1. Preface xvAcknowledgments xviiForeword xixChapter 1: Introduction to Medical Imaging 31.1 The Modalities 41.2 Image Properties 13Chapter 2: Radiation and the Atom 172.1 Radiation 172.2 Structure of the Atom 21Chapter 3: Interaction of Radiation with Matter 313.1 Particle Interactions 313.2 X- and Gamma Ray Interactions 373.3 Attenuation of X- and Gamma Rays 453.4 Absorption of Energy from X- and Gamma Rays 523.5 Imparted Energy, Equivalent Dose, and Effective Dose 56Chapter 4: Computers in Medical Imaging 614.1 Storage and Transfer of Data in Computers 614.2 Analog Data and Conversion between Analog and Digital Forms 664.3 Components and Operation of Computers 704.4 Performance of Computer Systems 784.5 Computer Software 794.6 Storage, Processing, and Display of Digital Images 82Chapter 5: X-ray Production, X-ray Tubes, and Generators 975.1 Production of X-rays 97

2. 5.2 X-ray Tubes 1025.3 X-ray Tube Insert, Tube Housing, Filtration, and Collimation 1135.4 X-ray Generator Function and Components 1165.5 X-ray Generator Circuit Designs 1245.6 Timing the X-ray Exposure in Radiography 1325.7 Factors Affecting X-ray Emission 1355.8 Power Ratings and Heat Loading 1375.9 X-ray Exposure Rating Charts 140Chapter 6: Screen-Film Radiography 1456.1 Projection Radiography 1456.2 Basic Geometric Principles 1466.3 The Screen-Film Cassette 1486.4 Characteristics of Screens 1496.5 Characteristics of Film 1576.6 The Screen-Film System 1636.7 Contrast and Dose in Radiography 1646.8 Scattered Radiation in Projection Radiography 166Chapter 7: Film Processing 1757.1 Film Exposure 1757.2 The Film Processor 1787.3 Processor Artifacts 1817.4 Other Considerations 1837.5 Laser Cameras 1847.6 Dry Processing 1847.7 Processor Quality Assurance 186Chapter 8: Mammography 1918.1 X-ray Tube Design 1948.2 X-ray Generator and Phototimer System 2048.3 Compression, Scattered Radiation, and Magnification 2078.4 Screen-Film Cassettes and Film Processing 2128.5 Ancillary Procedures 2198.6 Radiation Dosimetry 2228.7 Regulatory Requirements 224 3. Chapter 9: Fluoroscopy 2319.1 Functionality 2319.2 Fluoroscopic Imaging Chain Components 2329.3 Peripheral Equipment 2429.4 Fluoroscopy Modes of Operation 2449.5 Automatic Brightness Control (ABC) 2469.6 Image Quality 2489.7 Fluoroscopy Suites 2499.8 Radiation Dose 251Chapter 10: Image Quality 25510.1 Contrast 25510.2 Spatial Resolution 26310.3 Noise 27310.4 Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE) 28310.5 Sampling and Aliasing in Digital Images 28310.6 Contrast-Detail Curves 28710.7 Receiver Operating Characteristics Curves 288Chapter 11: Digital Radiography 29311.1 Computed Radiography 29311.2 Charged-Coupled Devices (CCDs) 29711.3 Flat Panel Detectors 30011.4 Digital Mammography 30411.5 Digital versus Analog Processes 30711.6 Implementation 30711.7 Patient Dose Considerations 30811.8 Hard Copy versus Soft Copy Display 30811.9 Digital Image Processing 30911.10 Contrast versus Spatial Resolution in Digital Imaging 315Chapter 12: Adjuncts to Radiology 31712.1 Geometric Tomography 31712.2 Digital Tomosynthesis 32012.3 Temporal Subtraction 32112.4 Dual-Energy Subtraction 323 4. Chapter 13: Computed Tomography 32713.1 Basic Principles 32713.2 Geometry and Historical Development 33113.3 Detectors and Detector Arrays 33913.4 Details of Acquisition 34213.5 Tomographic Reconstruction 34613.6 Digital Image Display 35813.7 Radiation Dose 36213.8 Image Quality 36713.9 Artifacts 369Chapter 14: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 37314.1 Magnetization Properties 37314.2 Generation and Detection of the Magnetic Resonance Signal 38114.3 Pulse Sequences 39114.4 Spin Echo 39114.5 Inversion Recovery 39914.6 Gradient Recalled Echo 40314.7 Signal from Flow 40814.8 Perfusion and Diffusion Contrast 40914.9 Magnetization Transfer Contrast 411Chapter 15: Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 41515.1 Localization of the MR Signal 41515.2 k-space Data Acquisition and Image Reconstruction 42615.3 Three-Dimensional Fourier Transform Image Acquisition 43815.4 Image Characteristics 43915.5 Angiography and Magnetization Transfer Contrast 44215.6 Artifacts 44715.7 Instrumentation 45815.8 Safety and Bioeffects 465Chapter 16: Ultrasound 46916.1 Characteristics of Sound 47016.2 Interactions of Ultrasound with Matter 476 5. 16.3 Transducers 48316.4 Beam Properties 49016.5 Image Data Acquisition 50116.6 Two-Dimensional Image Display and Storage 51016.7 Miscellaneous Issues 51616.8 Image Quality and Artifacts 52416.9 Doppler Ultrasound 53116.10 System Performance and Quality Assurance 54416.11 Acoustic Power and Bioeffects 548Chapter 17: Computer Networks, PACS, and Teleradiology 55517.1 Computer Networks 55517.2 PACS and Teleradiology 565Chapter 18: Radioactivity and Nuclear Transformation 58918.1 Radionuclide Decay Terms and Relationships 58918.2 Nuclear Transformation 593Chapter 19: Radionuclide Production and Radiopharmaceuticals 60319.1 Radionuclide Production 60319.2 Radiopharmaceuticals 61719.3 Regulatory Issues 624Chapter 20: Radiation Detection and Measurement 62720.1 Types of Detectors 62720.2 Gas-Filled Detectors 63220.3 Scintillation Detectors 63620.4 Semiconductor Detectors 64120.5 Pulse Height Spectroscopy 64420.6 Non-Imaging Detector Applications Q5420.7 Counting Statistics 661Chapter 21: Nuclear Imaging-The Scintillation Camera 66921.1 Planar Nuclear Imaging: The Anger Scintillation Camera 67021.2 Computers in Nuclear Imaging 695 6. Chapter 22: Nuclear Imaging-Emission Tomography 70322.1 Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) 70422.2 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 719SECTION IV: RADIATION PROTECTION, DOSIMETRY, ANDBIOLOGY 737Chapter 23: Radiation Protection 73923.1 Sources of Exposure to Ionizing Radiation 73923.2 Personnel Dosimetry 74723.3 Radiation Detection Equipment in Radiation Safety 75323.4 Radiation Protection and Exposure Control 75523.5 Regulatory Agencies and Radiation Exposure Limits 788Chapter 24: Radiation Dosimetry of the Patient 79524.1 X-ray Dosimetry 80024.2 Radiopharmaceutical Dosimetry: The MIRD Method 805Chapter 25: Radiation Biology 81325.1 Interaction of Radiation with Tissue 81425.2 Cellular Radiobiology 81825.3 Response of Organ Systems to Radiation 82725.4 Acute Radiation Syndrome 83125.5 Radiation-Induced Carcinogenesis 83825.6 Hereditary Effects of Radiation Exposure 85125.7 Radiation Effects In Utero 853Appendix A: Fundamental Principles of Physics 865A.l Physical Laws, Quantities, and Units 865A.2 Classical Physics 867A.3 Electricity and Magnetism 868Appendix B: Physical Constants, Preftxes, Geometry, Conversion Factors, andRadiologic Data 883B.l Physical Constants, PrefIxes, and Geometry 883B.2 Conversion Factors 884 7. B.3 Radiological Data for Elements 1 through 100 885Appendix C: Mass Attenuation Coefficients and Spectra Data Tables 887C.1 Mass Attenuation Coefficients for Selected Elements 887C.2 Mass Attenuation Coefficients for Selected Compounds 889C.3 Mass Energy Attenuation Coefficients for Selected Detector Compounds 890C.4 Mammography Spectra: MolMo 891C.5 Mammography Spectra: Mo/Rh 893C.6 Mammography Spectra: Rh/Rh 895C.7 General Diagnostic Spectra: W/Al 897Appendix D: Radiopharmaceutical Characteristics and Dosimetry 8990.1 Route of administration, localization, clinical utility, and other characteristics ofcommonly used radiopharmaceuticals 9000.2 Typical administered adult activity, highest organ dose, gonadal dose, and adulteffective dose for commonly used radiopharmaceuticals 9080.3 Effective doses per unit activity administered to patients age 15, 10,5, and 1year for commonly used diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals 9100.4 Absorbed dose estimates to the embryolfetus per unit activity administered tothe mother for commonly used radio pharmaceuticals 911Appendix E: Internet Resources 913Subject Index 915 8. PREFACE TO THESECOND EDITIONThe first edition of this text was developed from the extensive syllabus we had created for aradiology resident board review course that has been taught annually at the University ofCalifornia Davis since 1984. Although the topics were, in broad terms, the same as in thecourse syllabus, the book itself was written de novo. Since the first edition of this book wascompleted in 1993, there have been many important advances in medical imaging technol-ogy.Consequently, in this second edition, most of the chapters have been completely rewrit-ten,although the organization of the text into four main sections remains unchanged. Inaddition, new chapters have been added. An Introduction to Medical Imaging begins this newedition as Chapter 1. In the Diagnostic Radiology section, chapters on Film Processing, Digi-talRadiography, and Computer Networks, PACS, and Teleradiography have been added. Inrecognition of the increased sophistication and complexity in some modalities, the chapterson MRI and nuclear imaging have been split into two chapters each, in an attempt to breakthe material into smaller and more digestible parts. Considerable effort was also spent onintegrating the discussion and assuring consistent terminology between the different chap-ters.The Image Quality chapter was expanded to provide additional details on this impor-tanttopic.In addition, a more extensive set of reference data is provided in this edition. Theappendices have been expanded to include the fundamental principles of physics, physicalconstants and conversion factors, elemental data, mass attenuation coefficients, x-ray spec-tra,and radiopharmaceutical characteristics and dosimetry. Web sites of professional soci-eties,governmental organizations and other entities that may be of interest to the medicalimaging community are also provided.The field of radiology is in a protracted state of transition regarding the usage of units.Although the SI unit system has been officially adopted by most radiology and scientificjournals, it is hard to avoid the use of the roentgen and rem. Our ionization chambers stillread out in milliroentgen of exposure (not milligray of air kerma), and our monthly filmbadge reports are still conveyed in millirem (not millisieverts). The U.S. Government hasbeen slow to adopt SI units. Consequently, while we have adopted SI units throughout mostof the text, we felt compelled to discuss (and use where appropriate) the older units in con-textswhere they are still used. Furthermore, antiquated quantities such as the effective doseequivalent are still used by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, although the rest ofthe world uses effective dose.We have received many comments over the years from instructors, residents, and otherstudents who made use of the first edition, and we have tried to respond to these commentsby making appropriate changes in the book. Our intention with this book is to take thenovice reader from the introduction of a topic, all the way through a relatively thoroughdescription of it. If we try to do this using too few words we may lose many readers; if weuse too many words we may bore others. We did our best to walk this fine line, but if youare in the latter group, we encourage you to readfaster. 