the establishment of a higher education open and distance learning knowledge web view ·...
TRANSCRIPT
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A HIGHER EDUCATION OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING KNOWLEDGE
BASE FOR DECISION MAKERS IN KENYA
By
Magdallen N. Juma (PhD)African Virtual University (HQ)
P. O. Box 25405Nairobi - Kenya
Tel: 254-2-575801/3/4Fax: 254-2-575802
Email: [email protected]@wananchi.org
Presented to United Nations Educational Scientific & Cultural Organization
(UNESCO)
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction…………………………………………………………..………………3Study Approach………………………………………………………………………..4
1.0 The Target Audience of Decision Makers of the Knowledge Base in Kenya.…………………………………………………………..……41.1 Profiles and Institutional Setting of the Ministry of Science and Technology………………………………………………………..51.2 Institutional Setting of Distance Education in Public Universities in Kenya……………………………………………………………….61.3 Other Decision Makers in the Provision of Distance Education……..131.3.1 Commission for Higher Education…………………………………...131.3.2 The Open Learning Distance Education Association of
East Africa (OLDEA-EA)……………………………………………161.3.2.1 Open Learning Association of Kenya………………………………..17
2.0 Tasks and Challenges Facing Target Audience and Decision Makers….182.1 Major Tasks Facing Decision Makers in Kenya……………………..192.1.1 Increase Enrolment in Higher Education………………………….…192.1.2 Increase Opportunities for Relevant Degree Courses………………..202.1.3 Increase Opportunities and Access to Continuing Distance
Education……………………………………………………………..212.1.4 Provide Opportunity for Women Education in Science &
Engineering…………………………………………………………..222.2 Challenges Facing Distance Education Decision Makers in Kenya…232.2.1 Lack of Funds………………………………………………………...232.2.2 Lack of a Clear Understanding of Distance Education………………232.2.3 Poor Teaching/Learning Practices……………………………………242.2.4 Outdated Facilities……………………………………………………242.2.5 Inadequate Resources.…………………………………………….….242.2.6 Inadequate Library Resources………………………………………..252.2.7 Slow Internet Connectivity…………………………………………...252.2.8 Scarcity of Computing Resources for Technology Enhanced Distance
Education……………………………………………………………..252.2.9 Lack of Skills in Information Communication Technology
(ICT)……..………………………………………………………….. 252.2.10 Attitude towards Technology Enhanced Learning…………………...262.2.11 Communication Policy……………………………………………….262.2.12 High Telecommunication Costs……………………………………...26
3.0 Information Needs For Decision Makers in Kenya…………………...…..273.1 Distance Education Policy…………………………………………...273.2 Management and Financial of Distance Education Programmes…….283.3 Programme Design and Development of Materials………………….283.4 Financial Planning and Management………………………………...293.5 Learner Support System in Distance Education
Programmes…………………………...……………………………...29
1
4.0 Training Needs for Decision Makers in Distance Education…………….294.1 Capacity at the Policy Level………………………………………….304.1.2 Institutional Capacity Building………………………………………304.1.3 Individual Capacity Building………………………………………...314.1.4 Intervention Strategies Necessary……………………………………31
5.0 Knowledge Base for Distance Education In Higher Education – Kenya……………………………………………………………………..….315.1 Components of Knowledge Base in Kenya…………………………..325.2 Conclusion…………………………………………………………....34
References…………………………………………………………………………...35
2
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A HIGHER EDUCATION OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING KNOWLEDGE
BASE FOR DECISION MAKERS IN KENYA
Introduction
A growing crisis in the higher education sector in Kenya over the last two decades has
given rise to a multiplicity of new organizational structures designed for meeting the
new challenges of post-secondary education and training. A number of factors
account for the emergence of these structures among them the steady reduction in the
funding of public universities, the need to expand educational opportunities to
significantly larger numbers of school leavers and major changes in the labour market
which create new requirements for life long learning. These and related factors have
led to new trends in distance learning in higher education in the country.
On the basis of the above developments, the terms of reference of this project have
specified that the needs analysis should provide an identification of the following
among others:
(a) The target audience of Decision Makers of the Knowledge Base (profile
institutional setting etc.)
(b) The representative tasks and challenges that the target audience is faced with
in the carrying out of his/her duties including a detailed analysis of recent
challenges faced by decision makers in this field in terms of cost-
effectiveness, promoting access, improving quality of the teaching/learning
process as well as other relevant issues.
(c) Information including several representative concrete examples of the most
pressing immediate issues as well as a survey of the issues that the target
audience would find useful to better respond to “b”.
(d) Examples of information products of queries to be answered which would be
useful in responding to the above issues such as comparative costs of different
technologies, language of instruction, partnership with the private sector,
intellectual property concerns, cultural relevance of programmes offered etc.
(e) Preferences regarding the methodology and interface preferred for this
resource by the target audience including suggestions on what sort of material
and what media would be most effective for the target group.
3
(f) Mechanisms to maintain updated information for this activity in Kenya.
(g) Training needs of the target audience in the field of decision-making for Open
and Distance Learning in the tertiary level.
The Study Approach
The analysis mainly embraced two approaches. The first approach was a
documentary review of documents on open and distance education in higher
education in Kenya. This covered study materials, and reports, study guides that give
a gestalt view in a general context of the courses studied as well as information about
examination schedules, contact programmes, students assignments and so forth.
The second approach included holding face-to-face discussions with some key
stakeholders in open and distance education in higher education at the Universities of
Nairobi, Kenyatta University, Egerton and Jomo-Kenyatta. These were deans whose
faculties run DE programmes and course directors as well as a number of lecturers
involved in teaching the courses. The discussions covered the management of the
programmes, financing and key challenges. Interviews were held with key decision
makers including the permanent secretary for education, director for education and
Vice- Chancellors, deans and directors of institutes.
1.0 THE TARGET AUDIENCE OF DECISION MAKERS OF THE KNOWLEDGE BASE IN KENYA
In Kenya, decision makers for open and distance higher education comprise the
following:
The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.
