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The energy-water nexus:

energy demands on water resources Every unit of water saved saves energy, every unit of energy saved saves

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EMG Water and Climate Change Research Series

Report 5

Brenda Martin and Robert Fischer

August 2012

2 The Energy-Water nexus: Energy Demands on Water Resources

Authors: Brenda Martin and Robert Fischer

Cover photograph: © Samantha Reinders

© Environmental Monitoring Group, 2012

Readers are encouraged to make use of, copy, distribute or translate parts of this report on

condition that it is used for bona-fide non-profit purposes only, that the content is not

altered, and that the Environmental Monitoring Group and relevant authors and

photographers are acknowledged in full.

Environmental Monitoring Group (EMG) 10 Nuttal Road Observatory 7925 Cape Town South Africa 021 788 9924 www.emg.org.za

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the recent very comprehensive and resourceful

studies undertaken by Greenpeace and World Wildlife Fund South Africa (WWF-SA) on the

coal-related power sector including mining, associated externalities and costs, the many

impacts on the country’s water resources and resulting impacts on human habitats and

ecosystems. The book Water and climate change – an exploration for the concerned and

curious edited in 2011 by Jessica Wilson of the Environmental Monitoring Group (EMG)

provides a great source on the intertwined issue of water and climate change. These

documents offer further detail and depth on some of the issues covered by this study.

EMG gratefully acknowledges Swedish Society for Nature Conservation (SSNC) and Heinrich

Böll Foundation (HBS) for supporting our water and climate change programme.

http://www.emg.org.za/

Environmental Monitoring Group 3

Abstract

The power sector1 is one of the biggest users and polluters of water resources in

South Africa, including all associated impacts on human habitats and ecosystems.

Power generation from fossil fuels, nuclear and renewable energy all have adverse

effects on our natural environment. Coal has for some time dominated the South

African power sector and with this dependency the associated CO2 emissions, water

abstraction, air and water pollution and health impacts are inextricably linked.

Nuclear power and various forms of renewable energy are currently on the country’s

policy roadmap as contributors to a future energy mix in South Africa.

This paper looks at the interwoven relationships between the water and energy

sectors. An overview of the policies governing the mining, water and power sectors is

provided, highlighting the complex challenges that a complementary and sufficiently

integrated water and energy policy should seek to address.


Contents Definitions/physical units/abbreviations ..................................................................................... 5

Executive summary ................................................................................................................................ 6

1. Power generation and related water demand in South Africa ....................................... 7

1.1 An overview ............................................................................................................................................................. 7

1.1.1 Global climate change .................................................................................................... 7

1.1.2 South Africa’s power sector ........................................................................................... 8

1.1.3 Mining – ecological and human impacts ...................................................................... 10

1.2 Coal-based electricity generation ............................................................................................................... 11

1.2.1 Mining of coal ............................................................................................................... 12

1.2.3 Water use in coal-fired power stations in South Africa ............................................... 14

1.2.4 Water pollution through coal-fired power stations ..................................................... 16

1.3 Uranium based power generation – nuclear power .......................................................................... 17

1.3.1 Mining and conversion of uranium .............................................................................. 17

1.3.2 Water use in nuclear power stations ........................................................................... 19

1.4 Large dams for hydro power ......................................................................................................................... 19

1.5 Wind power ........................................................................................................................................................... 21

1.5.1 Mining of rare earth elements ..................................................................................... 21

1.6 Solar thermal power ......................................................................................................................................... 22

1.7 Solar power – photovoltaic ............................................................................................................................ 23

1.7.1 Mining and processing of quartz sand for crystalline solar cells .................................. 23

2. Future developments in a nutshell – the likely integrated resource planning (IRP2010) and climate change impacts on water resources and related implications for the power sector ............................................................................................................................ 24

3. The policy agenda and the institutional landscape ......................................................... 25

3.1 The water sector ................................................................................................................................................. 26

3.2 Mining sector ........................................................................................................................................................ 27

3.3 Power sector ......................................................................................................................................................... 27

4. Key messages ................................................................................................................................ 29

5. Moving forward ............................................................................................................................ 30

6. References .......................................................................................................................................... 31


Definitions/physical units/abbreviations

Definitions:

‘Non-consumptive’ use of water: Water returns to the source, but its quality is changed:

temperature, pollution.

‘Consumptive’ use of water: Water does not return to the source. Even evaporation is

consumptive.

Types of water: Rainwater (e.g. collected in dams), surface water (rivers and lakes),

groundwater, wastewater (water which needs treatment), greywater (fresh water that is

polluted through discharge of untreated wastewater).

Thermal or energy coal: Coal used for electricity generation or industrial heat and steam

(includes hard and brown coal).

Synfuel coal: Coal used in the coal to liquid process.

Metallurgical or coking coal: Raw material for the steel industry.

This document uses the words ‘energy’, ‘power’ and ‘electricity’ interchangeably, and our

use of the word ‘water’ generally refers to all types of water. The terms do not include all

possible forms of energy or water.

Physical units:

1 m3 1 cubic meter = 1,000 litre

1 ML 1 Million litre = 1,000m3

1 Mm3 1 Million m3 = 1,000,000m3

1 Mt 1 Million tons

1 Wh 1 Watt-hour

1 kWh 1 kilo = thousand Watt-hours = 1,000 Wh

1 MWh 1 Mega Watt hour = 1,000 kWh

1 GWh 1 Giga Watt hour = 1,000 MWh

1 TWh 1 Tera Watt hour = 1,000 GWh


Abbreviations

AMD Acid Mine Drainage

CSP Concentrated Solar Power

CPV Concentrated Solar Power Photovoltaic

DEA Department of Environmental Affairs

DoE Department of Energy

DEA Department of Environmental Affairs

DWA Department of Water Affairs

DWAF Department of Water Affairs and Forestry

DWEA Department of Water and Environmental Affairs

EWP 1998 White Paper on the Energy Policy of South Africa

IEA International Energy Agency

IEP Integrated Energy Plan

IRP2 Integrated Resource Plan for Electricity 2010–2030

IRP2010 see IRP2

PV Photovoltaic

REE Rare Earth Elements

Executive summary

This study was conducted between June and August 2012 with the main intention of

increasing public understanding of the perhaps less obvious impacts of electricity

generation on water resources in general and specifically where these apply to South Africa.

Impacts on water resources via the following energy choices are presented here: coal,

nuclear and renewable energy.2

Mining of coal takes a heavy toll on the environment – on ground and surface water, and in

turn on human habitats. These effects often continue long after the mines are closed, mainly


through acid mine drainage (AMD). Nuclear power contributes about 5% of electricity

generated in South Africa (Koeberg: 2 x 900MW) and according to the IRP2010 is proposed

to be expanded by additional capacity of 9,600MW. Mining, extracting and processing of

uranium have severe impacts on water resources and globally there are no recognised long-

term solutions for safely dealing with nuclear waste. In the event of radioactive leakage

during the operation of a power plant like Koeberg in the Western Cape, just 30km away

from dense populations, we are informed by emergency officials that the evacuation plan is

weak.

The IRP2010 sustains the generation of electricity from coal for the next two decades and

places South Africa on a mixed nuclear and renewable energy roadmap.

Renewable energy technologies such as solar and wind have little impact on water

resources during operations, given that large-scale solar thermal power plants use dry

cooling technology. The major concern in relation to renewable energy and water resources

is the need for permanent magnets used in wind-power generators, which are based on rare

earth elements (REEs) where impacts on water bodies and communities around the rare

earth mining sites are of particular concern. The processing of uranium and REEs creates

large volumes of waste water and contaminated tailings, which can impact on the

environment for many decades if not managed properly.

Predicted impacts of climate change on electricity generation and on water resource use by

the energy sector are considerable. Cooling processes will need to be more effective given

higher average water and air temperatures. Reduced water availability during longer dry

periods will impact on the operational requirements of thermal power plants.

