the enemy at his back-elizabeth churchill brown-1956-263pgs-pol
TRANSCRIPT
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T h e
E n e m y a t H i s Back
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Copyright 1956
By Elizab eth Churchill Brown
P r i n t e d in the United States of America
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T h e E n e m y a t H i s B a c k
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CONTENTS
C h a p t e r I E a r l y b a t t l e s o f t h e P a c i f i c - F i r s t p e a c e
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
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FOREWORDON t h e N a t i o n a l A r c h i v e s B u i l d i n g i n t h e N a t i o n ' s
C a p i t a l , i s e t c h e d t h e i n s c r i p t i o n , " W h a t i s p a s t i s
p r o l o g u e . "
I n t h e A t o m i c A g e i n w h i c h w e n o w l i v e , i t i s i m -
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THIS IS WHAT YOU CALLAcknowledgments
I MUST s a y " t h a n k s a m i l l i o n " t o a n u m b e r o f p e o p l e .
F i r s t , E d n a F l u e g e l w h o n o t o n l y c h a l l e n g e d e v e r y
w o r d I w r o t e a n d c h e c k e d a n d t r i p l e c h e c k e d , b u t a l s o
t a u g h t m e a f e w p r o f e s s i o n a l t r i c k s . I h a v e c o m e t o
t h i n k o f h e r a s " g o o d o l d E d n a " e v e n t h o u g h s h e i s n ' t
o l d a t a l l bu t a p r e t t y p r o f e s s o r o f p ol i t i c a l s c i e n c e a t
T r i n i t y C o l l e g e i n W a s h i n g t o n . F o r m a ll y s pe a k i n g , s h e
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x This Is W hat You Call Acknowledgments
b o o k ! " T h a t w a s a t 2 : 3 0 i n t h e a f t e r n o o n . H e r e p ea t e d
t h e s t a t e m e n t a t 4 : 3 2 , a n d i t w a s t h e n t h a t I f e l t t h a t
maybe my two and a half years of work had borne
s o m e f r u i t .
I m u s t n ' t f o r ge t t o s a y " t h a n k s a m i l l i o n " t o M a u d e
Wood . M a u d e i s o u r m a i d w h o s e l i n e a g e i s o f t h e m o s t
d i s t i n g u i s h e d A f ri c a n a n c e s t r y . I ' m s u r e t h e y w e r e d i s -
t i n g u i s h e d be c a u s e m y M a u d e i s a n a r i s t o c r a t a n d a
b i t o f V i c t o r i a n a s w e ll . S h e f u s s e d a n d f u m e d a t w h a t
E d n a a n d I d i d t o h e r d i n i n g r o o m a n d p a r l o r . (We
m a d e t h e " s n o r e r o o m " o u t - o f - b o u n d s s o m y h u s b a n d
c o u l d h a v e s o m e p l a c e t o e s c a p e .) Bu t Maude took
p i t y o n u s h a r d w o r k i n g g i r l s a n d p r o v i d e d d e l e c t a b l e
t r a y s o f g o o d i e s i n o u r h o u r s o f d r u d g e r y . I f c o m p a n y
was expected, Maude was outraged at my unhouse-
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This Is What You Call Acknowledgments x i
search that makes the Library of Congress the mos t
w o n d e r f u l l i b r a r y i n t h e w o r ld .
A n d l a s t , b u t m o s t i m p o r t a n t , a r e t h e p u b li s h e r s a n d
authors of the books f rom which I have gleaned s o
much inf ormation . T h e p o l i t i c a l m e m o i r w r i t e r s a r e by
f a r t h e g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t o r s t o h i s t o r y . Let us have
more and more of them .
F o r p e r m i s s i o n t o q u o t e , a " m i l l i o n " t h a n k s t o t h e
p u b l i s h e r s a n d a u t h o r s l i s t e d i n t h e b i b l i o g ra p h y .
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INTRODUCTION
THIS b o o k i s t h e r es u l t o f a w o m a n ' s c u r i o s i t y . I t i s n o t
t h e w o r k o f a s t u d e n t o f h i s t o r y n o r e v e n t h e w o r k o f
a s t u d e n t . N e i t h e r i s i t w r i t t e n f o r s t u d e n t s b u t r a t h e r
f o r o r d i n a r y p e o p l e li k e m y s e l f w h o w o u l d li k e t o k n o w
" w h o k i l l e d C o c k R o b i n ? "
A l l o f t h o s e c l o s e l y a c q u a i n t e d w i t h m y s t o r y w h o
h a v e s o g e n e r o u s l y g i v e n t h e i r t i m e t o r e a d m y m a n u -
s c r i pt h a v e s a i d : " B u t y o u l e f t t h i s o u t " o r " y ou l e f t
t h a t o u t . " I h a v e h a d t o re s i s t a l m o s t a l l o f t h e m , a n d
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x i v I n t r o d u c t i o n
A n d t h e n I r e a d t h e W a s h i n g t o n P o s t w i t h i t s c a l m
a n d p e r s u a s i v e e d i t o ri a l s . T h e p a p er a s s u m e d a " c o n -
s e r v a t i v e " t o n e , a n d i t s r e p o r t i n g s e e m e d , o n t h e s u r -
f a c e a t l e a s t , f a c t u a l . S t i l l I f e lt t h e r e wa s s o m e t h i n g
w r o n g t h e r e t o o .
I w a s e q u a l l y c o n f u s e d b y t h e v a r i o u s r a d i o c o m -
m e n t a t o r s . F o r i n s t a n c e , s h o u l d I b el i e v e F u l t o n L e w i s ,
J r . w h o s o u n d e d m a d a l l t h e t i m e , o r s h o u l d I f o l l o w
the honeyed words of Raymond Gram Swing ?
B u t o n e t h i n g I n e v e r c o u l d re c o n c i l e . W h y d i d t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s h a v e t o b e S O f r i e n d l y t o S o v i e t R u s s i a ?
" W h y d o w e h a v e t o k i s s t h e m o n t h e m o u t h ? " , I u s e d
t o a s k . I t s e e m e d t o m e t h a t , s i n c e c i r c u m s t a n c e s h a d
f o r c e d u s t o a c c e p t s u c h a n a l l y , w e n a t u r a l l y w o u l d
t r e a t t h a t m u r d e ro u s n a t i o n w i t h c o l d r e a l i t y .
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Introd ucti on xv
f o r e s o m a n y h a d l o s t t h e i r m e n i n t h e f u r y o f m o d e r n
w a r s , h a d f o u n d o f l i t t l e c o n c e r n .
O n e d a y h e t o l d m e a n i n t e r e s t i n g s t o r y a b o u t t h e
mysterious " They ." The firs t time he heard about
"They" was in 1939 o n t h e e v e o f W o r l d W a r I I , w h e n
a F r e n c h m a n r e c e n t l y a r r i v e d i n t h i s c o u n t r y p a i d h i m
a v i s i t . T h e F r e n c h m a n e x p l a i n e d t h a t h e h a d d e c i d e d
t o b e c o m e a n A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n , a n d h a d b r o u g h t w i t h
h i m h i s f a m i l y a n d h i s f o r t u n e . They had bid adieu
t o F r a n c e f o r a l l t i m e . T h e r e a s o n , h e s a i d , w a s t h a t
h e h a d d i s c o v e r e d t h a t a g r e a t w a r w a s t o b e l a u n c h e d
in Europe, and that "They" would maneuver France
i n t o l o s i n g i t . H i s c o n v e r s a t i o n w a s s o w e l l s e a s o n e d
with references to "They" that my husband asked
him who "They" were . T h e F r e n c h m a n r e p l i e d t h a t h e
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x v i I n t r o d u c t i o n
w h e r e t h e m y s t e r y o f ` w h y ' m a y l e a d t o f u r t h e r i d e n t i -
f i c a t i o n o f t h e m y s t e r i o u s ` t h e y ' . . . "
General Mark Clark, al so a wi tness before the Su b-
comm ittee, wrote a book called "From the Danube to
the Yalu" in which he express ed a fearful sus pici on,
P t . 2 1 settin g a precedent for American generals :
1 6 5 4
"The nagging fear was that perhaps Communists had
w o r m e d t h e i r w a y s o d e e p l y i n t o o u r G o v e r n m e n t o n b o t h
t h e w o r k i n g a n d p l a n n i n g l e v e l s t h a t t h e y w e r e a b l e t o
e x e r c i s e a n i n o r d i n a t e d e g r e e of p o w e r i n s h a p i n g t h e c o u r s e
o f A m e r i c a i n t h e d a n g e r o u s p o s t - w a r e r a .
" I c o u l d n o t h e l p w o n d e r i n g a n d w o r r y i n g w h e t h e r w e w e r e
f a c e d w i t h o p e n e n e m i e s a c r o s s t h e c o n f e r e n c e t a b l e a n d
h i d d en e n e m i e s w h o s a t w i t h u s i n o u r m o s t s e c r e t c o u n c i l s . "
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I n t r o d u c t i o n x v i i
a n d m a d e i n t o a n i n d e p e n d e n t r e pu b l i c w i t h a g o v e r n m e n t
, f r i e n d l y t o t h e U . S . S . R .
" T h e s a m e r e q u e s t i s e x p e c t e d t o b e m a d e i n r e g a r d t o
K o r e a , w i t h P o r t A r t h u r . . . r e s t o r e d t o Ru s s i a n c o n t r o l . "
Although Korea was not a part of the Yalta agree-
ment, it s n orthern half d id become a "gov ernment
f r i e n d l y t o t h e U . S . S .R . " B u t t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h i s
c a m e a b o u t p r o v i d e s p r o o f o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f " T h e y "
-men without f aces or names .
Shortly after VJ-day a round-robin telephone con-
versation took place between the War Department and
the White n- H o u s e e n o f t h e c i a n t s i n t h i s u n -
u s u a l " c o n f e r e n c e " t o l d m e t h a t t h o s e i n t h e en agon
did not know to whom they were talking in the White
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x v i i i I n t r o d u c t i o n
" . . . the Japanese believe the American people woul d
not be oppos ed to the mai ntenance of the dynas ty . The
Emperor of Japan would f orm a government, choosing as
his advisers those remaining liberals who have not been
purged bu t have gone underground since the outbreak of
the war. Such a government would agree to a withdrawal
from the ill gai ned possessions in China and the South
P a c i f i c , a g r e e t o w h a t e v e r m i l i t a r y t e r m s m i g h t b e e x a c t e d
b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d t h r o w J a p a n a t t h e m e r c y o f t h i s
country .
"Little has been revealed about the devious approaches
o f s o m e o f t h e J a p a n e s e ` l i b e r a l s ' w h o h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t
A m e r i c a ' s o w n f u t u r e d e f e n s e i n t h e F a r E a s t w i l l h a v e t o
depend on a f riendly Japan i n the sam e way Russia' s
s e c u r i t y a n d p o w e r i n E u r o pe d e p e n d s o n ` f r i e n d l y ' b o r d e r
g o v e r n m e n t s i n P o l a n d , t h e B a l k a n s a n d , i n a l l l i k e l i h o o d ,
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I n t r o d u c t i o n x i x
t h e Free Korean and Manchurian governments will be
equally d ominated by indiv idu als who have been coached
r e c e n t l y i n M o s c o w a n d w i l l d i r e c t t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s t o w a r d a
f u l l p o l i t i c a l c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e U . S . S .R . T h e y a d m i t t h a t
under such circumstances Japan will perish . . . T h i s w i l l
b e s t i l l e a s i e r , i f R u s s i a , a f t e r t h e c o l l a p s e o f J a p a n , i s s u c -
cessful in forming `friendly' governments in Korea, Man-
c h u r i a a n d n o r t h w e s t e r n C h i n e s e p r o v i n c e s .