9. We are deeply grateful to that part of the radiology community who embraced our firsteffort. This second edition was inspired both by the successes and the shortcomings of thefirst edition. We are also grateful to those who provided suggestions for improvement andwe hope that they will be pleased with this new edition.Jerrold T. BushbergJ Anthony SeibertEdwin M Leidholdt, Jr.JohnM Boone 10. During the production of this work, several individuals generously gave their time and exper-tise.First, we would like to thank L. Stephen Graham, Ph.D., University of California, LosAngeles, and Mark W Groch, Ph.D., Northwestern University, who provided valuableinsight in detailed reviews of the chapters on nuclear medicine imaging. We also thankMichael Buonocore, M.D., Ph.D., University of California, Davis, who reviewed the chap-terson MR!, and Fred Mettler, M.D., University of New Mexico, who provided valuablecontributions to the chapter on radiation biology. Raymond Tanner, Ph.D., University ofTennessee, Memphis, provided a useful critique and recommended changes in several chap-tersof the First Edition, which were incorporated into this effort. Virgil Cooper, Ph.D., Uni-versityof California, Los Angeles, provided thoughtful commentary on x-ray imaging and afresh young perspective for gauging our efforts.We are also appreciative of the comments of Stewart Bushong, Ph.D., Baylor College ofMedicine, especially regarding film processing. Walter Huda, Ph.D., SUNY Upstate MedicalUniversity, provided very helpful discussions on many topics. The expertise of Mel Tecotzky,Ph.D., in x-ray phosphors enhanced our discussion of this topic. Skip Kennedy, M.S., Uni-versityof California, Davis, provided technical insight regarding computer networks andPACS.The efforts of Fernando Herrera, UCD Illustration Services, brought to life some of theillustrations used in several chapters. In addition, we would like to acknowledge the superbadministrative support of Lorraine Smith and Patrice Wilbur, whose patience and attentionto detail are greatly appreciated.We are grateful for the contributions that these individuals have made towards thedevelopment of this book. We are also indebted to many other scientists whose work in thisfield predates our own and whose contributions served as the foundation of many of the con-ceptsdeveloped in this book.fT.B.fA.S.E.M.L.fMB. 11. Can medical physics be interesting and exciting? Personally, I find most physics textbooksdry, confusing, and a useful cure for my insomnia. This book is different. Dr. Bushberg andhis colleagues have been teaching residents as well as an international review course in radi-ationphysics, protection, dosimetry, and biology for almost two decades. They know whatworks, what does not, and how to present information clearly.A particularly strong point of this book is that it covers all areas of diagnostic imaging.A number of current texts cover only one area of physics and the residents often purchaseseveral texts by different authors in order to have a complete grasp of the subject matter.Of course, medical imagers are more at home with pictures rather than text and formu-las.Most authors of other physics books have not grasped this concept. The nearly 600exquisite illustrations contained in this substantially revised second edition will make thisbook a favorite of the medical imaging community.Fred A. Mettler Jr., M.D.Professorand ChairDepartment of RadiologyUniversity of New MexicoAlbuquerque, New Mexico 12. BASIC CONCEPTS 13. INTRODUCTION TO MEDICALIMAGINGMedical imaging of the human body requires some form of energy. In the med-icalimaging techniques used in radiology, the energy used to produce the imagemust be capable of penetrating tissues. Visible light, which has limited ability topenetrate tissues at depth, is used mostly outside of the radiology department formedical imaging. Visible light images are used in dermatology (skin photogra-phy),gastroenterology and obstetrics (endoscopy), and pathology (lightmicroscopy). Of course, all disciplines in medicine use direct visual observation,which also utilizes visible light. In diagnostic radiology, the electromagnetic spec-trumoutside the visible light region is used for x-ray imaging, including mam-mographyand computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and nuclearmedicine. Mechanical energy, in the form of high-frequency sound waves, is usedin ultrasound imaging.With the exception of nuclear medicine, all medical imaging requires that theenergy used to penetrate the body's tissues also interact with those tissues. If energywere to pass through the body and not experience some type of interaction (e.g.,absorption, attenuation, scattering), then the detected energy would not containany useful information regarding the internal anatomy, and thus it would not bepossible to construct an image of the anatomy using that information. In nuclearmedicine imaging, radioactive agents are injected or ingested, and it is the metabolicor physiologic interactions of the agent that give rise to the information in theimages.While medical images can have an aesthetic appearance, the diagnostic util-ityof a medical image relates to both the technical quality of the image and theconditions of its acquisition. Consequently, the assessment of image quality inmedical imaging involves very little artistic appraisal and a great deal of technicalevaluation. In most cases, the image quality that is obtained from medical imag-ingdevices involves compromise-better x-ray images can be made when theradiation dose to the patient is high, better magnetic resonance images can bemade when the image acquisition time is long, and better ultrasound imagesresult when the ultrasound power levels are large. Of course, patient safety andcomfort must be considered when acquiring medical images; thus excessivepatient dose in the pursuit of a perfect image is not acceptable. Rather, the powerlevels used to make medical images require a balance between patient safety andimage quality. 14. Different types of medical images can be made by varying the types of energies usedand the acquisition technology. The different modes of making images are referredto as modalities. Each modality has its own applications in medicine.RadiographyRadiography was the first medical imaging technology, made possible when thephysicist Wilhelm Roentgen discovered x-rays on November 8, 1895. Roentgenalso made the first radiographic images of human anatomy (Fig. 1-1). Radiogra-phy(also called roentgenography) defined the field of radiology, and gave rise toradiologists, physicians who specialize in the interpretation of medical images.Radiography is performed with an x-ray source on one side of the patient, and a(typically flat) x-ray detector on the other side. A short duration (typically lessthan 1/2 second) pulse of x-rays is emitted by the x-ray tube, a large fraction of thex-rays interacts in the patient, and some of the x-rays pass through the patient andreach the detector, where a radiographic image is formed. The homogeneous dis-tributionof x-rays that enter the patient is modified by the degree to which thex-rays are removed from the beam (i.e., attenuated) by scattering and absorptionwithin the tissues. The attenuation properties of tissues such as bone, soft tissue,and air inside the patient are very different, resulting in the heterogeneous distri-butionof x-rays that emerges from the patient. The radiographic image is a pic-tureof this x-ray distribution. The detector used in radiography can be photo-graphicfilm (e.g., screen-film radiography) or an electronic detector system (i.e.,digital radiography).FIGURE 1-1. The beginning of diagnosticradiology, represented by this famous radi-ographicimage made on December 22,1895of the wife of the discoverer of x-rays, Wil-helmConrad Roentgen. The bones of herhand as well as two rings on her finger areclearly visible. Within a few months, Roent-genwas able to determine the basic physicalproperties of x-rays. Nearly simultaneously,as word of the discovery spread around theworld, medical applications of this "newkind of ray" propelled radiologic imaginginto an essential component of medical care.In keeping with mathematical conventions,Roentgen assigned the letter "x" to repre-sentthe unknown nature of the ray and thusthe term x-ray was born. Details regardingx-ray production and interactions can befound in Chapters 5 and 3, respectively.(Reproduced from Glasser O. Wilhelm Con-radand Rontgen and the early history of theroentgen rays. Springfield, IL: Charles C.Thomas, 1933, with permission.) 15. FIGURE 1-2. The chest x-ray is themost ubiquitous image in diagnosticradiology. High x-ray energy is usedfor the purpose of penetrating themediastinum, cardiac, and diaphragmareas of the patient without overex-posingareas within the lungs. Varia-tionin the gray-scale image representsan attenuation map of the x-rays: darkareas (high film optical density) havelow attenuation, and bright areas (lowfilm optical density) have high attenu-ation.The image here shows greaterthan normal attenuation in the lowerlobes of the lungs, consistent withplural effusion, right greater than left.Rapid acquisition, low risk, low cost,and high diagnostic value are themajor reasons why x-ray projectionimaging represents the bulk of alldiagnostic imaging studies (typically60% to 70% of all images produced).Projection imaging physics is coveredin Chapter 6.Transmission imaging refers to imaging in which the energy source is outside thebody on one side, and the energy passes through the body and is detected on theother side of the body. Radiography is a transmission imaging modality. Projectionimaging refers to the case when each point on the image corresponds to informationalong a straight line trajectory through the patient. Radiography is also a projectionimaging modality. Radiographic images are useful for a very wide range of medicalindications, including the diagnosis of broken bones, lung cancer, cardiovasculardisorders, etc. (Fig. 1-2).Fluoroscopy refers to the continuous acquisition of a sequence of x-ray images overtime, essentially a real-time x-ray movie of the patient. Fluoroscopy is a transmis-sionprojection imaging modality, and is, in essence, just real-time radiography. Flu-oroscopicsystems use x-ray detector systems capable of producing images in rapidtemporal sequence. Fluoroscopy is used for positioning catheters in arteries, forvisualizing contrast agents in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, and for other medicalapplications such as invasive therapeutic procedures where real-time image feedbackis necessary. Fluoroscopy is also used to make x-ray movies of anatomic motion,such as of the heart or the esophagus.Mammography is radiography of the breast, and is thus a transmission projectiontype of imaging. Much lower x-ray energies are used in mammography than anyother radiographic applications, and consequently modern mammography uses 16. FIGURE 1-3. Mammography is a specialized x-rayprojection imaging technique useful fordetecting breast anomalies such as masses andcalcifications. The mammogram in the imageabove demonstrates a spiculated mass (arrow)with an appearance that is typical of a cancerouslesion in the breast, in addition to blood vesselsand normal