The Vice-Chancellors of Universities in Kenya
Deans/Directors of the Institutes of Distance Education in universities.
Director of the African Virtual University located in two universities, Kenyatta
and Egerton.
4
Although universities are supposed to be autonomous, they fall under the Ministry of
Education, Science and Technology as stipulated in the Education Act of Parliament -
1968. Each university is established by an Act of parliament.
1.1 Profiles and Institutional Setting of the Ministry of Science and Technology
The Minister of Education, Science and Technology and the Permanent Secretary are
responsible for implementing government policies of Education at all levels of
education system. The Ministry of Education has sections which deal with various
levels and components of Education such as:
University Education
Secondary Education
Primary Education
Teacher training colleges
Non-formal Education
HIV/AIDs in Schools
Special Education
It is unfortunate that there is no section of the Ministry of Education responsible for
distance Education. Although the Kenya government is committed to distance
education like any other government in Africa, there is no policy framework to
oversee implementation of distance education in the universities. However, there are
Acts of parliament and policy documents which recommended among others the
implementation of institutions of distance education.
The first Government policy to address distance higher education was the Act of
Parliament of 1966 which established the Board of Adult Education. The Kamunge
Report of 1988, expressed satisfaction that the External Degree Programme offered by
the University of Nairobi as an example of a successful Alternative and Continuing
Education Programme that could be nationally accessed by eligible learners
throughout the country. It also recommended that facilities for printing and recording
5
of educational materials at the College of Adult and Distance Education be updated
and expanded to cope with the growing demand for adult education through distance
teaching (Republic of Kenya, 1988).
The Mungai Report of 1995 on its part recommended that the establishment of an
open university similar to the ones operating in Britain, Hong Kong and Tanzania be
considered as a way of extending university education to as many Kenyans as
possible. The report, however, cautioned against basing the Open University on the
current restrictive system practiced in the public universities. It was of the view that it
should be based on innovative strategies aimed at meeting the needs of as many
Kenyans as possible that desire university education. The public universities were
asked to establish short courses for purposes of skills improvement and a source of
generating income (Republic of Kenya, 1995).
The Koech Report (1999) hailed the external degree programme of the University of
Nairobi as being particularly beneficial to serving teachers and other Kenyans in
employment that would otherwise not have been able to enroll for university
education on a full time basis. It recommended that the programmes be expanded in
order to reach many deserving and qualified Kenyans. It also hailed parallel degree
programmes that have helped individuals who had otherwise been barred from public
university admission (Republic of Kenya, 1999).
Despite these recommendations by the important policy documents, DE programmes
remain tiny components of higher education and government involvement is quite
minimal.
1.2 Institutional Setting of Distance Education in Public Universities in Kenya
Institutions of open distance learning tend to be institutes or faculties/units within
public and private universities. Kenya has six public Universities and seven private
Universities and each of them has components of distance education. This section
focuses on two public Universities with major component of distance education,
namely University of Nairobi and Kenyatta University.
6
(a) University of Nairobi
Following the establishment of the Board of Adult Education in 1966, the University
of Nairobi took on a new challenge in the promotion of adult education. The Institute
of Adult Studies was established as constituent of the University with a director in
1973 and it was moved to the Adult Studies Centre at Kikuyu.
The Institute of Adult Studies had four main sections, namely:
The Extra-Mural Division
The Adult Studies Centre at Kikuyu
The Radio/Correspondence Course Unit
The Training and Research Division
The Extra-Mural Division Centres were located in Nairobi, Kisumu, Mombasa,
Nakuru, Nyeri and Kakamega, mainly the provincial towns. These centres arranged
adult education activities including evening courses, seminars and public lectures.
They prepared students for the then ‘O’ level (i.e. School Certificate) and ‘A’ level
(i.e. Higher School Certificate) as well as subjects for professional examination such
as Law, Personnel Management, Public Administration, Commerce, Business
Administration, Auditing, Taxation, Computer Science, Economics, Psychology,
Criminology and others. These courses were held on part-time basis especially in the
evenings after work. It also organized seminars and courses for a wide range of
occupations.
The Adult Studies centre at Kikuyu emphasized course designed to assist in national
development. It was a residential centre accommodating about 60 students. The
centre programmes ranged from a one-week to a one-year programme for groups such
as councilors, trade union officers, women groups, police, prisons and army officers
and others. There was a 9-month Diploma course in Adult Education, designed for
people engaged in, or intending to undertake some form of professional Adult
Education activity.
The Radio Correspondence Course Unit concentrated on upgrading courses for
unqualified teachers jointly with the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE). Study
outlines and study materials were sent to those who enrolled and radio programmes
were broadcast weekly to supplement the instruction in the printed lessons.
7
The Training and Research Division was concerned with the training of Adult
educators and research in adult education programmes and methods. The training
programme, included a 3-month introductory course in Adult Education for relatively
inexperienced full-time staff doing extension work, shorter courses for the Adult
educators held either at the Adult Centre or in the provinces and a one-year course for
a University Diploma in Adult Education.
The External B.Ed. Degree Programme – University of Nairobi
Among the various DE degree programmes currently being implemented by most of
the Kenyan public universities, this is among the few courses that was designed and
implemented to meet the needs of distance learning. The course, which is under the
auspices of the College of Adult and Distance Education, Faculty of External Degree
Studies, was launched in the mid-1980s with financial support from the British
Council. As expected the development, production and dissemination of distance
learning materials requires adequate resources (money, skilled personnel and
technical equipment and materials) if the full potential of the various media used is to
be realized. The preparation of good quality, self-instructional materials for distance
learners can be difficult and at times, time consuming, if they have to be
pedagogically sound i.e. adapted to the situation of the distance learner, for use by
large numbers of students.
Financial support from the British Council made it possible for the development of
course programmes and simplified students’ handbooks. As a start, it was decided to
begin with a B.Ed. degree programme based on the course units followed by then
Kenyatta University College, which was a constituent college of the University of
Nairobi. The bulk of the academic staff was therefore drawn from that college to train
in distance learning techniques and to prepare course handbooks for students. The
courses decided upon were in line with college’s B.Ed. degree programme. They
included Educational Foundations, Educational Psychology, Educational
Communications and Technology, Curriculum Development and Educational
Administration, Planning and some key subjects taught at the secondary school level
in Kenya which covered, Geography, History, Economics and Business Education,
Secretarial Studies, Arts and Crafts, Home Science, Religious Studies, English and
Kiswahili.