"Does America want to see totalitarian governments in
Asia as well as Europe? . . . They admi t that Japan can
b e c r u s h e d f o r e v e r . But, they ask, how will the American
p e o p l e w h o m u s t t h i n k i n l o n g r a n g e p o l i t i c a l t e r m s b e n e f i t
by the total destruction of the Japanese Empire . . . The
C h i n e s e w i l l c e r t a i n l y a c c e p t t h e o u t s t r e t c h e d h a n d o f t h e
United States . But will America have a free hand to help
C h i n a i n t h e m a n n e r s h e d e s i r e s i f C h i a n g K a i - s h e k i s c o m -
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x x I n t r o d u c t i o n
g o v e r n m e n t , a n d t h e A m e r i c a n o f f i c i a l s t h e m s e l v e s a r e u r g i n g
C h i a n g t o r e a c h a c o m p r o m i s e . T h e G e n e ra l i s s i m o k n o w s a s
well as any on e else that a comprom ise with the Com-
m u n i s t s , e v e n i f t h e y h a v e n o d i r e c t t i e s w i t h Ru s s i a , w i l l
m e a n h i s e v e n t u a l d i s a p p e a r a n c e f r o m C h i n a ' s p o l i t i c a l l i f e .
Any compromi se with the Moscow- trained Com mun ist s
m u s t e n d i n t h ei r do m i n a t i n g t he p ol i t i c a l s c e n e . H e n c e t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s w h i c h i s n o w g e n t l y p r e s s i n g t h e G e n e r a l -
iss imo to cooperate with the Chinese Communi sts , m ust
k n o w t h a t s o o n e r o r l a t e r i t i s t h i s g r o u p wh i c h w i l l t a k e
o v e r t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f C h i n a . "
I found a war calendar an d l ooked at the war's
events i n the Paci fic f rom November 1944 o n , t h e t i m e
when the Japanese desired to surrender . I t r e a d s l i k e
t h i s
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I n t rod u c t i o n x x i
I d e t e r m i n e d t o d i s c o v e r w h a t i n f l u e n c e s i n h i g h
p l a c e s h a d p e r h a p s " i n s p i r e d " t h e d e c i s i o n s m a d e b y
o u r l e a d e r s , a n d a l s o t o c h e c k o u r p o l i c i e s w i t h t h o s e
o f t h e C om m u n i s t s a s s e t f o r t h i n t h e i r p u b li c a t i o n s .
T h e s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e s e p o l i c i e s a n d t h e C o m m u n i s t
a i m s w a s s t a r t l i n g .
I h a d a l r e a d y b e c o m e a c q u a i n t e d , t o a d e g r e e , w i t h
t h e C o m m u n i s t c o n s p i r a c y i n A m e r i c a b y c l o s e l y f o l -
l o wi n g t h e h e a r i n g s o f t h e C o n g re s s i o n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
a n d a v i d l y r e a d i n g t h e p u b l i s h e d t r a n s c r i p t s - f a r m o r e
f r i g h t e n i n g t h a n t h e " w h o - d u n n i t s " t h a t h a d " l u l l e d "
m e t o s le e p i n t h e pa s t . S o i t w a s t h a t I l e a r n e d h o w
S o v i e t R u s s i a h a d p l a c e d h e r a g e n t s i n h i g h p l a c e s i n
o u r g o v e r n m e n t - a g e n t s w h o n o t o n l y s t o l e t o p s e c r e t s ,
b u t , m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f a l l , i n f l u e n c e d t h e p o li c y m a k e r s
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x x i i I n t r o d u c t i o n
o v e r t h e m e e t i n g s . Although the recommendations o f
t h e j o i n t C h i e f s w e r e a l w a y s u n a n i m o u s , , m o r e o f t e n
than not the two ad mirals d isagreedwith n e r a l
Arnold s o t M a r s h a l l i n p r i v a t e . A n d G e n e r a l A r n o l d , a c c o r d i n g o
h i s m e m o i r s , a l s o q u i t e o f t e n d i d n o t g o a l o n g w i t h
G e n e r a l M a r s h a l l ' s v i e w s . Secretary of W ar Henry
S t i m s o n w a s s o s e l do m c o n s u l t e d t h a t h e , t o o , m u s t b e
e l i m i n a t e d . F i n a l l y I d i s c o v e r e d a p a s s a g e i n G e n e r a l
Arnold' s book, " Global Mission" which sum med up
t h e pi c t u r e . He wrote-"U sually, he (Marshall) was
spokesman at our conferences . " A r n o l d r e f e r r e d t o
A d m i r a l L e a h y a s t h e C h a i r m a n o f t h e J o i n t C h i e f s ,
b u t t o M a r s h a l l a s t h e s p o k e s m a n . I t h e r e f o r e c a m e
t o t h e i n e s c a p a b l e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t , w h e n I r e a d t h a t
" t h e A r m y " o r " t h e j o i n t C h i e f s " h a d d e c i d e d u p o n
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Chapter 1
EARLY BATTLES OF THE PACIFIC ;FIRST PEACE FEELERS
U . S . N a v y w i n s i n i t i a t i v e f r o m J a p a n 6 m o n t h s a f t e r
P e a r l H a r b o r .U. S . A i r F o r c e wi n s s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r J a p a n e s e i n 19 4 3 .
L o s s o f S a i p a n i s l o s s o f w a r f o r J a p a n e s e .
" P e a c e P a r t y " c o m e s t o l i f e a n d m a n e u v e r s t h e f a l l o f
T o j o c a b i n e t .
P e a c e f e e l e r s a r e s e n t t o C h i n a .
B a t t l e o f L e y t e G u l f , O c t o b e r 1 9 4 4 , d o o m s J a p a n .
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2 The Enemy at His Back
Leahy io8 " T h e N a v y g e n e r a l l y a n d t h e A r m y i n t h e F a r E a s t u n d e r
D o u g l a s M a c A r t h u r w o u l d h a v e p r e f e rr e d t o e m p l o y s u f -
f i c i e n t f o r c e s i n t h e P a c i f i c t o m o v e m o r e a gg r e s s i v e l y a g a i n s t
J a p a n , b u t t h e y l o y a l l y a d h e r e d t o t h e g e n e r a l s t r a t e g y
p r e s c r i b e d b y P r e s i d e n t R o o s e v e l t . "
By the Adm iral's precise statement, " the Army in
the Far East un der Dougl as MacArthur," I ass um ed
t h a t t h e A r m y C h i e f o f S t a f f i n W a s h i n g t o n , G e o r ge C .
Marshall, must have concurred with President Roose-
v e l t a g a i n s t t h e a d v i c e o f t h e n a v a l o f f i c e r s . A d m i r a l
Leahy conf irmed this to me .
It was als o known that Harry Hopkins " som etim es
Lea an d h a d t h e l a s t w o r d i n m i l i t a r y m a t t e r s , " w h j c h l e a d s us
Henschel 11 48t o b e l i e v e t u . r hall an d Ho kins were t h e _ . . t a r o
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B a t t l e s o f t h e P a c i f i c ; F i r s t P e a c e F e e l e r s 3
h e l p d o wn t h e S o v i e t c o m r a d e s ' t h r o a t s . T h e R u s s i a n s
w e r e i n s u l t i n g , e v a s i v e , a n d h a r d - t o - gi v e - t o . G e n e r a l D e a n e 9 7
D e a n e i n t h e s a m e b o o k c a n d i d l y e x p r e s s e d h i s f e e l i n g
a b o u t t h i s o u t r a g e o u s s i t u a t i o n . " W h e n i t w a s ' K i c k -
A m e r i c a n s - i n - t h e - p a n t s ' w e e k , " h e w r o t e , " e v e n t h e
(Russ ian) charwomen would be sour . "
B y W a s h i n g t o n ' s d e c i s i o n t o g i v e a i d t o R u s s i a f i r s t ,
General MacArthur was given only 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e
men and supplies which were sent to Europe . T hi s ,
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t o u r N a v a l c o m m a n d e r s i n
t h e P a c i f i c h a d t o w a g e w a r w i t h a s e r i o u s l y d a m a g e d
f l e et m a k e s i t a l m o s t a m i r a c l e t h a t v i c t o r i e s c a m e s o
q u i c k l y i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s .
Yet on May 8, 1 9 4 2 , e x a c t l y f i v e m o n t h s a n d o n e
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The Japanese
Story of the
B a t t l e o f
Midway .U . S . o f f i c e o f
N a v a l I n t e l -
4 The Enem y at His Back
Once they met in serious b attle with the American
f l e e t , t h e J a p a n e s e f e l l a p a r t l i k e a h o u s e o f c a r d s .
H e r e i s a t r a n s l a t e d e x c e r pt f r o m a c a p t u r e d J a p a n e s e
r e p o r t w ri t t e n b y t h e C o m m a n d e r - i n - C h i e f o f t h e F i r s t
Air Fleet, Admi ral Nagu mo . I t i s c o n t a i n e d i n " T h e
J a p a n e s e S t o r y o f t h e B a t t l e o f M i d w a y , " p u b l i s h ed b y
the U . S . O f f i c e o f N a v a l I n t e ll i g e n c e . Y o u w i l l s e e t h a t
t h e J a p a n e s e N a v y w a s h a v i n g r e a l t r o u b l e a s e a r l y a s
May and June 1942 .
" A l t h ou g h t h e f l i g h t t r a i n i n g p r o g ra m ( i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r
t h e b a t t l e ) w a s c o n d u c t e d w i t h o u t a n y m a j o r i n c i d e n t . . .
p r a c t i c a l l y n o o n e g o t b e y o n d t h e p o i n t o f b a s i c t r a i n i n g .
I n e x p e r i e n c e d f l i e r s b a r e l y g o t t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h ey
c o u l d m a k e d a y t i m e l a n d i n g s o n c a r r i e rs . I t w a s f o u n d t h a t
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B a t t l e s o f t h e P a c i f i c ; F i r s t P e a c e F e e l e r s 5
" I n g e n e r a l , i t w o u l d s e e m t o a p p e a r t h a t o u r e f f o r t i n G u a d a l c a n a l
t h e S o u t h w e s t P a c i f i c m u s t f o r s e v e ra l r e a s o n s b e l i m i t e d t o 4
t h e s t r a t e g i c d e f e n s i v e f o r a i r a n d g r o u n d t r o op s . "
H e r e w e s e e t h a t M a r s h a l l w a s s t r i c t l y a d h e r i n g t o
t h e p o l i c y o f " d e f e n s i v e " w a r f a r e i n t h e Pa c i f i c . B u t
A d m i r a l K i n g , a t o u g h " s a l t , " i m m e d i a t e l y c h a l l e n g e d
M a r s h a l l ' s l e t t e r a n d w r o t e b a c k t h a t d e f e n s e w a s n o t
e n o u g h - t h a t w e s h o u l d s e t u p s t r o n g p o i n t s i n p r e p -
a r a t i o n f o r a n o f f e n s i v e .
T h e A d m i r a l w on h i s f i r s t c r u c i a l s k i r m i s h i n W a s h -
i n g t o n . H e g ot h i s t r oo ps . And by February 1 9 4 3 t h e
A m e r i c a n s w e r e s e c u r e l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n G u a d a l c a n a l
and the Buna area . " . . . i t g a i n e d f o r t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s a s t r a t e g i c i n i t i a t i v e w h i c h w a s n e v e r r e l i n - G u a d a l c a n a l
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K a s e 1 8 3
6 The Enemy at His Back
Unit ed Nations . In "Journey to the Miss ouri, " Mr
Kase penned an as toni shing paragraph . He and the
British Ambas sador to Tokyo were good f riends and ,
after the war had st arted, t he Japanese dipl omat
secretly visited the interned Sir Robert Craigi on
s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s . Mr . Kase wrote that in Jul y 1942-" . . . O n m y l a s t v i s i t t o t h e B r i t i s h e m b a s s y , h o w e v e r , I
was entrus ted by Foreign Minis ter Togo wi th a highly
c o n f i de n t i a l m e s s a ge . I w a s i n s t r u c t e d t o g i v e S i r R o be r t
a d i s c r e e t h i n t r e g a rd i n g t h e e v e n t u a l r e s t o r a t i o n o f p e a c e
A f t e r a f r i e n d l y c h a t I i n t r o d u c e d t h e s u b j e c t w i t h a l l t h e
tact at my command and said, `Should it happen that
t h e B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t b e c a m e d e s i r o u s o f d i s c u s s i n g o r
n e g o t i a t i n g p e a c e t h e y w o u l d f i n d t h e J a p a n e s e G o v e r n m e n t
r e a d y t o b e h e l p f u l . . . '
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B a t t l es o f t h e Pa c i f i c ; F i r s t P e a c e F e e l e r s7
" B e g i n n i n g i n t h e e a r l y p a r t o f 1 9 4 4 t h e A l l i e s p os s e s s e d
a n e v e r i n c r e a s i n g n u m e r i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y i n a l l t y p e s o f
weapons . . .
