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TRANSCRIPT
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Forensic Linguistic Analysis
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The Flexible Liar A Strategy for Deception Detection in Written Witness Statements
Isabel Picornell, Ph.D., CFE
ACFE 2013 European Fraud Conference Prague, Czech Republic
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Deception and Evolution
Deception is an evolutionary strategy for natural selection.
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Evolution and Communication
Psychological speech acts evolved to facilitate communication:
Cooperative principle—We automatically assume that participants in a conversation are being cooperative.
Conversational maxims—We assume that cooperative communicators are: • Informative
• Truthful
• Relevant
• Clear
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Communication and Deception
Deception piggybacks on our communication behaviour, like a parasite.
Deception is truth mimicry.
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Theoretical Assumptions for Deception
Psychologists assume that deception will affect deceivers’:
Thoughts
Feelings
Cognitive processes
And this will be reflected in certain perspectives:
Emotion leakage
Lack of embracement
Cognitive load
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
The Othello Error
The misinterpretation of signs of strong emotion, cognitive complexity, and attempted control as indicative of deception.
The same processes will be active in someone who is lying and worried about being caught, and in someone who is telling the truth and worried about not being believed.
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Deception Cues Are Not Constant
We use language differently when we speak and when we write:
In speech, language expresses reality as a process. The people in the colony celebrated enthusiastically when it was promised that things would change in this way.
In writing, reality is expressed as an object. Opinion in the colony greeted the promised change with enthusiasm.
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Deception Cues Are Not Constant
In verbal contexts, cues change according to:
Time to construct the lie
Pressure to respond to questions
Attitude of the addressee
In written contexts, cues change according to:
Planning opportunities
Rehearsal time
Response time
Editing opportunities
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Witness Statements
A witness statement is a narrative relating to an event witnessed or experienced by the individual writing the statement.
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
The Narrative Progression
A narrative is a report of:
A sequence of events
That has entered into the biography of the narrator
Reportable Event
Clause 1
Temporal Juncture
Clause 2
I picked up the gun.
He shot me.
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
The Narrative Progression
Narrators linguistically reconstruct reality to create meaning.
Credibility arises from addressees believing that the reportable event occurred in real time.
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Narratives as a Progression of Episodes
Narrators subdivide their narratives into thematic bundles of information (episodes).
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Sentence Structures—Clauses
Independent clauses: stand on their own
her house was broken into
the robbers fled
the suspect emerged from the darkness
Dependent clauses: need to be attached to an independent clause
while she was at home
when the police arrived
as I headed back to my vehicle
Main clauses Subordinate clauses
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Segmentation Markers
Standard order of sentence clauses
main clause + subordinate clause
[The robbers fled] + [when the police arrived.]
Marked order of sentence clauses
subordinate clause + main clause
[When the police arrived] + [the robbers fled.]
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Marked Sentence Structures
Those sentences which have an initial adjunct, subordinate clause or phrase, or prepositional phrase with an adverbial function. (McEwan & Prideaux, 1997)
At this point, I felt the suspect reach for my gun.
In August 2011, my neighbour’s house was broken into.
Suddenly, my head felt like it was going to explode.
As I slid, the suspect covered my mouth and nose and stopped my breathing.
Then, the officer placed me in the back of his vehicle.
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Creating Episodes
Highlight important info. New episode.
Change in the time frame. New episode.
Change location. New episode.
Bring in new person. New episode.
Once we got to the train station, we met with a group of friends.
Moments later, the ambulance arrived.
When she was going through the metal detector, she didn’t put her bags in the x-ray machine.
That is when I called the police about everything.
Suddenly, the suspect walked out of the darkness.
After proceeding for approximately one-half mile on Dike road, I descended a hill.
So then, the officer was bringing this other guy in.
After about an hour, we got bored.
