The Ethics of GenomicsThe Ethics of Genomics

Are GMOs Bad?Are GMOs Bad?

Is Genetic Testing Good?Is Genetic Testing Good?

How Should the Public Be Informed How Should the Public Be Informed of New Discoveries?of New Discoveries?

Should We Clone Humans?Should We Clone Humans?

GMOs- Genetically Modified GMOs- Genetically Modified OrganismsOrganisms

Is the modification of genomes intrinsically Is the modification of genomes intrinsically wrong or enormously beneficial?wrong or enormously beneficial?

Many choose to evaluate this question on a Many choose to evaluate this question on a case-by-case basiscase-by-case basis

1)1) Golden RiceGolden Rice

2)2) Biological PlasticsBiological Plastics

3)3) Pharmaceutical ProducePharmaceutical Produce

4)4) Sterile FruitSterile Fruit

5)5) Pest-Resistant PlantsPest-Resistant Plants

6)6) XenotransplantsXenotransplants

Golden RiceGolden Rice Rice is the staple food for 124 million peopleRice is the staple food for 124 million people Many of these same people suffer from a Many of these same people suffer from a

vitamin A deficiency- which causes blindnessvitamin A deficiency- which causes blindness Vitamin pills are not feasible in countries Vitamin pills are not feasible in countries

which lack $ and infrastructurewhich lack $ and infrastructure In Jan 2000, rice was transformed with 3 In Jan 2000, rice was transformed with 3

genes which allow it to make genes which allow it to make -carotene-carotene Two of these genes came from daffodil and Two of these genes came from daffodil and

one came from bacteriaone came from bacteria Testing is being performed in the Philippines, Testing is being performed in the Philippines,

Africa, China, India, and Latin AmericaAfrica, China, India, and Latin America

So, What’s the Controversy?So, What’s the Controversy? All commercial rights to Golden Rice has been All commercial rights to Golden Rice has been

transferred to Syngenta, the world’s largest transferred to Syngenta, the world’s largest agribusinessagribusiness

Syngenta has promised to provide Golden Rice Syngenta has promised to provide Golden Rice to all subsistence farmers free of chargeto all subsistence farmers free of charge

Organizations such as Greenpeace believe this Organizations such as Greenpeace believe this is a ploy to introduce more GMOs into is a ploy to introduce more GMOs into developing countries where resistance is limiteddeveloping countries where resistance is limited

Syngenta claims that only strains consumed Syngenta claims that only strains consumed within the developing country will be bred, not within the developing country will be bred, not ones which could then be sold in the Westones which could then be sold in the West

Biological PlasticsBiological Plastics Plastic is usually made from petroleum Plastic is usually made from petroleum

productsproducts PHA (polyhydroxyalkanoate) is a naturally PHA (polyhydroxyalkanoate) is a naturally

occurring form of polyesteroccurring form of polyester It was 1st described in 1925 by LemoigneIt was 1st described in 1925 by Lemoigne PHA uses renewable resources and is PHA uses renewable resources and is

biodegradablebiodegradable GMOs have been modified to produce PHAGMOs have been modified to produce PHA Metabolix is one company working with Metabolix is one company working with

GMOs in this wayGMOs in this way

Pharmaceutical ProducePharmaceutical Produce Edible plants have been engineered to Edible plants have been engineered to

deliver vaccinationsdeliver vaccinations Arntzen and colleagues produced the 1st Arntzen and colleagues produced the 1st

prescription potatoprescription potato Unfortunately, raw potatoes work best to Unfortunately, raw potatoes work best to

deliver medicine- cooked ones lose 50% of deliver medicine- cooked ones lose 50% of their potencytheir potency

Increased consumption may make up for this Increased consumption may make up for this lossloss

Additional trials are underway with bananasAdditional trials are underway with bananas