We conclude that the policy frameworks that should be considered for the power sector –

beside the energy sector itself – need to include those governing both water and mining.

Here it is pertinent that a number of departments or ministries govern these sectors,

including agencies or institutions that are responsible for ensuring the effective

implementation of Acts and regulations, and that these sometimes have competing

interests.

The contextual complexity makes it a most difficult and challenging task to create an

integrated policy framework in which the interwoven issues and competing interests can be

taken into account with sufficient care.

1. Power generation and related water demand in South Africa

1.1 An overview

1.1.1 Global climate change With climate change, as the planet continues to warm, the magnitude of floods is likely to

increase and droughts are likely to lengthen and grow more frequent. These conditions are


likely to impact on hydro-power supply most directly through higher anticipated

evaporation losses. The planned lifetimes of dams are likely to be reduced through

increased sedimentation. The functioning and efficiency of cooling systems of thermal

power stations is also likely to be negatively affected by higher water and ambient air

temperatures.

The IRP2010 estimates that until the mid-2020s the CO2 emissions from the South African

power sector will continue to rise from 230MtCO2eq in 2010 to a level of about

300MtCO2eq. Due to the retirement of the old coal-fired power stations and their

replacement by more efficient so-called supercritical coal-fired power stations, the

electricity output will still increase from coal but CO2 emissions will start to decline to a

level of 270MtCO2eq in 2030.

1.1.2 South Africa’s power sector Eskom dominates the South African power sector. In 2011 it generated 237TWh electricity

with its own power stations, imported 10TWh, purchased 1.8TWh from local independent

power producers and exported about 13TWh. The power sector uses about 2% of national

water resources.

Eskom’s own electricity generation depends largely on coal (92%), nuclear (5%), hydro

power (2%) and other (1%). The bulk of the imports are from Cahora Bassa in north-west

Mozambique and small volumes are imported from Lesotho and Zambia. Eskom exports

power to the national utilities of Botswana, Namibia, Swaziland and Lesotho. And it has

trading relationships with Zimbabwe and Zambia. Eskom also exports to three end-use

customers, one in Mozambique and two in Namibia.

Some key figures from the Eskom Annual Report for 2011 are set out below.

2011 compared with

2010

Total coal input: Mt 124.7 up 1.63%

Total water used: Mm3 327 up 3.49%

Total electricity

produced:

GWh 237,430 up 1.98%

Total ash produced: Mt 36.2 29% from coal

Total CO2 produced: Mt 230.3 up 2.5%

kWh produced per

kg of coal:

1.90 same as 2010


kg of coal per kWh

produced:

0.53 same as 2010

Litres of Water per

kWh of electricity

produced:

1.38 up from 1.36

Litres of Water used

per kg of coal:

2.62 up from 2.58

CO2 per kWh

produced:

0.97 same as 2010

South Africa’s future electricity supply has been set out by the Department of Energy (DoE)

in the Integrated Resource Plan for Electricity 2010–2030, shortened to IRP2010. According

to the IRP2010, coal-based power generation will absolutely increase by roughly 20%. The

total contribution of coal will drop from 92% to about 65% in the energy mix, which is the

result of planned new nuclear capacity of 9.6GW, renewable energy capacity of 17.8GW,

imported hydro power increased by 2.6GW, and new gas power plants of 6.3GW. All

planned new capacity is expected to meet the estimated energy demand increase up from

260TWh in 2010 to 454TWh in 2030 (75%) according the moderate demand forecast as

applied in the IRP2010. It is important to note that the actual total electricity demand in

2011 was 248TWh, which was about 7% less than the forecasted demand for 2011 of

267TWh. This development provides reason to believe that future iterations of the IRP will

have to adjust the demand forecast downwards, which will lead to a successively changed

energy mix and less pressure on new capacity to be installed. In addition, the latest

successes in natural gas exploration around Africa and the continuing drop in costs of

renewable energy will also have an influence on the future optimal energy mix for South

Africa in the decades to come.

Water demand in the power sector is mainly determined by the conventional thermal

power stations like coal, gas and nuclear, and in the near future by solar thermal power

plants. High-quality water is required for the steam process and water of lower quality is

used for the wet cooling process, which is the biggest user of water at a thermal power

station. Water use in mining for ‘energy’ coal, uranium, REEs, copper, other minerals and

metals adds a significant share to the total water use of the power sector. The quality of

water bodies in the mining areas is threatened by the power sector, where AMD contributes

the most to water contamination, and at the power station sites where polluted water from

the coal ash dumps impacts on water bodies and successively on human habitats and river

ecosystems. Leakage of radioactive substances at nuclear plants and nuclear waste deposits

are threats from the nuclear power sector.


According to the National Water Resource Strategy from 2004 (DWAF, 2004), the power

sector in South Africa uses about 2% of the national water resources. Mining and bulk

industries use 6% and agriculture uses 62%. Other major users are urban areas (23%),

afforestation (3%) and other rural use (4%). Mining for ‘energy’ coal adds roughly 0.3% to

the water use by the power sector.

1.1.3 Mining – ecological and human impacts Upstream in the supply chain of all electricity-generating facilities extraction industries

provide the necessary raw input materials both for the manufacturing of equipment and the

construction of power plants, and, in the case of coal-fired, fossil fuel-fired or nuclear power

stations, with the necessary fuel for the power plants’ lifetimes, which can extend to 50 or

60 years.

The roughly 0.3% that mining for ‘energy’ coal adds to water use by the power sector

roughly matches the annual water consumption of the City of Cape Town.

Mining for coal, uranium, REEs, copper and other minerals and metals are all part of the

supply chain to build and operate power stations. The impacts of mining on groundwater

and surface water, and hence on human and wildlife habitats, are severe and manifold and

continue long after mines are closed. AMD is one of the major concerns.

Similarly, after the useful lifespan of coal-fired and nuclear power stations they continue to

pose a risk of impact on the environment for generations through seepage and dust from

mine tailings, piles and contaminated ash-dumps and radioactive waste deposit sites.

Acid mine drainage

Mining in South Africa is almost always associated with sulphide-bearing minerals like pyrite. Such sulphide

minerals form sulphuric acid and iron when they come into contact with water and oxygen. These chemical

processes in turn leach other metals from the rocks and lead to elevated concentrations of salts and heavy

metals and result in a decline in pH values.

AMD is the flow of such polluted water from mining areas, including those where coal, uranium, REEs,

copper and gold are mined. AMD decants and pollutes soil and water supplies as it spreads underground

and flows into streams and rivers. The far-reaching and long-term consequences include degradation of the

quality of natural water systems, which affects ecosystems and wildlife, poisons food crops and endangers

human health.

Levels of AMD in South Africa are high, e.g. the Western Basin of the Witwatersrand Gold Field has a typical

decant rate of AMD of 15,000–20,000m3 per day. Treatment of AMD requires huge investments in

infrastructure – pump stations, treatment plants, dams. It is also energy intensive and needs substantial

quantities of chemical input. It is not quite clear yet who bears the costs. For old abandoned mines it is the

government, which actually means the tax payer; for operational mines it is the current owner; for mines

that are to be closed, it is not clear how treatment infrastructure and future long-term operations will be

funded (IMC, 2010).


Wind energy technology needs REEs as input material for crucial parts of the generators

and other electronic equipment. Mining for REEs takes place almost solely in China, where it

poses serious health and environmental threats to the affected communities. Mining for

REEs in South Africa is under development and will become productive in the forthcoming

years.

The main raw material for silicon-based photovoltaic cells is quartz sand, the extraction of

which is comparatively unproblematic.

The large dams needed for hydroelectric power generation (and for irrigation schemes)

contribute to overall water consumption in power generation – largely through

evaporation. In addition, large hydro-power schemes have significant effects on

surrounding groundwater levels and streams and can change the climatic conditions of a

region and even cause earthquakes.