anatomy. Dedicated mammographyequipment using low x-ray energies, k-edge fil-ters,compression, screen/film detectors, antiscat-tergrids, and automatic exposure control resultsin optimized breast images of high quality andlow x-ray dose, as detailed in Chapter 8. X-raymammography is the current procedure ofchoice for screening and early detection ofbreast cancer because of high sensitivity, excel-lentbenefit to risk, and low cost.x-ray machines and detector systems specifically designed for breast imaging.Mammography is used to screen asymptomatic women for breast cancer (screen-ingmammography), and is also used to help in the diagnosis of women withbreast symptoms such as the presence of a lump (diagnostic mammography) (Fig.1-3).Computed Tomography (Cl)CT became clinically available in the early 1970s and is the first medical imagingmodality made possible by the computer. CT images are produced by passing x-raysthrough the body, at a large number of angles, by rotating the x-ray tubearound the body. One or more linear detector arrays, opposite the x-ray source,collect the transmission projection data. The numerous data points collected inthis manner are synthesized by a computer into a tomographic image of thepatient. The term tomography refers to a picture (-graph) of a slice (tomo-). CT isa transmission technique that results in images of individual slabs of tissue in thepatient. The advantage of a tomographic image over projection image is its abil-ityto display the anatomy in a slab (slice) of tissue in the absence of over- orunderlying structures.CT changed the practice of medicine by substantially reducing the need forexploratory surgery. Modern CT scanners can acquire 5-mm-thick tomographicimages along a 30-cm length of the patient (i.e., 60 images) in 10 seconds, andreveal the presence of cancer, ruptured discs, subdural hematomas, aneurysms, anda large number of other pathologies (Fig. 1-4). 17. FIGURE 1-4. A computed tomography (CT)image of the abdomen reveals a ruptured disc(arrow) manifested as the bright area of theimage adjacent to the vertebral column.Anatomic structures such as the kidneys, arter-ies,and intestines are clearly represented inthe image. CT provides high-contrast sensitiv-ityfor soft tissue, bone, and air interfaceswithout superimposition of anatomy. Withrecently implemented multiple array detec-tors,scan times of 0.5 seconds per 360 degreesand fast computer reconstruction permitshead-to-toe imaging in as little as 30 seconds.Because of fast acquisition speed, high-con-trastsensitivity, and ability to image tissue,bone, and air, CT remains the workhorse oftomographic imaging in diagnostic radiology.Chapter 13 describes the details of CT.Nuclear Medicine ImagingNuclear medicine is the branch of radiology in which a chemical or compound con-taininga radioactive isotope is given to the patient orally, by injection, or by inhala-tion.Once the compound has distributed itself according to the physiologic statusof the patient, a radiation detector is used to make projection images from the x-and/or gamma rays emitted during radioactive decay of the agent. Nuclear medi-cineproduces emission images (as opposed to transmission images), because theradioisotopes emit their energy from inside the patient.Nuclear medicine imaging is a form of functional imaging. Rather than yield-inginformation about just the anatomy of the patient, nuclear medicine imagesprovide information regarding the physiologic conditions in the patient. For exam-ple,thallium tends to concentrate in normal heart muscle, but does not concentrateas well in areas that are infarcted or ischemic. These areas appear as "cold spots" ona nuclear medicine image, and are indicative of the functional status of the heart.Thyroid tissue has a great affinity for iodine, and by administering radioactiveiodine (or its analogs), the thyroid can be imaged. If thyroid cancer has metastasizedin the patient, then "hot spots" indicating their location will be present on thenuclear medicine images. Thus functional imaging is the forte of nuclear medicine.Nuclear medicine planar images are projection images, since each point on theimage is representative of the radioisotope activity along a line projected throughthe patient. Planar nuclear images are essentially two-dimensional maps of theradioisotope distribution, and are helpful in the evaluation of a large number of dis-orders(Fig. 1-5).Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT)SPECT is the tomographic counterpart of nuclear medicine planar imaging, justlike CT is the tomographic counterpart of radiography. In SPECT, a nuclear cam-erarecords x- or gamma-ray emissions from the patient from a series of different 18. FIGURE 1-5. Anterior and posterior whole-body bonescan of a 74-year-old woman with a history of rightbreast cancer. This patient was injected with 925 MBq(25 mCi) of technetium (Tc) 99m methylenediphospho-nate(MDP) and was imaged 3 hours later with a dual-headedwhole-body scintillation camera. The scandemonstrates multiple areas of osteoblastic metastasesin the axial and proximal skeleton. Incidental findingsinclude an arthritis pattern in the shoulders and leftknee. Computer processed planar imaging is still thestandard for many nuclear medicine examinations (e.g.,whole-body bone scans, hepatobiliary, thyroid, renal,and pulmonary studies). Planar nuclear imaging is dis-cussedin detail in Chapter 21. (Image courtesy of Dr.David Shelton, University of California, Davis MedicalCenter, Davis, CA.)FIGURE 1-6. A myocardial perfusion stress test utilizingthallium 201 (TI 201) and single photon emission com-putedtomography (SPECT)imaging was performed on a79-year-old woman with chest pain. This patient hadpharmacologic stress with dipyridamole and wasinjected with 111 MBq (3 mCi) of TI 201 at peak stress.Stress imaging followed immediately on a variable-angletwo-headed SPECT camera. Image data wasacquired over 180 degrees at 30 seconds per stop. Therest/redistribution was done 3 hours later with a 37-MBq(1-mCi) booster injection of TI 201. Short axis, horizontallong axis, and vertical long axis views show relativelyreduced perfusion on anterolateral wall stress images,with complete reversibility on rest/redistributionimages. Findings indicated coronary stenosis in the leftanterior descending (LAD) coronary artery distribution.SPECTis now the standard for a number of nuclear med-icineexaminations including cardiac perfusion and brainand tumor imaging. SPECTimaging is discussed in detailin Chapter 22. (Image courtesy of Dr. David Shelton, Uni-versityof California, Davis Medical Center, Davis, CA.) 19. angles around the patient. These projection data are used to reconstruct a series oftomographic emission images. SPECT images provide diagnostic functional infor-mationsimilar to nuclear planar examinations; however, their tomographic natureallows physicians to better understand the precise distriburion of the radioactiveagent, and to make a better assessment of the function of specific organs or tissueswithin the body (Fig. 1-6). The same radioactive isotopes are used in both planarnuclear imaging and SPECT.Positron Emission Tomography (PET)Positrons are positively charged electrons, and are emitted by some radioactive iso-topessuch as fluorine 18 and oxygen 15. These radioisotopes are incorporated intometabolically relevant compounds [such as 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FOG)), whichlocalize in the body after administration. The decay of the isotope produces apositron, which rapidly undergoes a very unique interaction: the positron (e+)com-bineswith an electron (e-) from the surrounding tissue, and the mass of both the e+and the e- is converted by annihilation into pure energy, following Einstein's famousequation E = m? The energy that is emitted is called annihilation radiation. Anni-hilationradiation production is similar to gamma-ray emission, except that twophotons are emitted, and they are emitted in almost exactly opposite directions, i.e.,180 degrees from each other. A PET scanner utilizes a ring of detectors that sur-roundthe patient, and has special circuitry that is capable of identifYing the pho-tonpairs produced during annihilation. When a photon pair is detected by twodetectors on the scanner, it is known that the decay event took place somewherealong a straight line between those two detectors. This information is used to math-ematicallycompute the three-dimensional distribution of the PET agent, resultingin a series of tomographic emission images.Although more expensive than SPECT, PET has clinical advantages in certaindiagnostic areas. The PET detector system is more sensitive to the presence ofradioisotopes than SPECT cameras, and thus can detect very subtle pathologies.Furthermore, many of the elements that emit positrons (carbon, oxygen, fluorine)are quite physiologically relevant (fluorine is a good substitute for a hydroxylgroup), and can be incorporated into a large number of biochemicals. The mostimportant of these is 18FOG, which is concentrated in tissues of high glucosemetabolism such as primary tumors and their metastases (Fig. 1-7).Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)MRI scanners use magnetic fields that are about 10,000 to 60,000 times strongerthan the earth's magnetic field. Most MRI utilizes the nuclear magnetic resonanceproperties of the proton-i.e., the nucleus of the hydrogen atom, which is veryabundant in biologic tissues (each cubic millimeter of tissue contains about 1018protons). The proton has a magnetic moment, and when placed in a 1.5-tesla (T)magnetic field, the proton will preferentially absorb radio wave energy at the reso-nancefrequency of 63 megahertz (MHz).In MRI, the patient is placed in the magnetic field, and a pulse of radio wavesis generated by antennas ("coils") positioned around the patient. The protons in thepatient absorb the radio waves, and subsequently reemit this radio wave energy aftera period of time that depends on the very localized magnetic properties of the sur- 20. FIGURE 1-7. Whole-body positron emission tomography (PET) scanof a 54-year-old man with malignant melanoma. Patient wasinjected intravenously with 600 MBq (16 mCi) of 1sF-deoxyglucose.The patient was imaged for 45 minutes, beginning 75 minutes afterinjection of the radiopharmaceutical. The image demonstratesextensive metastatic disease with abnormalities throughout the axialand proximal appendicular skeleton, right and left lungs, liver, andleft inguinal and femoral lymph nodes. The unique ability of the PETscan in this case was to correctly assessthe extent of disease, whichwas underestimated by CT, and to serve as a baseline against whichfuture comparisons could be made to assess the effects ofimmunochemotherapy. PET has applications in functional brain andcardiac imaging and is rapidly becoming a routine diagnostic tool inthe staging of many cancers. PETtechnology is discussed in detail inChapter 22. (Image courtesy of Dr. George Segall, VA Medical Center,Palo Alto, CA.)rounding tissue. The radio waves emitted by the protons in the patient are detectedby the antennas that surround the patient. By slightly changing the strength of themagnetic field as a function