Sterile FruitSterile Fruit In 1997, a patent was granted for “Terminator” In 1997, a patent was granted for “Terminator”

technologytechnology This can render GM seeds sterile so that they This can render GM seeds sterile so that they

cannot be re-planted by farmerscannot be re-planted by farmers The technology was designed to protect the The technology was designed to protect the

investments of biotech companiesinvestments of biotech companies Monsanto has acquired the rights to this Monsanto has acquired the rights to this

technologytechnology Many farmers, especially subsistence ones, Many farmers, especially subsistence ones,

re-plant the seeds from the previous cropre-plant the seeds from the previous crop It is feared that companies may monopolize It is feared that companies may monopolize

the world’s food supply using this technologythe world’s food supply using this technology

Pest-Resistant PlantsPest-Resistant Plants Bacillus subtilis toxin (BT) has been Bacillus subtilis toxin (BT) has been

incorporated into plantsincorporated into plants The use of this natural pesticide should The use of this natural pesticide should

reduce the amount of chemicals usedreduce the amount of chemicals used It is feared that the BT gene could be It is feared that the BT gene could be

transferred to other plants via lateral transfertransferred to other plants via lateral transfer Initial claims of BT being transferred to milk Initial claims of BT being transferred to milk

weed and killing monarch butterflies have weed and killing monarch butterflies have been unfoundedbeen unfounded

Like antibiotic resistance, some insects have Like antibiotic resistance, some insects have become resistant to BTbecome resistant to BT

XenotransplantsXenotransplants Organs are taken from one species and put into Organs are taken from one species and put into

anotheranother In 1984, a baboon’s heart was transplanted into In 1984, a baboon’s heart was transplanted into

Baby Fae, who lived 20 daysBaby Fae, who lived 20 days Pigs are commonly used as sources of adult Pigs are commonly used as sources of adult

organsorgans Nextran is one company which genetically Nextran is one company which genetically

engineers pigs to serve as better donorsengineers pigs to serve as better donors The plasma membranes of pig cells have been The plasma membranes of pig cells have been

inserted with human proteins to reduce rejectioninserted with human proteins to reduce rejection Most concerns center on disease transmissionMost concerns center on disease transmission

Why Pigs?Why Pigs?1) they grow to be the size of a large human and

share certain physiological and anatomical aspects with humans

2) they are domesticated and are easy to breed3) they have large litters and grow rapidly The first genetically engineered pig was born

in 1992 By 1994, hundreds of these pigs had been

produced for organ-transplant research In 2003, it was announced that a pig gene that

contributes to human rejection of porcine organs had been knocked-out.

Why Not Pigs?Why Not Pigs? A number of porcine diseases have the potential to A number of porcine diseases have the potential to

infect humansinfect humans Pigs are known to have PERVs (porcine endogenous Pigs are known to have PERVs (porcine endogenous

retroviruses)retroviruses) PERVs have been shown to be able to infect PERVs have been shown to be able to infect

immunodeficient mice and human cells in cultureimmunodeficient mice and human cells in culture It is still unknown whether there are diseases which can It is still unknown whether there are diseases which can

be passed between pigs and humansbe passed between pigs and humans As research continues, thousands wait to receive organ As research continues, thousands wait to receive organ

transplants; about 25-30% of patients waiting for heart transplants; about 25-30% of patients waiting for heart or lung transplants die before suitable organs became or lung transplants die before suitable organs became available to themavailable to them

Could human cloning be an answer to this shortageCould human cloning be an answer to this shortage?

Ice-Nucleation BacteriaIce-Nucleation Bacteria The damage caused by frost injury in this The damage caused by frost injury in this

country has been estimated to exceed $1 country has been estimated to exceed $1 billion/yearbillion/year

In nature, the formation of ice crystals on plants In nature, the formation of ice crystals on plants is often triggered by the growth of bacteria on is often triggered by the growth of bacteria on the outside of these plantsthe outside of these plants

Some bacteria have proteins on their surfaces Some bacteria have proteins on their surfaces that are particularly effective triggers of ice-that are particularly effective triggers of ice-nucleationnucleation

In the absence of these bacteria, plants can In the absence of these bacteria, plants can reach an internal temperature of -5reach an internal temperature of -5ooC without C without freezingfreezing

How To Keep Plants From Freezing:How To Keep Plants From Freezing:1)1) warm the air around them or insulate the cropswarm the air around them or insulate the crops2)2) spray bactericides on the crops to kill the bacteriaspray bactericides on the crops to kill the bacteria3)3) spray the crops with bacteria which inhibit the growth of spray the crops with bacteria which inhibit the growth of

ice-nucleation bacteriaice-nucleation bacteria The bacteria responsible for ice-nucleation are P. syringae. The bacteria responsible for ice-nucleation are P. syringae.

