the eurocentric world 1789-1917 from modern nationalism to the collapse of the eurocentric world
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Marks of European Modernization and ChangeTRANSCRIPT
The Eurocentric World1789-1917
From Modern Nationalism to the Collapse of the Eurocentric World
Defining Our Terms
A time of European modernization and change
Zenith of modern European History
Political Radicalization
Cultural exchange and modernization of European outposts
Marks of European Modernization and Change
French and Industrial Revolutions
Starts in France and GB
Moves west to east and north to south
Change was uneven
Process was inherently destabilizing
Changed power relationships
This Period Represents the Zenith of European Power and Influence
Economic Modernization caused
by Industrial Revolution
Political Modernization spurred by the FR
Social Modernization Creates Mass Culture
and Mass Society
Movement of Ideas and Revolution
Geo
graphic
West to East and North to South
Uneven Change
We see this Within Countries and between Countries
Develop
me
nt Gap
Between GB in the West and Russia in the East, and urban and rural areas
The Winners Were Those Who Adapted
Great Britain
France
Germany
Political Modernization Spreads from FR and Napoleonic Era
Defined and spread ideolgies
The –isms and -acies
LiberalismSocialism
Modern conservatismNationalism
Democracy and Meritocracy
Revolution Legitimized
Radical change in government driven by the masses socially accepted
Effects of the Industrial Revolution: Business Structures
Increased Productivity
New Technologies
New Forms of Enterprise
Transportation and Communication
Effects of the Industrial Revolution:Social Structures
Urbanization
New relationships among Classes, Genders, and States
Expanded Education
Effects of Industrial Revolution:Economics
Imperialism
Expansion of World Economies
Creation of International Classes
Period from 1789 to 1917 Can Be Divided into Four Distinct Periods
FR in 1789 to Revolutions in 1848
Repression of 1848 Revolutions to the Unification of Germany 1870-71
Domestic Developments Between 1871 and 1914
Failed European Diplomacy that led to WWI
Key Concepts from the Revolutionary Period1789-1848
Introduction Legitimized Revolution
Napoleon Spreads Revolution by Force
Rise of Nationalism
Spread of Industrial Revolution: France and Belgium by 1830, western and central Europe by 1840
Metternich Era
Repression of Revolution and New Conservatism: 1848-1871
Urban populations grow because of the Industrial Revolution
German and Italian Unification
German/Prussian Dominance in Central Europe
Russia defeated in the Crimean War
Major Domestic Developments between 1871 and 1914
Second Industrial Revolution
Spread of more exclusive Nationalism
Rapid Urbanization
Industrial and Social Capitalism
Decline of liberalism
Domestic Growth Continued
Mass Society
Growth of Feminism
Cultural Determinism as an outgrowth of modern science
Beginning of a Leisure Oriented World
Causes and Implications of Failed Diplomacy1914-1917
The Age of Bismarck and the isolation of France 1871-1890
The Age of Imperialism
Collapse of the Bismarckian Alliance System
Rise of Germany and diminishment of Russia sets stage for World Conflict
Militarism and culture of violence lead to large scale war
Russian Revolution
Legacies: Europe on the Brink of Modern History
Most States were sovereign, territorial, and nascent nationalist.
Governments were largely centralized
Considerable wealth was being generated by expanding international commerce
Economic expansion created a growing commercial class
Enlightenment ideas permeated social thought, particularly in England and France
Early Modern European History: The Ancien Regime
Economic structure primarily agrarian
Social structure still traditional Chain of Being
Political structure still traditional-divine monarchs, subjects rather than citizens, centralized but not nationalistic
Population was largely illiterate, isolated, superstitious, and hierarchical
Renaissance Represents First Turning Point
Classical Learning
Textual Criticism
Secularism
Individualism
Humanism
Protestant Reformation is the Second Turning Point
Destroyed the medieval power of the Catholic Church
Enhanced power of secular princes
Initiated the idea of revolution/right to challenge authority
Gave power to the commercial class
Scientific Revolution is the Third Turning Point
The Age of Reason
Empowered educated elites
Modern scientific methodology further erodes ecclesiastical power
Makes the future more relevant than the past
Creation of Wealth is the Fourth Turning Point
International empires create fluid wealth
Commercial capitalism dominated by merchant capitalists
Concepts of how wealth is created changes
Markets largely driven by luxury items like wool, sugar, tobacco, cotton
Effects of Merchant Capitalism on a National Scale
Growth of Middle Class
Enlightened Despots understand the growing economy changes the role of the monarchy from one of self to plurality.
Where merchant capitalism is fostered economic development grows. Commercial structures for goods and services grow. Countries where this is slow to develop will remain slow.
Effects of Merchant Capitalism on an International Scale
Competition between countries for raw materials and trade routes.
States become more centralized and efficient- bureaucracies
Inevitable conflict among power players
First Industrial and Agrarian Revolution is the Fifth Turning Point
1760-1780
Mainly GB and Low Countries
Creates surplus food supplies
Drives urban growth
Changes social structures for the poor
The Power Houses
Great Britain
France
Prussia
Austria
Russia
Relationships
GB first world power
France first continental power
Austrian Empire ruled by Hapsburgs controlled the HRE- which was comparatively meaningless.
