral obligation to perform the action expressed by the predicate (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 186-187).

Class: 6.8 MoodFeature:

Mood, also known as Force, expresses the grammatical mood or force of a proposition. Among the traditionally defined values are Declarative, Imperative and Interrogative. These values are a somewhat mixed bag of attitutude (e.g. optative, volitive, subjunctive) and speech-act (e.g. imperative, commissive) values. It may be desirable to separate them out.

ANY

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE TIMITIVE OTHER

OPTATIVE DUBITIVE

Figure 11. Entailment relations among Mood feature values

Instances:6.8.1 DubitiveMood:

DubitiveMood indicates a speaker's doubt or uncertainty about a proposition (Palmer 2001).

6.8.2 IndicativeMood:IndicativeMood indicates that the speaker believes the expression to be true.

6.8.3 OptativeMood:Optative indicates that the speaker wishes or hopes that the expressed proposition be the case (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 179; Palmer 2001: 204).

6.8.4 SubjunctiveMood:SubjunctiveMood indicates that the expression is not believed to be true.

6.8.5 TimitiveMood:TimitiveMood encodes that the speaker fears something expressed in what is said (Palmer 2001).

Class: 6.9 NumberFeature:

Number is a grammatical category often found on nouns, pronouns, and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions--such as 'one' or 'more than one'. The count distinctions typically, but not always, correspond to the actual count of the referents of the marked noun or Pronoun (Add Corbett, Greville G. Number.) Crystal 1980: 245; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 155; Mish et al. 1990: 811).

ANY

PAUCAL PLURAL OTHER

SMALLPAUCAL SEVERAL LARGEPLURAL

SINGULAR DUAL TRIAL MULTAL

Figure 12. Entailment relations among all Number feature values

-Need to separate number out from nouns-Need to include Pluractionals (similar to Frequentative, particularly in Africanist literature)Prototypical Languages: Chechen, Ainu, Svan, Yurok, BoleCusic, David D. 1981 The verbal plurality of Aspect.Shuh, Russell. ...Chadic. Wood, Esther. In progress diss , a typological survey of pluractionals. ??ejwood@berkeley.edu or ask Jeff Good.Instances:

6.9.1 DualNumber:Dual refers to two members of a designated class (Crystal 1997: 265). It typically occurs in a number system together with Singular and LargePlural, or with Singular, Trial and Multal.

6.9.2 LargePluralNumber:LargePlural is used in a number system together with Singular and Dual or with SmallPaucal. It core:entails Plural and is entailed by Multal. See comment under Plural.

6.9.3 MultalNumber:Multal refers to a large number of individuals. It core:entails LargePlural.

6.9.4 PaucalNumber:Paucal refers to a few members of a designated class (Crystal 1997: 265). It occurs in a number system together with Multal. It is entailed by SmallPaucal.

6.9.5 PluralNumber:Plural refers to more than one member of a designated class. It is used in a number system together with Singular only, as in English. We deprecate the definition in which it refers to any number larger than the largest individual number value in the system, e.g. 'more than two' in some languages (Crystal 1980: 245; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 178; Crystal 1987: 428; Mish et al. 1990: 906). We recommend LargePlural for systems in which the value is used together with Singular and Dual, and Multal for systems in which the value is used together with Singular, Dual and Trial.

6.9.6 SeveralNumber:Several is used in a system together with Singular and LargePlural or Multal to refer to a small, non-singular number of individuals.

6.9.7 SingularNumber:Singular refers to one member of a designated class (Crystal 1980: 245; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 210).

6.9.8 SmallPaucalNumber:SmallPaucal occurs in a number system together with LargePlural, referring to a very small number of individuals. It core:entails Paucal and is entailed by both Singular and Dual.

6.9.9 TrialNumber:Trial refers to three members of a designated class (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 220; Gove, et al. 1966: 2439).