These bacteria have been genetically engineered to lack These bacteria have been genetically engineered to lack the protein which causes ice-nucleation and are known as the protein which causes ice-nucleation and are known as ice-minus strains.ice-minus strains.

In 1983, field tests were approved for the ice-minus In 1983, field tests were approved for the ice-minus bacteria. Jeremy Rifkin complained that ice-nucleation bacteria. Jeremy Rifkin complained that ice-nucleation bacteria could play a role in the climate by triggering ice-bacteria could play a role in the climate by triggering ice-nucleation events in the atmosphere.nucleation events in the atmosphere.

Trials of ice-minus bacteria were blocked for many years, Trials of ice-minus bacteria were blocked for many years, the first test took place in 1987.the first test took place in 1987.

Insertion of Modified DNA into CellsInsertion of Modified DNA into CellsVectorless:Vectorless:1)1) Biolistic delivery uses a particle gun to shoot DNA Biolistic delivery uses a particle gun to shoot DNA

into an organism. DNA of interest is mixed with into an organism. DNA of interest is mixed with particles of metal such as tungsten. Widely used in particles of metal such as tungsten. Widely used in plants.plants.

2)2) Microinjection into the nucleus involves the use of a Microinjection into the nucleus involves the use of a microscope and a very small needle. This method is microscope and a very small needle. This method is used on animal cells (Xenopus oocytes), and used on animal cells (Xenopus oocytes), and ensures that a large proportion of cells take up the ensures that a large proportion of cells take up the DNA.DNA.

3)3) Electroporation uses a strong electric field which Electroporation uses a strong electric field which forces the DNA into the cells. Used on plant and forces the DNA into the cells. Used on plant and fungal cellsfungal cells

4)4) Silicon carbide transformation simply mixes DNA with Silicon carbide transformation simply mixes DNA with particles which punch small holes in plant cells.particles which punch small holes in plant cells.

Have been used in attempts to insert a copy of a gene intoHave been used in attempts to insert a copy of a gene into

bone marrow cells, the desired gene is first made into RNAbone marrow cells, the desired gene is first made into RNA

and then inserted into the retrovirusand then inserted into the retrovirus Limitations of this technique are:Limitations of this technique are:

1)1) Retroviruses can only infect dividing cells, certain body Retroviruses can only infect dividing cells, certain body cells (ie. nerves) do not dividecells (ie. nerves) do not divide

2)2) Retroviruses insert themselves at random into human Retroviruses insert themselves at random into human chromosomes- it is not possible to control where they will chromosomes- it is not possible to control where they will be insertedbe inserted

a)a) gene may not be effective as normal if inserted into the gene may not be effective as normal if inserted into the wrong areawrong area

b)b) gene may be inserted into tumor-suppressor genes and gene may be inserted into tumor-suppressor genes and cause cancercause cancer

RetrovirusesRetroviruses

Do not insert their DNA into host chromosomesDo not insert their DNA into host chromosomes Have been used to attempt gene therapy for CFHave been used to attempt gene therapy for CF Descendents of GM cells do not carry the CF geneDescendents of GM cells do not carry the CF gene The treatment must be repeated every few months, The treatment must be repeated every few months,

but there is no risk of cancerbut there is no risk of cancer

AdenovirusesAdenoviruses

AgrobacteriumAgrobacterium Causes crown gall in plants, a disease consisting of Causes crown gall in plants, a disease consisting of

tumors on the stalk of a planttumors on the stalk of a plant The bacterium enters wounds on plants and inserts The bacterium enters wounds on plants and inserts

part of a plasmid (Ti) into the host DNApart of a plasmid (Ti) into the host DNA Scientists can insert a desired gene into the Ti plasmid Scientists can insert a desired gene into the Ti plasmid

and infect plants with this recombinant plasmidand infect plants with this recombinant plasmid