8
The course programmes and students materials seem to have been so successful that
the college of Adult and Distance Education has had to reprint them for use in a
number of DE programmes in the Eastern and Southern African region.
The B.Ed. Distance degree programme was designed to last 6 years and was open to
the then ‘A’ levels candidates with particular preference to teachers and teacher
trainers who held a teaching diploma and the SI teaching certificate holders. At the
beginning the programme admitted around 600 students of whom close to 450
students were able to graduate, which considerably was quite successful considering
the high attrition rate in some distance learning programmes.
The programme is divided into three levels with each level having two semesters of
six months. Printed material (study units) each covering unit content equivalent to
forty-five one-hour lectures. A minimum of 70 hours is needed by the
candidate/student to study each unit.
Support services include face-to-face teaching, audiocassettes; library services other
teaching/learning materials, which include identified key textbooks in each unit. Face
to face teaching and learning include residential sessions for orientation, tutoring and
counseling at the study centres. The college of Adult and Distance Education decided
to use its provincial extra-mural centres as study centres. They currently provide
facilities for learning and for individual and group tutoring and academic guidance
and counseling. They also serve the basic function for information provision.
The examination mode includes continuous assessment tests in the form of written
assignments, semester tests, demonstration, projects and a written examination for the
end of each semester. To graduate a student requires passing 48 units.
(b) The School of Continuing Education – Kenyatta University
The School of Continuing Education at Kenyatta University runs mainly education
programmes for the B.Ed. in Primary, Secondary and M.Ed. for Primary Teacher
Education (PTE). The programmes were started in August 1998 for two main
reasons:
To upgrade both primary and secondary school teachers in the country and
To generate income for the university in the light of sharply declining funding
by the government.9
As the programme was launched in a more or less ad hoc manner, Kenyatta
University did not articulate specific objectives for the programmes, save for the
course objectives for the various course units, which are a duplication of the various
B.Ed. regular programmes that the university has been offering for many years.
Consequently, save for the concept of ‘Continuing Education’ which according to one
of the directors implies ‘life long learning’ namely to provide opportunities for people
serving in various aspects of society to continue with academic and professional
development, the programmes lack the basic elements of distance education.
The regulations for admission in the School of Continuing Education are generally
silent on the specific clientele, that the programme targets except for the mention that
candidates must fulfill the minimum entrance. The main motivation for launching
these programmes and a similar one, which preceded them, intended to offer a
graduate education diploma for institution based employees with either a B.Sc. or
B.A. General was to generate extra funds for the university. Consequently, there was
little thought put in the course designs and modes of delivery to ensure quality for
participants to fully benefit from the large sums of money they pay in terms of fees.
The full-time-institution-base mode of delivery candidates ends up receiving a very
raw deal from the university. Their lectures are normally given during April, August
and December vacations. Their courses are a replica of the regular B.Ed. degree
courses and are expected to be covered in a much shorter time than for the regular
students, a handful of topics are usually selected for teaching by the departments, and
are generally no more than a third of what is taught to students in full-time normal
university programmes. Furthermore examination questions are based on the same
lectured topics. The end result is that students graduating from the School of
Continuing Education have far less content than do students in the regular university
degree programmes. There is therefore a very urgent need to review programmes
offered by the School of Continuing Education for improvement or scrap them
altogether since they are far below the quality of basic programmes offered by
Kenyatta University to the regular students.
(c) Parallel Degree Programmes
These are degree programmes offered by most of the public universities for students
who meet the basic university entrance requirements of a C+ in the Kenya Certificate
of Secondary Examination (KCSE), but missed opportunity for university admission. 10
The main thrust for these programmes is to generate funds for the cash strapped
public Kenyan universities. Students admitted in the programmes normally follow the
regular university courses, with course units in the programmes having a loading of
45 hours instead of 35 hours for the regular students. These are normally considered
as part-time students, with lectures falling between 5.30 p.m. to 8.30 p.m. during
weekdays and 9.00 a.m. to 5.00 p.m. on Saturdays. The tuition fees vary
considerably, although they are generally around Kshs. 15,000 per course unit, with
students taking responsibility of their own accommodation and living expenses.
(d) The African Virtual University (AVU) – Kenyatta University
The African Virtual University (AVU) is a distance learning programme whose main
missions is to bridge the digital divide and knowledge gap between Africa and the rest
of the world by dramatically increasing access to global educational resources
throughout Africa. This is achieved through the integration of satellite technology
and the Internet to allow cost-effective and efficient delivery of educational
programmes throughout the continent and increased access to global educational
resources in Africa.
The AVU objectives among others include:
Increase access to tertiary and continuing education in Africa by reaching a large
number of students and professionals in multiple sites simultaneously.
Improve the quality of education by tapping the best African and global academic
resources, and by offering training and coaching to academics in African
universities to prepare teaching materials for delivery through the AVU network.
Contribute to bridging the digital divide by improving connectivity in AVU
learning centres and host universities and by providing training in engineering,
computer science, IT and business.
The Beneficiaries of AVU include:
Institutions of Higher Education with activities to:
o Increase enrolment at affordable cost
o Access to digital library
11
o Provide forum for students all over Africa
o Provide improved quality of teaching and learning materials; and
Kenya has 2 AVU sites located in Kenyatta and Egerton Universities. The African
Virtual University (AVU) started in 1997 with the pilot phase. During the pilot phase
AVU sites received courses transmitted via satellites such as introduction to
programming, introduction to engineering, computer organization and architecture,
introduction to Internet, among others transmitted via satellite from universities in
Canada, Europe and the USA.