Hapsburgs were the counterweight to the French in the west and the Ottoman Empire in the West- a buffer but did not have the power of their neighbors
Prussia
Product of the Thirty Year’s War
Led by Frederick the Great who was a Hohenzollern
Gained significant power between 1740-1748
Russian
Modernizes military and state infrastructure under Peter the Great
Does not modernize economy
Does not foster growth of commercial/middle class
Joins European Power Club upon entering the War of Austrian Succession 1740-1786
Hegemony
Domination of a World Power
Balance of Power Wars
Commercial Control
Enlightenment is the Sixth Turning Point
Primarily in France but spreads
Mostly an Aristocratic, clergy, or middle class exercise.
Redefined the purpose of government
Results
Governments existed for the governed
Governments should be efficient
Governments should be tolerant
Religion should be separate from the state
The governed have a right to Revolution
Changing Political Landscape Creates New Political Philosophies
liberalism
democracy
Early form of socialism
Conservatism
Feminism
nationalism
Liberalism
Promulgated constitutions
Basic civil rights
Limited male suffrage
Careers open to talent
Private property
Limited government
Democracy as Radicalism
Favored same agenda as liberalism
Favored universal male suffrage
More state action
Conservatism tied to Constitutional Monarchy
Reluctant to let go of Divine Right
Updated based on English Monarchy
Edmund Burke becomes the clarifying voice
Feminism
Women’s rights remain an argument
Progress from Enlightenment and early Revolution is limited
Radical era largely ignores women
Napoleonic Era codifies male dominance
The First Industrial Revolution Transformed Civilization
Harnessing energy Developing mass markets
Creating urbanized working class
French Revolution: Causation
Enlightenment
Outdated and rotting institutions
Complex forces that aligned at just the right time
Enlightenment
Spread through elite and popular culture
Permeated all classes
Encyclopedia catalogs thought
French Institutions Suffered from Neglect and Corruption- Rotten From Within
Taxation- Aristocrats and Clergy exempt
Corrupt- collected by tax farmers
Most went to pay debt
Population Explosion That Was Not Matched by Agrarian Yield
Agrarian Depression of 1770’s and 1780’s
Rise in urban unemployment
The Cost of Louis XIV Foreign Policy Legacy Contributes to Economic Instability in the Decade Leading Up to the FR
The War of Austrian
Succession1740-48
Seven Year’s War1756-1763
Loss economically
and in Prestige
The American Revolution Acted as a Satisfaction for the French Rather than a Tangible Gain.
American Independence Aided by French Money,
Weapons, and Manpower
American Victory Creates an Independent
Nation That is not a French Satellite
France Enjoys Revenge on the English but the
Cost Bankrupts the French Government
A Series of Unfortunate Social Events Undermine the Monarchy and Encourage Aristocratic Challenges to Absolutism.
Louis XV Was Deviant Louis XVI had Trouble Producing an Heir
Marie Antoinette was Hated
A Series of Unfortunate Economic Events Anger the Masses
Debt Caused Inflation
Bread Prices Rise
A Decade of Bad Harvests
Bread Prices Rise Again
War Caused Debt
Agrarian Disaster Creates Mass Suffering
Hail Storm of 1788
Two volcanic Eruptions
FloodingAntiquated Farming Practices
Drought
Pre-Revolution: Assembly of Notables called to Resolve Debt Represents the Aristocratic Reaction to the growing crisis and the first phase of the FR.
Deadlock
King asks for taxation on aristocrats and clergy.
Deadlock
In return for accepting taxation the aristocrats demanded shared authority
Loo
ming Ban
kru
ptcy
Louis calls first Estates General since 1614
Feeding a Family: Bread Prices
8 sous 15 sous 70-90% of Working Wage
Revolution Driven by a Series of Complex Forces
King is Weak
Class Conflict
Financial Instability
Church/State decisions
Growing urban and rural violence
Foreign Wars
Ideological friction
Calling the Estates General: 5 May 1789
King Just
Wants Revenue
Cahiers de
Doleances Reflect Demands from all
Three Estates
Growing tension between the middle classes and elite conservatives increased during the summer of 1789 because of dysfunction on the three estate system.
Lack of clarity concerning the function of the three estate system
Should the first two override the third
Some liberal aristocrats and clerics joined the third estate
The Catalyst is “What is the Third Estate”
•Abbe Sieyes Lights the Fuse of Revolution when he Asserts that the Masses Represent the Nation while the Aristocrats Represent Parasites.
At this point the revolution unfurled in four phases between 1789 and 1799, each driven by elite leadership and unique philosophy.