History of Biotech: the early yearsHistory of Biotech: the early years 10,000-9,000 B.C. (Mesopotamia & Canaan) D. of dogs

9,000-8,000 B.C. (Iran & Afghanistan) D. of goats and sheep; (Canaan) D. of emmer wheat and barley

8,000-7,000 B.C. (Peru) D. of potatoes and beans, (Indonesia) rice and (North America) pumpkins

7,000-6,000 B.C. (East Asia & China) D. of pig and water buffalo, (South Asia) chicken, (Turkey) cows, (Syria) einkorn wheat, (Turkey) macaroni, (New Guinea) sugarcane, (Indonesia) yams, bananas and coconuts, (Asia) flax, and (Mexico) maize and peppers; (Egypt) beer first made from yeast

3,000 B.C. (Iran) Breeding records of domesticated donkeys recorded on stone tablets

2,000 B.C. (Sumaria) 19 brands of beer available 300 B.C. Aristotle: concept of speciation

History of Biotech: the modern eraHistory of Biotech: the modern era 1970’s- Restriction enzymes discovered, methods to

determine the sequence of DNA 1975- Conference in Asilomar, CA to set guidelines for

genetic engineering 1983- PCR developed 1995- H. influenzae 1st organism to have its entire

genome sequenced 1996- “Dolly” the sheep becomes first mammal to be

cloned by nuclear transfer 1998- Mice and cows cloned 1999- Monkeys cloned, Jesse Gelsinger becomes 1st

death attributed to gene therapy 2003- The human genome sequenced; Dolly dies at

an early age

Traditional Biotech vs. GMOsTraditional Biotech vs. GMOs

1) species which are crossed in traditional biotechnology are always closely related, this is not so in genetic engineering

2) the pace of change in traditional biotechnology is much slower than that of genetic engineering, working on a scale of years rather than weeks

3) traditional biotechnology has been applied on a relatively small number of species, such as crop plants, farm animals and yeast. Genetic engineering is more ambitious in scope and seeks to change these, as well as other, organisms such as those involved in sewage disposal, pollution control and drug production.

Is Genetic Testing Good?Is Genetic Testing Good?

Life InsuranceLife Insurance Universal ScreeningUniversal Screening Genomic Diversity BanksGenomic Diversity Banks Who Will Benefit the Most?Who Will Benefit the Most?

At the inception of the HGP in 1990, ELSI At the inception of the HGP in 1990, ELSI was formed to study Ethical Legal and was formed to study Ethical Legal and Social Issues of genomicsSocial Issues of genomics

ELSIELSI1)1) Privacy and Fairness in the Use and Privacy and Fairness in the Use and

Interpretation of Genetic InformationInterpretation of Genetic Information

2)2) Clinical Integration of New Genetic Clinical Integration of New Genetic Technologies Technologies (examines impact of genetic testing on (examines impact of genetic testing on individuals, families, and society)individuals, families, and society)

3)3) Issues Surrounding Genetics Research Issues Surrounding Genetics Research (the design, conduct, participation in, and (the design, conduct, participation in, and reporting of genetics research)reporting of genetics research)

4)4) Public and Professional EducationPublic and Professional Education

Ethics of Genetic TestingEthics of Genetic Testing When a new disease-associated gene is When a new disease-associated gene is

discovered, a genetic test may soon followdiscovered, a genetic test may soon follow Many people in positions of authority Many people in positions of authority

believe in genetic determinism, that all believe in genetic determinism, that all human traits are encoded in DNA, this is human traits are encoded in DNA, this is an oversimplification of the truth an oversimplification of the truth

Is genetic testing a new form of eugenics?Is genetic testing a new form of eugenics? Who has the right to know the results of Who has the right to know the results of

your test?your test? Who has the right to obtain your DNA for Who has the right to obtain your DNA for

genetic testing?genetic testing?