The foregoing discussion on Distance Education programmes in Kenyan higher
institutions brings out the following delivery models: -
(e) Distance Education Delivery Models In Kenya
Print Based Distance Education
Many of the large-scale distance education programmes in the faculty of External
Studies University of Nairobi can be classified as print (paper) based Distance
Education. This does not imply that there are no other support components built into
the course, but points to the fact that print materials is the primary delivery strategy.
The print materials are in the form of study lecture units, course notes, and practical
guides.
Institution – Based Mode of Study
This mode of study includes the full-time residential mode in which students in the
programme study with the rest of the regular Kenyatta University students or in their
own groups, and the full-time institution based mode in which students opting for
this mode should be in employment with any educational institution, preferably
primary or secondary school during the entire period of study. Such students are
12
required to attend residential sessions at the university during the vacation periods of
August, December and April for a total period of not less than 14 weeks per year and
institution-based guidance under the so-called Quality Assurance of 72 hours per
academic year.
Examinations consist of coursework assessment, assessment of practicals, which
contribute 50 percent, and one final university examination, which contributes another
50 per cent. At least all the units are examined by the end of the semester in session
in which they are taken.
Mixed Mode Provision
Mixed mode programmes such as the ‘parallel’ degree courses offered for the
University of Nairobi use a combination of face to face and distance learning
strategies. Other diploma courses offered by Universities in Kenya, particularly Post-
graduate diplomas in Education, Community Health and others are good examples of
mixed mode.
Satellite and Web based Distance Education (The Case of the African Virtual
University (AVU) Model
1.3 Other Decision Makers in the Provision of Distance Education
1.3.1 Commission for Higher Education
The commission for higher Education was established by an Act of Parliament, The
Universities Act, 1985, NO. 5. The mission of the commission of Higher Education is
to contribute to the development of higher education system in the country by way of
ensuring efficient, quality education in Kenya. It has also the responsibility of
providing effective financial and administrative system at the universities. According
13
to the university Act of 1985, No. 5, Commission of Higher Education has the
following functions:
To promote the objectives of university education, namely the development,
processing, storage and dissemination of knowledge for the benefit of mankind.
To advise the Minister on the establishment of public universities.
To co-ordinate the long-term planning staff development, scholarship and
physical development of university education.
To promote national unity and identity in universities.
To liaise with government departments and the public and private sectors of the
economy in matters relating to overall national manpower and requirements.
To cooperate with the Government in the planned development of university
education.
To examine and approve proposals for courses of study and course regulations
submitted to it by private universities.
To receive and consider applications from persons seeking to establish private
universities in Kenya and make recommendations thereon to the Minister
To make regulations in respect of admission of persons seeking to enroll in
universities and to provide a central admissions service to public universities.
To ensure the maintenance of standards for courses of study and examinations
in the universities.
To advise and make recommendations to the Government on matters relating to
university education and research requiring the consideration of the
Government.
To collect, examine and publish information relating to university education
and research.
To plan and provide for the financial needs of university education and
research, including the recurrent and non-recurrent needs of universities.
To advise and make recommendations to the Government on matters relating to
university education and research requiring the consideration of the
Government.
To collect, examine and publish information relating to university education
and research.
To plan and provide for the financial needs of university education and
research, including the recurrent and non-recurrent needs of universities.
14
To determine and recommend to the Minister the allocation of grants of money
for appropriation by parliament to meet the needs of university education and
research and review expenditure by universities of money appropriated by
parliament.
To advise the Government on the standardization, recognition and equation of
degrees, diplomas and certificates conferred or awarded by foreign and private
universities.
To co-ordinate education and training courses offered in post secondary school
institutions for the purposes of higher education and university admission.
To arrange for regular visitations and inspection of private universities.
The members of the Commission For Higher Education comprise the following:
(a) A chairman and vice-chairman appointed by the President.
(b) Not more than fifteen and not less than eleven members appointed by the
President.
(c) The Permanent Secretary to the Ministry for the time being responsible for
university education
(d) The Permanent Secretary to the Ministry for the time being responsible for
finance
(e) Four persons appointed by the Minister to represent other areas of
university education.
(f) The Chief Secretary.
(g) The Director of Personnel Management.
(h) Such other persons, not more than three in number, as the Commission
may co-opt.
The Commission meets at least four times in a year. During meetings major decisions
are made. A quorum of not less than twelve members is required. All questions at
any meeting of the commission are determined by a majority of votes of the members
present. Members of the commission are organized into the following committees
which deal with university education:
The Universities Grants Committee.
The Central Universities Admissions Committee.
The Commission has powers under its constitution to appoint other committees as it
may think fit. Therefore, the commission shall prescribe the powers, duties and
15
procedures of committees appointed by it and terms of office of persons appointed to
those committees.
1.3.2 The Open Learning Distance Education Association of East Africa (OLDEA-EA)
This is a regional umbrella association of five countries in East Africa. Country
members include Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi and Seychelles. Each of the five
countries has representative national association as follows:
Kenya - Open Learning Association of Kenya (OPLAK)
Uganda - Uganda National Distance and Open Learning (UNDOL)
Tanzania - Distance Education Association of Tanzania (DEAT)
Malawi - Open Distance Education Association of Malawi (ODEAM)
Seychelles is in the process of registering the National Association.
The Aims and Objectives of OLDEA-EA Promote professionalism in Open and Distance Education
Promote scholarship by way of organizing conferences, workshops, seminars
etc.
Provide a platform for networking with other organizations in the world.
Facilitate development of Information communication Technology (ICT)
policy within member countries.
Exchange information and materials on distance education.
To advance the educational course by supporting broad based levels of
education from basic education to tertiary levels.
To promote research and evaluation of distance education and open learning
in East Africa.
To promote and enhance quality Assurance in distance education.
To provide a platform for sharing of learning materials and expertise within
the sub-region.
To encourage publication of distance and open learning journals, refreed
journals and other scholarly materials within the region.
16
The association (OLDEA-EA) is governed by a constitution. The association was
formed in 1998 September in Dar-es-Salaam by a team of distance education experts
from the region. The National association selects representatives to the regional
association. Executive leaders of the association are based on a two-year term. The
first chairperson was a distance education expert from the Open University of
Tanzania. The current one is from the Department of Distance Education, University
of Makere. The association holds annual conferences once a year.