Class: 6.10 PersonFeature: (cross-ref. to honorifics)

Person indicates the number and nature of the participants in a situation. Usually a three-way contrast is found: first, second, and third person. Other formal distinctions in languages include: inclusive/exlusive, honorific/intimate, and male/female (Crystal 1997: 285).Refs: Siewierska 2004, Person. CUP.

ANY

PARTICIPANT THIRD OTHER

FIRST SECOND 3PROXIMATIVE 3OBVIATIVE

1INCLUSIVE 1EXCLUSIVE

Figure 13. Entailment relations among Person feature values

Instances:6.10.1 FirstPerson:

Refers to the speaker, and possibly others (Crystal 1997: 285). FirstPersonSingular is a structure combining FirstPerson and SingularNumber, referring to the speaker only.

6.10.2 FirstPersonExclusive:Refers to the speaker and one or more nonparticipants, but not hearer(s). Contrasts with FirstPersonInclusive (Crystal 1997: 285).

6.10.3 FirstPersonInclusive:Refers to the speaker, hearer(s) and possibly others. Contrasts with FirstPersonExclusive (Crystal 1997: 285).

6.10.4 ParticipantPerson:Refers to any combination of participants (speaker and addressee(s)) and possibly others.

6.10.5 SecondPerson:Refers to the person(s) the speaker is addressing (Crystal 1997: 285).

6.10.6 ThirdPerson:Refers to nonparticipants (other than the speaker or hearer(s)), i.e. other people, things, animals, etc. (Crystal 1997: 285). (needs to include, somewhere, the category of Impersonal:1. NPs To deal with impersonal 3p reference (Fr. on) - usage issue.2. Vs: -n-ta constructions Kibort, Anna. In-process dissertation. Passive and Passive-

like constructions in English and Polish. online) Langs: Ancient Egyptian

6.10.7 ThirdPersonObviative:Obviative refers to one or more non-participants that are in some way further removed from the speaker than other non-particpants.

6.10.8 ThirdPersonProximative:Proximative refers to one or more non-participants that are in some way distinct/closer to the speaker than other non-particpants.

Class: 6.11 PolarityFeature:

We provisionally assume this feature to take on just the values Positive and Negative. As a morphosyntactic feature, generally only Negative is "marked", i.e. associated with a linguistic expression.

ANY

NEGATIVE POSITIVE OTHER

Figure 14. Entailment relations among Polarity feature values

Instances:6.11.1 NegativePolarity:

A construction that expresses the contradiction of some or all of a proposition (Crystal 1980: 257). Note: this value is not to be confused with the notion "Negative Polarity Item", which is an expression that occurs in the scope of Negation (i.e. Negative Polarity).

6.11.2 PositivePolarity:In general, positive polarity refers to an assertion that contains no marker of negation (Crystal 1980: 299).

Class: 6.12 SizeFeature:

Feature for relative size. Currently only Diminutive and Augmentative defined as possible values. Typically specified "derivationally" rather than by inflection.

ANY

DIMINUTIVE AUGMENTATIVE OTHER

Figure 15. Entailment relations among Size feature values

Instances:6.12.1 Augmentative:

A special form of a noun that signals that the object being referred to is large relative to the usual size of such an object (Crystal 1980: 34).

6.12.2 Diminutive:A special form of a noun that signals that the object being referred to is small relative to the usual size of such an object. In some cases it may be used as a term of endearment (Crystal 1980: 116).

Class: 6.13 TenseFeature:

Tense is the grammatical encoding of an event's location in time. It is typically marked on the verb and deictically refers to the time of the event or state denoted by the verb in relation to some other temporal reference point (Comrie 1985: 9; Crystal 1987: 384).