Other climate-related adverse effects occur through changed siltation and sedimentation

patterns – more upstream and less downstream, which impacts on the ecosystems of rivers

and river estuaries. Large dams also contribute significantly to climate change through the

release of substantial amounts of greenhouse gases. This is mainly due to plant material in

flooded areas decaying in an anaerobic environment. The emission factors range from 2–

8% compared with thermal power plant generation in non-tropical areas and can go up to

more than 200% in tropical regions. Dam methane emissions are responsible for at least

4% of the total warming impact of human activities (Tremblay, 2004; Fearnside, 2011;

International Rivers, 2008; Lima, 2008).

Socio-economic and health impacts through displacement of communities and an increase

in water-borne diseases around large dams are often neglected by the authorities.

1.2 Coal-based electricity generation Coal is the most abundant source of fossil fuel energy in the world, considerably exceeding

known reserves of oil and gas. About 7.2 billion tonnes of hard and brown coal are

produced globally each year. Around 40% of all electricity generated globally is powered by

coal, which generates 11 billion tonnes CO2 per annum and amounts to 72% of CO2

emissions from power generation and 41% of total global emissions of CO2 from fossil fuels

(IEA, 2011a, 2011b).


Graphic: Project 90 by 2030, 2012

Eskom had a total coal input of 124.7Mt, which is about 50% of the South African annual

hard coal production (255Mt in 2010: IEA, 2011a). The other 50% of South Africa’s coal

goes to the coal-to-liquid industries (Sasol), to steel industries and to exports.

Eskom operates 13 coal-fired power stations with a total installed capacity of 38GW and is

currently building Medupi and Kusile with a capacity of 4800MW each. More new coal

power builds are planned in the IRP2010, mainly to replace the ageing fleet, but also to add

new capacity. Until the mid 2020s, the IRP2010 estimates that the CO2 emissions from the

power sector will continue to rise from 230MtCO2eq in 2010 to a level of about

300MtCO2eq. Due to the retirement of old coal-fired power stations and planned

replacement with more efficient so-called supercritical coal-fired power stations, the

electricity output from coal is expected to still increase, but it is suggested by DoE that CO2

emissions should start to decline by 2030.

South Africa’s coal mines are mainly located in the north-east of the country and the

majority of power stations have been built nearby. This concentration of both coal mining

and coal-fired power stations, with their huge demands on water supply and their high air

and water pollution potential, pose severe threats to both human habitats and ecosystems.

1.2.1 Mining of coal The water footprint of mining operations can be determined by assessing the quantity of

water used and by the level of pollution caused. Acid rock drainage (more commonly known

as AMD), heavy metal contamination and leaching, erosion and sedimentation all impact on

the water quality of surface and groundwater bodies and consequently on human health,

livestock, wildlife and crop productivity (WWF-SA, 2011).


About 46.5% of South Africa’s coal mining is conducted underground and about 53.5% is

produced by opencast methods. Ownership of the coal-mining industry is highly

concentrated, with only six companies (Anglo American – Thermal Coal, BHP Billiton, Sasol

Mining, Exxaro Coal, Kumba Coal and Xstrata Coal) accounting for 90% of saleable coal

production. The eight largest mines account for 61% of the output.3 Depending on the

mining method and coal quality, the water consumption for coal mining can range from 60

litres per tonne (l/t) to 600l/t (Energy Technology Innovation Policy Research Group

[ETIP], 2010).

Coal mines process or prepare thermal coal for use in power plants through washing, which

usually takes place at the mine. Washing separates impurities such as shale or stone from

the coal. Besides washing, water is used for a potable water treatment plant, for domestic

water users (drinking and ablution water for mine workers and other staff), sewage

treatment, irrigation of treated sewage, mine workings, slurry dams and road wetting for

dust suppression. In total the water directly used to mine a ton of coal can be calculated to

be in the region of 160l/t (extraction) + 42l/t (dust control) + 38l/t (coal washing) + 229l/t

(evaporation) = 469l/t. If upper-end figures for coal washing are used, water use can rise to

581l/t (Wassung, 2010; Pulles et al 2001).

Several mines have introduced the re-use and recycling of some of their water. Recycling

cuts down on the mine’s need to abstract fresh water. Recycling water used in mining

operations and in the beneficiation plant (washing) is estimated to be around 26% of the

total volume of water used (Pulles et al 2001). The figure of 469 to 581l/t can therefore be

adjusted downwards to approximately 347 to 430 litres of fresh water per ton of coal ready

for use at a coal-fired power plant.


With its annual coal production of roughly 255Mt (2011), South Africa’s coal mining

industry consumes about 102Mm3 of water annually or 280,000m3 daily considering an

average water use of 400l/t of mined coal.

Eskom used 124.7Mt of coal in 2011 (Eskom, 2011), hence if we add 50Mm3 water

consumption to Eskom’s reported water input of 327Mm3 in 2011, this would accurately

reflect the water use in coal mining. This increases the 2% share of national water

consumption (DWAF, 2004) in the power sector significantly.

1.2.2 Coal mining and water pollution

Besides the fact that mining operations use large amounts of fresh water, which makes

access to clean and safe water increasingly difficult for both humans and livestock around

mining operations, the resulting mine effluent is typically a stew of hazardous acid-

generating sulphides (also known as AMD), toxic heavy metals, waste rock impoundments

and water, and it is often deposited nearby in large free-draining piles, where it can pollute

land and water supplies for decades to come. Detrimental effects on rivers and ground

water can be observed many miles downstream from mine sites (WWF-SA, 2011).

In 2011 WWF presented a case study on the Olifants River catchment, which is an area that

has experienced over 100 years of coal mining. By 2004, an estimated 50,000m3 of mine

water was discharged into the river from operational mines and 64,000m3 from closed

mines – daily. Pollution levels have impacted on downstream users, including people living

in the catchment as well as tourists and wildlife of the Kruger National Park. The case study

concluded that the Olifants catchment has the poorest water quality in the country (WWF-

SA, 2011).

1.2.3 Water use in coal-fired power stations in South Africa Eskom uses about 2% of South Africa’s national freshwater resources, mainly for the

operation of the coal-fired power stations. The water used is abstracted largely from

government water schemes (dams). In 2011 Eskom used 327Mm3 water for steam

generation and cooling purposes. This is roughly the same amount of water as the City of

Cape Town needs annually.4

Most of Eskom’s thermal power stations, which include coal and nuclear, use wet cooling

technology. Efficient cooling technologies such as dry cooling can reduce the water

consumption at a thermal power station by 90% and more. Eskom has installed dry cooling

at two of its existing coal-fired power stations, a mixed technology at one, and all new coal-

fired power stations will use dry cooling.

Dry cooling technology has its drawbacks, including higher capital costs, auxiliary operating

power requirements and fan noise, and an overall lower plant performance (US-DoE, 2009

and Dersch, 2007).


Despite Eskom having adopted a ‘long-term water strategy’ (Eskom, 2011), in which it

declares that the scarcity of water resources in South Africa is at the forefront of its

strategic thinking and acknowledges itself as a strategic water user, not much has changed

in its water consumption to date. Between 2006 and 2011, Eskom’s water use dropped from

around 1.38l/kWh to 1.29l/kWh.5

Dry cooling reduces water consumption of a thermal power station by up to 95%. Given

that all Eskom’s new coal-fired power stations will be dry cooled, this will have a significant

impact on the average specific water consumption of the fleet in the next decades as old

power stations will be retired from the early 2020s onwards:

Figure 2: Eskom’s specific water consumption per power station.6 Note: The power stations

Camden, Grootvlei and Komati (all wet cooled) are not presented in the above figure. These

were mothballed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, but were successively returned to

service from 2003 onwards.