Moderate 1789-1792
Radical 1792-1794
The Directory 1795-1799
The Age of Napoleon 1800-1815
National Assembly 1789-1791
June: Tennis Court Oath
July: Bastille
Late July: Great Fear
Beginning of August: Nobles Renounce Feudal Rights
Jacobin Club Forms
National Assembly becomes More Radical
Late August: Declaration of the Rights of Man
Royal Family taken to Paris-Tuileries
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
Royal Family Flees and is Caught
Declaration of Pilllnitz August 1701
Constitution Created
Establishment of a Constitutional Monarchy: 1789-1791
Increasingly Powerful Legislature
Increasingly Weakened Monarchy
Initial and Violent Hallmarks
Tennis Court Oath
Storming of the Bastille
Great Fear
Radical Ideologies Realized
Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen
Confiscation of Church Property
Suppression of guilds and prohibition of workers’ organizations= support of capitalist economy
Certain Actions Represent A Point of No Return
Flight and Capture of Royal Family
Stripping Rights from non-juring clergy and émigré nobles
Declaring war against Austria
Key Events During the Constitutional Phase
April 1792- France Declares War On Austria- Angry About Pillnitz
August 1792- Mobs storm royal palace and Royal Family is imprisoned
Commune Seizes Assembly/ Legislative Assembly Falls
Danton purges “traitors”- Girondins lose/Jacobins win
1792-1795 National Convention is the Most Radical Phase
Universal Male Suffrage
Re-writes Constitution
Abolishes Monarchy
Declares France a Republic
Counter Revolution in the Vendee
Riots broke out when king was executed and levee des Hommes (en Masse) was enforced to fight Austrians
Civil Constitution of Clergy not accepted
Creates a Catholic and Royal Army and marches on Nantes
Beaten and vindictive reprisals result in a genocide
Committee of Public Safety Descends into Authoritarianism: April 1793
The Twelve Who Ruled
Initially an arm of the National Convention that was charged with reporting on the war
Members were supposed to be elected monthly but they never changed
Guillotined opponents
Law of Suspects and General Maximum
By December 1793 TCPS had published the Law of 14 Fimaire giving it de facto executive power
Reign of Terror Represents the Revolutionary Climb into Radicalism and the Freefall into Tyranny
Internal Civil War (Vendee)
Foreign Defeat
Severe Inflation
Food Shortages
The Committee of Public Safety and the Radical Play to keep Control
Universal Military Conscription
Wage and price controls
Revolutionary tribunals
State centralization
Thermidorean Reaction 28 July 1794
Robespierre Executed
Churches Reopened
New Constitution Written
Creation of the Directory
More Moderate Voices, Driven by the Commercial Class, Tire of Chaos and Assert Control of the Government.
Execution of Real and supposed enemies were on such a scale that sensible people tired of the violence.
Republican victories over foreign adversaries brings a feeling of nationalism.
Jacobin leadership and support executed.
Moderates led by the Commercial class take control
The Directory 1795-1799
Bi-Cameral: House of Ancients and Council of 500
Return to a moderate Constitutional Phase of the Revolution
Headed by a committee of five
Public protest repressed
Freedom of limited religion
Continued foreign conquest
Failure to Create Political Unity Creates an Opportunity for Napoleon to Overthrow the Directory and Become the First Consul.
Military used at home to maintain order
Girondists were more conservative and linked to monarchy
Unable to bring economic stability
Napoleon represents a coalescence of Enlightenment, Revolution, and Enlightened Despotism.
Educated during the Age of Enlightenment
Came of Age During the French Revolution
Maintained control as an enlightened despot
Napoleon Bonaparte defines and instills revolutionary ideology throughout Europe by conquest and effective social systems.
An “epoch man”
A Dichotomy
Historical legacy defines modern Europe
Power Comes From Opportunity
Starts as a Jacobin
Rises in the Army because of unusual military talent
Makes political connections because of his military success
Switches support to Thermidorians
Marries well- Josephine de Beauharmais
Joins Abbe Sieyes and helps overthrow the Directory
Personality is Everything: Napoleon was stubborn, ambitious, and popular which helped him gain power, seize control of the government, and achieve success where the Directory had failed.
Became Consul for life in 1802
Emperor in 1804
Success Comes to Those Who Create Stability
Implements a constitution with a strong executive branch
Careers open to talent- even to those who were ideologically different- even royalists
Powerful and effective prefects appointed in each Department (county)
Negotiates with the Pope to re-establish Catholic Church in France but does not give up state control
Continued….
Religious Toleration- maintains gains made by protestants and Jews during the Revolution
Stabilizes economy by creating a semi-private bank of France and stabilizes French currency
Property rights established during revolution maintained
Creates institutions to advance education, manage society, and run the military
Peace Brings Power
Manages to defeat all opponents- even the English sign the Peace of Amiens 1802
France has dominant position on Continent
Considerable border gains create buffers
Most of war costs paid for by the losers and a military that lived off the land
The First Phase of Napoleon is marked by monumental success followed by cataclysmic failure.
Napoleonic Code Promulgated
Relative prosperity- neighbors still paying for war
Military victories
Annexation of territory and the creation of satellite states
The Continental System of 1806
The Napoleonic Code represents the codification of the revolution and Napoleon’s legacy to modern western society.
Guarantees equality under the law for men
Subordination of women
Predominance of contracts and property rights
Meritocracy
Continued military success makes him loved at home and feared abroad
Victories in Austria, Russia, and Prussia
Peace of Tilsit signed with Russia in 1807 establishes French dominance over continental Europe
English beat him at Trafalgar and prevent invasion of England
Annexation of land and creation of satellite states bring in revenue and spread revolutionary ideology.