. . . W h i l e t h e A l l i e d a i r s o r t i e s w e r e n u m b e r e d i n t h e
t h o u s a n d s t h o s e o f t h e J a p a n e s e w e r e n u m b e re d i n t e n s , a n d
w h i l e t h e A l li e s r o a m e d t h e s e a a r e a s o f f t h e c o a s t o f N e w
G u i n e a w i t h l a r g e f o rc e s o f c a r r i e r s , c r u i s e r s , d e s t r o y e r s
a n d m e r c h a n t s h i p s t h e J a p a n e s e h a d n o n e . "
USSBS Cam-
p a i g n s o f t h e
P a c i f i c W a r
1 8 6
The year 1944 brought more of the same .
Jan .3 ' , 1 9 4 4 A m e r i c a n s l a n d i n t h e M a r s h a l l I s l a n d s
A p r i l 2 2 , 1 9 4 4 A m e r i c a n s l a n d a t H o l l a n d i a i n D u t c h
New Gu ineaMay 1 7 , 1 9 4 4 M y i t k y i n a a i r s t r i p c a p t u r e d
J u n e1 5 , 1 9 4 4 A m e r i c a n s l a n d o n . S a i p a n i n t h e M a r i a n a
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8 The Enemy at His Back
l o we d d i s a s t e r , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o s e r v -
i c e s b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g ly h o s t i l e .
W h i l e t h e b a t t l e o f S a i p a n w a s s t i l l i n p r o gr e s s , e v e n
s o m e o f t h e J a p a n e s e c a b i n e t r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e i r n a t i o n
had l ost and were eager to j oin the "peace party . "
K a s e7 3 Mr . K a s e w r i t e s t h a t o n J u n e 2 6 t h , 1 9 4 4 , Baron Kido,
a c l o s e a d v i s e r t o t h e E m p e r o r a n d L o r d K e e p e r of t h e
P r i v y S e a l , " s e n t f o r F o re i g n M i n i s t e r S h i g e m i t s u a n d
asked him if he would work out som e plan l ooking
. t o w a r d a n e v e n t u a l d i p l om a t i c s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e w a r . "
These two statesmen, Shigemitsu and Kido, pledged
t h e m s e l v e s a t t h i s m e e t i n g t o w o r k t o w a r d t h e r e s t o -
r a t i on o f pe a c e . O n J u n e 2 9 , 1 9 4 4 , a n o t h e r s e c r e t a n d
i m p o r t a n t m e e t i n g t o o k p l a c e . P r e s e n t w e r e M r . K a s e ,
P r i n c e T a k a m a t s u , t h e y o u n g e r b r o t h e r o f t h e E m p e r o r,
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B a t t l es o f t h e Pa c i f i c ; F i r s t P e a c e F e e l e r s 9
P a c i f i c (in July 1944) where he met with General
MacArthur and Admiral Nimitz . Nimitz and Mac-
A r t h u r b r i e f e d t h e P r es i d e n t o n t h e u n t e n a b l e s i t u a t i o n
t h e J a p a n e s e f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s i n , a n d c o n v i n c e d h i m
t h a t J a p a n c o u l d b e f o r c e d t o s u r r e n d e r w i t h o u t a n
i n v a s i o n o f h e r h om e i s l a n d s . L e a a n d H e n s c h e l w r o t e
t h a t M a c A r t h u r " p o i n t e d o u t p r o u d l y t h a t i n t w o y e a r s
of fighting in his area, fewer Americans had been
k i l l e d t h a n i n t h e s i n g l e ba t t l e o f A n z i o . H e i n s i s t e d
t h e P h i l i p p i n e s w e r e t h e k e y t o t h e s t o l e n c o n q u e r e d
J a p a n e s e e m p i r e . . . O n c e d e f e a t e d ( t h e r e ) t h e y w o u l d
s o o n b e f o r c e d t o s u r r e n d e r w i t h o u t t h e n e c e s s i t y o f
a n i n v a s i o n b y l a n d f o rc e s ; a i r a n d n a v a l p o we r a l o n e
w o u l d b r i n g h e r t o h e r k n e e s . " A d m i r a l L e a h y , a l w a y s
a t t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s s i d e a t s u c h b r i e f i n g s , t o l d t h i s w r i t e r
Lea an d
Henschel
170-1
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ro The Enemy at His Back
a n d C h u n g k i n g a n d , a n d h i s l a s t t r i p i n M a r c h o f1 9 4 5 ,
his arguments to the Chinese were t h a t t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s was o f f e r i n g S o v i e t R u s s i a a p a r t o f M a n c h u r i a
in return for Russian entry into the war a ainst
J pang t h a t i n o r de r t o p r ev e n t s u c h a n o c c u r r e n c e , t h e
E m p e r o r w i s h e d t o o f f e r a n u n c o n d i t i o n a l s u r r e n d e r
t o C h i n a , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d G r e a t B r i t a i n . I t i s
s t r a n g e t h a t t h e J a p a n e s e t h e m s eo t w i n d o f t h e
t e r m s o f t h e Y a l t a a g r e e m e n t w h e n i t was a c a r e f u l l y
k e p t s e c r e t rom e v e n American o f f i c i a l s. But what
P r i n c e M i y a a w a t o l d f h e C h i n e s e inMarch 1945 was
p a r t o f t h e Y a l t a a g r e e m e n t w h i c h h a d n o t b e e n c o m -
m u n i c a t e d b y u s t o t h e C h i n e s e G o v e r n m e n t , a l l e g e d l y
f o r f e a r of a l e a k t o J a p a n !
T h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e s e h i g h l y s e c r e t m e s s a g e s
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B a t t l e s o f t h e P a c i f i c ; First Peace Feelers i 1
effect to Was hing ton, an d to whom . He repl ied that
all of his reports were sent to the OPD (Operations
Plans Div ision, sometimes called War Plans Div ision)
in t he Pentago n . He said i f his reports concerned
policy, and these did , they were giv en to Gen . John
Ed w i n Hul l a n d Gen . Tho m a s T . Handy who pass ed
t h e m o n t o t h e c h i e f o f s t a f f , G e n e r a l M a r s h a l l .
The loss of Saipan in July 1944 gav e the "peace
party" their firs t st rong foothold . W ith the fall of
the Tojo cab inet, the "war part y" steadily lost power .
T h e r e w a s n o p o s s i b l e c o v e r - u p o f t h e f a c t t h a t J a p a n ' s K a s e 9 8
los ses had been s o severe that she was n o lon ger able
to brin g raw materials to the home island s for m anu-
f a c t u r e .
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1 2 The Enemy at His Back
f l e e t e v e ry d a y , t h e J a p a n e s e l a c k e d t h e n e c e s s a r y r a w
m a t e r i a l s t o e v e n b u i l d r e p l a c e m e n t s f o r t h e i r l o s s e s .
L e a h y 2 7 4 F i v e d a y s a f t e r M a c A r t h u r l a n d e d f o u r d i v i s i o n s o n
the island of Leyte, Admiral Halsey cabled Washing-
ton : "It can be annou nced with ass urance that the
Japanese Navy has been beaten, routed, and broken
b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s F l e e t s . "
K e n n e y i 7 7 T h e la s t d e s p e r a t e J a p a n e s e e f f o r t t o s t a v e o f f t h e
i n e v i t a b l e t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f s u i c i d e K a m i k a s e s , w a s
d r a m a t i c , c o s t l y a n d f u t i l e .
It was imm ediately f ollowin g the Battle of Leyte
G u l f t h a t H i r o h i t o a n d t h e J a p a n e s e p e a c e p a r t y m a d e
contact with a group of S iamese who relayed another
W a s h i n g t o n u n c o n d i t i o n a l s u r r e n d er ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f r e t a i n -
E v e n i n g ing their Emperor) to Washington, again warnin g
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C h a p t e r I I
HOW COMMUNIST PROPAGANDA AFFECTSOUR FOREIGN POLICY
How Commun ist propagand a works .
Sum ner Welles is maneuvered in to carrying out Di-
m i t r o v ' s e d i c t .
Commun ist poli cy for China and Japan .
U n c o n d i t i o n a l S u r r e n d e r i s t h e k e y .
T h e p a r t p l a y e d b y R o t h , L a t t i m o r e a n d B i s s o n .Mr. G r e w ge t s i n t o t r o u b le .
R u s s i a w a s d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e w a r i n t h e P a c i f i c
w o u l d n o t e n d u n t i l s h e h a d g a t h e r e d a l l h e r c h i c k e n s
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Sherwood
6 4 3
Daily Worker
J u l y 1 9 , 1 9 5 5sC
14 The Enemy a t H i s B a c k
a n d l e c t u r e r s , a r e n o t C o m m u n i s t s . F e w a r e e v e n p r o -
Communists . B u t a l l t o o o f t e n t h e y d o t h e K r e m l i n ' s
w o r k b y f o l l o w i n g t h e p ol i c y t h a t " w e m u s t b e s o h e l p-
f u l a n d f r i e n d l y " t o R u s s i a t h a t s h e w i l l " w i l l i n g l y
j o i n w i t h u s i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a s o u n d p e a c e . "
T h i s w a s t h e p o l i c y w h i c h w a s f o l l o w e d i n o u r " R E -
recognition" of the Soviets at the Geneva " sum mit "
c o n f e r e n c e i n J u l y 1955 . And it was on the basis of
such thinkin g that President Eisenhower opened the
Geneva Con ference with the statement : " I t i s t i m e
t h a t a l l c u r t a i n s , w h e t h e r o f g u n s , o r l a w s o r r e g u -
lations , should begin to come down ." And to prove
that the Uni ted States would f ollow "word s" wi th
" d e e d s " w e c o n c u r r e d w i t h t h e D e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e S u -
p r e m e S o v i e t o f t h e U . S . S .R . ( t h e R u s s i a n " c o n g r es s " )
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C o m m u n i s t P r o pa g a n d a A f f e c t s F o r e i g n P o li c y1 5
i m p l i c a t i o n that "this is goo d for America ." Then,
t h r o u g h t h e i r a g e n t s i n s t r a t e g i c p l a c e s , t h e y " s e l l "
t h e i r b r om i d e s t o t h e m e n w h o p u t o u t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n ,
m o r e o f t e n t h a n n o t , u n w i t t i n g t o o l s .