Screening for G6PD DeficiencyScreening for G6PD Deficiency In addition to sensitivity to fava beans, deficiency in In addition to sensitivity to fava beans, deficiency in

G6PD puts employees exposed to certain oxidizing G6PD puts employees exposed to certain oxidizing agents at higher riskagents at higher risk

A simple and inexpensive test can detect G6PD A simple and inexpensive test can detect G6PD deficiencydeficiency

A number of companies have screened workers for A number of companies have screened workers for this deficiency as part of their hiring process when the this deficiency as part of their hiring process when the work entails exposure to oxidizing agentswork entails exposure to oxidizing agents

It could be argued that this practice provides a type of It could be argued that this practice provides a type of discrimination, but companies argue that they are discrimination, but companies argue that they are simply fulfilling their legal and moral obligation to simply fulfilling their legal and moral obligation to prevent injuries and damage to worker healthprevent injuries and damage to worker health

Life Insurance and Life Insurance and Genetic TestingGenetic Testing

British life insurance companies can use British life insurance companies can use data from 8 genetic tests, including breast data from 8 genetic tests, including breast cancer, colon cancer, Alzheimer’s, and (as cancer, colon cancer, Alzheimer’s, and (as of 2000) Huntington’s diseaseof 2000) Huntington’s disease

In the latter case, people who test positive In the latter case, people who test positive can be denied insurance (with the can be denied insurance (with the exception of the basic life insurance exception of the basic life insurance needed to buy a house in the U.K.)needed to buy a house in the U.K.)

Shouldn’t those who are free of a disease Shouldn’t those who are free of a disease pay lower rates than those who test pay lower rates than those who test positive?positive?

U.S. Insurance ProvidersU.S. Insurance Providers Some have recommended legislation be passed that Some have recommended legislation be passed that

would prevent insurance companies from would prevent insurance companies from discriminating on the basis of genetic information. discriminating on the basis of genetic information. Some of the main stipulations of this proposal are:Some of the main stipulations of this proposal are:

1)1) IPs should be prohibited from using genetic IPs should be prohibited from using genetic information to deny or limit any coverageinformation to deny or limit any coverage

2)2) IPs should be prohibited from establishing differential IPs should be prohibited from establishing differential rates or premium payments based on genetic rates or premium payments based on genetic informationinformation

3)3) IPs should be prohibited from requesting or requiring IPs should be prohibited from requesting or requiring collection or disclosure of genetic informationcollection or disclosure of genetic information

4)4) IPs and other holders of genetic information should IPs and other holders of genetic information should be prohibited from releasing genetic information be prohibited from releasing genetic information without prior consent of the individualwithout prior consent of the individual

A number of factors must be considered to decide A number of factors must be considered to decide whether an individual test is beneficial to the whether an individual test is beneficial to the patientpatient

Utility of Genetic TestsUtility of Genetic Tests

Universal Screening for a DiseaseUniversal Screening for a Disease Every pregnant woman in America is informed Every pregnant woman in America is informed

of the availability of a test for Cystic Fibrosisof the availability of a test for Cystic Fibrosis This is the 1st of nearly 400 genetic tests to be This is the 1st of nearly 400 genetic tests to be

implemented nationallyimplemented nationally CF is the most common genetic disease for CF is the most common genetic disease for

Caucasians but not other populationsCaucasians but not other populations CF occurs in 1 out of 2,500 Caucasian births CF occurs in 1 out of 2,500 Caucasian births

but only 1 out of 17,000 African American onesbut only 1 out of 17,000 African American ones Moreover, the efficiency of detection is 85% in Moreover, the efficiency of detection is 85% in

Caucasians but ranges between 30-69% for Caucasians but ranges between 30-69% for non-Caucasian populationsnon-Caucasian populations

Screening for Cystic FibrosisScreening for Cystic Fibrosis Most experts agree that a universal test for CF Most experts agree that a universal test for CF

does not make sensedoes not make sense Nevertheless, the HMO Kaiser Permanente Nevertheless, the HMO Kaiser Permanente

conducted a pilot testconducted a pilot test They offered the test to all Caucasian patientsThey offered the test to all Caucasian patients 1st, both parents were tested- if they were 1st, both parents were tested- if they were

heterozygous- the fetus could be testedheterozygous- the fetus could be tested About 18,000 women have been screened to About 18,000 women have been screened to

date- 90% of these have terminated their date- 90% of these have terminated their pregnancy if the fetus was homozygous for CFpregnancy if the fetus was homozygous for CF

Genomic Diversity BanksGenomic Diversity Banks In 1996, Kari Stefansson started a company In 1996, Kari Stefansson started a company

called deCODEcalled deCODE Their goal is to create genomic fingerprints for Their goal is to create genomic fingerprints for

the entire population of Iceland- 275,000 the entire population of Iceland- 275,000 people!people!