Confederation of the Rhine 1806
Abolition of the Meaningless HRE
Reducing German States- creation of the Bund (confederation)
After a while, everyone tires of war.
Peninsular war was mired in stalemate- Spanish used guerilla tactics and English funded
Germany reacts to French imperialism with nationalism
Prussia uses French reforms to prepare for upcoming conflict
The Continental System cannot be enforced and causes economic conflict
The Continental System represents the first large scale and coordinated economic tactic designed to defeat a political foe through market exclusion, commercial alliance, and boycott.
France failed at invading England
France could not compete with England by sea
Napoleon develops a maniacal hatred of the ‘little shopkeepers’
Napoleon designed the Continental System to make France a centralized world economy with satellite countries and allies feeding capital to Paris.
Berlin Decree 1806 prohibits importation of British goods to the continent even if brought on neutral ships
Milan Decree states that any neutral ship that stops in a British harbor or submits to a British sea search will be confiscated once entering a continental harbor.
Alliances with Russia and Prussia at Tilsit assured compliance but two neutral states will refuse which will lead to the bloody Peninsular War.
Denmark was a major port of entry and the English mistakenly try to take it before they join Napoleon.
English bombard Copenhagen, anger Danish who join Napoleon
Portugal had long been a satellite of England and refused. Napoleon invaded but still needed to control Spanish ports
Napoleon tricks Charles IV to abdicate the Spanish throne, imprisons Charles’ son Ferdinand in a Paris prison, and then Napoleon puts his brother on the throne.
Spanish see French as Godless thugs who deface churches
Spanish fought back with guerilla warfare
Brutal domestic atrocities- Third Day of May by Goya
Failure of the Continental System rests in nationalism, tastes for luxury items, economic failure, and Iberian resistance.
Ultimately the allied countries had their own interests and did not want to be subordinate to a French economy
Luxury items coming from the Americas like tobacco and sugar were demanded
Caused economic distress in continental ports instead of British
Talleyrand convinces Alexander to wait Napoleon out because France was overstretched- gentleman’s diplomacy
Overconfident, Overstretched, Overstayed, and Outnumbered
Napoleon gambles on Russia and loses big- starts with 600,000 soldiers and returns with 40,000
Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austrians cooperate in order to beat France
Alliance of GB, Russia, Austria, and Prussia Creates the Numbers Needed to Defeat Napoleon
Battle Of Nations (Leipzig) October 1813
Allies enter Paris March 1814
Napoleon abdicates and exiled to Elba
The Terms Cause Rancor Among Some French
Negotiated with the French Prince Talleyrand
Non-punitive Treaty
Put Louis XVIII on throne
French borders returned to 1792 “natural borders”
Napoleon Makes a Dramatic Return in 1815 but 1814 Outcome Repeats
Defeated at Waterloo by the British
Sent back into exile at St. Helena-more difficult to return to France from- where he dies
End of era
The Congress of Vienna creates peace and a turning point in ideological warfare between conservatives and liberals that continues to this day.
Many Revolutionary changes maintained in France and countries that had been invaded by France
Constitutional and National ways of thinking could not be erased
Industrial forces driven by the industrial revolution in Britain would soon spread to the continent, bringing with them power for everyday people.
First Industrial Revolution is important to review here because England maintains independence and expands influence because of it.
•The First Industrial Revolution (1760-1850) reflects a process rather than a revolution, but the social transformation generated by its growth and expansion changes society on a global scale.
Industrialization made modernization possible by replacing tools with machines, increasing the standard of living, and creating nation-states
• These changes will redefine balance of power and define global power by shifting economic possibilities on micro and macroeconomic scales. Adaptively and creativity drive these changes, and those who are unable or unwilling to adjust will become increasingly marginalized on a global stage. England starts the engine, but the elements that generate the machine in 1750 continue to be the elements that start the machine today.
Unique Political, Economic, and Geographical Circumstances in England Make the Industrial Revolution Possible.
Stable and tolerant political systemWell developed
commercial and banking system
Fluid social structure
Expanded food supplyAmple natural
resources
Colonial and European markets protected by navy
Entrepreneurial spirit
New inventions
England represents a modern model for effective government because it favors policies conducive to economic expansion, fosters a high level of trust between government and its people, and develops a sense of national exceptionalism.
Government policies consider agrarian, commercial, and manufacturing interests
People accepted basic institutions and did not get caught up in revolutionary fervor
History of shared governance
Increased and sustained stability that improves the standard of living for all citizens creates a sense of national pride and superiority
Successful governance includes the establishment of a National Bank, acceptance of low-level and universal taxation, national debt guaranteed by elites, and well developed financial and banking structures.
National Bank of England 1694
Tax system that was accepted by everyone and relatively low- government relatively cheap to run- established and large middle class
Debt was guaranteed by upper classes and banking interest
Financial and banking structure was well developed
Britain’s success rests on commerce, colonies, and sea power.
Colonial preeminence
Markets and raw materials
Commercial preeminenceExcess capital and
knowledge for investment
Trade made money and gave social mobility which encouraged more people to
enter business
Strong navy protected commerce and eliminated need for a standing army-huge
expense
Agrarian revolution and government policies to encourage agricultural growth fueled greater productivity, liquid capital, and population growth.