Carbon capture and sequestration or storage

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) refers to technology aimed at capturing CO2 from fossil fuel

use in power generation and other industries to prevent the release of large quantities of CO2

into the atmosphere. In theory, the captured CO2 would be pumped into deep geological

formations underground to securely store it away from the atmosphere.

South Africa is actively developing and seeking to implement a roadmap for the commercial

application of CCS. A test injection experiment is scheduled to take place in 2016, a

demonstration plant is expected to be operational in 2020 and the commercialisation of the

technology is expected by 2025 (South African Centre for Carbon Capture and Storage,

www.sacccs.org.za).

CCS would substantially increase water consumption if applied to power generation. Water

consumption levels increase by two-thirds, or almost double when compared with wet cooling

technology. These estimates are for greenfield plants. Retrofitted CCS would be higher still on a

net energy output basis (Mielke, 2010).

According to the 2011 Eskom Annual Report the total water use for generation was

327Mm3. Adding the coal mining-related consumption results in a total water use for

electricity generation of 377Mm3 in 2011. The specific water consumption per kWh sent out

thus increases from 1.38l/kWh to 1.59l/kWh.

1.2.4 Water pollution through coal-fired power stations On-site storage and transport of coal requires water for dust suppression. Coal-fired power

stations produce large amounts of coal ash: Eskom produced 36.2Mt in 2011, which is

almost a third of the input amount of coal. This solid waste ash from coal-fired power

stations has to be removed. Some ash is recycled or sold on for production of building

materials – like cement and bricks – but the bulk is deposited next to the power stations in

so called ash dumps, ponds or dams. Eskom sold 2Mt, recycled 5.5% and disposed of

34.16Mt in 2011.7

Power-plant produced coal ash contributes to air pollution through fugitive dust and water

pollution at the disposal sites, contaminating the ground water through slow leakage of

toxic elements from these sites. Contaminants include lead, thallium, barium, cadmium,

chromium, mercury, nickel and selenium 8 (Gottlieb, 2010). Arsenic has been shown to

cause skin, bladder and lung cancer, and leads to damage of the nervous system.9 When

mercury enters the aquatic environment, it can be transformed by micro-organisms into the

much more toxic form, methyl mercury. This accumulates in fish and subsequently in the

people who eat them. A mother passes on the mercury that has accumulated in her body to

her developing foetus, which affects the development of its central nervous system.10 Some

studies also point out that ash from coal-fired power stations includes significant amounts

of radioactive elements, such as uranium and thorium.11

http://www.sacccs.org.za/


The recycling of coal ash, such as its use in construction materials and as structural fill for

buildings and roads, is another pathway for the toxic elements from coal ash to reach

human living environments.

1.3 Uranium based power generation – nuclear power The contribution of nuclear power to global electricity generation was 13.8% in 2011 (or

2,630 billion kWh = 2,630 million MWh = 2,630 thousand GWh = 2,630 TWh). An estimated

68,971 tonnes of uranium were required in 2011 to power the 440 reactors in operation

worldwide (WNA, 2011).

South Africa (Eskom) owns and operates two pressurised water reactors of 900MW

capacity each, both at Koeberg, only 30km north of Cape Town. Koeberg contributed

12TWh to Eskom’s electricity generation in 2011, or 5.1% (Eskom, 2011). The IRP2010

plans to add 9,6GW nuclear capacity on three coastal sites in the next decade to meet

forecasted demand.

Uranium mining, milling, conversion, enrichment, fabrication of fuel assemblies and waste

handling are the major steps of the front-end of the nuclear fuel cycle. Transport and

interim storage of fuel and spent fuel are additional steps towards the actual use of the fuel

in the reactor. Reprocessing, plutonium and uranium recycling and final disposal of nuclear

waste form the back-end of the nuclear fuel cycle.

Namibia has two significant uranium mines capable of providing 10% of world mining

output.12 Uranium mining in South Africa takes place mainly by re-processing tailings from

gold mining activities. By 2009 Namibia and South Africa together held about 10% of the

known recoverable resources of uranium.13

South Africa does not operate any conversion and enrichment for uranium or plutonium,

nor do reprocessing facilities for used nuclear fuel rods exist locally. Such facilities were

built for the Apartheid regime’s nuclear bomb programme, but this programme was

dismantled in 1993 and the facilities have been shut down and decommissioned (Fig, 2005).

This means that nuclear fuel rods for Koeberg have to be procured on world markets and

after their useful lifetime, stored and cooled on site at Koeberg in the absence of any long-

term high-level nuclear waste deposit storage facilities. Low- and intermediate-level

nuclear waste is deposited at Vaalputs Radioactive Waste Disposal Facility, managed by

NECSA.14 In the event of leakages at nuclear waste deposit sites, ground and surface water

will become radioactive to unknown levels, depending on the waste grade stored at the site.

Health impacts on humans and wildlife can be expected in such cases.

1.3.1 Mining and conversion of uranium Uranium mining in Africa and South Africa often goes hand in hand with gold mining.

African countries produce about 18% of the world’s demand. Future projects involving

uranium mining include one of the world’s largest suppliers of nuclear fuel, Areva, setting


up a uranium processing plant in the Karoo region – establishing a bigger market for

uranium mining in Africa as a buyer of processed ore.15

Mining and milling

Uranium is the fuel used in nearly all existing nuclear reactors. It is very widely distributed

in the earth's crust and oceans, but can only be economically recovered where geological

processes have increased its concentration. Almost all economically workable uranium-

bearing ores have in the past typically contained less than 0.5% of uranium. One kilogram of

uranium has as much energy potential as three million kilograms of coal.

Uranium ore is mined either by conventional open-pit or underground mining methods, and

the uranium is extracted from the crushed ore in a processing plant (mill) using chemical

methods appropriate to the specific mineral form. These usually extract some 85% to 95%

of the uranium present in the ore. The radioactivity of the separated uranium is very low.

The radioactive daughter products are left with the mill tailings, stabilised and put back into

the mine or otherwise disposed of.

In some cases it is possible to pass chemical solutions through the ore bodies and dissolve

the uranium directly. This process is known as solution mining, or in-situ leaching. Uranium

can also be recovered as a by-product of the extraction of other metals from their minerals,

for example copper and gold, and as a by-product of phosphoric acid production from

phosphate rocks.

The uranium concentrate (U3O8) produced in the ore processing plant is known as

yellowcake and usually contains between 60% and 85% uranium by weight. Depending on

its quality, the concentrate is sometimes further purified in a refinery near the mine before

being shipped in metal containers to a conversion plant.

Conversion, fabrication and enrichment

These are the next steps in the process to manufacture a potent nuclear fuel in the form of

nuclear fuel pins or rods. The yellowcake is chemically dissolved and reconverted into

uranium oxide and dioxide for processing in the fuel fabrication plant, or further processed

into uranium hexafluoride (UF6) for use in the enrichment process. Highly enriched

uranium (HEU) is typically used in nuclear bombs. Fuel pellets are created in the fuel

fabrication plant from UF6, which are loaded in tubes of corrosion-resistant zirconium alloy

with a low neutron absorption. These loaded tubes, called nuclear fuel pins or rods, are put

together in a lattice of fixed geometry called a fuel assembly.

Uranium mining and water pollution

The uranium mining process is similar to coal mining, with both open pit and underground

mines. It produces similar environmental impacts, with the added hazard that uranium

mine tailings are low-level radioactive. Groundwater can be polluted not only from the


heavy metals present in mine waste, but also from the traces of radioactive elements still

left in the waste.16 When pumps are shut down after the closure of mines the risk of water

contamination increases, very similar to the AMD challenges from coal and gold mines, with

the additional threat of radioactive pollution.