1.3.2.1 Open Learning Association of Kenya (OPLAK)
The Open Learning Association of Kenya has been formed by experts of distance
education in Kenya. The association has finalized its constitution, outlined its
functions and applied for registration with the Kenya government authorities.
Registration is expected next month. The author of this paper is one of the executive
members of OPLAK and responsible for facilitating the registration of OPLAK.
The Aims of OPLAK are as follows:
To promote collaboration among distance education organizations in Kenya.
To sensitize policy decision makers and other stakeholders on the principles and
application of distance education in Kenya.
To facilitate the development of ICT policy for the advancement of distance
education in Kenya.
To promote research and evaluation of distance education and open learning in
Kenya.
To enhance quality assurance in distance education.
OPLAK provides opportunities for membership from the following institutions:
Universities and Institutes, faculties of Distance Education and Open Learning
Colleges or training institutions which provide distance education.
Associations of individuals involved in distance education.
Government organizations.
Consortia of providers of distance education
17
Individuals.
There is a membership subscription fee. Once the registration has been secured by
the Registrar of Societies and Associations in Kenya, then other formalities will be
put in place.
Distance Education Associations are playing an important role in networking decision
makers and stakeholders in distance education within the region. This has resulted in
capacity building within the region, collaboration in external examining and
supervision of dissertations, exchange of course materials, improvement in course
design and development, and improved learner support systems.
2.0 TASKS AND CHALLENGES FACING TARGET AUDIENCE AND DECISION MAKERS
University institutions in Kenya and elsewhere in Africa are overwhelmed with major
tasks related to Access, finance, quality, internal and external efficiency and therefore
are unable to meet the demand for education. In terms of government financial
support to public universities it is estimated that since the late 1980’s throughout the
1990’s recurrent expenditures declined by around 45 percent, prompting increased
commercialization of degree programmes in an attempt to offset the fall in
government funding.
2.1 The Following major tasks face decision makers in Kenya
2.1.1 Increase Enrollment in Higher Education
A large pool of qualified tertiary age school graduates cannot enroll in higher
education in sub-Saharan Africa. The gross-enrollment ratio at the University level in
Sub-Saharan Africa is the lowest in the world. The number of students enrolled in
18
Universities (618,000) is only 4.7% of the total 13 million students enrolled in general
secondary level education.
Policy makers, planners, stakeholders and all decision makers in Kenya are faced with
a major task of large numbers of qualified students who cannot be admitted into
public universities. In Kenya for example, both public and private Universities
provide University opportunities for not more than five percent of the relevant age
groups, namely 20-24 years old school leavers. For instance in 1999 out of the 36,666
candidates who sat for the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KSCE), and
were qualified for admission into the public universities, only 8,892 or a mere 29.5
percent were admitted into the public universities in the year 2000. This is less 6
percent of the total number of students who registered for the examination or 1.3
percent of the total number of the secondary school enrolment. Furthermore
enrolment in the public universities has stagnated below 40,000 students over the last
two decades. The effect has been accumulation of a high number of working people
qualified for university education who have failed to join because of limited facilities
and thereafter settled to pursue middle level course programmes with a hope that
doors would in due course open to enable them realize their dreams for higher
education. The existence of numerous private universities has not tremendously
altered the situation. Distance Education remains one of the best alternative channels
for increasing enrollment in higher education.
2.1.2 Increase Opportunities for Relevant Degree Courses
Many students who would like to pursue degrees in Computer Science and Computer
Engineering do not get accepted in Kenyan Universities because of lack of resources
and capacity. This situation is particularly alarming to decision makers given the
importance of computer science and engineering in the new “knowledge economy”:
19
Experience of East Asian countries and India provides evidence that a critical mass of
professionals in these areas drives economic growth and creates employment
opportunities. The recent economic success of India’s software industry can be traced
to the nation’s ability to anticipate global trends and quickly build a critical mass of
well-educated professionals.
As a result of these low enrollment levels, a large number of students – the wealthiest
or those who are fortunate enough to get a scholarship – go aboard to study. In the
first half of the 1990s, approximately 56,000 students from AVU’s current countries
(15 African countries) of operation (192,600 total from Africa) were studying abroad
mainly because similar educational opportunities were not available in their countries.
Of the African students studying at the undergraduate level in the USA, 22% were
enrolled in engineering, computer science or mathematics. This situation has led to a
significant brain drain of talented Africans. A good example from Kenya:
Kenyan parents are forced to spend millions of shillings to educate their children
abroad, particularly in computer science, computer engineering and Electrical
Engineering. For example, parents spend about Kenya shillings 1.5 million
(US$19,997) per year per student to study in America; Britain about 1.2 million
(US$16,000) per year student. On the average, there are about 6000 Kenyans
studying abroad with the majority in America and Britain and few in other countries
(Nation Newspapers, 1998 12th July). This implies that the country is loosing a lot of
money on foreign education and this does not augur well for sustainable development.
This situation in Africa is not likely to improve in the years to come if countries rely
solely on conventional methods to provide universities education. In SSA countries,
20
the average tertiary expenditure per student was already 422% GNP per capita in
1995 as opposed to 26% in high-income countries. As a solution to this problem,
many countries are now charging tuition in public universities and encouraging
private investment in higher education.
The modern distance education models like AVU will therefore, assist in tapping the
potential offered by new technologies to overcome some of the financial, physical and
information barriers that prevent increased access to high quality education in Kenya
and sub-Saharan Africa.