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
[On July 18, 1969, at approximately 11:15 p.m. in Chappaquiddick, Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts, I was driving my car on Main Street] [on my way to get the ferry back to Edgartown.] [I was unfamiliar with the road] [and turned right onto Dike Road,] [instead of bearing hard left on Main Street.] [After proceeding for approximately one-half mile on Dike Road,] [I descended a hill] [and came upon a narrow bridge.] [The car went off the side of the bridge.] [There was one passenger with me, one Miss Mary Kopechne, a former secretary of my brother, Sen. Robert Kennedy.] [The car turned over] [and sank into the water] [and landed] [with the roof resting on the bottom.] [I attempted to open the door and the window of the car,] [but have no recollection] [of how I got out of the car.] [I came to the surface] [and then repeatedly dove down to the car] [in an attempt to see] [if the passenger was still in the car.] [I was unsuccessful in the attempt.] [I was exhausted and in a state of shock.] [I recall walking back] [to where my friends were eating.] [There was a car parked in front of the cottage] [and I climbed into the back seat.] [I then asked for someone] [to bring me back to Edgartown.] [I remember walking around for a period of time] [and then going back to my hotel room.] [When I fully realized] [what had happened this morning,] [I immediately contacted the police.]
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
[On July 18, 1969, at approximately 11:15 p.m. in Chappaquiddick, Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts, I was driving my car on Main Street] [on my way to get the ferry back to Edgartown.] [I was unfamiliar with the road] [and turned right onto Dike Road,] [instead of bearing hard left on Main Street.] [After proceeding for approximately one-half mile on Dike Road,] [I descended a hill] [and came upon a narrow bridge.] [The car went off the side of the bridge.] [There was one passenger with me, one Miss Mary Kopechne, a former secretary of my brother, Sen. Robert Kennedy.] [The car turned over] [and sank into the water] [and landed] [with the roof resting on the bottom.] [I attempted to open the door and the window of the car,] [but have no recollection] [of how I got out of the car.] [I came to the surface] [and then repeatedly dove down to the car] [in an attempt to see] [if the passenger was still in the car.] [I was unsuccessful in the attempt.] [I was exhausted and in a state of shock.] [I recall walking back] [to where my friends were eating.] [There was a car parked in front of the cottage] [and I climbed into the back seat.] [I then asked for someone] [to bring me back to Edgartown.] [I remember walking around for a period of time] [and then going back to my hotel room.] [When I fully realized] [what had happened this morning,] [I immediately contacted the police.]
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Deception as a Progression
Deception is a progression of acts over time.
Focus is driven by intentions and guided by the route the communicator formulates to move through the field of thought. (Anolli, Barconi, Ciceri, 2002)
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Deception Strategies in Witness Narratives
Focus features:
Author focus: • Self-references individually (e.g., I, me, my)
• First person singular pronouns collectively (e.g., I, me, my, mine)
Joint/other focus • First person plural pronouns (e.g., we, us, our)
• Third person pronouns (e.g., he, she, it, they, their, theirs)
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
[On July 18, 1969, at approximately 11:15 p.m. in Chappaquiddick, Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts, I was driving my car on Main Street] [on my way to get the ferry back to Edgartown.] [I was unfamiliar with the road] [and turned right onto Dike Road,] [instead of bearing hard left on Main Street.] [After proceeding for approximately one-half mile on Dike Road,] [I descended a hill] [and came upon a narrow bridge.] [The car went off the side of the bridge.] [There was one passenger with me, one Miss Mary Kopechne, a former secretary of my brother, Sen. Robert Kennedy.] [The car turned over] [and sank into the water] [and landed] [with the roof resting on the bottom.] [I attempted to open the door and the window of the car,] [but have no recollection] [of how I got out of the car.] [I came to the surface] [and then repeatedly dove down to the car] [in an attempt to see] [if the passenger was still in the car.] [I was unsuccessful in the attempt.] [I was exhausted and in a state of shock.] [I recall walking back] [to where my friends were eating.] [There was a car parked in front of the cottage] [and I climbed into the back seat.] [I then asked for someone] [to bring me back to Edgartown.] [I remember walking around for a period of time] [and then going back to my hotel room.] [When I fully realized] [what had happened this morning,] [I immediately contacted the police.]