Creation of larger farms through the enclosure movement
Increased yield through fertilizer, seed drills, steel plows, and use of cover crops
Excess yield sold abroad for monetary surplus
Ample raw materials and developed transportations systems fuel the machines.
Coal and iron ore are plentiful in England- even sea coal
Well developed river and canal systems
Steam engine generates miles of railroads
Steam engine applied to ships which capitalized on the colonial system
Revolutionary phase in Europe acts as a head start for English commercial growth because the chaos on the continent retards or arrests growth there while relative peace in England accelerates growth there.
In 1780 English trade is valued slightly ahead of France
In 1840 English trade is double France’s
Countries invaded by France during the Napoleonic period drop farther behind with the exception of the low countries
Although the Industrial Revolution increases the standard of living for most classes, the condition of the lowest level of society devolves into exploited misery.
Labor is considered a raw material and the population explosion fed the machine-including children
Elites became disengaged with workers because of urbanization. The medieval caretaker role of the lord was erased.
Plight of the working poor went unnoticed for decades and was not addressed until the 1830’s
Labor conditions change in the second quarter of the 19th century because labor organizes, religious and humanitarian organizations highlight abuse, and universal male suffrage influence government policy.
Unions are created
Educated elites like Charles Dickens and John Stuart Mill highlight abuses in literary works
Religion reminds those in charge of Christ’s charge
Working men get right to vote in 1867
Government passes a series of laws regulating conditions, and child labor
Meanwhile, on the continent, the era of Metternich replaces the Napoleonic Era. This describes the years between the Congress of Vienna and the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions.
Uneasy tension between advocates for order and advocates for change.
Marks the beginning of the push and pull between conservatives and liberals
More developed sense of international alliance to keep peace
Urban poor become the impetus for revolution
Creating peace in Europe after Napoleon was crafted by conservative aristocrats in the years following the Congress of Vienna.
Serves as a dividing line between revolution and restoration
Driven by a need for peace and nationalism.
Shifts the balance of power from France to Austria
The Major Players who Dominate European Affairs between 1815 and 1848
Prince Clemens
von Metternich of Austria
Count Robert Castereagh of
Britain
Prince Tallleyrand of
FranceAlexander I of
Russia
The goals during the Metternich Era focused on….
Restoration of the old order
Legitimizing authority
Compensation for Napoleonic Wars
Political balance of power to bring stability and peace
Preventing France from Napoleonic expansion
Prince Talleyrand manages to ingratiate France into the power structure which prevents punitive and retaliatory policy against the French government.
France remains a continental force
More liberal society becomes separated from the more conservative continent
Becomes allied with England because neither tolerate the repressive policies of the other countries
Compromise, division of war spoils, and the re-establishment of monarchs defines this period.
Creation of the Concert of Europe
Acceptance of the Holy Alliance
Creation of the Bund
The Legacy of the Concert of Europe, also known as the Congress System is the idea that world powers can orchestrate peace prophylactically through negotiation, alliance, and common cause.
League of Nations
United Nations
Council of Europe
Juxtaposing the powers that supported and the powers that dismissed the Holy Alliance illustrates the influence of Czar Alexander I and the fissures within the Congress system.
GB, Prussia, France, and Austria feared Russian hegemony
Prussia and Austria sign
GB, the Ottomans, and the Pope declined
Signed in Paris in 1815 at the conclusion of Napoleonic wars.
On the surface it is a affirmation of Christian ideals but in reality represents absolute and intolerant world view
The fissure within the Congress system is a window into power politics, shifting alliances, and power bids that will define Europe through WWI.
British unsympathetic with repression in Russia, Prussia, and Austria
Old Europe was like Humpty Dumpty- reconstruction was impossible
Repression could not hold back change
Nicholas I, the fierce, epitomizes the repression that retards growth in Russia, alienates England and France, and ferments revolution.
1825-1845
Domestic reign of terror through absolutist policies of censorship and police state
Boyars had complete control over serfs
The conservative return to the past generates friction within Russia, Austria, and Prussia because the ideology spread by Napoleon among the growing middle class demanded change.
liberals and democrats (radicals), and some socialists called for constitutional changes
Nationalists demanded a cultural unification, particularly among the Italians, Germans, and slavs
Middle class call for meritocracy
The poor bristled under repressive laws, food shortages, and serfdom
The continent experiences a series of riots and revolutions between 1815 and 1848 because the conservative and liberal world view were not only at odds but also at a stalemate.
Greece frees itself from the Ottomans
Belgium declared independence from Holland
Spain and Portugal lose American colonies to independence
England manages to adapt to the growing demands of the middle and working class and avoids violent revolution through common sense legislation.
The Reform Bill of 1832
To avoid revolution caused by unfair voting practices the parliament made voting practices uniform.
Did not go far enough but fostered trust among working class.
Introduction of new philosophy and a religious revival also mark this period.