2.1.3 Increase Opportunities and Access to Continuing Distance Education
Distance education programme which provide degree courses in Sub-Saharan Africa
(apart from South Africa) are very few and besides, many of them focus on art-based
courses. Besides, employers from the private sector and from NGO’s are faced with a
huge need to train their employees. Most companies usually call upon local providers
of training, usually small firms of uneven quality. Evidence collected during a
market survey conducted by AVU in Kenya in 1999, demonstrates that corporations
are generally dissatisfied with local providers or training. Some foreign investors
train their newly recruited staff overseas but this is very expensive. Every year, for
example Citibank in Nairobi sends 5 employees overseas to enroll in an MBA
program and a few of its employees to Citibank’s training center in Istanbul. Citibank
is looking for more cost-effective ways to train its staff because the needs are huge
and costs are high. Citibank is one of the 14 corporations to have expressed readiness
to invest in setting up AVU learning centers at their premises to provide professional
development education to their workers. Firms are particularly interested in computer
21
training and management courses (MBA) through modern technology distance
teaching so that employees do not take time off their jobs.
2.1.4 Provide Opportunity for Women Education in Science and Engineering:
Distance education models like AVU is one of the major innovations which enhance
female education in computer science and computer engineering through its Pre-
University Programme. The AVU Pre-University programme offers opportunities for
girls to enjoy learning through many facets of teaching/learning such as (live
transmission; tapes, textbooks, tutorials etc.). It also enhances women’s ability by
upgrading their skills in sciences so as to enroll for computer science, computer
engineering and electrical engineering which have traditionally been regarded men’s
domain. AVU will save the plight of women’s education in Africa. For example,
there is serious low enrolment of women in science-based courses in Kenya. A
number of issues have been advanced to explain the low enrolment of women, first,
low secondary school enrolment greatly reduces their scope for progress in higher
education. Coupled with low enrolment are high drop out rates for girls. This low
rate of participants results in only small pool of girls eligible for entry into higher
education (Juma, 2000).
2.2 Challenges Facing Distance Education Decision Makers in Kenya
The foregoing discussion on tasks facing decision makers in Kenyan education
system brings out a number of features. First and Foremost, distance education in
Kenya is not a major component of University education, although its importance has
been acknowledged and recommendations for its expansion.
22
The following challenges face decision makers:
2.2.1 Lack of Funds
The Ministry of Education spends more than 12 per cent of its annual budget on
higher education. Consequently, the larger portion of allocation to public universities
caters for salaries of university staff and very little money is left for teaching/learning
materials and equipment. Since the Government does not have a distance education
policy for Higher Education in place, there is no specific provision for distance
education in the overall national budget. As a result, institutes/faculties of distance
education in the university have to generate funds for running programmes, general
planning, coordination, supervision and evaluation of the programme. In most cases,
money generated from distance Education programmes subsidise other conventional
programmes. Furthermore, innovations in distance education have heavily relied on
unsustainable sources of funding, especially donor funding. As already discussed
most of the Distance Education programmes have been launched on an ad hoc basis as
means of generating income of the cash strapped public universities rather than
designing them with the benefits of the learners in mind. The direct and indirect costs
necessary to sustain the educational interventions have hardly been considered.
2.2.2 Lack of a Clear Understanding of Distance Education
Some of the key players in distance education like Ministry of Education staff, Vice-
Chancellors, Deans and Directors do not understand principles and application of
open and distance education. This creates a serious gap in policy planning and
implementation.
2.2.3 Poor Teaching/Learning Practices
Distance Education (DE) is generally based on an indirect teaching relationship, using
fundamentally self-teaching methods, with the tutor acting as a catalyst to activate the
skills and situations needed for self-education. Most of the existing DE programmes
23
especially for the School of continuing Education at Kenyatta University and the
parallel programmes have adopted behaviour patterns on traditional education
delivery, which is not appropriate for DE type of education. As already pointed out,
the Kenyatta University programmes are of very mediocre quality and students in the
institution-based mode of delivery are certainly not getting the value of their money
they pay to that university.
2.2.4 Outdated Facilities
Most of the programmes mainly use print as the medium of instruction.
Supplementary materials such as audio-cassettes, video cassettes, slides and
experimental kits which would reinforce each other in achieving the desired goals are
generally not in use due to the poor designs of the course programmes as well as lack
of funds.
2.2.5 Inadequate Resources
(a) Many of the institutions lack study guides which would give a broad view
within a context of the courses to be studied as well as information about examination
schedules, contact programmes, students assignments and others
(b) Apart from the University of Nairobi, College of Adult and Distance
Education, other universities lack study or resource centres, which constitute an
important mode of transmitting content. They would provide facilities for learning
for individual or group tutoring and academic guidance and counselling.
(c) Production of high quality distance materials for the Kenyan programmes
appears far more expensive because the cost would include the design of the
curriculum and courses authors’ fee remuneration of review and assessors and the
tremendous effort devoted to the presentation of the final product use of graphics
language, layout style etc. Besides faculty members are heavily burdened with many
duties and at the same time do not have access to good libraries. In many
24
programmes of distance teaching cost effectiveness is easily not met because of small
numbers of students enrolled in the programmes.
2.2.6 Inadequate Library Resources
Decision makers are faced with serious lack of current journals and publications in
distance education. Due to limited funds available in universities, libraries are unable
to subscribe to publications.
2.2.7 Slow Internet Connectivity:
Technology enhanced Distance Education like African Virtual University relies
heavily on the Internet for the delivery of academic courses; digital library; the portal
and many other products. Unfortunately, slow Internet connection and low bandwidth
in Kenya mitigate the effectiveness of AVU courses. Increasingly the issue of high
costs for large bandwidth (pipes) is also a problem.
2.2.8 Scarcity of Computing Resources for Technology Enhanced Distance Education
Computing resources, both hardware and software are expensive for any university to
afford in reasonable quantities and quality. Technology is very dynamic and some
universities cannot cope with these changes in terms of cost and relevancy.
2.2.9 Lack of Skills in Information Communication Technology (ICT)
Most university academics and students have very low skills in ICT to the extent that
AVU’s digital library, E-learning platform and many other products are not fully
utilized by faculty members.