of position in the patient (using magnetic field gradi-ents),the proton resonance frequency will vary as a function of position, since fre-quencyis proportional to magnetic field strength. The MRI system uses the fre-quency(and phase) of the returning radio waves to determine the position of eachsignal from the patient. The mode of operation of MRI systems is often referred toas spin echo imaging.MRI produces a set of tomographic slices through the patient, where eachpoint in the image depends on the micro magnetic properties of the correspondingtissue at that point. Because different types of tissue such as fat, white, and graymatter in the brain, cerebral spinal fluid, and cancer all have different local mag-neticproperties, images made using MRI demonstrate high sensitivity to anatomicvariations and therefore are high in contrast. MRI has demonstrated exceptionalutility in neurologic imaging (head and spine), and for musculoskeletal applicationssuch as imaging the knee after athletic injury (Fig. 1-8).MRI is a tomographic imaging modality, and competes with x-ray CT in manyclinical applications. The acquisition of the highest-quality images using MRIrequires tens of minutes, whereas a CT scan of the entire head requires abour 10seconds. Thus, for patients where motion cannot be controlled (pediatric patients)or in anatomic areas where involuntary patient motion occurs (the beating heart 21. FIGURE '-8. Sagittal (upper left), coronal (lower left), and axial (right) normal images of the braindemonstrate the exquisite contrast sensitivity and acquisition capability of magnetic resonanceimaging (MRI). Image contrast is generated by specific MR pulse sequences (upper images are T1-weighted, lower images are T2 weighted) to emphasize the magnetization characteristics of the tis-suesplaced in a strong magnetic field, based on selective excitation and reemission of radiofre-quencysignals. MRI is widely used for anatomic as well as physiologic and functional imaging, andis the modality of choice for neurologic assessment, staging of cancer, and physiologic/anatomicevaluation of extremities and joints. Further information regarding MRI can be found in Chapters 14and 15. 22. and the churning intestines), CT is often used instead of MRI. Also, because of thelarge magnetic field used in MRI, electronic monitoring equipment cannot be usedwhile the patient is being scanned. Thus, for most trauma, CT is preferred. MRIshould not be performed on patients who have cardiac pacemakers or internal fer-romagneticobjects such as surgical aneurysm clips, metal plate or rod implants, ormetal shards near critical structures like the eye.Despite some indications where MRI should not be used, fast image acquisi-tiontechniques using special coils have made it possible to produce images in muchshorter periods of time, and this has opened up the potential of using MRI forimaging of the motion-prone thorax and abdomen. MRI scanners can also detectthe presence of motion, which is useful for monitoring blood flow through arteries(MR angiography).Ultrasound ImagingWhen a book is dropped on a table, the impact causes pressure waves (called sound)to propagate through the air such that they can be heard at a distance. Mechanicalenergy in the form of high-frequency ("ultra") sound can be used to generate imagesof the anatomy of a patient. A short-duration pulse of sound is generated by anultrasound transducer that is in direct physical contact with the tissues beingimaged. The sound waves travel into the tissue, and are reflected by internal struc-turesin the body, creating echoes. The reflected sound waves then reach the trans-FIGURE 1-9. The ultrasound image is a map of the echoes from tissue boundariesof high-frequency sound wave pulses (typically from 2 to 20 MHz frequency) gray-scaleencoded into a two-dimensional tomographic image. A phased-array trans-duceroperating at 3.5 MHz produced this normal obstetrical ultrasound image ofJennifer Lauren Bushberg (at approximately 3112 months). Variations in the imagebrightness are due to acoustic characteristics of the tissues; for example, the fluid inthe placenta is echo free, while most fetal tissues are echogenic and produce alarger signal strength. Shadowing is caused by highly attenuating or scattering tis-suessuch as bone or air and the corresponding distal low-intensity streaks. Besidestomographic acoustic imaging, distance measurements (e.g., fetal head diameterassessment for aging), and vascular assessment using Doppler techniques and colorflow imaging are common. Increased use of ultrasound is due to low equipmentcost, portability, high safety, and minimal risk. Details of ultrasound are found inChapter 16. 23. ducer, which records the returning sound beam. This mode of operation of an ultra-sounddevice is called pulse echo imaging. The sound beam is swept over a range ofangles (a sector) and the echoes from each line are recorded and used to computean ultrasonic image in the shape of a sector (sector scanning).Ultrasound is reflected strongly by interfaces, such as the surfaces and internalstructures of abdominal organs. Because ultrasound is less harmful than ionizingradiation to a growing fetus, ultrasound imaging is preferred in obstetric patients(Fig. 1-9). An interface between tissue and air is highly echoic, and thus very littlesound can penetrate from tissue into an air-filled cavity. Therefore, ultrasoundimaging has less utility in the thorax where the air in the lungs presents a wall thatthe sound beam cannot penetrate. Similarly, an interface between tissue and boneis also highly echoic, thus making brain imaging, for example, impractical in mostcases.Doppler Ultrasound ImagingDoppler imaging using ultrasound makes use of a phenomenon familiar to trainenthusiasts. For the observer standing beside railroad tracks as a rapidly movingtrain goes by blowing its whistle, the pitch of the whistle is higher as the trainapproaches and becomes lower as the train passes by the observer and speeds offinto the distance. The change in the pitch of the whistle, which is an apparentchange in the frequency of the sound, is a result of the Doppler effect. The samephenomenon occurs at ultrasound frequencies, and the change in frequency (theDoppler shift) is used to measure the motion of blood or of the heart. Both thevelocity and direction of blood flow can be measured, and color Doppler displayusually shows blood flow in one direction as red and in the other direction asblue.Contrast in an image is the difference in the gray scale of the image. A uniformlygray image has no contrast, whereas an image with vivid transitions between darkgray and light gray demonstrates high contrast. Each imaging modality generatescontrast based on different physical parameters in the patient.X-ray contrast (radiography, fluoroscopy, mammography, and CT) is producedby differences in tissue composition, which affect the local x-ray absorption coeffi-cient,which in turn is dependent on the density (g/cm3) and the effective atomicnumber. The energy of the x-ray beam (adjusted by the operator) also affects con-trastin x-ray images. Because bone has a markedly different effective atomic num-ber(Zeff "" 13) than soft tissue (Zeff "" 7), due to its high concentration of calcium(Z = 20) and phosphorus (Z = 15), bones produce high contrast on x-ray imagemodalities. The chest radiograph, which demonstrates the lung parenchyma withhigh tissue/airway contrast, is the most common radiographic procedure performedin the world (Fig. 1-2).CT's contrast is enhanced over other radiographic imaging modalities due toits tomographic nature. The absence of out-of-slice structures in the CT imagegreatly improves its image contrast. 24. Nuclear medicine images (planar images, SPECT, and PET) are maps of thespatial distribution of radioisotopes in the patients. Thus, contrast in nuclear imagesdepends on the tissue's ability to concentrate the radioactive material. The uptakeof a radiopharmaceutical administered to the patient is dependent on the pharma-cologicinteraction of the agent with the body. PET and SPECT have much bettercontrast than planar nuclear imaging because, like CT, the images are not obscuredby out-of-slice structures.Contrast in MRI is related primarily to the proton density and to relaxationphenomena (i.e., how fast a group of protons gives up its absorbed energy). Protondensity is influenced by the mass density (g/cm3), so MRI can produce images thatlook somewhat like CT images. Proton density differs among tissue types, and inparticular adipose tissues have a higher proportion of protons than other tissues,due to the high concentration of hydrogen in fat [CH3(CH2)nCOOH]. Two dif-ferentrelaxation mechanisms (spinllattice and spin/spin) are present in tissue, andthe dominance of one over the other can be manipulated by the timing of theradiofrequency (RF) pulse sequence and magnetic field variations in the MRI sys-tem.Through the clever application of different pulse sequences, blood flow can bedetected using MRI techniques, giving rise to the field of MR angiography. Con-trastmechanisms in MRI are complex, and thus provide for the flexibility and util-ityof MR as a diagnostic tool.Contrast in ultrasound imaging is largely determined by the acoustic propertiesof the tissues being imaged. The difference between the acoustic impedances (tissuedensity X speed of sound in tissue) of two adjacent tissues or other substances affectsthe amplitude of the returning ultrasound signal. Hence, contrast is quite apparentat tissue interfaces where the differences in acoustic impedance are large. Thus,ultrasound images display unique information about patient anatomy not providedby other imaging modalities. Doppler ultrasound imaging shows the amplitude anddirection of blood flow by analyzing the frequency shift in the reflected signal, andthus motion is the source of contrast.Spatial ResolutionJust as each modality has different mechanisms for providing contrast, each modal-ityalso has different abilities to resolve fine detail in the patient. Spatial resolutionrefers to the ability to see small detail, and an imaging system has higher spatial res-olutionif it can demonstrate the presence of smaller objects in the image. The lim-itingspatial resolution is the size of the smallest object that an imaging system canresolve.Table 1-1 lists the limiting spatial resolution of each imaging modality used inmedical imaging. The wavelength of the energy used to probe the object is a fun-damental limitation of the spatial resolution of an imaging modality. For example,optical microscopes cannot resolve objects smaller than the wavelengths of visiblelight, about 500 nm. The wavelength of x-rays depends on the x-ray energy, buteven the longest x-ray wavelengths are tiny-about one ten-billionth of a meter.This is far from the actual resolution in x-ray imaging, but it does represent the the-oreticlimit on the spatial resolution using x-rays. In ultrasound imaging, the wave-lengthof sound is the fundamental limit of spatial resolution. At 3.5 MHz, thewavelength of sound in soft tissue is about 0.50 mm. At 10 MHz, the wavelengthis 0.15 mm. 25. TABLE 1-1. THE LIMITING SPATIAL RESOLUTIONS OF VARIOUS MEDICALIMAGING MODALITIES: THE RESOLUTION LEVELS ACHIEVED IN TYPICALCLINICAL USAGE OF THE MODALITYScreen film radiographyDigital radiographyFluoroscopyScreen film mammographyDigital mammographyComputed tomographyNuclear medicine planarimagingSingle photon emissioncomputed tomographyPositron emission tomographyMagnetic resonance imagingUltrasound imaging (5 MHz)!l(mm)0.080.170.1250.030.05-0.100.47Limited by focal spot and detector resolutionLimited by size of detector elementsLimited by detector and focal spotHighest resolution modality in radiologyLimited by size of detector elementsAbout 'h-mm pixelsSpatial resolution degrades substantially withdistance from detectorSpatial resolution worst toward the center ofcross-sectional image sliceBetter spatial resolution than with the othernuclear imaging modalitiesResolution can improve at higher magnetic fieldsLimited by wavelength of soundMRI poses a paradox to the wavelength imposed resolution rule-the wave-lengthof the RF waves used (at 1.5 T, 63 MHz) is 470 cm, but the spatial resolu-tionof MRI is better than a millimeter. This is because the spatial distribution ofthe paths ofRF energy is not used to form the actual image (contrary to ultrasound,light microscopy, and x-ray images). The RF energy is collected by a large antenna,and it carries the spatial information of a group of protons encoded in its frequencyspectrum. 