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
[On July 18, 1969, at approximately 11:15 p.m. in Chappaquiddick, Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts, I was driving my car on Main Street] [on my way to get the ferry back to Edgartown.] [I was unfamiliar with the road] [and turned right onto Dike Road,] [instead of bearing hard left on Main Street.] [After proceeding for approximately one-half mile on Dike Road,] [I descended a hill] [and came upon a narrow bridge.] [The car went off the side of the bridge.] [There was one passenger with me, one Miss Mary Kopechne, a former secretary of my brother, Sen. Robert Kennedy.] [The car turned over] [and sank into the water] [and landed] [with the roof resting on the bottom.] [I attempted to open the door and the window of the car,] [but have no recollection] [of how I got out of the car.] [I came to the surface] [and then repeatedly dove down to the car] [in an attempt to see] [if the passenger was still in the car.] [I was unsuccessful in the attempt.] [I was exhausted and in a state of shock.] [I recall walking back] [to where my friends were eating.] [There was a car parked in front of the cottage] [and I climbed into the back seat.] [I then asked for someone] [to bring me back to Edgartown.] [I remember walking around for a period of time] [and then going back to my hotel room.] [When I fully realized] [what had happened this morning,] [I immediately contacted the police.]
Episode I me my 1st PP 3rd PP
1 2/5 0/5 2/5 4/5 0/5
2 4/13 1/13 1/13 6/13 0/13
3 6/12 1/12 1/12 8/12 0/12
4 0/1 0/1 1/1 1/1 0/1
5 2/3 0/3 0/3 2/3 0/3
Total 14/34 2/34 5/34 21/34 0/34
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Deception Strategies in Witness Narratives
Ambiguity features:
Verb strings—two+ verbs functioning as a single verb (e.g., went to call, started yelling, tried to open, etc.)
Negation—indicating the act or process of negating or something w/o existence (e.g., no, not, nothing, unsuccessful)
Cognitive verbs—identifying a cognitive (mental) function (e.g., think, seem, appear, etc.)
Indefinite pronouns—referring to something unspecified (e.g., something, one, thing(s), etc.)
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
[On July 18, 1969, at approximately 11:15 p.m. in Chappaquiddick, Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts, I was driving my car on Main Street] [on my way to get the ferry back to Edgartown.] [I was unfamiliar with the road] [and turned right onto Dike Road,] [instead of bearing hard left on Main Street.] [After proceeding for approximately one-half mile on Dike Road,] [I descended a hill] [and came upon a narrow bridge.] [The car went off the side of the bridge.] [There was one passenger with me, one Miss Mary Kopechne, a former secretary of my brother, Sen. Robert Kennedy.] [The car turned over] [and sank into the water] [and landed] [with the roof resting on the bottom.] [I attempted to open the door and the window of the car,] [but have no recollection] [of how I got out of the car.] [I came to the surface] [and then repeatedly dove down to the car] [in an attempt to see] [if the passenger was still in the car.] [I was unsuccessful in the attempt.] [I was exhausted and in a state of shock.] [I recall walking back] [to where my friends were eating.] [There was a car parked in front of the cottage] [and I climbed into the back seat.] [I then asked for someone] [to bring me back to Edgartown.] [I remember walking around for a period of time] [and then going back to my hotel room.] [When I fully realized] [what had happened this morning,] [I immediately contacted the police.]
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Episode I me my 1st PP 3rd PP AF
1 2/5 0/5 2/5 4/5 0/5 1/5
2 4/13 1/13 1/13 6/13 0/13 2/13
3 6/12 1/12 1/12 8/12 0/12 4/12
4 0/1 0/1 1/1 1/1 0/1 0/1
5 2/3 0/3 0/3 2/3 0/3 1/3
Total 14/34 2/34 5/34 21(19)/34 0/34 8/34
41.2% 5.9% 14.7% 55.9% 0% 23.5%
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
[On July 18, 1969, at approximately 11:15 p.m. in Chappaquiddick, Martha’s Vineyard, Massachusetts, I was driving my car on Main Street] [on my way to get the ferry back to Edgartown.] [I was unfamiliar with the road] [and turned right onto Dike Road,] [instead of bearing hard left on Main Street.] [After proceeding for approximately one-half mile on Dike Road,] [I descended a hill] [and came upon a narrow bridge.] [The car went off the side of the bridge.] [There was one passenger with me, one Miss Mary Kopechne, a former secretary of my brother, Sen. Robert Kennedy.] [The car turned over] [and sank into the water] [and landed] [with the roof resting on the bottom.] [I attempted to open the door and the window of the car,] [but have no recollection] [of how I got out of the car.] [I came to the surface] [and then repeatedly dove down to the car] [in an attempt to see] [if the passenger was still in the car.] [I was unsuccessful in the attempt.] [I was exhausted and in a state of shock.] [I recall walking back] [to where my friends were eating.] [There was a car parked in front of the cottage] [and I climbed into the back seat.] [I then asked for someone] [to bring me back to Edgartown.] [I remember walking around for a period of time] [and then going back to my hotel room.] [When I fully realized] [what had happened this morning,] [I immediately contacted the police.]