For example : I t i s p r e t t y w e l l u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e
l i g h t o f re c e n t h i s t o r y t h a t , w h e n w e ll - i n t e n t i o n e d a n d
patrioti c commentators and column ist s urged that
Chiang Kai-s hek cooperate with the Comm uni st Chi-
n e s e , t h e y w e r e h e l p i n g t o l a y t h e g r ou n d f o r t h e R e d
conquest of China . L i k e w i s e , i f t h e s e s a m e n e w s c a s t e r s
had not helped to build up an unprecedented fear of
Russ ia, our forces in Korea would have won a qu ick
a n d d e c i s i v e v i c t o r y r a t h e r t h a n a " s u b s t i t u t e . "
Louis F . Bu denz' book, "The Techniq ues of C om-
mun ism ," j ust abou t covers the water front f or the
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i 6 The Enemy at His Back
T h e C o m m u n i s t s h a v e a n e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g
f o r c e r t a i n w o r d s a n d p h r a s e s t h a n t h e a v e r a g e A m e ri -
c a n d o e s . I t i s a n i n s t i n c t i v e t r a i t o f o u r p e o p le t o " h e lp
t h e p o o r . " T h e re i s n o c o u n t r y i n t h e w o rl d w h er e t h e
c i t i z e n r y , f r o m t h e m u l t i - m i l l i o n a i r e t o t h e f a m i l y
e a r n i n g a m e r e l i v i n g , c o n t r i b u t e s s o w h o l e - h e a r t e d l y
f o r c h a r i t a b l e p u r p o s e s . Nowhere in the world, for
i n s t a n c e , i s t h e r e t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f o u r C o m m u n i t y
C h e s t . B u t i n C o m m u n i s t l a n g u a g e , t o " h e l p t h e p o o r"
i s a n o t h e r w a y o f s a y i n g " d i v i d e t h e w e a l t h . " T o a t -
t a i n t h i s t h e y a d v o c a t e l a v i s h e x p e n di t u r e s o f t h e t a x -
p a y e r s ' m o n e y o n s t a t e o w n e r s h i p , a h u g e b u r e a u c r a c y ,
a n d " f r o m c r a d l e t o g r a v e " p l a n s . T h r o u g h o u t A m e r i -
c a n h i s t o r y t h e r e h a s b e en a c o n t i n u a l a n d s u c c e s s f u l
e f f o r t t o r a i s e o u r s t a n d a r d o f li v i n g . B u t i n e x a g g er a t e d
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C o m m u n i s t P ro p a g a n d a A f f e c t s F o r e i g n P o l i c y1 7
t h e b a i t - t a k e r s , t h e C o m m u n i s t s c o u l d m a k e n o h e a d -
w a y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a .
T h e r e i s o n e o t h e r w a y o f i n f l u e n c i n g p u b l i c o p i n i o n
not mentioned by Louis Budenz . A single Communis t
i n o n e o f o u r g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c i e s c a n w o r k wonders
with men who not think for themselves . I n t h e e a r l y
t h i r t i e s a m e t h o d - w a s s e t u p , whereby t he p u bl i c was
" c o n d i t i o n e d " t o a c c e p t a p o l i c y w h i c h w a s a b o u t t b
b e l a u n c h ed _ A l o n g t i m e c a r e e r d i p l o m a t i n o u r S t a t e
Department, John H i c k e r s o n , e x p l a i n s t h i s m e t h o d Y a l t a P a p e r s
v e r y c l e a r l y . 9 4
On Jan . 8 , 1 9 4 5 , Mr. Hickerson wrote a memo-r a n d u m t o t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e w i t h r e c o m m e n d a -
t i o n s f o r t h e c o m i n g Y a l t a C o n f e r e n c e . H e s p e c i f i e d
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1 8 The Enemy at His Back
becomes law . T h e of f i c i a l l i n e i s p u b li s h e d i n M o s c o w .
C u r r e n t l y t h e i r m a i n v e h i c l e o n f o r e i g n a f f a i r s i s t h e
periodical New Times, and it i s p ublis hed in many
l a n g u a g e s a n d m a i l e d t o n o n - R e d c o u n t r i e s . F r o m t h i s
t h e l o c a l C o m m u n i s t p u b l i c a t i o n s p i c k u p t h e l i n e o n
f o r e i g n a f f a i r s . Not only active comrades but anyone
s o d e s i r i n g m a y s u b s c r i b e t o i t . S o m e t i m e s l o c a l , o r
urgent decisions are sent out in a form letter via
t h e " d r o p b o x , " o r m a y f i r s t a p p e a r i n o f f i c i a l C o m -
m u n i s t p u b l i c a t i o n s - i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , f o r e x a m p l e ,
the Daily Worker, Masses and Mains tream, P olitical
A f f a i r s , e t c . Und erground Comm unists pick up the
l i n e , p a s s i t a l o n g i n n o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h s y m p a -
t h i z e r s o r r e c e p t i v e d u p e s , k n o w i n g t h e y i n t u r n w i l l
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Communist Propaganda Affects Foreign Policy 1 9
Nov . 1 2 ,
No v . 1 2 , 19 5 4
Nov .
Nov . 2 4 ,
Dec . 2 3 ,
March r ,
1 9 5 4
1 3 , 1 9 5 4
1 9 5 4
1 9 5 4
1 9 5 5
U N E S C O E x e c u t i v e B o a r d O K s P e a c e -
f u l Co e x i s t e n c e
C o e x i s t e n c e W i l l B e K ey n o t e a t S o v i e t
A m i t y R a l l y T u e s d a y
C o a s t M i s s i o n a r y , B a c k f r o m
U r g e s C o - e x i s t e n c e
" C o - E x i s t e n c e o r N o - E x i s t e n c e , " M r .MnvS t e v e n s o n U r ge s C o - E x i s t e n c e ~'C h i n a ,
J u s t i ce D ou gl a s A s k s C o - E x i s t e n c e i n
A s i a
T h i s i s t h e " n o r m a l " t r a n s m i s s i o n b e l t . T h e r e a r e
e x c e p t i o n s . When a matter of great importance and
u r g e n c y a r i s e s , a special agent is employed . For
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China : T h e
March To-
w a r d U n i t y ,
' address "The
1 5 t h A n n i -
v e r s a r y o f
the Com -
t i u n i s t P a r t y
of-China" by1Geoi mm-xtrOh83- 87
20 The Enemy at His Back
munist Party o f C h i n a , l a y i n g d o w n t h e " l i n e " t o t h e
f o l l o w e r s . T h r e e s m a l l e x c e r pt s t e l l a b i g s t o r y :
" . a s a r e a l B o l s h e v i k _ . P a r t y , t h e C om m u n i s t P a r t y o
C h i n a r e a l i z e s that however g r e a t t h e s u c c e s s e s i t h a s
a c h i e v e d , t h e y a r e o n l y t h e f i r s t s e r i o u s s t e p s o n t h e r o a
t o t h e l i be ra t i o n of t h e Ch i n e se p e o p l e . . .
" T h e P a r t y . . . i s f a c e d w i t h t T h e t a s k o f c a r r y i n g o n a
s y s t e m a t i c s t r u g g l e t o e s t a b l i s h a u n i t e d n a t i o n a l f r o n
w i t h t h e K u o m i n t a n g . " ( T h i s i s t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f Ch i a n g
K a i - s h e k . ) ( E m p h a s i s m i n e . )
And-" I t i s n e c e s s a r y t h a t e n e r g e t i c m e a s u r e s b e t a k e n t o e x e r t
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C o m m u n i s t P r o p a g a n d a Af f e c t s F o r e i g n P o l i c y 2 1
o France, Englan d and the Uni ted S tates s o t h a t
we R e d s w i l l h a v e t h e i r c o o p e r a t i o n i n a l l o u r p l a n s .
In i o Earl Browd er, f ormer head of the C o m -
m u n i s t P a r t y o f t e r o t ees , e s e• • e o r e t h e
so- called Tyding s comm ittee and explained j ust how
i m i t r o v s eman s were carried ou t . The lan guage
he used was e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y f rank .
" . . . t h e t e r m ` t r a n s m i s s i o n b e lt s " . . . s i m p l y m e a n s t h e T y d i n g s x -
u t i l i z a t
tiion_of every agency reaching the minds of the 6 7 2
m a s s e s
. 7 7 _ '_ I - u s e d i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h I r e c e i v e d f r o m M a o T z e-z - 6 8 z
t u n g , t h e h ea d o f t h e C o m m u n i s t P a r t y i n C h i n a - o f C h i n a
- t o i n f o r m t h e P r es i d e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a b o u t t h e
m i l i t a r y s i t u a t i o n i n s i d e o f C h i n a . . .
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22
av i t a t i o n f r o m U n d e r s e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e S u m n e r W e l l e s
and L a u c h l i n C u r r i e t o c o m e t o W a s h i n g t o n f o r a c o n -
f e r e n c e .- -B r o w d e r ' s i n t e r v i e w w i t h W e l l e s w a s a l s o p u b l i s h e d
i n t h e D a i l y W o r k e r a n d r e p o r t e d i n t h e d a i l y p r e s s .
The Under Secretary was qu oted as sayi ng, "The
U n i t e d S t a t e s f a v o r s ` c o m p le t e u n i t y ' a m o n g t h e C h i -
n e s e p e o p l e a n d a l l g r ou p s o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h e r e o f . "
(Emphasis m ine . )
T y d i n g s s _ B r o w d er t o l d t h e T y d i n g s c o m m i t t e e , " T h i s c h a n g e
6 7 5
i n p o l i c y w a s g i v e n t o m e a s a m a t t e r o f i n f o r m a t i o n
by the Under Secretary of State . .. I s i m u l t a n e -
ously transmitted that statement of United S t a t e s
Government policy on China to Madam Sun Yat Sen,
in Chungking, by cable . " ( N o t e : Madam S un Yat-
The Enemy at His Back
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C o m m u n i s t P r o pa g a n d a A f f e c t s F o r e i g n P o l i c y 2 3
d i d n o t w a n t t o d o a w a y w i t h t h e E m p e r o r u n t i l some
time a f t e r t h e w a r . The Comm unis ts expected then
t o b e a a b b e t ocTange public sentiment s o that the
J a p a n e s e " l i b e r a l s " ( m a i n l y C o m m u n i s t s ) w o u l d g e t
r i d o f h i m t h e m s e l v e s . I t w a s s o m e t h i n g l i k e t h e p l a n
u s e d i n I t a l y w h e n t h e K i n g w a s s u c c e s s f u l l y o u s t e d .
Stalin, in late May 1 9 4 5 , f e l t t h a t t h e J a p a n e s e S h e r w oo d
E m p e r o r w o u l d g u a r a n t e e a n o r d e r l y s u r r e n d e r a f t e r9 0 4
w h i c h t h e v i c t o r s c o u l d " g i v e t h e m t h e w o r k s , " o r s o
H a r r y H o p k i n s i n t e r p r e t e d S t a l i n ' s v i e w s . W h i l e t h e
L e f t i s t p r e s s i n t h e W e s t k e p t u p a s t e a d y b a r r a g e
a g a i n s t t h e E m p e r o r , w h i c h r e a c t e d o n t h e J a p a n e s e
p e o p le , t h e h i d d e n Co m m u n i s t s a n d t h e i r a l l i e s i n h i g h
g o v e r n m e n t c i r c l e s i n W a s h i n g t o n k e p t t h e i s s u e i n - I P R 4 - r o r 6
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24 The Enemy at His Back
rison Forman correspondent f o r t h e New York Herald
Tribun e .
There were man y others who, whether con sci ous ly
o r n o t , p i c k e d u p t h e l i n e a n d s e n t i t h o m e i n t h e i r
w r i t t e n d i s p a t c h e s .
That the press reports and books wri tten by this
group were pleasing to the Comm uni sts can be as-
certained by the following item in the Daily Worker
o f J u n e 1 8 , 1947
I P R 2 - 4 6 o " W e h a v e h a d m a n y e x c e l l e n t b oo k s a b o u t C h i n a i n t h e
p a s t f e w y e a r s , b o o k s b y t o p f l i g h t r e p o rt e r s l i k e H a r r i s o n
F o r m a n , G u e n t h e r S t e i n A n e s S m e d l e , T h e o d or e ~ W h i t e ,
an A n n a e e a c o b y . A t t h e t o p o f t h i s l i s t b e l o n g s a b o o k
p u b li s h e d t o d a y , I s r a e l E p s t e i n ' s U n f i n i s h e d R e v o l u t i o n i n
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C o m m u n i s t P r o p a g a n d a A f f e c t s F o r e i g n P o l i c y 2 5
a g r o u p o f r e p o r t e r s . F o r i n s t a n c e h e t o l d G u e n t h e r Roth 270
S t e i n t h a t " . . . a P r e s i d e n t e l e c t e d b y t h e p e o p l e "
o u gh t t o r e p l a c e t h e E m p e r o r . B u t t o H a r r i s o n F o r m a n
he said that "The Emperor is still too much of a
g o d l i k e f i g u r e " a n d s u g g e s t e d t h a t h e n o t b e a t t a c k e d
a t t h e m o m e n t b u t s h o u l d s u b s e q u e n t l y b e t r i e d a s a
w a r c r i m i n a l .