26. Radiation is energy that travels through space or matter. Two types of radiation usedin diagnostic imaging are electromagnetic (EM) and particulate.Electromagnetic RadiationVisible light, radio waves, and x-rays are different types of EM radiation. EM radi-ationhas no mass, is unaffected by either electrical or magnetic fields, and has aconstant speed in a given medium. Although EM radiation propagates throughmatter, it does not require matter for its propagation. Its maximum speed (2.998 X108 m/sec) occurs in a vacuum. In other media, its speed is a function of the trans-portcharacteristics of the medium. EM radiation travels in straight lines; however,its trajectory can be altered by interaction with matter. This interaction can occureither by absorption (removal of the radiation) or scattering (change in trajectory).EM radiation is characterized by wavelength (A), frequency (v), and energy perphoton (E). Categories of EM radiation (including radiant heat; radio, TV, andmicrowaves; infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light; and x- and gamma rays) com-prisethe electromagnetic spectrum (Fig. 2-1).EM radiation used in diagnostic imaging include: (a) gamma rays, whichemanate from within the nuclei of radioactive atoms and are used to image the dis-tributionof radiopharmaceuticals; (b) x-rays, which are produced outside thenucleus and are used in radiography and computed tomography imaging; (c) visi-blelight, which is produced in detecting x- and gamma rays and is used for theobservation and interpretation of images; and (d) radiofrequency EM radiation inthe FM region, which is used as the transmission and reception signal for magneticresonance imaging (MRI).There are two equally correct ways of describing EM radiation-as waves andas particle-like units of energy called photons or quanta. In some situations EM radi-ationbehaves like waves and in other situations like particles.All waves (mechanical or electromagnetic) are characterized by their amplitude(maximal height), wavelength (A), frequency (v), and period. The amplitude is theintensity of the wave. The wavelength is the distance between any two identical 27. WAVELENGTH(nanometers)FREQUENCY(hertz)1015 1012 109 106 103 10-3 10-660 106 1012 1018 1024 . UltraRadio violetTelevisionRadar .. .MRI Gamma rays . .. X-Rays . Radiant Heat diagnostic therapeuticVisible Cosmic rays10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3 103 106 109Red Orange Yellow Green Blue VioletENERGY(electron volts)points on adjacent cycles. The time required to complete one cycle of a wave (i.e.,one A) is the period. The number of periods that occur per second is the frequency(l/period). Phase is the temporal shift of one wave with respect to the other. Someof these quantities are depicted in Fig. 2-2. The speed (c), wavelength, and fre-quencyof all waves are related byBecause the speed of EM radiation is essentially constant, its frequency andwavelength are inversely proportional. Wavelengths of x-rays and gamma rays aretypically measured in nanometers (nm), where 1 nm = 10-9 m. Frequency isexpressed in hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz = 1 cycle/sec = 1 sec-I.EM radiation propagates as a pair of perpendicUlar electric and magnetic fields,as shown in Fig. 2-3.A.= wavelength3/4 cycle (270) out of phase,", - - ~ ,, ,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,'2,,,,,,... ,'..... -,' 28. When interacting with matter, EM radiation can exhibit particle-like behavior. Theseparticle-like bundles of energy are called photom. The energy of a photon is given bywhere h (Planck's constant)= 6.62 X 10-34 J-sec = 4.13 X 10-18 keY-see. When E isexpressed in keY and Ie in nanometers (nm):E (keV) =1.24Ie (nm)The energies of photons are commonly expressed in electron volts (eV). Oneelectron volt is defined as the energy acquired by an electron as it traverses an elec-tricalpotential difference (voltage) of one volt in a vacuum. Multiples of the eVcommon to medical imaging are the keY (1,000 eV) and the MeV (1,000,000 eV).Ionizing V5. Nonionizing RadiationEM radiation of higher frequency than the near-ultraviolet region of the spectrumcarries sufficient energy per photon to remove bound electrons from atomic shells,thus producing ionized atoms and molecules. Radiation in this portion of the spec-trum(e.g., ultraviolet radiation, x-rays, and gamma rays) is called ionizing radiation.EM radiation with energy below the far-ultraviolet region (e.g., visible light,infrared, radio and TV broadcasts) is called nonionizing radiation. The thresholdenergy for ionization depends on the type of matter. For example, the minimumenergies necessary to remove an electron (referred to as the ionization potential)from H20 and C6H6 are 12.6 and 9.3 eV, respectively. 29. The physical properties of the most important particulate radiations associated withmedical imaging are listed in Table 2-1. Protons are found in the nuclei of all atoms.A proton has a single positive charge and is the nucleus of a hydrogen-l atom. Elec-tronsexist in atomic orbits. Electrons are also emitted by the nuclei of someradioactive atoms; in this case they are referred to as beta-minus particles. Beta-minusparticles (~-) are also referred to as negatrons or simply "beta particles."Positrons are positively charged electrons (~+), and are emitted from some nucleiduring radioactive decay. A neutron is an uncharged nuclear particle that has a massslightly greater than that of a proton. Neutrons are released by nuclear fission andare used for radio nuclide production. An alpha particle (X2+) consists of two pro-tonsand two neutrons; it thus has a +2 charge and is identical to the nucleus of ahelium atom (4He2+). Alpha particles are emitted by certain naturally occurringradioactive materials, such as uranium, thorium, and radium. Following such emis-sionsthe (X2+ particle eventually acquires two electrons from the surroundingmedium and becomes a neutral helium atom (4He).Einstein's theory of relativity states that mass and energy are interchangeable. In anyreaction, the sum of the mass and energy must be conserved. In classical physics,there are two separate conservation laws, one for mass and one for energy. Einsteinshowed that these conservation laws are valid only for objects moving at low speeds.The speeds associated with some nuclear processes approach the speed of light. Atthese speeds, mass and energy are equivalent according to the expressionwhere E represents the energy equivalent to mass m at rest and c is the speed oflightin a vacuum (2.998 X 108 m/sec). For example, the energy equivalent of an electron(m = 9.109 X 10-31 kg) isE = (9.109 X 10-31 kg) (2.998 X 108 m/sec?E = 8.187 X 10-14 JE = (8.187 X 10-14 J) (I MeV/1.602 X 10-13 J)E = 0.511 MeV or 511 keVApproximate EnergyEquivalent (MeV)AlphaProtonElectron (beta minus)Positron (beta plus)NeutronlX,4He2+p, 'H+e-, ~-e+, 13+nO4.00281.0075930.0005480.0005481.00898237279380.5110.511940 30. The atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as l/12thof the mass of an atom of 12c.It can be shown that 1 amu is equivalent to 931 MeV of energy.The atom is the smallest division of an element in which the chemical identity ofthe element is maintained. The atom is composed of an extremely dense positivelycharged nucleus containing protons and neutrons and an extranuclear cloud oflightnegatively charged electrons. In its nonionized state, an atom is electrically neutralbecause the number of protons equals the number of electrons. The radius of anatom is approximately 10-10 m, whereas that of the nucleus is only about 10-14 m.Thus, the atom is largely unoccupied space, in which the volume of the nucleus isonly 10-12 (a millionth of a millionth) the volume of the atom. If the empty spacein an atom could be removed, a cubic centimeter of protons would have a mass ofapproximately 4 million metric tons.Electronic StructureElectron Orbits and Electron Binding EnergyIn the Bohr model of the atom (proposed by Niels Bohr in 1913) electrons orbitaround a dense positively charged nucleus at fixed distances. Each electron occupiesa discrete energy state in a given electron shell. These electron shells are assigned theletters K, L, M, N, ..., with K denoting the innermost shell. The shells are alsoassigned the quantum numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, ... , with the quantum number 1 desig-natingthe K shell. Each shell can contain a maximum number of electrons given by(2n2), where n is the quantum number of the shell. Thus, the K shell (n = 1) canonly hold 2 electrons, the L shell (n = 2) can hold 2(2)2 or 8 electrons, and so on,as shown in Fig. 2-4."" 8 K L M N 0 P Q ) ))))).- /.:/ ,I:: :.:: :/ /'Quantum # 2 3 4 5 6 7Maximum 2 8 18 32 50 72 98Electron FIGURE 2-4. Electron shell des-Capacity ignations and orbital filling rules. 31. i ./$'~>- ....Ol (jjc:WThe energy required to remove an electron completely from the atom is calledits binding energy. By convention, binding energies are negative with increasingmagnitude for electrons in shells closer to the nucleus. For an electron to becomeionized, the energy transferred to it from a photon or particulate form of ionizingradiation must equal or exceed the magnitude of the electron's binding energy. Thebinding energy of electrons in a particular orbit increases with the number of pro-tonsin the nucleus (i.e., atomic number). In Fig. 2-5, binding energies are com-paredfor electrons in hydrogen (Z = 1) and tungsten (Z = 74). If a free (unbound)electron is assumed to have a total energy of zero, the total energy of a bound elec-tronis zero minus its binding energy. A K shell electron of tungsten is much moretightly bound (-69,500 eV) than the K shell electron of hydrogen (-13.5 eV). Theenergy required to move an electron from the innermost electron orbit (K shell) tothe next orbit (L shell) is the difference between the binding energies of the twoorbits (i.e., EbK - EbL equals the transition energy).Hydrogen:Advances in atomic physics and quantum mechanics have led to refinements ofthe Bohr model. According to contemporary views on atomic structure, orbitalelectrons are assigned probabilities for occupying any location within the atom.Nevertheless, the greatest probabilities are associated with Bohr's original atomicradii. The outer electron shell of an atom, the valence shell, determines the chemi-calproperties of the element.i ./$' -11,000~>- ....Ol (jjc:WFIGURE 2-5. Energy-level diagrams for hydrogen and tungsten. Energies associated with var-iouselectron orbits (not drawn to scale) increase with Z and decrease with distance from thenucleus. 