I me my 1st PP 3rd PP AF
Total 14/34 2/34 5/34 21(19)/34 0/34 8/34
41.2% 5.9% 14.7% 55.9% 0% 23.5%
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Prolix and Personal Strategy
A verbose approach with high immediacy and ambiguity; deceivers are cooperatively vague.
Very high use of first person singular pronouns
Very high use of I
Very high use of my (sometimes also me)
High+ use of ambiguity features • Normally associated with I use
• Clustering of features
I me my 1st PP 3rd PP AF
Total 14/34 2/34 5/34 21(19)/34 0/34 8/34
41.2% 5.9% 14.7% 55.9% 0% 23.5%
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
[I woke up] [and made the bed], [had breakfast with Dave.] [I got Nicky ready for school.] [I took Nicky to school] [then Maria to work.] [I went to work.] [At quarter to one I went home for lunch] [and let Turbo out.] [At 1:45 I left] [to go back to work.] [A man jumped out on the road] [and fell down.] [I thought] [maybe I hit him] [but I didn’t hit him.] [I started to check on him] [and he pushed me in my car] [and then made me drive] [then he told me] [to stop crying.] [He told me] [to stop the car.] [He took tape out] [and put it on my wrists] [and then he cut my lips with his knife] [and then put tape on my mouth.] [He cut my blouse.] [He was angry] [cuz he said] [his damn knife was dull.] [He wanted a souvenir] [and he couldn’t get] [but he cut my hair.] [He started driving] [and telephoned someone] [and said] [to meet him at that place.] [He locked my keys in my car] [and then a yellow van came] [and got him.] [I waited for a while] [and then I started to walk.] [I tried to kick him] [and he grabbed my leg] [and my tights tore.] [He said stay still.]
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
[I woke up] [and made the bed], [had breakfast with Dave.] [I got Nicky ready for school.] [I took Nicky to school] [then Maria to work.] [I went to work.] [At quarter to one I went home for lunch] [and let Turbo out.] [At 1:45 I left] [to go back to work.] [A man jumped out on the road] [and fell down.] [I thought] [maybe I hit him] [but I didn’t hit him.] [I started to check on him] [and he pushed me in my car] [and then made me drive] [then he told me] [to stop crying.] [He told me] [to stop the car.] [He took tape out] [and put it on my wrists] [and then he cut my lips with his knife] [and then put tape on my mouth.] [He cut my blouse.] [He was angry] [cuz he said] [his damn knife was dull.] [He wanted a souvenir] [and he couldn’t get] [but he cut my hair.] [He started driving] [and telephoned someone] [and said] [to meet him at that place.] [He locked my keys in my car] [and then a yellow van came] [and got him.] [I waited for a while] [and then I started to walk.] [I tried to kick him] [and he grabbed my leg] [and my tights tore.] [He said stay still.]