Wastes arising in the front-end of the fuel cycle

Waste rock from uranium mining and milling wastes include radium and other naturally

occurring radioactive substances. These wastes are optimally disposed of in engineered

geological facilities which are covered on top and sealed underneath and on the sides in

order to reduce radon emissions and the movement of ground water. Wastes from the

conversion process may contain uranium, acids and some organic chemicals. Some

conversion facilities recycle such wastes to uranium mines in order to recover the uranium

content while others dispose of their waste directly. Wastes arising from the uranium

enrichment and fuel fabrication processes contain essentially small amounts of uranium

and the associated naturally occurring radioactive elements. Uranium is considered to have

a low radio-toxicity, but the same is not true for plutonium. The treatment of wastes in

order to separate the plutonium and uranium, and the subsequent waste conditioning,

results in a typical value for the quantity of plutonium finally present in wastes of 0.01% of

the initial plutonium (OECD, 1994; MIT, 2010).

Potential hazards from uranium mill tailings

Radon – a radioactive gas – occurs through continuous decay of radioactive substances in

uranium mill tailings. Radon escapes from the piles and spreads with the wind and

increases the lifetime lung cancer risk of residents living near a tailing pile. The dry, fine

sands from a pile are blown by the wind over adjacent areas and elevated levels of radium

can subsequently be found in dust samples in nearby communities. Seepage from tailings is

another major hazard and poses a risk of contamination of both ground and surface water.

Radioactive and other hazardous substances like arsenic may contaminate drinking water

supplies and fish in the area.17

1.3.2 Water use in nuclear power stations Koeberg (and other proposed nuclear developments in South Africa) use salt water for

cooling purposes. At peak operation levels, Koeberg uses 80,000l of sea water per second

and about 1,000l of fresh water (for steam and other purposes) per day.18 Fresh water for

the proposed nuclear power plants is predicted to be produced on site through desalination.

Known impacts on marine life are through the returned brine from the desalination plants

and the water used for cooling, which returns at higher temperatures.

1.4 Large dams for hydro power Large dams needed for hydroelectric power generation (and for irrigation schemes)

contribute to water consumption largely through evaporation. Depending on the climate at

the actual site the evaporation losses – or water consumption – through hydro power range


from 47 to 208.5l/kWh. The average for about 2,300 hydroelectric dams is 68l/kWh.

Natural-state evaporation would only be 3.2% of that of a reservoir (Torcellini, 2003).

The known adverse effects of large hydro-power schemes range from displacing people to

altering ecosystems, changing climate conditions and causing earthquakes. Dams often

deliver considerable benefits but in many cases, the price paid to secure those benefits has

been unacceptably high. In many cases the dams underperform, are more expensive than

planned and take a heavy toll on affected communities.19

South Africa has comparably small power generation capacity from hydro-power schemes.

In total only 2% of electricity generated by Eskom is from its own hydro-power stations.

Less than half of this is from run-of-river plants (Gariep, 360MW and Vanderkloof, 240MW

on the Orange river) while 60% is from pumped storage plants (Drakensberg, 1000MW and

Palmiet, 400MW pumped storage schemes) – where the energy for pumping largely comes

from the overcapacity of coal-fired power stations at night and during other low-demand

periods. An additional 4% hydro power is imported from Cahora Bassa in north-west

Mozambique and small volumes from Lesotho and Zambia (Eskom, 2011).

In the future renewable energy from solar photovoltaic and wind power plants, which

cannot be accommodated in the grid, will also need to be stored. Pumped storage schemes

are one viable option for such utility-scale storage. Eskom is about to complete the Ingula

pumped storage scheme in 2013 with 1,332MW capacity and has plans for the Tubatse

pumped storage scheme with 1,500MW.

Large dams contribute to climate change in various ways. They release substantial amounts

of the potent greenhouse gas, methane. This is due to plant material in flooded areas

decaying in an anaerobic environment. The construction of large dams leads to massive

transformation of land use, deforestation and the loss of carbon sinks.

Besides water loss through evaporation, large hydro-power schemes come with other

significant impacts on the environment and human habitats, which are expected to increase

in severity as the planet continues to warm. These impacts include (Greeff, 2011):

Dam safety: Dam failures through increased flooding are a potential risk. A

collapsed dam releases millions of cubic metres of water into downstream river

beds, which will cause dams in its path to collapse and human settlements to

disappear.

Increased catchment erosion, reservoir sedimentation and the sinking of

deltas. As flood magnitudes are expected to increase, erosion and sedimentation of

upstream river beds and dams will accelerate, consequently reducing the life

expectancy of dams. As dams hold sedimentation back, rivers carry less sediments

downstream causing river beds and deltas to sink. In conjunction with climate-

change-induced rises in sea levels, the area of land vulnerable to flooding (river

estuaries and upstream) will increase significantly in the decades ahead.


Drought and hydro dependency. As flood magnitudes are expected to increase,

droughts are likely to increase, too, in both frequency and duration, and hence

become more severe as the planet continues to warm. Increases in both flood

magnitudes and drought severity reduce the predictability of the hydro power-

generation capacity of existing and future schemes. Most of Africa’s great rivers are

trans boundary, which results in regional water implications and conflicts over

water are likely to become more frequent and serious as climate change undermines

water resources.

Health risks associated with dams and the predicted increases in water

temperature. Evaporation will increase significantly in a warming world and

accelerate the impact of droughts. Rising water temperatures also lead to increasing

invasive alien plant infestations, such as water hyacinth and algal blooms. These

mats of floating plants can increase evaporation rates by as much as six times when

compared with open waters. Large dams are associated with water-borne diseases,

such as malaria, schistosomiasis, river blindness and others. As water temperatures

are expected to increase significantly, the incidences of water-borne diseases are set

to rise too.

Hydro power has brought, and continues to bring, considerable benefits to people but it is

important to consider: at what cost? and at what cost in the future?

1.5 Wind power By 2011 the worldwide installed capacity of wind turbines was 239 GW20 and the growing

trend in this sector continues unabated. South Africa’s IRP2010 plans to install 8.4GW of

wind energy supply by 2030, and more wind power is likely to be economically feasible in

the near future. The impacts of wind power on water resources originate mainly from the

need for REE, which are used in the permanent magnets of wind power generators.

Considering an average wind turbine size of 1.5MW with about 160,000 turbines currently

installed, each using roughly 1,000kg of permanent magnets or 250kg of rare earth

material, this amounts to 40,000 tons of REE.

The planned wind farms in South Africa with 8.4GW total capacity will use about 1,400 tons

of REE. Substitution of REE is considered difficult or impossible. Future design of products

containing REE need to consider easier recycling of such materials (Gschneidner, 2011).

Wind power plants do not consume water for power production during their operational

life time.

1.5.1 Mining of rare earth elements REE are utilised for many products in daily use: electric motors and generators, computers,

mobile phones, iPods, navigation systems, displays, TVs, fluorescent lighting, vehicles, etc.

REE are sufficiently available in the earth’s crust, but seldom in concentrations that allow


economically feasible mining operations. Such concentrations are mainly located in China,

the USA, in some states of the former USSR, and Southern Africa.

Currently about 90% of the rare earth metal alloys are produced in China, which

manufactures 75% of the magnets containing REE (Humphries, 2012). The REE worldwide

production amounted to 130,000 tonnes in 2010. The high dependence on China for REE

has triggered some new mining developments in the USA, South Africa and elsewhere,

which are expected to be productive in the next few years.

Every ton of rare earth produced generates approximately 8.5kg of fluorine and 13kg of

dust; and using concentrated sulphuric acid high temperature calcination techniques to

produce approximately one ton of calcined rare earth ore generates 9,600 to 12,000m3 of

waste gas containing dust concentrate, hydrofluoric acid, sulphur dioxide, and sulphuric

acid, approximately 75m3 of acidic wastewater, and about one ton of radioactive waste

residue (containing water) (Hurst, 2010).