2.2.10. Attitude towards Technology Enhanced Learning
Many academics from universities in Kenya do not believe that quality education can
be delivered through information technology and some of them are very slow in
changing attitude towards this kind of modern Distance Education. Indeed many
scholars cannot easily adopt “a mind set” which appreciates that digital literacy is an
important dimension of learning like “reading and writing”.25
2.2.11 Communication Policy
Due to high international tariffs and lack of circuit capacity, obtaining sufficient
international bandwidth for delivering web pages over the Internet is still a major
problem in Kenya. The problem is enhanced by National Telecom sectors
(JAMBONET) having monopoly for international bandwidth, hence Internet Service
Providers (ISP) being dependent on it. This kind of scenario poses a major challenge
to proper functioning and delivery of AVU products in Kenya. For instance, AVU
hopes to install VSAT capabilities in some sites to deliver content from Africa to
other AVU sites. Unfortunately, this might be hampered by communication
regulations in Kenya, which do not allow Two-Way satellite based Internet services
using very small aperture terminals (VSAT).
2.2.12 High Telecommunication Costs
Currently, the average total cost of using a local dialup Internet account for 20 hours a
month in Kenya is about $68 a month (usage fees and local call telephone time
included, but not telephone line rental). Internet Service Provider (ISP) subscription
charges vary greatly – between $10 and $100 a month, largely reflecting the different
levels of maturity of the markets, the varying tariff policies of the telecom operators,
the different regulations on private wireless data services and on access to
international telecommunications bandwidth.
It is a big challenge for decision makers to appreciate that effective distance education
can be delivered via modern technologies. The Internet forms technological
breakthrough in distance learning tools. Therefore, advances in the Internet
concerning access and quality of information are fundamental for making distance
education efficient and effective as an innovation in higher education in Kenya. For
26
technology enhanced distance education to succeed in Kenya, Government,
Universities, Industries and NGO’s all have a role to play as stakeholders.
3.0 INFORMATION NEEDS FOR DECISION MAKERS IN KENYA
On the basis of the foregoing analysis, it is apparent that there are a number of areas
with considerable information issues needed by decision makers for future planning to
promote the expansion of distance learning in higher education in Kenya. These
among others include the following:
3.1 Distance Education Policy
From the analysis it is clear that there is a lack of coherent policy for distance
education at the national level. Consequently distance education programmes in
higher education are generally disjointed and run on ad hoc basis.
The government needs to develop and articulate national policies for the
development of distance education.
The Commission for Higher Education (CHE) should establish a section that
should specifically deal with distance education programmes in both public and
private universities.
Commission for Higher Education (CHE) should put in place national and
institutional policies and guidelines for the establishment of Distance Education
programmes.
There is need to commission relevant policy research to provide baseline
information on existing Distance Education programmes conducted by public
and private universities.
There is an urgent need to carry out a nation wide survey to establish the demand
for distance learning and modalities for establishing future DE programmes.
3.2 Management and Financial Planning of Distance Education Programmes
The analysis revealed that there is an absence of coordinated management structures
for DE programmes and most of them have been launched with the specific function
27
of generating funds for cash strapped public universities. Consequently, some
programmes seriously exploit the learners for a mediocre quality of education they
provide. In some of the institutions the management of Distance Education
programmes is an appendage of the regular university programmes. There is
therefore the need to:
Establish structures for the management of the various distance education
programmes showing distinctions for the different modes of provision.
Carry out cost-analysis of Distance Education programmes with a view to
making them comparatively cheaper than traditional residential programmes.
Establishing institutional requirements for effective learner support.
Setting up structures for collaboration and partnerships for the key stakeholders
in distance learning programmes.
Setting and maintaining standards for quality assurance in the various DE
programmes.
3.3 Programme Design and Development of Materials
The analysis showed that in many of the Distance Education programmes in the
country, only a few of them adopted Distance Education modes of delivery largely
because there is a serious lack of professional staff development for distance learning.
There is a need therefore for:
Institutional based staff development for distance learning programmes.
Staff development in research and evaluation.
Development of curricula especially suited for distance learning.
Developing interactive learning methods and materials.
Identifying cost-effective media and technologies for use in distance learning
programmes.
Applying the most appropriate media and technologies to support learning
outcomes.
Localizing course deliveries that are based outside the African continent
particularly the AVU.
28
Establishing support services countrywide for distance learners, which include
guidance and counseling.
3.4 Financial Planning and Management
From the analysis of distance education programmes in Kenya, it was clear that
information is required on the following issues:
Existing distance education materials and ways to update them.
Existing kinds of media, and technologies.
o Prices of different technologies.
o Relevancy of media and technologies.
o Operation of technologies.
o Other factors influencing their choice.
Availability of interactive materials.
3.5 Learner Support System in distance Education Programmes
In distance learning environment, learners require effective counseling support system
to reduce attrition rates. The information is therefore required in the following areas:
Policy analysis research to be undertaken by experts.
Relevant strategic planning in distance education.
4.0 TRAINING NEEDS FOR DECISION MAKERS IN DISTANCE EDUCATION
Analysis of information needs and aspects of higher distance education in Kenya
provide a basis for developing intervention strategies to build capacities for decision-
makers and institutional capacities. There are various aspects of competencies
required in distance education for different target groups.
29
4.1 Capacity at the Policy Level
At the highest level of decision-making within the general education framework,
people have little understanding of the requirements of distance education. This is
evidenced by lack of a national distance education policy framework. The Ministry of
Education has limited structures to develop and implement effective supporting
policies. However, it is evident that the current base of expertise in distance
education is very thin and there are many people who do not understand principles
and practice of distance education. Interestingly, Kenya was one of the pioneer
countries to start higher distance education in Africa and up to now there is no Open
and Distance Education University. Efforts by leading distance education experts in
the country to influence decision makers to tackle a bill in Parliament on the Open
and Distance Education University of Kenya has been thwarted for many years.
However, there is need for distance education associations to lobby for improvement
of telecommunications sector which is the pillar of Technology Enhanced Distance
Education.
4.1.2 Institutional Capacity Building
Institutions of higher learning in Kenya do not have strategic planning in distance
education. Additionally institutions have very limited understanding of distance
education systems and structures. The situation in exasperated by institutions which
have centres or faculties of distance education and yet do not understand the
principles, practices and implementation strategies. This scenario posses serious
challenges to the quality and efficiency of distance education. Therefore, there is
need to sensitize policy makers, decision makers, about distance education, its
prospects and challenges. If distance education is to expand in Kenya, there is need to
build capacity of employees in Universities and other relevant institutions such as
30
Kenya Institute of Education, Commission for Higher Education and Ministry of
Education and others.