ANY

SIMPLE RELATIVE OTHER

NONFUTURE NONPAST RELPAST RELPRESENT RELFUTURE

PAST PRESENT FUTURE PASTINPAST

PASTINFUTURE

FUTUREINPAST

FUTUREINFUTURE

PREHODIER-NALPAST

RECENTPAST

STILLPRESENT

NEARFUTURE

POSTHODIER-NALFUTURE

REMOTEPAST

HESTER-NALPAST

HODIER-NALPAST

HODIERNALFUTURE

HESTER-NALFUTURE

REMOTEFUTURE

IMMEDIATEPASTDUAL

IMMEDIATEFUTUREMULTAL

Figure 16. Entailment relations among Tense feature values

Instances:6.13.1 FutureInFutureTense:

FutureInFutureTense locates the situation in question in the future, relative to a temporal reference point that itself is located in the future relative to the moment of utterance.

6.13.2 FutureInPastTense:FutureInPastTense locates the situation in question in the future, relative to a contextually determined temporal reference point that itself must be located in the past relative to the moment of utterance.

6.13.3 FutureTense:FutureTense locates the situation in question later than the present moment (time of speaking.)

6.13.4 HesternalFutureTense:Defined by analogy with HesternalPastTense. core:entails both NearFutureTense and PostHodiernalFutureTense.

6.13.5 HesternalPastTense:HesternalPastTense locates the situation in question somewhere in the span beginning with the period defined culturally as 'yesterday' and extends back through some period that is considered nonremote (Comrie 1985:87-88; Dahl 1985:126).

6.13.6 HodiernalFutureTense:HodiernalFutureTense locates the situation in question after the moment of utterance within the span culturally defined as 'today' (Comrie 1985: 86; Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 247).

6.13.7 HodiernalPastTense:HodiernalPastTense locates the situation in question before the moment of utterance within the span culturally defined as 'today' (Comrie 1985:87; Dahl 1985:125-126). Contrasts with PreHodiernalPastTense.

6.13.8 ImmediateFutureTense:ImmediateFutureTense, also called 'close future', locates the situation in question shortly after the moment of utterance (Dahl 1985:121; Comrie 1985:94; Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 244-245).

6.13.9 ImmediatePastTense:ImmediatePastTense locates the situation in question at a time considered very recent in relation to the moment of utterance (Comrie 1985: 87).

6.13.10 NearFutureTense:Defined here by analogy with RecentPastTense. core:entails FutureTense and entailed by

HesternalFutureTense and HodiernalFutureTense.6.13.11 NonFutureTense:

NonFutureTense locates the situation in question at or before the moment of utterance, and contrasts with a FutureTense (Comrie 1985: 49).

6.13.12 NonPastTense:NonPastTense locates the situation in question at or after the moment of utterance, and contrasts with a past tense (Comrie 1985:48-49)..

6.13.13 PastInFutureTense:Locates the situation in question in the future, prior to a reference time in the future.

6.13.14 PastInPastTense:Locates the situation in question prior to a reference time in the past. Also known as PluperfectTense.

6.13.15 PastTense:PastTense locates the situation in question prior to the present moment, with no specification on the distance in time (Comrie 1985).

6.13.16 PostHodiernalFutureTense:PostHodiernalFutureTense locates the situation in question after the span that is culturally defined as 'today' (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 247).

6.13.17 PreHodiernalPastTense:PreHodiernalPastTense locates the situation in question before that of a contrasting HodiernalPastTense. According to Bybee, Perkins, Pagliuca 1994: 98. this category must be defined relative to a HodiernalPastTense.

6.13.18 PresentTense:PresentTense locates the situation in question at the present moment (the time of the speech event) (Comrie 1985: 37). Changed name from AbsolutePresentTense since no other "Present" tense value is defined.

6.13.19 RecentPastTense:RecentPastTense locates the situation in question prior to the present moment, but by culturally and situationally defined criteria, usually within the span ranging from yesterday to a week or a few months previous (Comrie 1985:87; Dahl 1985:121-122).

6.13.20 RelativeFutureTense:RelativeFutureTense locates the situation in question after a contextually determined temporal reference point, regardless of the latter's relation to the moment of utterance. Also called FuturePerfectTense (Comrie 1985:69-71).