32. When an electron is removed from its shell by an x- or gamma-ray photon or a chargedparticle interaction, a vacancy is created in that shell. This vacancy is usually filled byan electron from an outer shell, leaving a vacancy in the outer shell that in turn may befilled by an electron transition from a more distant shell. This series of transitions iscalled an electron cascade. The energy released by each transition is equal to the differ-encein binding energy between the original and final shells of the electron. This energymay be released by the atom as characteristic x-rays or Auger electrons.Electron transitions between atomic shells results in the emission of radiation in thevisible, ultraviolet, and x-ray portions of the EM spectrum. The energy of this radi-ationis characteristic of each atom, since the electron binding energies depend onZ. Emissions from transitions exceeding 100 eV are called characteristic or fluores-centx-rays. Characteristic x-rays are named according to the orbital in which thevacancy occurred. For example, the radiation resulting from a vacancy in the K shellis called a K-characteristic x-ray, and the radiation resulting from a vacancy in the Lshell is called an L-characteristic x-ray. If the vacancy in one shell is filled by theadjacent shell it is identified by a subscript alpha (e.g., L -7 K transition = Ka, M-7 L transition = La. If the electron vacancy is filled from a nonadjacent shell, thesubscript beta is used (e.g., M -7 K transition = KI3)' The energy of the characteris-ticx-ray (ECharacteristiics)the difference between the electron binding energies (Eb) ofthe respective shells:Thus, as illustrated in Fig. 2-6A, an M to K shell transition in tungsten wouldproduce a KI3 characteristic x-ray ofE (KI3) = EbK- EbME (KI3) = 69.5 keY - 2.5 keY = 67 keY-2.5 keY -~_"'"-11 keY --L'.'~Cascading I --......@ ~electron FIGURE 2-6. De-excitation of a tungsten atom. An electron transition filling a vacancy in an orbitcloser to the nucleus will be accompanied by either the emission of characteristic radiation (A) orthe emission of an auger electron (8). 33. An electron cascade does not always result in the production of a characteristic x-ray.A competing process that predominates in low Z elements is Auger electron emis-sion.In this case, the energy released is transferred to an orbital electron, typicallyin the same shell as the cascading electron (Fig. 2-6B). The ejected Auger electronpossesses kinetic energy equal to the difference between the transition energy andthe binding energy of the ejected electron.The probability that the electron transition will result in the emission of a char-acteristicx-ray is called the fluorescent yield (ro). Thus 1 - ro is the probability thatthe transition will result in the ejection of an Auger electron. Auger emission pre-dominatesin low Z elements and in electron transitions of the outer shells of heavyelements. The K-shell fluorescent yield is essentially zero (:0::%:::)1 for elements Z < 10(i.e., the elements comprising the majority of soft tissue), about 15% for calcium(Z = 20), about 65% for iodine (Z = 53), and approaches 80% for Z >60.The Atomic NucleusComposition of the NucleusThe nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons (known collectively as nucleons).The number of protons in the nucleus is the atomic number (Z) and the total num-berof protons and neutrons (N) within the nucleus is the mass number (A). It isimportant not to confuse the mass number with the atomic mass, which is theactual mass of the atom. For example, the mass number of oxygen-16 is 16 (8 pro-tonsand 8 neutrons), whereas its atomic mass is 15.9949 amu. The notation spec-ifyingan atom with the chemical symbol X is ~XN.In this notation, Z and X areredundant because the chemical symbol identifies the element and thus the num-berof protons. For example, the symbols H, He, and Li refer to atoms with Z = 1,2, and 3, respectively. The number of neutrons is calculated as N = A - Z. Forexample, I?Jhs is usually written as 1311 or as 1-131. The charge on an atom is indi-catedby a superscript to the right of the chemical symbol. For example, Ca+2 indi-catesthat the calcium atom has lost two electrons.There are two main forces that act in opposite directions on particles in the nucleus.The coulombic force between the protons is repulsive and is countered by theattractive force resulting from the exchange of pions (subnuclear particles) amongall nucleons. These exchange forces, also called the strong forces, hold the nucleustogether but operate only over very short nuclear distances ( Tc-99: ilE = 142 keYAtomic and mass numbers butdifferent energy states 35. 160150140130120110100N :0:;ctl 20Q) 0::10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90Scatter Incidence Angle (degrees)FIGURE 6-27. The distribution ofscattered x-ray photons as a func-tionof the scatter incidence angle .In the absence of a grid ("nogrid"), the angle of scattered radi-ation,which emanates from thepatient and strikes the detectorsystem, is illustrated. In the pres-enceof a grid, the number of scat-teredx-ray photons that strike thedetector is markedly reduced andthe incidence angle is shifted tosmaller angles. Grids with highergrid ratios pass fewer scattered x-rayphotons than those with lowergrid ratios do. 177. lar to the direction of the slits. Moving the grid during the x-ray exposure blursthe grid bars so that they are not visible on the radiographic image. The devicethat moves the grid on a radiographic system is called the Bucky (after its inven-tor).The grid frequency refers to the number of grid bars per unit length. Grids with40 and 60 grid lines per centimeter are commonly available. Grids with 80 gridlines per centimeter are available but quite expensive. The grid frequency does notinfluence the scatter cleanup performance of the grid. For stationary grids, the gridfrequency determines the spacing of the striped pattern that the grid produces onthe film. Many institutions now make use of a stationary grid for upright chest radi-ographyrather than bear the expense of the Bucky system, and the radiologistignores the finely spaced stripe pattern in the image. The grid frequency is veryimportant if the film is to be digitized or if digital receptors are used for radiogra-phy.A stationary grid imposes a periodic pattern that can cause aliasing with digi-talimaging systems. (Aliasing describes an image artifact that is caused by insuffi-cientdigital sampling). Aliasing often produces moire patterns (see Chapter 10 formore information on aliasing).The interspace material influences the dose efficiency of the grid. Ideally, theinterspace material should be air; however, the material must support the mal-leablelead septa. Aluminum is the most common interspace material, althoughcarbon fiber is becoming standard on the more expensive grids. Carbon fiber orair interspaces are an absolute requirement for the low-energy realm of mam-mography.The Bucky factor describes one aspect of the performance of a grid under a setof clinical conditions (including kVp and patient thickness). The Bucky factor is theratio of the entrance exposure to the patient when the grid is used to the entranceexposure without the grid while achieving the same film density. Bucky factors forvarious kVps and grid ratios are illustrated in Fig. 6-28, as determined by computersimulations. Bucky factors range from about 3 to 5....ot5COLL >.4 ~():JCO- 12:1-----------1-O-:-t8:180 100kVpFIGURE 6-28. The Bucky factorfor four different grid ratios isshown as a function of peak kilo-voltage(kVp) for a 3D-cm field ofview and 3D-cmthickness of water.The Bucky factor is the increase inthe entrance exposure to thepatient that is required (at thesame kVp) to compensate for thepresence of the grid and toachieve the same optical density.Higher grid ratios are more effec-tiveat reducing detected scatterbut require a higher Bucky factor. 178. Most artifacts associated with the use of a grid have to do with mispositioning.Because grids in radiographic suites are usually permanently installed, misposition-inggenerally occurs only during installation or servicing of the system. For portableexaminations, grids are sometimes used as a grid cap (which allows the grid to befirmly attached to the cassette). The chance of grid mispositioning in portable radi-ographyis much higher than in a radiographic suite. Common positioning errorsassociated with the use of a grid are illustrated in Fig. 6-29. The radiologist shouldbe able to identifY the presence and cause of various grid artifacts when present. Forexample, for an upside-down grid (see Fig. 6-29), there will be a band of maximum00 along the center of the image in the direction of the grid bars (usually vertical),and there will be significant grid cutoff (reduced 00 on the film) toward both sidesof the image.Air GapsThe use of an air gap between the patient and the screen-film detector reduces theamount of detected scatter, as illustrated in Fig. 6-30. The clinical utility of thisapproach to scatter cleanup is compromised by several factors, including the addi-FIGURE 6-29. Grid orientation.The correct orientation of thegrid with respect to the patientand x-ray source is illustrated inthe upper left drawing. Fourimproperly positioned grids areillustrated in the subsequentdiagrams. 179. FIGURE 6-30. Air gap geometry canreduce the amount of scatter radiationreaching the detector system. When thedistance between the patient and thedetector is increi3sed (8), fewer x-rayphotons reach the detector system com-paredwith the positioning in (A), owingto simple geometric considerations.tional object magnification and the reduced field of view that is imaged by a detec-torof fixed dimensions. The additional object magnification often causes a loss ofspatial resolution, unless a very small focal spot is used. In general, air gaps have notenjoyed much use in general radiography for scatter cleanup, outside of chest radi-ography.In chest radiography, the larger SID allows a small air gap to be used (e.g.,20 cm) without imposing too much magnification. Grids are still routinely used inall of radiography other than extremity studies, some pediatric studies, and magni-ficationmammography views.Haus AG. The AAPM/RSNA physics tutorial for residents: Measures of screen-film performance.Radiographies 1996;16:1165-1181. 