R i g h t a f t e r t h a t , i n O c t o b e r ( d u r i n g t h e b a t t l e o f
L e y t e G u l f ) W a t a r u K a j i , a " l e f t i s t w r i t e r , " w h o w a s N . Y . T i m e s
to be reported by the New York Times in 1952 asDec . i 8 , 1 9 5 2
being involved in a Communist spy ring in Tokyo,
g a v e t h e f o ll o w - u p t o O k a n o ' s t e n t a t i v e l i n e . H e g a v e
a l e c t u r e i n t h e N a t i o n a l i s t c a p i t a l o f Ch u n g k i n g , o f
a l l p l a c e s , u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f a " f r o n t " o r ga n i z a t i o n FBIS Chung-
X944Oct .
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2 6 The Enemy at His Back
Emancipat ion Daily at Yenan on May 29th, but its
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n A m e r i c a w a s w i t h h e l d u n t i l t h e " r i g h t
t i m e ." The "ri ght tim e" wo ul d be when Russ ia was
in the war agains t Japan and Japan had s urrendered .
The Sov iets declared war on Augu st 8, 1945, Japan
threw in the sponge on Augus t io, 1 9 4 5 , and the
e d i t o r s o f t h e D a i l y W o r k e r p u t t h e i r p r e p a r e d r e po r t
on the Okano speech "in the works " the same day .
I t a p p e a r e d i n that Red paper Augu s . r 94 5 . This
w a s t h e c a r e f u l t i m i n g e n d , i t h a d a s t r a n g e d a t e l i n e-Yenan, China, June io, ( d e l a y e d ) ." (Emphasis
mine . ) V -
T h e p er t i n e n t p a r t s o f O k a n o ' s d i c t a a r e t h e f o l lo w --ing :
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C o m m u n i s t P r o pa g a n d a A f f e c t s F o r e i g n P o l i c y2 7
o n t h e s a m e p a g e a s t h e r e p o r t o f O k a n o ' s s p e e c h . I n
p a r t h e s a i d :
" I t i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e , o f c o u r s e , t h a t p r o gr e s s i v e A m e r i -
c a n s a r e a l a r m e d a t a n y p o s s i b l e s p e c i a l p o s i t i o n f o r t h e
Emperor . . .
" O n c e J a p a n i s o c c u p i e d a n d o n c e t h e m a j o r i n du s t r i a l
c e n t e r s o f M a n c h u r i a a r e i n U n i t e d N a t i o n s h a n d s , i t w i l l
b e t h e a c t u a l e v o l u t i o n o f J a p a n e s e p o l i t i c s , u n d e r Al l i e d
c o n t r o l , t h a t w i l l c o u n t . "
The second and equ ally i mportant program the
Kremli n proposed f or Asia was also relayed to the
S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t b y o u r o f f i c i a l s . We learn by way
o f t h e s e r e p o rt s t h a t i n t h e F a l l o f 1 9 4 4 , Ch'in P o
Ku (Ch'in Pang-hsien), who was in charge of Chinese
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2 8 The Enemy at His Back
r e c o m m e n d e d i n a r e p o r t t o t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t t h a t
the civilian government of Japan be made up only
of Communis ts, since the Red group was the only
` d e m o c r a t i c ' f o r c e t h e r e " ; when yo u have Raym ond
L u d d e n r e p o r t i n g t h a t " t h e s o - c a l l e d C o m m u n i s t s ( i n
C h i n a ) a r e a g r a r i a n r e f o r m e r s o f a m i l d d e m o c r a t i c
s t r i p e , " y o u r e a l i z e w h a t s t r o n g A m e r i c a n c o n f e d e r a t e s
the Comm unis ts had .
B u t l e t u s s e e h ow t h e s e e m i n g l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y l i n e
concerning the Emperor applied to the war in the
P a c i f i c .
When Churchill and Roosevelt met at Casablanca
in January 1943, they made a joint announcement
t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e A ll i e s w o u l d a c c e p t n o t h i n g l e s s
than " u n e n n r l i t i o n a l s u r r e n d e r . " T o t h o s e u n d e r s t a n d -
Budenz 17 7-8
They Cr y
Peace
C o n g . R e c o r d
June 5,
1951 page
6298
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C o m m u n i s t P r o p a g a n d a A f f e c t s F o r e i g n P o l i c y 2 9
bed, they chatted about each day' s happenings . On
the eve of the press conf erence, General Marshall
d i n e d w i t h R o o s e v e l t a n d C h u r c h i l l . When he returned
t o t h e v i l l a , h e w e n t t o G e n e r a l W e d e m e y e r ' s r o o m a n d
s a t d o w n t o t e l l h i m o f t h e e v e n i n g ' s e v e n t s . H e t o l d
Wedemeyer that the President and the Prime Minister
had agreed to annou nce the fol lowin g d ay that un-
condi tion al sur render would be the only terms ac-
ceptable to the United Nations for the surrender of
their com mon enemies .
W h y t h e n , d i d b o t h C h u r c h i l l a n d R o o s e v e l t p u b l i c l y
s t a t e t h a t i t w a s N O T d i s c u s s e d b e f o r e t h e p r e s s c o n -
f e r e n c e ?
I t i s k n o w n t h a t t h e p h r a s e w a s d i s c u s s e d l on g b e f o r e
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3 0T h e E n e m y a t H i s B a c k
g a v e t h e J a p a n e s e a f r i g h t en i n g b i r d ' s - e y e v i e w o f w h a t
t h e y c o u l d e x p e c t f r o m t h e A m e r i c a n c o n q u e r o r s .
T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f " u n c o n d i t i o n a l s u r r e n d e r " h a d
a d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t i n G e r m a n y a n d J a p a n . The German
p e o pl e , w h a t e v e r t h e i r l o y a l t y t o H i t l e r , n o u r i s h e d a
g r e a t l o v e f o r t h e i r f a t h e r l a n d . T h e y w o u l d f i g h t t o
t h e l a s t r a t h e r t h a n s e e t h e i r " H e i m a t " c o m p l e t e l y
d e s t r o y e d . T h e J a p a n e s e p e o p l e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
c e n t e r e d t h e i r l o v e o f c o u n t r y o n t h e p e r s o n o f t h e i r
Emp eror . I f u n c o n d i t i o n a l s u r r e n de r m e a n t a h u m i l i a t -
i n g d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h ei r n a t i o n a l s y m b o l , t h e r e wa s n o
d o u b t t h a t e v e r y p a t r i o t i c J a p a n e s e w o u l d b e w i l l i n g
t o d i e f i g h t i n g .
L e a h y 1 4 5 A d m i r a l L e a h y w h o w a s n o t a t C a s a b l a n c a r e g r e t -
f u l l y c o m m e n t e d i n h i s b o o k t h a t " B e f o r e t h e w a r w a s
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Communist Propaganda Affects Foreign Policy 31
m e d i a t e l y t h e l e f t i s t p r e s s p r o t e s t e d i n a v i o l e n t
m ann er, an d f rom t h a t t i m e o n t h e f u t u r e o f t h e
J a p a n e s e Em peror becam e a h i g h l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l
s u b j e c t .
D e e p l y e m b r o i l e d i n t h e d r a m a w a s J o s e p h C . G r e w,
o u r a m b a s s a d o r t o J a p a n a t t h e t i m e o f P e a r l H a r b o r .
H e r e t u r n e d o n a n e x c h a n g e s h i p i n Augus t 1 9 4 2 , and
was as sig ned by the St ate Departm ent t o m ake a
s p e a k i n g t o u r o f t h e c o u n t r y t o e x p l a i n t h e w a r i n t h e
P a c i f i c t o t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e . Mr . G r e w h a d l i v e d
i n J a p a n f o r t e n y e a r s a n d k n e w h i s s u b j e c t w e l l . H e
t o u r e d t h e c o u n t r y f o r 1 8 months during which time
h e e m p h a s i z e d i n e v e r y s p e e c h t h e s a m e t h e m e . T h i s
i s i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e i t w a s t h i s t h e m e w h i c h w a s t o
m a k e h i m t e m p o r a r i l y a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e C o m m u n i s t s .
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R o t h 6 4
3 2 The Enemy at His Back
he poin ted out that Hirohito was a "peace-l ovi ng"
r u l e r , a n d o n c e h e g o t o u t f r o m u n d e r c o n t r o l o f t h e
m i l i t a r y , h e w o u l d b e " a n a s s e t a n d n o t a l i a b i l i t y "
after the war . T h i s s t a t e m e n t s e t o f f a c o n c e n t r a t e d
att ack on Mr . Grew by the press which was even
e c h o e d i n f a r o f f C h i n a . D r . S u n F o ( s o n o f t h e l a t e
Dr. S u n Y a t - s e n ) , w e l l - k n o w n a s a " l i b e r a l " f a v o r i n g
C h i n e s e f r i e n d s h i p w i t h R u s s i a , w r o t e a n a r t i c l e p r o-
t e s t i n g M r . G r e w ' s s t a t e m e n t .
I n t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s t h e a t t a c k w a s s o f o r c e f u l t h a t
in February 1 9 4 4 , Mr. G rew was compelled to giv e
an i nterview t o the New York Times, which had
s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i z e d hi m , i n w h i c h h e t r i e d t o e x t r i c a t e
h i m s e lf . H e t o l d t h e n e w s p a p e r c a t e g o r i c a l l y t h a t h e
h a d n e v e r " e i t h e r p u b l i c l y o r p r i v a t e l y " e x p r e s s e d a n
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C o m m u n i s t P r o pa g a n d a A f f e c t s F o r e i g n P o l i c y 3 3
o b v i o u s l y s t a g g e r i n g . By the time Mr . Grew was to
a p p e a r b e f or e t h e S e n a t e F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s C o m m i t t e e ,
t h e i s s u e h a d b e c o m e s o h e a t e d t h a t t h e n o w f a m o u s
C a u c u s R o o m i n t h e S e n a t e O f f i c e B u i l d i n g w a s f i l l e d
t o c a p a c i t y .
J u s t p r i o r t o t h e h e a r i n g , t h e n o w d e f u n c t N e w Y o r k
P M s e e m e d t o a p p o i n t i t s e l f t h e l e a d e r o f t h e a t t a c k
on Mr . Grew and the Emperor . O n t h e s u c c e e d i n g
days of Dec . 3 , 4 , a n d 5 , o n e o f t h e i r b es t w r i t e r s ,
R a m o n L a v a l l e , d e v o t e d t h r e e l e a d a r t i c l e s t o t h e
s u b j e c t . And on Dec . 1 3 t h , J a m e s W e c h s l e r , t h e P M ' s
n a t i o n a l e d i t o r a n d n o w e d i t o r o f t h e N e w Y o r k P o s t ,
wrote an entire page in PM attacking Grew . Two
d a y s l a t e r , a n a r t i c l e b y I . F . S t o n e , a l s o o n P M ' s s t a f f ,
e n t i t l e d " A n A p p e a l t o t h e U . S . S e n a t e " b l a s t e d G r e w
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34 The Enemy at His Back
Jthe country at an earlier date warning the American
people against a "com promis e peace . " Here is the
Field column :
" T h e t e l e p h o n e h a s j u s t r u n g a n d I h a v e h a d t h e f o l l o w i n g
c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h a g o o d f r i e n d o f m i n e w h o m I s h a l l d es i g -
~~ nate as X . B e f o r e ge t t i n g t o t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n i t s e l f , l e t m e
a s s u r e y o u t h a t X i s a p e r s o n f o r w h om I h a v e g r e a t r e s pe c t
a n d a d m i r a t i o n , a p e r s o n w h o h a s d o n e m o r e f o r t h e p e o p l e
o f C h i n a t h a n I e v e r h o p e t o do i n m y l i f e .