Romantic poets: Wordsworth, Coleridge
Utopian socialists like Charles Fourier, Henri St. Simone, and Robert Owen
Transcendental idealism of Kant and Hegel allowed for the idea that there are things that we will never understand
The political philosophies of this time are the genesis for political movements today and include:
Classical liberalism
Radicalism
Republicanism
Socialism
feminism
Classical liberalism emphasized the rights and liberties that should be given to every man and believed in what was modern, enlightened, efficient, reasonable and fair.
Business and professional classes
Landowners who were entrepreneurial
Politicians who advocated a constitutional monarchy
Hallmarks of liberalism include
Self-government
Self-control
Parliamentary or representative government
Unbiased rule of law
Written constitutions
Rights of man and property
Until the end of the nineteenth and into the twentieth century, liberals opposed…
Universal male suffrage- fearing mob rule
Female suffrage except for a few like John Stuart Mill
Thus, they were not democrats
Liberal economics rested on laissez-faire capitalism, free markets, limited government, and resisted guilds and unions.
Lowering or abolishing tariffs
Freedom of trade
Eradication of the guild system wherever it still existed
Prevention of union
Liberals believed that the growth of wealth , production, and scientific progress would increase the standard of living and bring peace.
Disliked established churches and landed aristocracy as obstacles to advancement
Encouraged education and tolerance
Advocated change through law
Objected to military expenditures and abhorred revolution
Radicalism, particularly in England, represented the unrepresented in parliament.
Liberals who wanted to extend rights to a broader spectrum of society
Thomas Paine and Jeremy Bentham
Advocated a total reconstruction of laws, courts, prisons, poor relief, municipal organizations, and clergy
Radicalism opposed….
Church of England
peerage
Royalty- this would change with queen Victoria who was universally popular
In England the historical change over time regarding radicals pivots on the Reform Bill of 1832.
Industrial capitalist turn into liberals
Working class leaders will remain radical democrats
On the continent, radicalism is militant republicanism and is forever linked with the Reign of Terror.
Advocated political equality and universal male suffrage
Favored parliamentarian rule of law but not as concerned with parliamentarian function as liberals
Believed that revolution was the most effective way to advance political change
Militant Republicanism opposed any social structure that existed in the Ancien Regime including….
Catholic Church
aristocrats
Monarchies of any sort
Militant Republicans were considered by virtually all of society to be little better than anarchists but their legacy will be felt in the future through
Secret societies
Overthrow of regimes by force
terrorism
Socialism, although similar to Militant Republicanism in methodology, advocates redistribution of wealth.
Like the MRs, drawn from the intelligentsia, working class leaders, veterans and children of veterans of the French Revolutionary wars.
Questioned motives of private enterprise
Socialists tended to be French, but not always, and are associated with utopian societies.
John Stuart Mill
Created a utopian village for his workers.
Fair wages, hours, schools, but corrected social behavior like drunkenness.
Stymied politically because of radical religious beliefs
Utopians in America…Charles Fourier, Brook Farm, and Robert Owen
Charles Fourier advocated redesigning society into communes.
Each Commune consists of 1,620 people.
People do what they do best.
Never tried in France but the idea spread to America.
Utopia in America
Brook Farm in MA. Run By literary circle of transcendentalists. Failed.
Robert Owen and New Harmony in Indiana also failed.
Critics remarked that the movements did not address the issues of the industrial age but chose to remove themselves from society.
Communism grows out of the socialist movement among the working classes of France and finds a voice through Louis Blanc, Karl Marx, and Fredereich Engels.
Disaffected French workers comprised of revolutionary republicanism and socialism are the genesis of communism.
They find a voice through Louis Blanc, journalist and editor of Revue de Progress
Blanc advocates a system of ‘social workshops’ or state supported manufacturing centers
Communism was synonymous to socialism
Marx, Engels, and the birth of Communism
German revolutionaries in exile in France
Used communism to differentiate from socialism and the utopians
Consciously used the term in ‘Communist Manifesto’
Went out of general use after 1848 until the Russian Revolution
The conditions and political disappointment experienced by working class people drove discontent, disillusionment, and rage that would fuel social unrest.
Considered the Revolution interrupted
Discriminated against in courts
Forced to carry identity papers
Experiencing the exploitation common of workers during the industrial revolution
Grew to hate wealthy and property owning classes
The Revolutions of 1848 represents a turning point that forces conservative forces of the Congress of Vienna to recognize rights of everyday people and make lasting concessions to the masses.
Like most uprisings, this one is driven by severe agrarian depression.
The agrarian depression led to urban recession
Crisis ensues across the continent among the masses and the hungry demand change
Nationalist and democratic movements capitalize on the unrest by agitating the masses and demanding change from the establishment elites.
Italian, German, and ethnic minorities in Austria (Serbs and Croats) demand freedom based on cultural determination.
Urban middle class demand meritocracy
Peasants in central Europe want freedom from serfdom
This Revolution unfurls in three phases: immediate results, reactionary repression, reorganization
Phase I surprises ruling class
Terrified monarchs quickly give concessions
Phase II sees swift and repressive response
from leadership
Prague bombarded, socialists suppressed, Milan and Lombardy reoccupied
Phase III organizes peace
Revolution here netted little change but illustrates the power and will of the masses and sets the stage for world conflict.