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
[I woke up] [and made the bed], [had breakfast with Dave.] [I got Nicky ready for school.] [I took Nicky to school] [then Maria to work.] [I went to work.] [At quarter to one I went home for lunch] [and let Turbo out.] [At 1:45 I left] [to go back to work.] [A man jumped out on the road] [and fell down.] [I thought] [maybe I hit him] [but I didn’t hit him.] [I started to check on him] [and he pushed me in my car] [and then made me] [drive] [then he told me] [to stop crying.] [He told me] [to stop the car.] [He took tape out] [and put it on my wrists] [and then he cut my lips with his knife] [and then put tape on my mouth.] [He cut my blouse.] [He was angry] [cuz he said] [his damn knife was dull.] [He wanted a souvenir] [and he couldn’t get] [but he cut my hair.] [He started driving] [and telephoned someone] [and said] [to meet him at that place.] [He locked my keys in my car] [and then a yellow van came] [and got him.] [I waited for a while] [and then I started to walk.] [I tried to kick him] [and he grabbed my leg] [and my tights tore.] [He said stay still.]
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
[I woke up] [and made the bed], [had breakfast with Dave.] [I got Nicky ready for school.] [I took Nicky to school] [then Maria to work.] [I went to work.] [At quarter to one I went home for lunch] [and let Turbo out.] [At 1:45 I left] [to go back to work.] [A man jumped out on the road] [and fell down.] [I thought] [maybe I hit him] [but I didn’t hit him.] [I started to check on him] [and he pushed me in my car] [and then made me] [drive] [then he told me] [to stop crying.] [He told me] [to stop the car.] [He took tape out] [and put it on my wrists] [and then he cut my lips with his knife] [and then put tape on my mouth.] [He cut my blouse.] [He was angry] [cuz he said] [his damn knife was dull.] [He wanted a souvenir] [and he couldn’t get] [but he cut my hair.] [He started driving] [and telephoned someone] [and said] [to meet him at that place.] [He locked my keys in my car] [and then a yellow van came] [and got him.] [I waited for a while] [and then I started to walk.] [I tried to kick him] [and he grabbed my leg] [and my tights tore.] [He said stay still.]
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Episode I me my 1st PP 3rd PP AF
1 3 0 0 3 0 0
2 1 0 0 1 0 0
3 1 0 0 1 0 0
4 5 1 1 7 4 3
5 0 1 0 1 0 0
6 0 2 1 3 4 0
7 0 0 1 1 2 0
8 0 0 5 5 10 3
9 1 0 0 1 1 0
10 2 0 2 4 3 2
Total 13/48 4/48 10 (9)/48 27(25)/48 24(23)/48 8/48
27.1% 8.3% 18.8% 52.1% 47.9% 16.7%
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Impersonal Strategy
Focus is other or jointly oriented.
High use of third person pronouns or collective pronouns
High use of my and/or me, replacing I
Ambiguity features may be normal
Factual provision of information
I me my 1st PP 3rd PP AF
Total 13/48 4/48 10 (9)/48 27(25)/48 24(23)/48 8/48
27.1% 8.3% 18.8% 52.1% 47.9% 16.7%
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Narrative Fragmentation
Deceptive narratives are more likely to fragment into many and shorter episodes.
Marked sentence structures serve as discontinuity markers,
and signal the lack of cohesion between the events described. [and then made me] [drive] [then he told me] [to stop crying.] [He told me] [to stop the car.] [He took tape out] [and put it on my wrists] [and then he cut my lips with his knife] [and then put tape on my mouth.] [He cut my blouse.] [He was angry] [cuz he said] [his damn knife was dull.] [He wanted a souvenir] [and he couldn’t get] [but he cut my hair.] [He started driving] [and telephoned someone] [and said] [to meet him at that place.] [He locked my keys in my car] [and then a yellow van came] [and got him.] [I waited for a while]
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Main Deceptive Linguistic Strategies Prolix and Personal
Verbose approach with high ambiguity and immediacy Very high use of first person
singular pronouns
Very high use of I
Very high use of my
High+ use of ambiguity features
Impersonal
Focus is other or jointly oriented; factual approach High use of third person
pronouns
High+ use of me and/or my, replacing I
Ambiguity features may be normal
Excessive episode fragmentation may be indicative of lack of cohesion.
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Forensic Linguistic Analysis
Forensic Linguistic Analysis
QED
Isabel Picornell, Ph.D., CFE
ACFE 2013 European Fraud Conference Prague, Czech Republic
Thank you.
Evolution favours the flexible liar.