Furthermore, according to research conducted within Baotou, where China’s primary rare

earth production occurs, ‘all the rare earth enterprises in the Baotou region produce

approximately ten million tons of all varieties of wastewater every year’ and most of that

waste water is ‘discharged without being effectively treated, which not only contaminates

potable water for daily living, but also contaminates the surrounding water environment

and irrigated farmlands’ (Hurst, 2010). The disposal of tailings also contributes to the

problem as producing a ton of rare earth elements creates 2,000 tons of mine tailings

(Hurst, 2010).

South Africa’s REE mines are located in the Northern Cape at Steenkampskraal and

Zandkopsdrift.21 As these mines go into operation in the next few years, it will be critical

that all necessary measures are sufficiently prescribed by the authorities and implemented

by the companies to avoid significant pollution of surface water and groundwater, as has

happened in China. As with all other mining activities in South Africa, the risk of AMD needs

to be associated with the REE mine developments.

1.6 Solar thermal power The most attractive sites for solar thermal power generation (or concentrated solar power:

CSP) are those with a high annual number of sunshine hours and high level of direct

irradiation. Unfortunately such areas are deserts – arid or semi-arid regions, which means

that the accessibility and availability of water for the steam and cooling process is limited.

Solar thermal power plants in South Africa are proposed in the IRP2010 and will be located

in the Great Karoo.

The water requirements for solar thermal power plants are determined by the steam

process and the chosen cooling technology. Applying the water-saving dry cooling

technology is a pre-condition for solar thermal power plants located in arid or semi-arid

regions, like the Great Karoo.


CSP – a large-scale solar thermal power technology – uses similar amounts of water during

operation as coal-fired power stations where wet cooling technology is used.

Because of this, dry cooling systems are the only feasible cooling technology to be

considered for CSP generating plants in South Africa. The technical and performance

limitations facing CSP through a dry cooling process are comparable to those for coal-fired

power plants. An average wet cooling process requires 1,500 to 2,000l/MWh. Dry cooling

reduces this by up to 95%, to 75 to 100l/MWh. The water consumption for cleaning the

parabolic troughs or the mirrors is design dependent and ranges between 100 and

200l/MWh. For the proposed CSP power stations in the Great Karoo, with a nominal power

output of 100MW, an operating time of 18 hours a day and generating conservatively

1,500MWh per day, a rough estimate of the water use through dry cooling would be

between 262,500 and 450,000l/day or up to 164,000m3/year. Downstream pollution of

water bodies through CSP is non-existent (DoE-US, 2008; DoE-US, 2009).

1.7 Solar power – photovoltaic Almost all parts of South Africa are highly suitable for solar photovoltaic (solar PV). Utility-

scale installations of 8.4GW are planned in the IRP2010 and procurement for this is under

way. The rollout of small-scale rooftop installations are expected to accelerate substantially

given ongoing steady dropping costs of this technology along with ongoing sharply

increasing tariffs for grid electricity.

During operations solar PV does not consume water, except in very dusty and dry areas

where regular cleaning of the panels with water and detergents is necessary to maintain

efficiency.

Concentrated solar PV (CPV) is an advanced technology that uses optics such as lenses or

curved mirrors to concentrate large amounts of sunlight onto a small area of solar

photovoltaic cells to generate electricity. CPV technology requires two-axis solar tracking

and cooling. Passive waterless cooling is sufficient for low-concentration CPV but medium-

to high-concentration CPV requires active cooling, which can be water or air circulated

behind the cell modules or by immersing the cell in a dielectric cooling medium (Røyne,

2005; Darwish, 2011). Depending on the type of heat exchangers used, a large scale CPV-

cooling system could be comparable in terms of water use to the wet or dry cooling

technology used for thermal power plants. It is assumed that CPV power plants in South

Africa will either use passive cooling, or active dry cooling technology.

1.7.1 Mining and processing of quartz sand for crystalline solar cells The lifecycle of PV systems starts with the mining of quartz sand (for silicon-based PV). The

mining of quartz or sand is an established process, and the product is widely used (not only

for solar cell manufacturing). Since sand is a very abundant material, raw material supply

for silicon solar cells is not expected to become a problem, whatever the future size of solar

cell production. After mining, the sand is transported, classified, scrubbed, conditioned,

flotated and deslimed. Emissions from these processes are negligible, except for the release


of respirable dust containing about 17% of crystalline silica particles. Water-use

requirements are determined by the need for dust suppression on piles and roads.

Metallurgical grade silicon is produced from quartz sand in an arc furnace and further

purified into ‘electronic’ grade or ‘solar’ grade silicon. Silicon processing and manufacturing

steps use significant amounts of energy and water, and release substantial amounts of

highly potential greenhouse gases to the working environment. Such manufacturing

environments contain the airflow in a closed system in order to eliminate contamination of

the product but also to minimise the amount of these gas emissions to reach the

atmosphere. When not filtered, contained, disposed of or converted properly, these gases

will contribute to climate change.

Though fluorine and chlorine emissions into water are much lower than for a coal-fired

power plant, they are still too substantial to be neglected (20–25% of the equivalent

emissions of a coal-fired electricity plant). Contaminated water from electronic- or solar-

grade silicon manufacturing is submitted to waste-water treatment before discharging

(Phylipsen, 1995).

2. Future developments in a nutshell – the likely integrated resource planning (IRP2010) and climate change impacts on water resources and related implications for the power sector

The IRP2010 sets out the future mix of electricity supply in South Africa. To the existing

energy mix it aims to add new nuclear capacity of 9.6GW as well as 6.3GW of new coal

capacity (in total, 16.4GW new coal from 2010 including Medupi and Kusile with 4.8GW

each), and 17.8GW of renewable energy capacity. The continued and planned increased use

of coal in the energy sector, in particular, comes with dire consequences for water

resources, human habitats and ecosystems through water abstraction, water and air

pollution around coal mines and CO2 emissions. The IRP2010 estimates that the CO2

emissions from the power sector will continue to rise from 230MtCO2eq in 2010 to a level of

about 300MtCO2eq in the mid 2020s. Due to the retirement of old coal-fired power stations

and their replacement by more efficient, so-called supercritical coal-fired power stations, it

is estimated that the electricity output will still increase from coal but that CO2 emissions

will start to decline by 2030.

In addition, the demand on water through coal-fired power stations will reduce due to the

retirement of wet cooled power stations and the use of dry cooling technology in new

developments. But the load on water bodies through abstraction and pollution will increase

in the coal mining sector, where old mines will continue to pollute through AMD.

Nuclear power stations will cover their water demand for cooling from the oceans and their

fresh water demand with on-site desalination. Solar thermal power plants in the Karoo will


operate with dry cooling, and other forms of renewable energy, such as wind and solar

photovoltaic, have no or very little demand for water during operation. Nuclear power and

wind power pose threats to water bodies through their upstream mining activities. The

mining of uranium and REEs in South Africa is under development and will increase their

world market share in the forthcoming years and of course also increase their local impact

on humans and nature. Environmental impacts through mining for silicon-based solar

photovoltaic can be negligible when compared with the impacts by coal, uranium or REE

mining. Processing for solar grade silicon, however, involves large water use and chemical

processes that emit pollutants into both water and air, some of them with high toxicity and

greenhouse gas potential. If these emissions from the solar industry are not controlled and

contained properly the already large and further growing scale of this industry and its

associated emissions will need to be taken seriously and impacts understood properly.

Hydro power, both run-of-river plants and pumped storage, currently provides a share of

only 2% to electricity supply in South Africa through domestic hydro-power stations.

Additional pumped storage is planned in the IRP2010. A warming planet will increase water

losses in reservoirs through evaporation. Increased flooding will increase catchment

erosion and reservoir sedimentation, which reduces dam lifespans. Unexpected magnitudes

of flooding pose risks to dam safety. As dry periods are likely to increase too, the expected

electricity output of hydro-power schemes is expected to decline. Impacts on the local

population of such dams also include relocation during the construction period and an

expected rise in incidents of water-borne diseases caused by warmer water temperatures.