Peasants in Russia emancipated
Moderate Constitutions in Prussia and Piedmont placated the intelligentsia
Most monarchs and the pope saw their autonomy undermined
Ethnic tensions increased because of suppression
Ruling class experiences more of a shuffle than a revolution except in France where a Constitutional question about terms served.
King Victor Emmanuel I replaces King Charles Albert in Piedmont
Emperor Franz Josef replaces Franz Ferdinand in Austria
Louis Napoleon declares himself president and then Emperor-for –Life in France
The end of the 1848 Revolutions ends the Romantic and utopian Era and ushers in a period of realism and representations in art of things falling apart.
Failure of the revolutions undermined idealistic views of exacting change through enlightened thought
Class tensions increased in the middle class and proletariat
Socioeconomic aims in urban areas were limited
Although limited, socioeconomic gains, particularly in the east and in the countryside, mark modern progress.
Emancipation of serfs in Eastern Europe
State attention to government as a force for growth enhances the spread of capitalism
Spread of the Industrial Revolution
Constitutional reform
The state, or ruling elite, now understood the power of the masses and moved to address situations that caused unrest.
Expanding military
Increasing police
Using the government as a paternalistic power
Harnessing nationalism
The era of Realpolitik, led by Bismarck, Napoleon III, and Count Cavour, ushers in national antagonisms, growing class tension, and the Second Industrial Revolution.
Break down of the Concert of Europe
Rise of Prussia and Bismarck
Political philosophy changes to relentless pursuit of nationalistic policies
Rapid Industrialization, particularly in Prussia
Realistic movements in art, literature, and science reflect the nationalist fervor.
Courbet, Millet and the Barbizon school
The age of Wagner and the polonaise
Balzac and Dostoyevsky
Social Darwinism and the rise of racism
Marx and Communism
Volkesgeist, secret societies, Hegelian philosophy, and List economics defines nationalists thought in western Europe.
Concentrates on culture
Concentrates on national politics
Develops a sense of a world view
Creates and economic plan that asserts that free trade was inherently English and detrimental to Continental Europe
Volkesgeist
National spirit that concentrated on cultural markers like language, history, world view
Political nationalism asserts that all people with these traits should be governed as a whole
Challenges traditional monarchial structure of the HRE by language and lack of centralization
Secret Societies: Carbonari, Masons, Veri Italiani
Persecuted under conservative governments as fermenters of revolution
Direct outgrowth of FR and often counted veterans of Napoleonic wars as members
Circulated banned literature and fermented revolution
Not dangerous in countries that were well run
Italy’s Mazzini , a Carbonari member, most famous
Hegel’s philosophy of Universal spirit defines nationalistic rhetoric and gives rise to Marx and communism.
Study of history important to understand current social situation (enlightened assertion)
Change across time important to see trends
Each era seen as a necessary step forward to a society of freedom and equality- defined by each culture
Nationalism In Eastern Europe centered on Slavic revival and Russian Slavophilism.
Adopted the Hegel historical study and demanded preservation of native language- elites spoke French or German
Published national stories and local histories
Created national theaters that produced local works in the local language
Urged elites to give up foreign ways
Russian Slavophilism asserted the innate goodness of the Russian peasant and the cultural corruption of western Europe.
Peasants seen as pure because, through isolation, remained untainted by encounters with the West
Back to Russian Orthodox values
Advocates freedom of serfs, curtailment of bureaucracy, civil liberties
At odds with czar on this point, despite norodnost
Nationalism, therefore, creates the modern European state by adopting rhetoric, imagery, and ceremony that had previously been associated with religion.
Personal sacrifice, including shedding blood, for the homeland became sanctimonious
Used to protect domestic industry through List Economics
Legitimize imperial expansion
Rejects Jews, foreigners, and socialists
Nationalism creates a political culture that
Aggrandizes aggressive military action
Increasing xenophobia
Increasing racism
Chauvinistic and misogynistic behavior
Nationalism will bind homogenous communities together first with a desire to unify, second with the will to unify by war, and last by forming bonds between the government and citizen.
Identifying groups by language and culture
Consolidating preexisting smaller states by force
Establishing a government that represented national interests through education and institution building
The Second Industrial Revolution is marked by the development of national industry which drives national economies, imperialism, and military complex.
Protective Tariffs
Colonial Conquests
Military Procurements
Leadership in Britain continues to be the model for continental Europe but the established systems of government, banking, and research and development make GB commercially superior.
The Chrystal Palace and Great Exhibition of 1851
Banks
Government financial awards to inventors
French industrialization moved at a much slower pace than England’s and concentrated on infrastructure.
canals
railroads
Trade agreements
Government sponsorship of industry in Prussia helps unify Germany and creates a rapidly expanded industrial system and military complex.
g
Zollverein-German Customs Organization the created free trade within German States
Government investment in transportation network
Adoption of mechanization
List’s National System
Eastern Europe, despite social reforms that freed the work force, continues to be plagued by
Lack of resources
Lack of adequate transportation
Lack of governmental incentives
Lack of middle class/capital
Mechanization and the factory system represent the most efficient systems by 1914.