A f t e r t h e p r e l i m i n a r y g r e e t i n g s o u r t a l k w a s s o m e t h i n g
J l i k e t hi s :X: "W hat do you think of the nomination of Grew as
U n d e r s e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e ? "
F : "I can think of several people who woul d have been
b e t t e r . W h a t d o y o u t h i n k ? "
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Commun ist Propaganda Affects Foreign Policy 35
v e l t ' s p o l i c y o n C h i n a i s v e r y p r og r e s s i v e , i t m a y e v e n b e
t h e d e c i s i v e f o r c e t h a t w i l l r e b u i l d C h i n a . I d o u b t w h et h e r
G r e w or a n y b o d y e l s e i n t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t i s g o i n g t o
r e v e r s e t h a t p o li c y . I t ' s b e e n d e v e l o p e d o v e r t h e b o di e s o f
mighty tough babies in the Department, some of whom
a r e n ' t t h e r e a n y m o r e . T h e P r e s i d e n t a n d p u b l i c o p i n i o n
a r e g o i n g t o s e e t h a t t h e r e i s n o c h a n g e t o w a r d C h i n a .
" T h e p o i n t w h e re y o u g o h a y w i r e , X , i s i n b e l i e v i n g t h a t
w e ' r e f i g h t i n g f o r s o m e k i n d o f s o c i a l i s m , a n d t h a t t h e r e f o r e
o n l y p r o gr e s s i v e l i b e r a l s c a n r u n t h e g o v e r n m e n t . T h i s i s a
c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r y , a n d t h a t ' s t h e k i n d of c o u n t r y t h a t ' s
f i g h t i n g t h i s w a r . I t ' s n o t o n l y n a t u ra l , b u t i t ' s v i t a l t o h a v e
c o n s e r v a t i v e s a n d b u s i n e s s m e n i n t h e g o v e r n m e n t . W i t h -
o u t t h e m h o w c a n w e p os s i b l y h a v e n a t i o n a l u n i t y ?
" N o w i f i t h a d b e e n B e r l e o r L o n g ( n o t e : A d o l f B e r l e w h o
took Chambers' in format ion on Hiss to Roosevelt ; and
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3 6 T h e Enemy a t H i s B a c k
b y t h e l e f t . T h e n e x t a t t a c k c a m e " u n o f f i c i a l l y " f r o m
a n o t h e r q u a r t e r , a n d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g m a n n e r .
T h e S e n a t e I n t e r n a l S e c u r i t y S u b c o m m i t t e e , h e a d e d
b y t h e l a t e S e n . P a t M c C a r r a n , D e m o c r a t f r o m N e v a d a ,
d e v o t e d m o re t h a n a y e a r ,1 9 5 1 - 1 9 5 2 , t o t h e i n v e s t i g a
t i o n o f t h e f a s c i n a t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n c a l l ed t h e I n s t i t u t e
o f P a c i f i c R e l a t i o n s .
T h e In s t i t u t e w a s o r g a n i z e d i n i t i a l l y f o r t h e b en e f i t
o f s t u d e n t s , p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d o t h e r w i s e , w h o w a n t e d
t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r k n o w l e d g e o f t h e P a c i f i c a r e a . I t
a i m s w e r e t o p u b li s h t h e w r i t i n g s o f e x p e r t s o n t h e s
c o u n t r i e s , a n d m a n y w o r t h y a u t h o r i t i e s o n t h e F a r
E a s t j o i n e d a s c o n t r i b u t o r s . B u t s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e In -
s t i t u t e g o t a s t a r t i n 1 9 2 5 , t h e C o m m u n i s t s b e g a n t o
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C o m m u n i s t P r o p a g a n d a A f f e c t s F o r e i g n P o l i c y 3 7
The mo ney f rom the foundations was contributed
t o t h e authors who made extensiv e trips to the Far
East an i n t o C o m m u n i s t c o n t r o l l e d t e r r i t o r y . From
these experiences an d co nt acts they were abl e to
w r i t e t h e i r b o o k s .
One of the two publications of the Inst itutes was
P a c i f i c A f f a i r s , a " f r o n t " p e r i o d i c a l f o r t h e u n s u s - IP R I4-
p e c t i n g . O n o c c a s i o n , a r i g h t w i n g a u t h o r w a s i n v i t e d5 5 o 6
t o c o n t r i b u t e a s w i n d o w - d r e s s i n g . B u t i n t h e f o ll o wi n g
i s s u e a c r i t i c i s m o f t h a t a r t i c l e w a s s u r e t o a p p e a r .
Pacif ic Affairs for December 1 9 4 4 , publi shed an
a r t i c l e b y T . A . B i s s o n . Bis son has been named under IPR 2- 535
o a t h a s a C o m m u n i s t , a n d h a s d e n i e d i t . A f t e r s e r v i n g
in the government duri ng Worl d War II he became a
p r o f e s s o r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a .
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3 8 The Enemy a t H i s B a c k
c a r e f u l s t u d y b y p r o f e s s o r s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y h i s t o r y ,
a n d b y n e w s p a p e r a n d m a g a z i n e w r i t e r s w h o s p e c i a l i z e
i n f o r e i g n a n d m i l i t a r y a f f a i r s . T h e y w e r e a l s o p l a c e d
o p p o r t u n e l y i n t h e h a n d s o f m e m b e r s o f C o n g r e s s , a n d
h i g h r a n k i n g o f f i c i a l s i n t h e W a r a n d S t a t e D e p a r t -
ments and the war-time agencies where so many of
the IPR members were employed .
T h e s e c o m b i n e d l i t e r a r y t r i c k l e s b e g a n l i k e a p -
p a r e n t l y i n n o c e n t s n o w , f a l l i n g o n re m o t e m o u n t a i n
t o p s , m e l t i n g i n t o m o u n t a i n s t r e a m s , a n d t u m b l i n g
s w i f t l y t o t h e v a l l e y w h e r e t h e y m e e t h u n d r e d s o f
o t h e r s t r e a m s , b e c o m i n g m i g h t y r i v e r s a n d r e s e r v o i r s
a f f e c t i n g t h e l i v e s o f t h o u s a n d s o f p e o pl e .
Two books published d uring 1945 merit special
a t t e n t i o n . T h e f i r s t w a s " S o l u t i o n i n A s i a " b y O w e n
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C o m m u n i s t P r o p a ga n d a A f f e c t s F or e i gn P o l i c y 3 9
E m p e r o r a n d " a l l m a l e s e l i g i b l e t o t h e t h r o n e.
. . be
i n t e r n e d , p r e f e r a b l y i n C h i n a ." Could Mr . L a t t i m o r e
have had Red C hina in min d?
His book was of great interest to the Comm unis ts
i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d w a s a d v e r t i s e d i n C o m m u n i s t
newsp apers alongs ide a book by the head of the
Communist Party USA, W illiam Z . F o s t er . B o t h w e r eI P R 9 - 3 0 7 3
sold at the Communist International Book Store, and
what the International Book Store sells is " mus t"
r e a d i n g t o t h e c o m r a d e s .
Latti more's explanation of this was that he' had
n e v e r h e a rd o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l B o o k S t o r e a n d d i d n ' t
know anything about the Communists ' interest in his
book . I P R 9 - 3 o 7 i
On this , Mr . B u d e n z ' s t e s t i m o n y i s i n t e re s t i n g . T h e
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4 0The Enemy at His Back
I P R 2 - 6 2 5 Mr . B u d e n z . . . . D i l e m m a i n J a p a n w a s n o t o n l y a d v a n c e d
b y t h e C o m m u n i s t s b u t i t w a s s u b m i t t e d t o t h e P o l i t b u r o
b e f o r e p u b l i c a t i o n . ( E m p h a s i s m i n e . )
Mr . M o r r i s . Was Andrew Roth a Comm uni st ?
Mr . B u d en z . Y e s , s i r , f r o m m a n y o f f i c i a l r e p or t s h e w a s a
Communist . .
Mr . M o r r i s . Mr. B u d e n z , i s i t y o u r t e s t i m o n y t h a t A n d r e w
R o t h ' s b o ok w a s u s e d t o s u p p l e m e n t t h i s C o m m u n i s t c a m -
p a i g n ?
Mr . B u d en z . M o s t d e c i d e d l y .
R o t h s e l e c t e d s e v e r a l s u b j e c t s w h i c h w e r e i m p o r t a n t
t o t h e " P a r t y l i n e ." On each he elaborated until he
had sq ueezed the lemon dry , try ing to im press the
reader with his v ast knowledge of Japan and her men
o f d e s t i n y . H e u s e d v e n o m a n d v i t r i o l wi t h e x t r a v a g a n t
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C o m m u n i s t P r o pa g a n d a A f f e c t s F o r e i g n P o l i c y 41
you w i l l n o t i c e h o w u n u s u a l l y s i m i l a r t h e y a r e t o
O k a n o ' s t r i a l b a l l o o n i n t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 4 4 a s w e l l
a s h i s a u t h o r i t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t o f p ol i c y i n M a y 1 9 4 5 .
T h e f i r s t " t h r u s t , " h e s a y s , s h o u l d b e t o w e a k e n t h e R o t h z x 8
s o u r c e s o f t h e E m p e r o r ' s s t r e n g t h ; t h e s e c o n d s h o u l d
d i s c r e d i t t h e E m p e r o r s y s t e m , a n d t h e t h i r d s h o u l d
s u p p o r t t h e " d e m o c r a t i c f o r c e s " i n J a p a n w h i c h e v e n -
t u a l l y w o u l d d o a w a y w i t h t h e E m p e r o r .
Then he warned ag ains t the wron g s trategy i n R o t h z z g - 6
g e t t i n g r i d o f t h e E m p e r or . H e w r o t e t h a t t h e r e i s r e a l
d a n g e r i n a " p r e m a t u r e , f r o n t a l a t t a c k " o n H i r o h i t o .
" THE DANG ER, " he em phas iz ed , " ARIS ES NOT
FROM THE OBJECTIVE BUT FROM THE IN-CORRECT STRATEGY FOR ACHIEVING THECORRECT OBJECTIVE. "
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4 2 T h e Enemy a t H i s B a c k
not to b elong to the Commun ist conspiracy. And it
was passed ou t to the second echelon comrades and
"progressive Americans" through a lieutenant in the
U n i t e d S t a t e s N a v a l I n t e l l i g e n c e . But it was passed
out in slow s tages . U ntil Russ ia entered the war,
articles like Field's "Appeasement of Japan" (New
M a s s e s , J u l y 3 r ,1 9 4 5 )
a n d e d i t o r i a l s l i k e " A V e r -
sailles f or Japan," (Daily Worker, July; 9 , 1 9 4 5 )
c o n t i n u e d t h e o l d " l i q u i d a t e t h e E m p e r o r " l i n e .
T h a t t h e C o m m u n i s t a i m o f i n s i n u a t i n g t h e i r p ro p a -
gand a agains t the Emperor in our press was highly
s u c c e s s f u l a n d h a d a t e l l i n g e f f e c t o n J a p a n , i s t o l d b y
Mr . K a s e i n h i s " J o u r n e y t o t h e M i s s o u r i . " H e w r o t e
t h a t s o m e n e w s p a p e r s i n t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s i m p l i e d t h a t
the Emperor was the source of the Japanese aim at
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C h a p t e r I I I
YALTA AND THE ADVISERS
T h e Y a l t a C o n f e r e n c e .
H a r r y H o p k i n s a n d t h e a d v i s e r s .
R o o s e v e l t ' s v i e w o f S t a l i n a n d C h u r c h i l l .U . S . P o li c y t o w a r d R u s s i a s e t f o r t h b y G e n . B u r n s a n d
Hopkins .