Increased average temperatures of both water and air have significant impacts on the

cooling processes used in thermal power plants, which results in higher energy demand for

cooling and hence reduces the efficiency and output of the power station. Should

temperatures rise above certain levels, thermal power stations might need to shut down

due to lack of cooling capacity. Beside the climate change impact of water and air

temperature increases, the possibility of reduced availability of water may pose a future

risk for the operation of power stations as it does for communities. We can conclude that

the impacts of climate change on electricity generation and on water resources used by the

energy sector are considerable.

3. The policy agenda and the institutional landscape

The policy frameworks to be considered for the power sector also include those governing

water and mining, as well as the energy sector itself. Affected ministries include, at the least,

the Departments of Water Affairs, Mineral Resources, Energy, and Public Enterprises, which

oversees the state-owned enterprise Eskom. A number of agencies or institutions are

responsible for ensuring the implementation of Acts and regulations in the above-

mentioned sectors. The complexity and number of stakeholders involved makes it a most


difficult and challenging task to create an integrated policy framework where the

interlinked issues and competing interests can be appropriately considered.

An alignment of policies in these sectors for overlapping issues like water and the

environment is a huge challenge for any government. Since 1994 South Africa has

successfully developed sound legislation for the mining, water and environmental sectors.

The energy sector has entered a transition phase towards an open electricity market, where

the adaptation of the legislation framework is still ongoing. The IRP2010 has set out what

new-generation capacity will have to be built to meet the forecasted demand. This will

include the continuation of coal dependency at a similar level, but reduces the relative share

of coal for electricity generation from above 90% to about 60% over the next decades.

Renewable energy, nuclear power and natural gas are expected to be implemented as set

out in the IRP2010.

The development of the Integrated Energy Plan was started early in 2012 by DoE, and DWA

is in the process of updating the 2004 National Water Resource Strategy (NWRS).

Participating stakeholders from public and private sector will need to ensure that these new

plans consider the inter-dependencies between the mining, water and power. We include

here an outline of the policy contexts for each of these sectors.

3.1 The water sector Internationally the human right to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and

affordable water for personal and domestic use is outlined in the UN General Comment No.

15, which in international law is the legal basis for the right to water and its relationship to

other human rights.22

South Africa’s Constitution guarantees everyone the right of access to water. Legislation and

plans have been put in place to make this a reality. The Free Basic Water project of the

DWA23 sets out the target of a supply of 25 litres of potable water per person per day,

supplied within 200 metres of a household, with an implementation status of 86% of

households served in July 2012.24

Two acts govern the international and constitutional right to water in South Africa. The

Water Services Act of 1997 deals with water services and the National Water Act of 1998

with water resources. Further regulations give more details to aspects of the acts.

Water institutions are aligned with the Acts and are divided into those that manage water

resources and those responsible for water delivery services.

DWA retains responsibility for the country’s water sector and oversees the implementing

water sector institutions. Other institutions (proposed or established) to take over some

specific resource management and service delivery responsibilities from DWA include

catchment management agencies, water user associations and water services authorities –

which are primarily at municipal level (DWAF, 2003).


The NWRS of 2004 is still the most up-to-date document from DWA for this topic, although

a draft NWRS 2 has recently been gazetted (September 2012). The estimated future water

demand of the power-generation sector, included coal-fired power stations and hydro-

power schemes, is recognised in the 2004 strategy, as is the water demand for mining. The

NWRS 2 will have to include the impacts on the water sector by the IRP2010 and future

iterations of it.

3.2 Mining sector Since 1994, mining, water, environmental and waste legislation have all undergone

significant revisions to align them with the Constitution and other legislation. Today, the

legislation protecting environmental and water resources is sound and comprehensive, but

not very effective in its implementation. The three main Acts applicable to all mining

activities are:

the National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998) – administered by the DWA;

the Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act (Act 28 of 2002) –

administered by the DMR; and

the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) (Act 8 of 2004), enforced by

the Department of Environmental Affairs(DEA).

These Acts enshrine the ‘polluter pays’ principle and require environmental impact

assessments and environmental management plans for any activities that affect the

environment.

Unfortunately there is a discrepancy between the sound laws governing mining in South

Africa and the visible ‘coal rush’ that is currently happening in the coal-rich areas of South

Africa. The government is frequently criticised for its lack of ability to implement and police

its own laws and policies and to prevent malpractice.

One hundred and twenty-five mines (including 11 of the 22 coal mines that supply Eskom)

have been operating without a valid water licence since mid 2010. In Mpumalanga alone, 54

mines abstract freshwater and discharge used water without authorisation. Some mines,

such as the Arnot Colliery in Mpumalanga, have not even attempted to apply for a licence,

yet are allowed to continue operations (Morgan, 2010; Wassung, 2010). This lack of

compliance has had dire consequences for water availability and quality, resulting in human

rights violations, for example in the town of Carolina, where people have had no access to

drinking quality water for most of 2012 due to contamination of the dam that supplies the

town.

3.3 Power sector Before 1994 planning for electricity generation was mainly executed within Eskom and was

dominated by an ‘energy supply’ objective, which had to ensure adequate supply to match a

growing demand. Universal access and affordability of electricity were the ambitious and


important objectives of the government from 1994 onwards, implemented through the

National Electrification Programme.

A broad-based process of discussion and participation resulted in the 1998 White Paper on

Energy Policy of South Africa (EWP, 1998). Based on this White Paper, a number of Acts and

amendments to existing Acts have been put in place, including the establishment of the

necessary institutions that govern the electricity sector. In the EWP, a restructured and

unbundled power sector was envisaged and the importance of renewable energy sources

and energy efficiency technologies was recognised. The government committed itself in the

EWP to ensure that decisions to construct new nuclear power stations are taken within the

context of an integrated energy policy (IEP) planning process. A first IEP was published in

2003 by the then-Department of Minerals and Energy, but was not far-reaching enough and

finally had no practical relevance. In 2004 the Government gazetted the White Paper on the

Renewable Energy Policy of the Republic of South Africa, which sets a first clear target of

10,000GWh from renewable energy by 2013.

Due to lack of investment into new generation capacity and the electricity supply crisis (first

mentioned in the Energy Outlook for South Africa in 2002 and as expected from 2008

onwards), some efforts have been made regarding energy efficiency, solar water heating

and other measures to reduce electricity demand. Another clear sign that energy and

electricity specifically climbed up the ladder of importance was the separation of energy

from minerals and mining into two separate government departments, which was a longer

process but concluded in 2009.

The first Integrated Resource Plan (IRP1), which outlined the new electricity generation

plans until 2030, was published in late 2009 but quickly become redundant. The

development of the IRP2 was kicked off in early 2010 and was finally promulgated in May

2011, after a long participative process.

The 1998 Energy White Paper recognises that overlaps exist with other related economic

sectors, including water and mining. Energy policy documents recognise that South Africa is

classified as a ‘water stressed’ country. It is understood that dry cooling technologies will

reduce the water demand for electricity generation and it is also mentioned that renewable

energy has a significantly lower need for water during operations. Water supply is not seen

as a restriction to future energy supply plans. Mining is considered in the energy plans as a

significant user of electricity and hence an important contributor to electricity demand, but

there is no mention about the water needs and environment impacts of mining’s energy

needs.

The IRPs were drafted without having the required IEP in place. DoE has launched the

development of an IEP in early 2012 and it is hoped that a comprehensive plan will include

all necessary considerations in relation to abstraction from and pollution of water

resources, both in mining for energy and for power generation.


4. Key messages

1. Power generation from fossil fuels, nuclear and renewable resources all have

adverse effects on our natural environment.

2. Renewable energy technologies such as solar and wind have little impact on water

resources during operations.

3. Predicted impacts of climate change on electricity generation and on use of water

resources by the energy sector are considerable.