Bessemer Process
Mass production
Electricity
chemicals
Developments in transportation and Communications move goods, ideas, and money quickly and globally.
telegraph
steamships
Streetcars
Telephones
Internal combustion engine
Airplane
radio
This period is marked by volatile business cycles driven by globalization and investor risk that led corporations and governments to manage markets through
monopolies
Banking practices that controlled liquidity
tariffs
Economic changes led to new class consciousness, gender identity, and definitions of childhood.
Proletariat versus bourgeoisie
Cult of Domesticity
Governments define roles of children
Defining family represents the dichotomy between old and new society. On one hand, progress is illustrated by
Birth Control becomes increasingly common
Universal schooling for children
Smaller families
Working class women increased as wage-laborers
On the other hand, tradition persists
Social inequality among classes
Women criticized for abandoning families
Continued dislocation of migrants, both from countryside to city and emigration
Anti-Semitism
Although poverty and dislocation persists into the twentieth century, the last part of the nineteenth and early part of the twentieth century are marked by
Availability of consumer goods
Improved sanitary conditions
Improved medical care
Increased life expectancy
Decreased infant mortality
Increased sanitation and advances in medicine improves the lives of urban populations, increases life expectancy, and decreases infant mortality.
Sewage systems
Water systems
Louis Pasteur’s germ theory
Anesthesia and antiseptics
Quinine
Public Health projects
Government social reforms driven by nationalistic goals of patrimony and social organization demands represent the modern bureaucratic state.
Public lighting
Public housing
Public transportation
Parks
Urban redesign
Examples of the reform movements that creates modern social definitions about deserving poor, government intervention, and global awareness are…
The Sunday School Movement
The Temperance Movement
British Abolitionist Movement
Josephine Butler
Specific class markers define bourgeois and proletariat classes through
Trade unions
Benevolent societies
Sports clubs
Speech, dress, values, and customs
Leisure activities are fostered by government and private development of
Public parks
Sport arenas
Public beaches
Department stores
Museums
Opera houses
Mass marketing encourages consumerism and leisure activities.
advertising
Department stores
catalogs
Consumer demand for time saving and leisure items include
Ready made clothing
Processed food
Vacuums, washing machines, lawn mowers
International vacations and luxury steam ships
Nationalism encourages citizens by providing consumer goods through industrialization and by
Romantic idealism
Liberal reform
Political unification
Anti-Semitism
Chauvinism
Aggrandizing government action
A new breed of conservatives emerge at this time who will co-opt nationalist movements as a way to centralize state power and dominate world politics.
Napoleon III
Cavour
Bismarck
Napoleon III
Gained entrée through the revolution of
1848
Used Propaganda to gain popular
support
Placed Bonapartists in key positions
Rolled back rights of those
who would challenge him
Napoleon’s domestic policy reflects the conservative nationalists through support of industry, infrastructure, and welfare which will guarantee popular support.
Industry
Supported inventors
Railroads
Institutions of credit
Infrastructure
Public works
Boulevard System
Parks
Welfare: The Deserving Poor
Guaranteed low bread prices
Construction of hygienic houses for workers
Created arbitration between labor and
management
Louis Napoleon’s foreign policy reflects the continental conservatism and nationalistic policies of nationalistic fervor balanced with international alliance.
Believed that public opinion drives success.
Angered at the terms of the Congress of Vienna so allies with GB.
Colonial policy in Indochina to expand markets and absorb raw material.
Cavour and Italian unification
Anti-Semitism in Russia, France, Germany, and Austria will drive the Zionist movement and lead to the creation of a Jewish state at the end of WWII.
Dreyfus Affair
Christian Socialist Party
Pogroms and the Pale
Karl Lueger, Mayor of Vienna
Theodor Herzl create the World Zionist Organization in response to historical descriminiation and nationalist fervor.
Advocates for a Jewish state
Organizes the first Zionist Congress
Tirelessly organizes, writes, agitates
A series of wars between 1854 and 1871 seriously weakened Austria and Russia and largely established the political geography of today’s Europe.
Crimean War 1854
Italian War 1859
Danish War 1864
Austro-Prussian War 1866
Franco-Prussian War 1870
The significance of the Crimean War rests in the desire of Austria and Russia to maintain the peace of 1815, prevent national movements and the ultimate weakening of both empires.
Russian
Hegemony
German
Complicity
• Mediation • Common dislike of the Ottomans
Angl
o-
Fr
ench
Alli
ance
The Crimean War illustrates the decline of the Ottoman Empire, shatters the Concert of Europe, and creates a pathway for the unification of Germany and Italy.
Russia Wants Danube Region
Russia tries to capitalize on nationalistic fervor by pitting Christians against Muslims.
France and England want sanctions: Germany calls for mediation.
Ottomans cannot beat Russia alone and ally with F and GB.
Russians forced to retreat but never lost the geopolitical port of Sebastopol on the Black Sea
The Crimean War, in many ways, represents the first modern war and provides a preview to WWI.
International alliance
Public hysteria
Trench warfare
Modern weapons
Media coverage
Examples of modern weaponry include…
Minnie ball
Breech-loading rifle
Machine Gun
The Crimean War in popular culture….
War Journalism
Florence Nightingale
The Charge of the Light Brigade