6.13.21 RelativePastTense:RelativePastTense locates the situation in question before that of a contextually determined temporal reference point (Comrie 1985: 104). Also called PastPerfectTense.

6.13.22 RelativePresentTense:RelativePresentTense locates the situation in question simultaneously with some contextually determined temporal reference point.

6.13.23 RelativeTense:A RelativeTense locates the situation in question in time relative to a time distinct from the time of speech.

6.13.24 RemoteFutureTense:RemoteFutureTense locates the situation in question at a time that is considered relatively distant. It is characteristically after the span of time culturally defined as 'tomorrow' (Dahl 1985:121; Comrie 1985:94).

6.13.25 RemotePastTense:RemotePastTense locates the situation in question prior to the present moment, usually more than a few days ago (Dahl 1985:121; Comrie 1985:88). Subsumes notion of PreHesternalPast tense, which locates the situation in question before that of an opposing hesternal past tense. (Bybee, Perkins, Pagliuca 1994: 98).

6.13.26 SimpleTense:Designating a point in time in reference to the time of speaking only.

6.13.27 StillPresentTense:StillPresentTense is similar to PresentTense but carries the presupposition that an event or state held before the moment of utterance. In positive declarative clauses, still present tense asserts that the event or state holds at the moment of utterance (Comrie 1985: 54; named changed from 'StillTense').

Class: 6.14 VoiceFeature:

A verbal category encoding alternations in the configurations of nominal statuses with which a verb is in particular relationships.(Klaiman 1991:323)

ANY

ACTIVE PASSIVE MIDDLE DIRECT INVERSE CAUSATIVE OTHER

AP PR AD RX OB IM PE RF PL RX RC DP NC SM PG PM NP AC LC MC

Figure 17. Entailment relations among highest level Voice feature values

PASSIVE

ANTIPASS PROGRES-SIVE

AGENT-DELETED

REFLEX-IVE

OBLIQUE IMPERSONAL PERSONAL REFER-ENTIAL

ABSOLUTIVE NONABSOLUTIVE LOCATIVE NECESSITATIVE PERIPHRASTIC

FOCUS INCORPORATING

Figure 18. Entailment relations among PassiveVoice feature values

Instances:6.14.1 AbsolutiveAntipassiveVoice:

An Antipassive in which the P or logical object is suppressed or overtly absent. (Klaiman 1991:232)

6.14.2 ActiveVoice:Associated with transitivity, when the action is performed by an agent (subject) on another participant (object), or with intransitivity. (McIntosh 1984:108)

6.14.3 AgentDeletionPassiveVoice:The object of the active retains its old case-marking in the passive, the subject of the active cannot appear in the passive clause, and the passive tends to be semantically active.(Givon 1988:419)

6.14.4 AnticausativeVoice:An intransitive verb is derived from a basically transitive one with the direct object of the transitive verb corresponding to the subject of the intransitive.(Siewierska 1988:267)

6.14.5 AntipassiveVoice:Derives an intransitive verb from a transitive stem whereby the original agent (only) is cross-referrenced by the absolutive markers on the verb and the original patient, if it appears, is in an oblique phrase. (England 1983:110)

6.14.6 CausativeVoice:Expressing the causation of an action.

6.14.7 DeponentMiddleVoice:Action denotes physical/mental disposition of subject. (Siewierska 1988:257)

6.14.8 DirectVoice:Signals that the action proceeds in an ontologically salient way, i.e. that salience is assigned to nominals based on their referen'ts relative real-world capacities to control situations. (Klaiman 1991:32)

6.14.9 FocusAntipassiveVoice:Blocks the P or logical object (basic absolutive) nominal from being assigned Focus salience. Topic salience is available for assignment to various arguments, including the P, but Focus salience is always assigned to A, and is therefore inaccessible to P or any other nominal.(Klaiman 1991:236)