4. Water supply is not currently seen as a restriction to future energy supply plans.

5. The policy frameworks that should be considered for the power sector – beside the

energy sector itself – need to include those governing water and mining as well.

6. Mining for coal, uranium, REEs, copper and other minerals and metals are all part of

the supply chain to build and operate power stations.

7. Water use in mining for ‘energy’ coal, uranium, REEs, copper, other minerals and

metals adds a significant share to the total water use of the power sector.

8. The impacts of mining on groundwater and surface water and hence on human and

wildlife habitats are severe and these impacts continue long after mines are closed.

9. South Africa’s coal mines are mainly located in the north-east of the country and the

majority of power stations have been built nearby. This concentration in one region

of both coal mining and coal-fired power stations, with their accompanying huge

demands on water supply and their high pollution potential for air and water,

together pose severe threats to both human habitats and ecosystems.

10. The mining of uranium and rare earth elements is under development in South

Africa and will increase the country’s world market share in forthcoming years. It

will also increase the local impact on humans and nature.

11. South Africa’s rare earth element mines are located in the Northern Cape. As these

mines go into operation in the next few years, it will be critical that all necessary

measures are sufficiently prescribed by the authorities and implemented by

companies to avoid significant pollution of surface water and groundwater, as has

happened in China.

12. Carbon capture and storage would substantially increase water consumption if

applied to power generation.


13. The continued and planned increased use of coal in the South African energy sector

will have dire consequences for water resources, human habitats and ecosystems

through water abstraction, water and air pollution around coal mines and CO2

emissions.

14. The National Water Resources Strategy 2 will have to include the impacts on the

water sector by the IRP2010 and future iterations of it.

15. IRP2010 was drafted without having the required IEP in place. DoE has now

launched the development of an IEP in early 2012 and it is hoped that a sufficiently

comprehensive IEP will include full consideration of water resource impacts, both in

mining for energy and power generation.

5. Moving forward

The IRP2010 sustains the generation of electricity from coal for the next two decades and

places South Africa on a mixed nuclear and renewable energy roadmap, yet current political

signals appear to favour the nuclear option.

Renewable energy technologies such as solar and wind have relatively little impact on

water resources during operations.

Most worryingly, predicted impacts of climate change on electricity generation and on

conventional water resource use by the energy sector are considerable.

The demands of energy generation on increasingly limited water resources have to be far

more seriously considered in our energy planning. The continued and planned increased

use of coal in the energy sector effectively comes with a commitment to dire consequences

on human habitats, especially due to water abstraction, water and air pollution around coal

mines and coal-fired power stations and a massive contribution to climate change through

CO2 emissions.


6. References

Anglo American, 2011. Annual report. Accessible at

http://www.angloamerican.com/investors/reports/2011rep.

Darwish, A, 2011. Immersion cooling of photovoltaic cells in highly concentrated solar

beams. UNLV Theses/Dissertations/Professional Papers/Capstones. Paper 1081. Accessible

at http://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/thesesdissertations/1081.

Department of Energy (DoE), 2010. Integrated resource plan for electricity 2010–2030.

Accessible at http://www.doe-irp.co.za/content/IRP2010_promulgated.pdf.

Department of Energy United States (DoE-US), 2008. Water requirements for existing and

emerging thermoelectric plant technologies. DOE/NETL-402/080108 (August 2009

revision). Accessible at http://www.netl.doe.gov/energy-

analyses/pubs/WaterRequirements.pdf.

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1 ‘Power sector’ refers here to all aspects from mining to power generation. Distribution impacts have not been included. 2 ‘Renewable energy’ here includes hydro power, solar thermal power, solar photovoltaic and on-shore wind farms. 3 http://www.southafrica.co.za/about-south-africa/environment/energy-and-water/, 29 February 2012. 4 The Western Cape Water Supply System (WCWSS) provides water to more than three

million people. In 2008 the actual water usage from the WCWSS amounted to

approximately 493 Mm3/a. Some 32% of the water supplied by WCWSS is used by irrigators

and 63% or 311 Mm3/a is used for domestic and industrial purposes within the City of Cape

Town. Western Cape Water Reconciliation Strategy, Newsletter 5, March 2009. Accessible at http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Other/WMA/19/WCWRSNewsletterMarch09.pdf

5 http://www.eskom.co.za/c/article/240/water-management/

6 http://mydocs.epri.com/docs/SummerSeminar11/Presentations/04-04_Lennon_Eskom_Dry_Cooling_v3.pdf 7 The EIA documentation for Kusile’s ash disposal facility explains that an area of over 30km2 will be filled up to 60m high with the ashes generated through Kusile’s operation during its lifetime of 60 years. 8 http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2010/08/26/99728/study-of-coal-ash-sites-finds.html 9 http://earthjustice.org/blog/2010-september/new-report-coal-ash-linked-cancer-and-other-maladies 10 http://www.abc.net.au/unleashed/42476.html 11 http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html 12 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf111.html 13 http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf23.html 14 http://www.radwaste.co.za/vaalputs.htm 15 http://www.projectsiq.co.za/uranium-mining-in-africa.htm, http://mg.co.za/article/2012-08-03-00-nuclear-frontrunner-arevas-toxic-political-dealings/ 16 http://www.ucsusa.org/nuclear_power/nuclear_power_technology/how-nuclear-power-works.html 17 http://www.wise-uranium.org/uwai.html 18 http://www.nnr.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/PSIF-Minutes-11-March-2010-Koeberg.doc 19 http://www.unep.org/dams/ 20 http://www.wwindea.org/home/index.php 21 http://www.businesslive.co.za/southafrica/sa_markets/2012/05/05/sa-prepares-to-dig-up-precious-rare-earth-minerals, http://www.frontierrareearths.com/, http://www.gwmg.ca/html/projects/mining/index.cfm 22 http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/a5458d1d1bbd713fc1256cc400389e94/ 23 http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/fbw/ 24 This figure does not take into account the number of households disconnected (due to inability to pay and/or technical failures) shortly after technical installation.

http://www.southafrica.co.za/about-south-africa/environment/energy-and-water/

http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Documents/Other/WMA/19/WCWRSNewsletterMarch09.pdf

http://www.eskom.co.za/c/article/240/water-management/

http://mydocs.epri.com/docs/SummerSeminar11/Presentations/04-04_Lennon_Eskom_Dry_Cooling_v3.pdf

http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2010/08/26/99728/study-of-coal-ash-sites-finds.html

http://earthjustice.org/blog/2010-september/new-report-coal-ash-linked-cancer-and-other-maladies

http://www.abc.net.au/unleashed/42476.html

http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf111.html

http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf23.html

http://www.radwaste.co.za/vaalputs.htm

http://www.projectsiq.co.za/uranium-mining-in-africa.htm

http://mg.co.za/article/2012-08-03-00-nuclear-frontrunner-arevas-toxic-political-dealings/

http://mg.co.za/article/2012-08-03-00-nuclear-frontrunner-arevas-toxic-political-dealings/

http://www.ucsusa.org/nuclear_power/nuclear_power_technology/how-nuclear-power-works.html

http://www.ucsusa.org/nuclear_power/nuclear_power_technology/how-nuclear-power-works.html

http://www.wise-uranium.org/uwai.html

http://www.nnr.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/PSIF-Minutes-11-March-2010-Koeberg.doc

http://www.unep.org/dams/

http://www.wwindea.org/home/index.php

http://www.businesslive.co.za/southafrica/sa_markets/2012/05/05/sa-prepares-to-dig-up-precious-rare-earth-minerals

http://www.businesslive.co.za/southafrica/sa_markets/2012/05/05/sa-prepares-to-dig-up-precious-rare-earth-minerals

http://www.frontierrareearths.com/

http://www.gwmg.ca/html/projects/mining/index.cfm

http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/a5458d1d1bbd713fc1256cc400389e94/

http://www.dwaf.gov.za/dir_ws/fbw/