180. Film is a unique technology, born of the 19th century, which allows an optical sceneto be recorded. Film itself was a novelty when x-rays were discovered in 1895. Inthe early days of radiography, film emulsion was coated onto glass plates andexposed to x-rays, and prints from the developed plates were produced for inter-pretation.No intensifYing screen was used. With the start of World War I in 1914,the supply of glass plates from Belgium was halted, while the demand for medicalradiography for injured soldiers increased. A cellulose nitrate film base with a sin-gle-sided emulsion was developed and used with a single intensifYing screen to pro-duceradiographs. By 1918, a dual emulsion film was developed and dual-screencassettes were used, which allowed a reduction of the exposure time. Cellulosenitrate was highly flammable, and it was succeeded by less flammable cellulose tri-acetate.In the 1960s, polyester was introduced and became the standard film basein the radiography industry.Film processing was performed by hand, using a system of chemical vats, untilthe first automatic film processor (which was more than 3 m long and weighedabout 640 kg) was introduced in 1956. This system could produce a dry radi-ographicfilm in 6 minutes. Although the use of film is gradually giving way to dig-italtechnologies in the 21st century, film remains a high-resolution recordingmedium that serves as the optical detector, the display device, and the medicalarchive.7.1 FILM EXPOSUREFilm EmulsionThe film emulsion consists of silver halide crystals suspended in a high-quality, cleargelatin. A thin adhesive layer attaches the film emulsion to the flexible polyesterbase. The silver halide is approximately 95% AgBr and 5% AgI. The positive silveratoms (Ag+) are ionically bonded to the bromine (Br-) and iodine (1-) atoms. Silverhalide forms a cubic crystalline lattice of AgBr and AgI. The silver halide crystalsused for film emulsion have defects in their lattice structure introduced by silver sul-fide,AgS. Defects in crystalline structure give rise to unique chemical properties inmany substances. For example, a small amount of terbium is added to GdzOzS(GdzOzS:Tb) to initiate defects in that crystal, and this "activator" is largely respon-siblefor the excellent fluorescent properties of GdzOzS:Tb intensifying screens.Europium is added to BaFBr (BaFBr:Eu) to introduce lattice defects in that storage 181. silver halidecrystalsFIGURE 7-1. A conceptual illustration oftabular grain silver halide crystals is illus-trated.The sensitivity speck is a place onthe crystal where silver reduction takesplace; for exposed crystals. the sensitivityspeck becomes the location of the latentimage center.sensitivityspecksphosphor. The defect in the silver halide crystal gives rise to its optical properties inthe region of a sensitivity speck (Fig. 7-1).In the silver halide crystal, the Ag atoms and the halide atoms share electronsin an ionic bond, and a negative charge (the excess electrons contributed by Br- and1-) builds up on the surface of the silver halide crystal. A positive charge (Ag+) accu-mulatesinside the crystal. The sensitivity speck, induced by defects in the crystal, isessentially a protrusion of positive charge that reaches the surface of the crystal (Fig.7-2).The Latent ImageThe hundreds of visible light photons emitted by each x-ray interaction in theintensifying screen are scattered through the screen matrix, and some fraction reachthe interface between the screen and the film emulsion. Reflection and refractiontakes place at this interface, and a number of the light photons cross the interfaceFIGURE 7-2. The cubic lattice of a silver halide crystalis illustrated. 182. and eventually reach the film emulsion. Light photons are little packets of energy,and loosely bound electrons in the silver halide can absorb light energy and drift asfree electrons in the emulsion. The negatively charged free electrons can come incontact with the positive sensitiviry speck, where ionic silver (Ag+) is reduced tometallic silver by the free electron:Recall that the loss of an electron is called oxidation; the gain of an electronis called reduction. Thus, light exposure causes a small number of the silver ionsin the film emulsion to become reduced and be converted to metallic silver, Ag.It is known that a two-atom Ag complex has increased thermal stability over sin-gle-atom Ag. The formation of the two-atom Ag center is called the nucleationphase of latent image formation. The nucleation center acts as a site for attract-ingadditional free electrons and mobile silver ions, forming more Ag atoms dur-ingthe growth phase of latent image formation. Experimental evidence indicatesthat a minimum of three to five reduced silver atoms are needed to produce alatent image center. Silver halide crystals that have latent image centers will sub-sequentlybe developed (further reduced to metallic silver by chemical action)during film processing, whereas silver halide crystals that lack latent image cen-terswill not be developed. A film that has been exposed but not yet developedis said to possess a latent image. The latent image is not visible but is encoded inthe film emulsion as the small clusters of Ag atoms in some of the silver halidecrystals.Mter exposure, the film emulsion is subjected to a sequence of chemical baths,which leads to development. Silver halide crystals that have not been exposed in theemulsion, and therefore do not possess a latent image center (i.e., a localized depositof metallic silver atoms), are inert to the effects of the chemical developer and areunchanged. They are ultimately washed out of the emulsion. For silver halide crys-talsthat have been exposed to light photons, the metallic silver atoms at the latentimage center act as a chemical catalyst for the developer. During the developmentprocess, the latent image center catalyzes the reaction, which reduces the remainingsilver ions in that silver halide crystal into a grain of metallic silver (Fig. 7-3). Eachblackened grain contributes very slightly to the optical densiry (00) of the film atthat location. The contribution of millions of microscopic blackened photographicgrains is what gives rise to the gray scale in the image. Darker areas of the film havea higher concentration of grains (per square millimeter), and lighter areas havefewer grains. The grains are about 1 to 5 /lm in size and are easily visible under alight microscope. Once chemically developed, the latent image (which is invisible)becomes a maniftst image.Development is a chemical amplification process, and an impressive one atthat. Amplification factors of 109 are experienced as the silver atoms in the latentimage center catalyze the chemical development of additional silver atoms in the sil-verhalide. 183. FIGURE 7-3. The fate of an exposedand an unexposed silver halide crystalis illustrated through the develop-mentstage. Exposed silver halide crys-talspossess a latent image center,which is a collection of at least 3 to 5Ag atoms, and typically have 10 ormore Ag atoms. The Ag atoms act tocatalyze the further reduction of thesilver in the silver halide crystal in thepresence of the reducing agent in thechemical developer solution. Afterdevelopment, exposed silver halidecrystals become black silver grains,and unexposed silver halide crystalsare washed out of the emulsion anddiscarded.A modern automatic film processor is illustrated in Fig. 7-4. The film is fed into theinput chute of the processor (inside the darkroom) and shuttled through the proces-sorby a system of rollers. The film is guided by the rollers through the developertank, into the fixer tank, and then into the wash tank. After washing, the film con-tinuesits path through the dryer, where temperature-regulated air is blown acrossthe film surface and dries it.One of the functional requirements of the automatic film processor is to deliverconsistent performance, film after film, day after day. Chemical reactions in general,and certainly those involved in film development, are highly dependent on bothtemperature and chemical concentrations. Therefore, the processor controls boththe temperature and the concentration of the processing chemicals. A thermostatregulates the temperature of each of the solution tanks to ensure consistent devel-opment.The temperature of the developer tank is most crucial, and typically thistemperature is 35C (95F). Pumps circulate the liquid in each tank to ensure ade-quatethermal and chemical mixing.As sheets of film are run through the processor, the reactions that occurbetween the chemicals in each tank and the film emulsion act to deplete the con-centrationsof some of the chemicals. The automatic film processor replenishes 184. dryerfilm outFIGURE 7-4. The functional components of a film processor are illus-trated.Film follows the circuitous path through each of the threetanks and then through the dyer. The rollers are driven at the samerotation rate by a single motor and usually a chain mechanism is usedto tie in all the rollers. At the bottom of each tank, the film directionchanges direction 180, and a larger roller with a guide shoe is usedfor this. Crossover racks transfer the film from tank to tank.developer and fixer chemicals by pumping in fresh developer and fresh fixer fromstorage tanks. When a sheet of film is fed into the input chute of the processor, itpasses by and trips a small switch that activates the replenishment pumps. For each35 cm of film length, about 65 mL of developer and 100 mL of fixer are pumpedinto the appropriate tanks by the processor.In addition to temperature and concentration, the extent of a chemical reactionalso depends on how long it is allowed to occur. The film passes through the rollerassembly at a constant speed, and all of the rollers are driven (usually by a chain andsprocket assembly) by a single-speed regulated motor. The time that the emulsionspends in each of the chemical baths is regulated by the length of the film paththrough each tank, which is governed by the depth of the tank and by the filmspeed.The developer solution includes water, developing agents, an activator, a restrainer, apreservative, and a hardener (Table 7-1). The developing agents are reducing agents,and hydroquinone and phenidone are often used. These chemicals act as a source of 185. DeveloperActivatorRestrainerPreservativeHardenerHydroquinone and PhenidoneSodium hydroxideKBr and KISodium sulfiteGlutaraldehydeReducing agent, causes Ag+ + e- ---7 Ag reactionDrives pH up for development reactionsLimits reaction to exposed grains onlyPrevents oxidation of developerControls emulsion swellingelectrons to initiate the Ag+ + e- --t Ag reaction. This reaction is the "development" ofthe film. The phenidone participates in chemical reactions in areas of the film thatcontain a low concentration of latent image centers (which will be the lighter, lowerOD regions of the manifest image), and the hydroquinone participates more in areasof the emulsion that are more heavily exposed (darker areas of the image).The activator is sodium hydroxide, a strong base that serves to increase the pHof the developer solution. The activator also causes the gelatin in the emulsion toswell, which provides better solute access to the silver halide crystals. Potassiumhalides (KBr and KI) act