6.14.10 ImpersonalPassiveVoice:A Passive that alters the mapping of a nominal to the Subject relation in a basic intransitive structure. (Klaiman 1991:23)

6.14.11 IncorporatingAntipassiveVoice:Blocks the P or logical object (basic absolutive) nominal from being assigned Focus salience. This correlates with the P's morphosyntactic downgrading, whereby it becomes insusceptible to any informational salience assignment. (Klaiman 1991:236)

6.14.12 InverseVoice:Signals when actions proceed from ontologically less salient to more salient participants(Klaiman 1991:32)

6.14.13 LexicalCausativeVoice:Causatives which use a lexeme as a causative marker.(Nedjalkov, Otaina & Xolodovic 1995:61)

6.14.14 LocativePassiveVoice:An oblique locative nominal assumes the subject relation. (Klaiman 1991:17)

6.14.15 MiddleVoice:Associated with reflexivity and with borrowed verbal roots that would be semantically more compatible with active voice.(McIntosh 1984:108)

6.14.16 MorphologicalCausativeVoice:Causatives which use a morpheme on the verb as a causative marker.(Nedjalkov, Otaina & Xolodovic 1995:62)

6.14.17 NecessitativePassiveVoice:A passive in Irish in which the preposition "with" is used, and a semantic meaning of necessity is added. (Noonan 1994:280)

6.14.18 Non-PromotionalInverseVoice:Involves demotion of the non-topical obviate-agent from subjecthood. (Givon 1994:24)

6.14.19 NonabsolutiveAntipassiveVoice:An Antipassive in which the P or logical object is overtly downgraded. (Klaiman 1991:232)

6.14.20 NucleonicMiddleVoice:Object of action belongs to. Moves into, or moves from sphere of subject.(Siewierska 1988:257)

6.14.21 ObliquePassiveVoice:A Passive in which a basic Oblique nominal assumes the Subject relation in a corresponding nonbasic configuration. Can include locative passives, benefactive passives and instrumental passives. (Klaiman 1991:23)

6.14.22 PassiveVoice:

Associated with actions performed on the subject by an unspecified agent.(McIntosh 1984:108)

6.14.23 PeriphrasticPersonalPassiveVoice:A personal passive construction in which the copular verb 'be' is used. (Siewierska 1988:244)

6.14.24 PersonalPassiveVoice:A Passive in which the argument mapped to Object in a basic structural configuration assumes the Subject relation in a corresponding nonbasic configuration. (Klaiman 1991:23)

6.14.25 PlainMiddleVoice:Results of action occur to subject.(Siewierska 1988:257)

6.14.26 PragmaticInverseVoice:If the agent is more topical than the patient, the direct-active clause is used. If norm is reversed and the patient is more topical, the inverse clause is used. (Givon 1994:23)

6.14.27 ProgressivePassiveVoice:A passive in Irish in which the preposition "at" is used, and a semantic meaning of progressive tense is found.(Noonan 1994:280)

6.14.28 PromotionalInverseVoice:Involves promotion of the topical proximate-patient to subjecthood. (Givon 1994:24)

6.14.29 ReciprocalMiddleVoice:Referents of plural subject do action to one another. (Siewierska 1988:257)

6.14.30 ReferentialVoice:core:entails assignment of the absolutive to certain kinds of arguments other than the logical subjects (A) and objects (P), including the dative, benefactive, malefactive, and possessor. (Klaiman 1991:239)

6.14.31 ReflexiveMiddleVoice:Subjects perform action to self. (Siewierska 1988:257)

6.14.32 ReflexivePassiveVoice:A Passive construction which contains reflexive markings. (Siewierska 1988:257)

6.14.33 SemanticInverseVoice:If the agent outranks the patient on the relevant generic topic hierarchy, the direct-active clause is used. If the relevant norm is reversed and the patient outranks the agent on the relevant hierarchy, the inverse clause is used. (Givon 1994:23)