T h e c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r R u s s i a n e n t r y i n t o t h e P a c i f i c
war .
T h e p re s s c o n t i n u e s i t s a t t a c k o n H i r o h i t o .
B o h l e n e x p la i n s t h e Y a l t a a g r e e m e n t s .
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4 4 The Enemy a t H i s B a c k
e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e l a t e P r e s i d e n t ' s a t t i t u d e c o m e s f r o m
one who had access to m any of ficial documents in -
cludi ng Roosevelt's personal correspond ence with
C h u r c h i l l a n d S t a l i n . H i s c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s s t r o n g l y s u p -
p o r t s t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t , u n t i l 1 9 4 3 , R o o s e v e l t r e -
g a r d e d R u s s i a w i t h a p a t r o n i z i n g a t t i t u d e , a n d t h a t h e
assu med it would be the Uni ted S tates and Great
Britain who would settle the postwar problems . But
beginning with mid- 1943, American policy seemed to
change to "fear" of pos twar Russ ia . And the corre-
spondence ind icated that FDR's attitude changed to
o n e o f w i s h f u l t h i n k i n g - t h a t R o o s e v e l t t h e a r i s t o c r a t
could charm Stalin the peasant . The President pu t
great faith in his theory that if the United States
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Y a l t a a n d t h e A d v i s e r s4 5
t h a t h e w a s a l s o a n i n t e l l e c t u a l d i l e t t a n t e , a c o l l e c t o r
o f n o v e l i d e a s , a n d e c c e n t r i c f r i e n d s w h o m h e f i r m l y
b e l i e v e d h e c o u l d c o n t r o l .
Many have attributed the actions and attitudes of
P r e s i d e n t R o o s e v e lt t o h i s a d v i s e r s . T h e re i s n o d o u b t
t h a t t h e p o l i t i c a l t h i n k i n g o f t h e o f f i c i a l f a m i l y o f a n y
P r e s i d e n t i s r e f l e c t e d i n h i s o f f i c i a l s t a t e m e n t s a n d
deeds . A l t h o u g h t h e i r n a m e s a r e n o t a l w a y s f a m i l i a r
t o t h e p u b l i c , t h e y a r e a r e a l p o we r i n t h e W h i t e H o u s e .
I t i s t h e s e p e o p l e w h o r e a d a l l i n c o m i n g r e p o r t s - a n d
o f t e n s u m m a r i z e t h e m f o r P r e s i d e n t i a l r e a d i n g . What
they omit or insert can mislead a President in many
m a t t e r s .
As I glance over the lis t of men who accompaniedMr . R o o s e v e l t t o Y a l t a , t h e y s e e m t o m e t o f a l l i n t o
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4 6 T h e Enemy a t H i s B a c k
a n i m b l e a n d a b l u n t d i p l o m a t . Both King an d Leahy
h a d t h e s i m p l e o p i n i o n t h a t h a v i n g R u s s i a a s a n a l l y
was tantamount to fighting s ide by side with an
octopu s, and that we'd better keep one eye on our
enemy and the other on our doubtf ul ally . B u t t h e y
were an is olated pair in the circle of Presidential
a d v i s e r s . Moreover, being military men, they obeyed
o r d e r s .
T h e l a r g e r o f t h e t w o g r o u p s i n c l u d e d s o m e o f t h e
m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l m e n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . Harry Hop-
k i n s , t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s m o s t t r u s t e d a d v i s e r , w a s f o r a
long tim e a White House "boarder" and was in the
P r e s i d e n t ' s c o n f i d e n c e e v e n m o r e t h a n w a s h i s f a m i l y
A q u i c k p e r u s a l o f t h e p re s s r e p o r t s o f t h o s e d a y s w i l l
v i v i d l y r e c a l l t h e p ol i t i c a l h e a t t h i s s t r a n g e , u n t i d y a n d
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Y a l t a a n d t h e A d v i s e r s4 7
C o u n c i l . T h o s e a g e n c i e s o f w h i c h h e w a s o n l y a m e m -
b e r w e r e h e a d e d b y h i s c h i e f a i d e s .
T h e r e a r e m a n y r e f e r e n c e s c o n c e r n i n g H o p k i n s ' i n -
f l u e n c e w i t h t he J o i n t C h i e f s o f S t a f f i n p l a n n i n g b a t t l e
s t r a t e g y i n b o t h t h e a t e r s o f w a r . A n d i n d i p l o m a c y ,
" H o p k i n s w a s n o w m o r e t h a n e v e r ` R o o s e v e l t ' s o w n ,
p e r s o n a l F o r e i g n O f f i c e , ' " b y - p a s s i n g S e c r e t a r y o f S h e r w o o d
S t a t e H u l l , a n d h i s s u c c es s o r, S t e t t i n i u s . A dd ed t o t h i s :6 4 0
i t w a s o n h i s i n i t i a t i v e a n d u n d e r h i s s p o n s o r s hi p t h a t
t h e p r o j e c t f o r t h e d e v e l o pm e n t o f t h e a t o m i c b o m b S h e r w o o d
g o t i t s s t a r t . H e w a s " a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s d e v e l o p - 9 ' 7
m e n t s i n c e t h e v e r y i n c e p t i o n o f t h e N a t i o n a l D e f e n s e
R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l . "
A d m i r a l L e a h y c o n f i r m s :
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4 8 The Enemy at His Back
can be found in the vol umes of the hearings on the
I n s t i t u t e o f Pa c i f i c R e l a t i o n s , m a n y r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e
General in the correspo ndence of Edward C . C a r t e r,
who was nam ed un der oath a s a Communist . T h e l a t e
T y d i n g s 6 2 7 Mr . C a r t e r , a c c o r d i n g t o h i s l e t t e r s , s a w t o i t t h a t
I P R x - x 5 x Faymonvi lle made contact with many Russ ians and
R u s s i a n s y m p a t h i z e r s b e c a u s e , a s h e t e s t i f i e d , " H e w a s
eager to meet all sorts of Russ ians who could bring
h i m u p t o d a t e . "
O t h e r s o n H o p k i n s ' t e a m w e r e a l l f i r m b e l i e v e r s i n
t h e t h e o r y t h a t i f w e p la y e d m o r e t h a n f a i r w i t h R u s s i a
a n d o v e r l o o k e d b a d f a i t h o n t h e i r p a r t , a " p e r m a n e n t
p e a c e " w o u l d b e t h e u l t i m a t e r e s u l t .
I n r e a d i n g t h e m e m o i r s o f t h e m e n p r e s e n t a t Y a l t a
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Y a l t a a n d t h e A d v i s e r s 4 9
O n a l a t e r p a g e, t h e S e c r e t a r y r e l a t e s h i s p r e s c r i b e d
r o u t i n e a t Y a l t a s a y i n g t h a t h e c o n f e r r e d w i t h " . . .
M a t t h e w s , B o h l e n a n d H i s s j u s t a f t e r I g o t u p i n t h e
morning ." After the usual d iplom atic di nners each
n i g h t , S t e t t i n i u s a g a i n c o n s u l t e d " w i t h M a t t h e w s , B o h -
l e n , a n d H i s s . . . o f t e n a s l a t e a s t w o i n t h e m o r n i n g . "
To amp lif y how closely the team worked with the
Presid ent, Adm iral Leahy wr ites i n " I Was There"
c o n c e r n i n g t h e f i r s t m e e t i n g o f t h e Ch i e f s o f S t a f f w i t h
R o o s e v e l t , S t e t t i n i u s , a n d H a r r i m a n :
S t e t t i n i u s 8 3
" T h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e o u t l i n e d t h e p o li t i c a l q u e s t i o n s L e a h y 2 9 8
. . . T h e n t w o o f h i s a s s i s t a n t s , H . F . Matthews an d
C h a r l e s E . B o h l en , e l a b o r a t e d o n s e v e r a l o f t h e m o r e a c u t e
o f t h e s e p r o bl e m s . "
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5 0 T h e E n e m y a t H i s B a c k
A t t h i s w r i t i n g i n t h e f o u r t h y e a r o f t h e E i s e n h o w er
Adminis tration, Hiss has ended his pris on term ;
"Chip" Bohlen is our ambas sador to Russ ia after
h a v i n g h u r d l e d a f i e r c e f i g h t i n t h e S e n a t e w i t h t h e
conservat ive wing of the Repub licans, and Matthews
is our ambassador to Holland . Averell Harriman is
g o v e r n o r o f N e w Y o r k a n d h a s u n o f f i c i a l l y t h r o w n h i s
h a t i n t h e r i n g f o r p r e s i d e n t i a l n o m i n a t i o n , a n d G e n e r a l
M a r s h a l l , r e t i r e d i n V i r g i n i a , r e m a i n s t h e s e n i o r s t a t e s -
m a n a n d s o l d i e r w h os e a d v i c e i s s o u g h t b y b o t h P r e s i -
d e n t E i s e n h o w e r a n d h i s a d v i s e r s .
A n o t h e r p l a u s i b l e a r g u m e n t h e a r d f o r t h e " e rr o r s i n
j u d g m e n t " i s t h a t a t Y a l t a , i n 1 9 4 5 , R o os e v e l t w a s a l -
r e a d y a d y i n g m a n a n d t h a t t h e r e i n s h a d s l i p p e d f r om
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Y a l t a a n d t h e A d v i s e r s5 1
" I ' m s u r e w e ' ll h i t i t o f f , S t a l i n a n d I , " F a t h e r s a i d . " A R o o s e v e l t
g r e a t d e a l o f t h e m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s a n d t h e m i s t r u s t s o f 11 76- 7
t h e p a s t a r e g o i n g t o g e t c l e a r e d u p d u r i n g t h e n e x t f e w
days- I hope once and f or all . As for Uncle Joe and
W i n s t o n , w e ll . . . "
" N o t s o g o o d , e h ? "
" I ' l l h a v e m y w o r k c u t o u t f o r m e , i n b e t w ee n t h o s e t w o .
T h e y ' r e S O d i f f e r e n t . . . "
F a t h e r t o l d m e o f t h e d i n n e r . . . ( t h a t ) t h e d i a m e t r i -
c a l l y o p p os e d v i e w s o f S t a l i n a n d C h u r c h i l l ( w er e ) a g r e a t
b a r r i e r . "
At another Teheran meeting between Roosevelt,
S t a l i n a n d M o l o t o v , a t w h i c h E l l i o t t w a s p r e s e n t , t h e
a u t h o r r e c o u n t s s o m e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n v e r s a -
t i o n s . I t l e a d s d i r e c t l y b a c k t o t h e t e s t i m o n y o f B r o w d e r
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5 2 The Enem y at His Back
"Comm unis t China is growing in material and popular
s t r e n g t h ." The recommendati on was "that we assum e
t h e l e a d e rs h i p i n a s s i s t i n g C h i n a t o d e v e l op a s t r o n g ,
stab le and u n i f i e d government . . . " (Emphasis
mine . )
Many have said ou r Stat e Department was . a n d i s
riddl ed with Commu nist s . T h e f a c t s d o n o t b e a r t h i s
o u t . A f e w , p o we r f u l c o n s p i r a t o r s i n k e y p o s i t i o n s a r e
a l l t h a t i s n e e d e d t o s t e e r o u r p o l i c y i n t o R u s s i a n c h a n -
n e l s . T h e r e s t o f t h e p er s o n n e l c o n s i s t s o f l e f t w i n g e r s
e a s i l y l e d b y t h e i r C o m m u n i s t c o l l e a g u e s , a n d a l a r g e
group of good Americans who keep their mouths shut
f o r e x p ed i e n c y ' s s a k e . T o o m a n y h a v e l o s t t h e i r j o b s
w h e n t h e y o b je c t e d t o c e r t a i n p o l i c i e s , o r a t t e m p t e d t o
inf orm Con gression al comm ittees and the FBI about
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Yalta and the Adv isers5 3
In the State Department we find that John Carter
V i n c e n t w a s C h i e f o f t h e O f f i c e o f C h i n e s e A f f a i r s f r o m
1944 to 1945 . The same IPR Report states :
V i n c e n t , J o h n C a r t e r . . . Identif ied as a member of the IPR R-1 59
Communis t Party by one or more duly sworn witnesses .