as a restrainer, which helps to limit the development reac-tionto only those silver halide crystals that have been exposed and have latent imagecenters. The restrainer puts enough halide ions in the development solution toadjust the reaction kinetics appropriately. A preservative such as sodium sulfite helpsto prevent oxidation of the developer chemicals by airborne oxygen. Finally, a hard-eneris used to control the swelling of the emulsion. Too much swelling can causeexcessive softening of the gelatin, resulting in water retention. Glutaraldehyde isused as the hardener.Periodically, the chemicals from the processor are dumped and new chemicalsare added. Typically a fresh batch of developer processes too "hot"; that is, the filmsare initially be too dark. To reduce this problem, starter is added to the developertank, which acts to season the chemicals.FixingAs the film is transported out of the developer solution, a pair of pinch rollerswrings most of the developer solution out of the wet emulsion. A small amount ofdeveloper remains trapped in the emulsion and would continue to cause develop-mentunless neutralized. The first role of the fixer solution is that of a stop bath-toarrest the chemical activity of the residual developer. Because the developerthrives in a basic solution, the fixer contains acetic acid to decrease the pH and stopthe development. In the fixer, the acetic acid is called the activator (Table 7-2).Ammonium thiosulfate is used in the fixer as a clearing agent. In the film process-ingindustry, the clearing agent is also referred to as hypo. The clearing agentremoves the undeveloped silver halide crystals from the emulsion. Hypo retentionrefers to the undesirable retention of excessive amounts of ammonium thiosulfatein the emulsion, which leads to poor long-term stability of the film. A hardener suchas potassium chloride (KCI) is included in the fixer solution to induce chemicalhardening of the emulsion. The hardening process shrinks and hardens the emul-sion,which helps the emulsion to be dried. Like the developer, the fixer also con-tainssodium sulfite, which acts as a preservative. 186. ActivatorClearing agent(hypo)HardenerPreservativeAcetic acidAmmoniumthiosulfatePotassium chlorideSodium sulfiteStops developer reaction by driving pH downRemoves undeveloped silver halide fromemulsionShrinks and hardens emulsionPrevents oxidation of fixerThe water bath simply washes residual chemicals out of the film emulsion. Water iscontinuously cycled through the processor; room temperature fresh water comes infrom the plumbing to the wash tank, and water is drawn away from the tank andfed to a drain.The last step that the film experiences as it is transported through the processor isdrying. A thermostatically regulated coil heats air blown from a powerful fan, andthis warm air blows across both surfaces of the film. A series of air ducts distributesthe warm air evenly over both surfaces of the film to ensure thorough drying.7.3 PROCESSOR ARTIFACTSHurter and Driffield Curve EffectsSome forms of film processing artifacts can be demonstrated on the Hurter andDriffield (H & D) curve. If the concentration of the developer is too high, overde-velopmentmay occur (Fig. 7-5). With overdevelopment, the higher ODs cannot be:E"' 2.5 ._-.-_..-.-_.--~---enc~ 2.0:~a 1.5 o 1.00.00.1 0.3 1.0 3.0 10.0 30.0Exposure (mR)FIGURE 7-5. The influence of overdevel-opmentand underdevelopment is illus-tratedon the Hurter and Driffield (H & D)curve. 187. increased too much because the number of silver grains present in the emulsion lim-itsthese 00 values. Overdevelopment therefore primarily affects the low 00 partof the H & 0 curve, where silver halide crystals that were not exposed to lightbecome developed.Underdevelopment occurs if the developer concentration is too low or if the tem-peratureof the developer is too low. Underdevelopment manifests as a reduction in00 at the high exposure end of the H & 0 curve. In addition to changes in densitythat are seen with overdevelopment or underdevelopment (Fig. 7.5), the slope of theH & 0 curve is reduced and the films will appear flat and lack contrast.1Vtlter spots can occur on the film if the replenishment rates are incorrect, if thesqueegee mechanism that the film passes through after the wash tank is defective, orif the dryer is malfunctioning. Water spots are best seen with reflected light. This andother artifacts are shown conceptually in Fig. 7-6. A slap line is a plus-density line per-pendicularto the direction of film travel that occurs near the trailing edge of the film.This is caused by the abrupt release of the back edge of the film as it passes throughthe developer-to-fixer crossover assembly. Pick-off artifacts are small, clear areas of thefilm where emulsion has flecked off from the film base; they can be caused by roughrollers, nonuniform film transport, or a mismatch between the film emulsion andchemicals. Wet pressure marks occur when the pinch rollers apply too much or incon-sistentpressure to the film in the developer or in the developer-to-fixer crossover racks.Several types of shoe marks can occur. Shoe marks result when the film rubs againstthe guide shoes during transport. The artifact manifests as a series of evenly spacedlines parallel the direction of film transport. Plus-density shoe marks are caused by thet roller transport directionFIGURE 7-6. Typical artifacts associ-atedwith film processors are illus-trated. 188. guide shoes in the developer tank. Minus-density shoe marks often occur in the fixer-to-washer crossover. If emulsion surface damage is present, the problem can be any-wherealong the transport path. Runback artifacts look like fluid drips and occur at thetrailing edge of a film. In this situation, the film transport rollers from the developerto the fixer tank do not remove developer from the film surface (no squeegee action),and as the film descends into the fixer the excess developer "runs back" at the trailingedge of the film. Developer on the developer-to-fixer crossover assembly becomes oxi-dizedand can cause this artifact. Chatter is a periodic set of lines perpendicular to thefilm transport direction that is caused by binding of the roller assembly in the devel-opertank or in the developer-to-fixer crossover assembly.7.4 OTHER CONSIDERATIONSRapid ProcessingThe standard film process in radiology requires 90 seconds to process the film, butin some areas of a hospital (typically emergency room radiographic suites), 11/2 min-utesis too long to wait for the film. The roller transport in the film processor canbe sped up by changing gear ratios: by a simple 2: 1 reduction gear, a 45-secondprocessor transport time can be achieved. When the transport time is decreased, thechemical activity of the development process must be increased. This can be accom-plishedby increasing the concentration of the developer, by increasing the temper-atureof the developer, or both. Typically, the processor temperature is increased toabout 38C for a 45-second process.Extended ProcessingExtended processing, also called push processing, is the act of slowing down the filmtransport, typically increasing the transport time to 120 seconds. Extended pro-cessingreceived interest in mammography, where it results in a slightly faster sys-tem(Fig. 7-7) and a commensurate reduction in the radiation dose to the patient>- 3.0:!::(J)CQ) o_2.0COt):;:::;0-o 1.00.01 2 3 5 10 20 30 50Exposure (mR)FIGURE 7-7. Extended or "push" process-ingrefers to extending the processing time;it is used to increase the speed of thescreen-film system. The processing time canbe extended by changing gear ratios in theroller drive system of the film processor. 189. can be achieved. Film manufacturers have responded by designing screen-filmmammography systems with higher sensitivity, and therefore the popularity ofextended processing has waned.Technologist productivity is an important factor in a busy department, and in largerinstitutions it is inefficient for the technologist to load and unload the screen-filmcassette by hand. To increase throughput, daylight processing systems are oftenused. Daylight processors are automatic mechanical systems connected to a filmprocessor. Exposed cassettes are fed into the slot of the system by the technologistin a lighted room, the cassette is retracted into a dark chamber, the exposed film isremoved from the cassette and fed into the film processor, and a fresh sheet of filmis loaded into the cassette. The cassette then pops out of the slot, back into thehands of the technologist.Laser cameras, also called laser imagers, are used to expose sheets of film, using a setof digital images as the soutce. Laser cameras are typically used to produce filmsfrom computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) systems.Once exposed in the laser camera, the film is processed in a standard wet chemistryfilm processor. Some laser cameras have film processors attached, and these combi-nationsystems expose the film and then pass it to the processor automatically.Other laser cameras can expose films and deliver them into a light-tight film mag-azine,which can be taken to a film processor where the films are processed.Film designed for use in laser cameras typically uses cubic grain technology,instead of the tabular grain film used in screen-film cassettes (Fig. 6-13 in Chapter6). Film is exposed in a laser camera with a laser beam, which scans the surface ofthe film. A computer controls the position and intensity of the laser beam as it isscanned in raster-fashion across the surface of the film (Fig. 7-8). The intensity ofthe laser source itself is not modulated to adjust the film density; rather, an opticalmodulator sits in the laser beam path and is used to rapidly adjust the laser inten-sityas the beam scans the film. The light in the laser beam exposes the film in thesame manner as light from an intensifying screen, and the process of latent imagecenter formation is identical to that described previously.Dry processors, like laser cameras, are used for producing images from digitalmodalities, such as ultrasound, digital radiography, CT, and MRI. The principalbenefits of dry processing systems are that they do not require plumbing, they donot require chemical vats, which produce fumes, and they generate less chemicalwaste. However, the cost per sheet of film is higher compared to wet processing sys-tems.For low-throughput areas where a need exists to produce film images fromdigital modalities but the total number of images is low, dry processors provide acost-effective alternative to the traditional wet chemistry processor. 190. polygonalmirrorfilm transportrollersFIGURE 7-8. The optical and mechanical components of a laser camera are shown.The laser emits a constant beam, which is focused and then modulated in intensityby the laser modulator. This controls the density on the film by controlling theamount of laser energy that strikes a particular location. The laser beam strikes arotating polygonal mirror, and rotation of the mirror at a constant rate causes thelaser beam to be scanned laterally across the film, for example in the x-direction.The F-6 and toroidal mirrors convert angular motion of the incident laser beam toli