4.1.3 Individual Capacity Building
There are very few Kenyans with expertise in core areas of distance education such
as; Needs Analysis, Curriculum Design and Development, Course Writing and
Editing, Research Evaluation and Quality Assurance.
4.1.4 The Following Intervention Strategies are Necessary
Awareness campaign and sensitization of stakeholders in distance education. In
Kenya, many decision makers at the policy level do not understand the meaning,
scope, depth and importance of alternative deliveries or channels of higher
distance education.
There is need therefore for decision makers to understand existing forms of
distance education, and challenges facing current Distance Education
programmes.
Effective planning (Physical and Financial Planning); management of Distance
Education intervention strategies.
Capacity building of decision makers in information communication
technologies (ICT), This is important because distance education delivery
methods have improved dramatically through the use of modern technologies.
Understanding the current use of modern multi-media technologies in distance
education.
Appreciate the importance of quality learner support systems in distance
education.
Quality Assurance mechanisms in Distance Education to be implemented.
5.0 KNOWLEDGE BASE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION – KENYA
A knowledge base for Distance Education in Kenya would be used to support
decision makers, and other stakeholders in the country. This resource would make all
information pertaining to distance education easily accessible either electronically or
31
in print. Since the Ministry of Education does not have a specific unit dealing with
distance higher education, it is very difficult to get information.
5.1 Components of a Knowledge Base in Kenya
Since the state of Internet connectivity in Kenya is slow compared to countries like
South Africa, it is appropriate to focus on two strategies for providing access to
information. Therefore, the knowledge base could comprise a web-based database,
and a back-up base in print format.
The following types of information could be relevant to the knowledge base:
Institutions of Distance Education in Kenya
This might focus on both private and public institutions which provide distance
education. For example:
o Public and private universities.
o Institutes / faculties / departments of Distance Education.
o Middle level colleges with international partnership in providing
foreign and international degrees.
Information on Distance Education Opportunities in Kenya
Opportunities related to various kinds of undergraduate degrees, Masters degrees
and Post graduate degrees and higher diplomas. Information on course descriptions,
assessment and accreditation would be provided.
Different Models of Delivery of Distance Education in Kenya
Information on the choice, affordability and relevancy of different modes of delivery
would be provided. For instance:
o Print
o Television
o Radio
o Internet
o Mixed mode
32
Suitable Technologies for Distance Education
The knowledge would be required to provide information on availability of
complete course materials and the format. Availability of course materials would be
enhanced by information on materials available regionally, continent-wide and also
internationally. This would reduce duplication of efforts and wastage of money.
The knowledge base could also link to other relevant existing databases in the world.
For adaptation of course materials it is useful to customize content to suit the
environment, culture, target group and relevancy.
Available Research and Evaluation Reports in Distance Education
The knowledge base will include information on research on distance education.
Research could include the following:
o Commissioned researches in Distance Education and Open
Learning by all stakeholders in Education, universities, non-
Governmental Organizations, Ministries, donors, World Bank etc.
o Dissertations of students at Masters and Ph.D. levels.
o Policy documents.
o Journals.
o Evaluation reports / papers by individuals.
Scholarships available in distance education
Donors who support research and evaluation in Distance Education
Existing partnerships and networks available in Distance Education
For such a database to succeed, it would have to be integrated with existing
organizations and networks. For instance, the Open Learning Association of Kenya
(OPLAK) and Open Learning Distance Association of East Africa (OLDEA-EA). A
knowledge base would rely on Electronic database which would be created and
33
updated by the Open Learning Association of Kenya (OPLAK). Therefore, the Open
Learning Association of Kenya (OPLAK) would host the database both in electronic
and print formats as a back-up. Therefore, no one single university in Kenya would
claim ownership of the database, hence reduce ownership wrangles among academics.
5.2 Conclusion
This paper has provided an analysis of distance higher education in Kenya. It has
attempted to highlight the institutional setting of distance education providers,
information needs, tasks and challenges facing decision makers in Kenya. This paper
finally tries to suggest essential components that would form a knowledge base in
Kenya.
34
ReferencesBoard of Adult of Education 1971 A Report of a Research Project on the
Financing of Adult Education in Kenya, Nairobi.
COL, Identifying Barriers Encountered by Women in the Use of Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) for Open and Distance Learning in Africa. Zanzibar, COL
Hall, B. L. 1971, University Adult Education: A Time for Broadening Participation in B.L. Hall and K. Remtulla, (eds.) Adult Education and National Development, Nairobi, East African Literature Bureau.
Juma, M.N. 2001, From Traditional Distance Learning to Virtual Distance Learning in Higher Education in Africa, Trends and Challenges in F.T. Tschang and T.D. Senta, (eds.) Access to Knowledge: New Information Technologies and the Emergence of the Virtual University, UNESCO/Pergamon Press.
Kabwasa A. and Kaunda, M.M. (eds.) 1993 Correspondence Education in Africa, London. Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Maina, M. 1976 Adult Education in Kenya in Maktaba, Vol. 3. No. 2.
Mason, R. 2001 Institutional Models for Virtual Universities in F.T. Tschang and T.D. Senta (eds.) Access to Knowledge: New Information Technologies and Emergence of the Virtual University, UNESCO/Pergamon.
Musa, M.B., 1994 Extension Education and the Role of University Extension Departments, International Review of Education Vol. 40. No. 2.
Republic of Kenya, 1998 Presidential Working Party on Education and Manpower Training for the Next Decade and Beyond, Nairobi, Government Printer.
Republic of Kenya, 1999, Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training (TIQET): Report of the Commission of Inquiry into, the Education System of Kenya, (Koech Report): Nairobi, Government Printer.
Republic of Kenya, 1985, The Universities Act, 1985, Nairobi, Government Printer
Republic of Kenya, 2001, The Economic Survey 2001, Nairobi, Government Printer
35