Iceland is ideal for such a venture since the Iceland is ideal for such a venture since the majority of the population is descended from a majority of the population is descended from a few European explorers and the people have few European explorers and the people have kept detailed family treeskept detailed family trees

Differences which lead to medical conditions Differences which lead to medical conditions should be easier to find in such a populationshould be easier to find in such a population

Icelander’s Right to Privacy?Icelander’s Right to Privacy? Iceland has a single medical provider, all Iceland has a single medical provider, all

records are kept in the same databaserecords are kept in the same database deCODE purchased the medical records and deCODE purchased the medical records and

has correlated family relationships with medical has correlated family relationships with medical recordsrecords

Every citizen will give blood to determine a Every citizen will give blood to determine a genetic fingerprint unless they opt outgenetic fingerprint unless they opt out

Some physicians worry that patient-physician Some physicians worry that patient-physician trust has been broken and that patients may be trust has been broken and that patients may be less forth-coming with medical informationless forth-coming with medical information

Estonia has expressed interest in forming Estonia has expressed interest in forming similar programsimilar program

How Should the Public Be How Should the Public Be Informed of New Discoveries?Informed of New Discoveries?

News media outlets tend to over-simplify News media outlets tend to over-simplify findings, but most Americans do not findings, but most Americans do not understand the scientific literatureunderstand the scientific literature

The media has recently reported on the The media has recently reported on the discovery of a: “gay gene”, “smart gene”, “fat discovery of a: “gay gene”, “smart gene”, “fat gene”, “worry gene”, “Alzheimer’s gene”, gene”, “worry gene”, “Alzheimer’s gene”, “cancer gene”, and “fountain-of-youth” gene“cancer gene”, and “fountain-of-youth” gene

Most of the time, the fact that these are just Most of the time, the fact that these are just one of many genes affecting a given condition one of many genes affecting a given condition or that environmental factors exist is buried in or that environmental factors exist is buried in the story of left out completelythe story of left out completely

Should We Clone Humans?Should We Clone Humans? In 2001, a number of groups announced In 2001, a number of groups announced

that they would clone a human by 2003that they would clone a human by 2003 However, these groups have little However, these groups have little

credibility within the scientific community credibility within the scientific community and include the Raelian cult (who believe and include the Raelian cult (who believe life was produced by extra-terrestrials)life was produced by extra-terrestrials)

In Jan. of 2003 it was claimed that a clone In Jan. of 2003 it was claimed that a clone had been born but this is now thought to had been born but this is now thought to have been a hoaxhave been a hoax

Despite this, it is likely that some group will Despite this, it is likely that some group will attempt to clone a human in the futureattempt to clone a human in the future

Arguments Against Human CloningArguments Against Human Cloning In 2001, Rudolf Jaenisch (an epigeneticist) and In 2001, Rudolf Jaenisch (an epigeneticist) and

Ian Wilmut (Dolly’s cloner) published a paper Ian Wilmut (Dolly’s cloner) published a paper called “Don’t Clone Humans!”called “Don’t Clone Humans!”

In it they described a number of failed attempted In it they described a number of failed attempted to clone animals and health problems associated to clone animals and health problems associated with cloneswith clones

In 2003, Dolly died at half the expected ageIn 2003, Dolly died at half the expected age Epigenetic factors which may be altered in clones Epigenetic factors which may be altered in clones

include CpG methylation, chromatin structure, include CpG methylation, chromatin structure, and telomere lengthand telomere length

Most have denounced human cloning at this timeMost have denounced human cloning at this time