Denied .
We then come to what the Com mu nis ts call t he" f a s c i s t g r o u p
." And it goes without saying, the ad-
vi ce of these people was cons tant ly ignored . Their
presence was never requ ired at the big con ferences .
At that time Joseph Grew was Director of the Off ice
of Far Eastern Affairs an d then Un dersecretary o f
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54 The Enemy at His Back
R o o s e v e l t . S t r a n g e l y enough he had never seen the
d a n g e r of C o m m u n i s t d o m i n a t i o n i n A s i a . One of my
h e l pf u l f r i e n d s w h o r e a d t h i s m a n u s c r i p t f o r m e , m a d e
a n o t e i n t h e m a r g i n w h i c h I w i l l i n c o r p o r a t e r i g h t
h e r e . He scribbled, "Churchill was an unmitigated
f o o l wh e n i t c a m e t o F a r E a s t p o l i c y - a n d c o n t i n u e s
t o b e ! "
B u t a U n i t e d S t a t e s p o l i c y w a s s e t a t T e he r a n w h i c h
h a s b e e n c a r e f u l l y w a t c h e d b y a l l o u r a l l i e s b o t h i n
A s i a a n d E u r o p e e v e r s i n c e . T h a t i s , w e " v i e w w i t h
g r a v e c o n c e r n " t h e p r o g r e s s o f R u s s i a i n t h e a c t o f
a b s o r b i n g t e r r i t o r i e s , a n d t h e n c a l l i t " p e a c e " a f t e r t h e
a c t i s d o n e !
B u t w h a t e v e r t h e P .M . ' s s h o r t s i gh t e d n es s i n A s i a , h i s
o n e u n d e n i e d v i r t u e r e m a i n s " B r i t a i n f i r s t ." Our own
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Y a l t a a n d t h e A d v i s e r s5 5
b l o o d a n d t r e a s u r e w o u l d b e p o u r e d o u t . G r ea t B r i t a i n
w o u l d n o t p r e s s f o r a n y m i t i g a t i o n b u t w o u l d b e c o n -
t e n t t o a b i d e b y t h e j u d g m e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . "
P r e s i d e n t R o o s e v e l t r e p l i e d t h a t h e t h o u g h t t h e
m a t t e r m i g h t b e t a k e n u p w i t h S t a l i n , b u t " H e d o u b t e d Yalta 826
w h e t h e r t h e u l t i m a t u m w o u l d h a v e m u c h e f f e c t o n t h e
J a p a n e s e . . . " And there the subject was dropped .
T h e r e i s n o r e c o r d t h a t i t e v e r w a s " m e n t i o n e d t o
M a r s h a l S t a l i n . "
The minutes of the Yalta conferences (and there
were two or three every day) make it obvious that
P r e s i d e n t R o o s e v e l t w a s t i r e d . T h i s c o m e s o u t i n h i s
i n a b i l i t y t o r e t a i n t h e m a n y v i t a l d e t a i l s w h i c h w e r e
d i s c u s s e d . F o r i n s t a n c e : At a meeting on February
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5 6 The Enemy at His Back
a g r e e m e n t s , t h e a v e r a g e c i t i z e n s t i l l d i d n o t c o m p r e -
h e n d t h e i r a p p a l l i n g i n t e n t . Although Senators , Con-
gressm en and a handfu l of newsp apermen expl ained
the meaning of the agreements , it was only several
y e a r s l a t e r , w h e n t h e r e s u l t s b e c a m e t r a g i c a l l y c l e a r
t h a t t h e p u b l i c b e g a n t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m . I remember
hearing many people protest in anger and outrage of
the "Y alta betray al" w ithout realiz in g what they
meant . I h a d n o i d e a w h er e Y a l t a w a s , n o r w h a t t o o k
place there other than a "Big Three" meeti ng .
M y h u s b a n d t e l l s t h e s t o ry t h a t i n l a t e 1 9 4 4 h e w a s
talki ng with Adm iral Leahy when t he Adm iral hap-
pened t o remark that no on e had com e up wit h any
l i k e l y s u g g e s t i o n s a s t o w h e r e t h e c o m i n g m e e t i n g o f
the Big Three shoul d t ake place . My husb and, who
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Y a l t a a n d t h e A d v i s e r s5 7
is w rit ten, an d even more shocked than I expected to
be .
I checked with the State Department Yal ta Publi-
cation and f ound i t to be a true copy . L e t u s r e a d t h e
" p r i c e " t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p a i d R u s s i a f o r h e r c o l l a b o -
ration in the Pacifi c War, a war that was already won .
AGREEMENT REGARDING JAPANT h e l e a d e rs o f t h e t h r e e G r e a t P o w e rs - t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ,
the United States of America and G reat Britain-have
agreed that in two or three mon ths aft er Germa ny has
su rrendered an d the war in Europ e has termin ated the
S o v i e t U n i o n s h a l l en t e r i n t o t h e w a r a g a i n s t J a p a n o n t h e
s i d e o f t h e A l l i e s o n c o n d i t i o n t h a t :
(r) The s t a t u s q u o in Outer-Mongoli a (The Mongol ian
P e o p le ' s R e p u b l i c ) s h a l l b e p r e s e r v e d ;
Y a l t a P a p e rs
8 2 6 - 7 , a l s o
D e c a d e o f
A m e r i c a n
F o r e i g n P o l -
i c y , S t a t e
D e p t. P . 3 3 - 4
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5 8 The Enemy at His Back
F o r i t s p a r t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n e x p r es s e s i t s r e a d i n e s s t o
c o n c l u d e w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l G o v e r n m e n t o f C h i n a a p a c t o f
f r i e n d s h i p a n d a l l i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e U . S . S . R . a n d C h i n a i n
o r de r t o r e n d er a s s i s t a n c e t o C h i n a w i t h i t s a r m e d f o rc e s f o r
t h e p u r p o s e o f li b e r a t i n g C h i n a f r o m t h e J a p a n e s e y o k e .
J o s e p h V . S t a l i n
F r a n k l i n D . R o os e v e l t
W i n s t o n S . C h u rc h i l l
I f y o u b e l o n g t o t h a t v a s t n u m b e r o f c i t i z e n s w h o a r e
n o t i n t h e h a b i t o f r e a d i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r e a t i e s , t h e n
t a k e a l i t t l e e x t r a t i m e t o w e i g h t h e a b o v e wo r d s a n d
follow them with the accompanying map .
T h e t h i r d pa r a g r a p h f r o m t h e b o t t o m i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
s i g n i f i c a n t :
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Y a l t a a n d t h e A d v i s e r s5 9
T h e m e e t i n g s a t w h i c h t h i s a g r e e m e n t w a s d i s c u s s e d
r e v e a l v e r y c l e a r l y t h e s t r a t e g y o f " d e f l e c t i o n o f
t h o u g h t . " T h e r e w e r e v e r y m a n y i m p o r t a n t m a t t e r s o n
t h e m i n d o f t h e a i l i n g a n d w e a r y P r e s i d e n t , a n d i t w a s
e a s y e n o u g h t o " r u s h t h i n g s a l o n g . " A t a m e e t i n g h e l d
a t Y a l t a o n F e b r u a r y 4 t h a t w h i c h Ro o s e v e l t , t h e J o i n t Yalta Papers
C h i e f s a n d H a r r i m a n w e r e p r e s e n t , t h e t o p i c o f C h i n a5 o r - s
came up . " T h e P r e s i d e n t s a i d h e w i s h e d t o h a v e t h e
v i e w s o f G e n e r a l i s s i m o C h i a n g K a i - s h e k b e f o r e d i s -
cussing the STATUS QU O in Mongolia . . . " a n d t h e
s u b j e c t w a s p o s t p o n e d .
T h e r e w a s o b v i o u s l y n o t i m e f o r t h e P r e s i d e n t t o
d i s c u s s a n y t h i n g w i t h C h i a n g w h o w a s t h o u s a n d s o f
miles away .
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6 o The Enemy at His Back
t o S t a l i n ' s f i n a l d r a f t o n p a g e 5 7 w h i c h b e c a m e t h e
a g r e em e n t a d o p t e d , y o u w i l l n o t i c e S t a l i n g o t e v e n
m o r e t h a n h e i n i t i a l l y a s k e d f o r .
FIRST DRAFT OF MARSHAL STALIN' S POLITICAL
CONDITIONS FOR RUS SIA'S ENTRY IN
THE WAR AGAINST JAPAN
( T r a n s l a t i o n )
The leaders of t he three Great Powers-the S oviet Un ion ,
Y a l t a P a p e r s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e ri c a a n d G r e a t B r i t a i n h a v e
8 9 6 agreed tha t i n two or three mon ths a fter Germa n y ha s s ur-
rendered a nd the war i n E urope has ended the S oviet Un ion
shall en ter i n to the war aga i n s t J apa n on the s i de of the
A l l i e s o n c o n d i t i o n t h a t :
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Yalta and the Advisers 6i
MR HARRIMAN'S SUGGESTED CHANGES INMARSHAL S TALIN' S D RAFT OF RUS S IA' S P OLITI-CAL CONDITIONS FOR RUSSIA'S ENTRY IN THEWAR AGAINST JAPANITEM z . b ) :
l e a s e o f t h e p o r t a r e a s o f P o r t A r t h u r a n d D a i r e n s h o u l d Y a l t a P a p e r s
b e r e s t o r e d , o r t h e s e a r e a s s h o u l d b e c o m e f r e e p o r t s u n d e r7 6 ,
i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t r ol .
ITEM 2 . C) :
Add the fol lowin g after the word " Manchuria" ; a t t h e
e n d o f t h e p a r a g r a p h " o r t h e s e r a i l r o a d s s h o u l d b e p l a c e d
under the operational control of a Chinese-Soviet Com -
m i s s i o n . "
ITEM 3 . :
A d d f i n a l p a r a g r a p h :
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62 T h e E n e m y at His Back
Yet, in the Yalt a Pap ers there appears a cablegram
from Acting S ecretary of S tate Grew in Was hingt on to
Yalta Papers Secretary of State Stettinius in Yalt a, dat ed Feb . 5 ,
952-31 945, which proves that Chiang was already aware of
the subj ects to be discuss ed at Yalta . The cablegram
concerned a message from Ambas sador Patrick Hurley
in China . Here is the pertinent part of G rew's cable :
"Chiang Kai-s hek and Soon g have informed Hurley
t h a t t h e S o v i e t G o v e r n m e n t h a s a g r e e d t o r e c e i v e S o o n g a s
a p e r s o n a l re p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e G e n e r a l i s s i m o . . . D i s -
c u s s i o n s w i l l c o v e r es t a b l i s h m e n t o f c l o s e r re l a t i o n s , S o v i e t
p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e w a r a g a i n s t J a p a n , S o v i e t - C h i n e s e
relation in Korea and Manchuria, post- war economic
m a t t e r s a n d t h e S i n o - S o v i e t b o r d e r . H u r l e y i n v i t e s s u g -
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Y a l t a a n d t h e A d v i s e r s 6 3
matt ers ." "These matt ers," of cou rse, being the Chi-
nese territory Russi a was to get . S t a l i n s u g g e s t e d t h e
ti me for the meeti ng wi th Soong should be the end of
A p r i l . The implicat ion of these minu tes is t hat wit h
twenty-f ive formidable Russi an di visi ons on the Chi-
nese border, Chiang would "wholeheartedly" agree to
g i v i n g u p h i s t e r r i t o r y t o t h e R u s s i a n s .
Meanwhile, Ambass ador Hurley in China cabled that
Chiang wan ted a meetin g between himself , Roosevelt
a n d C h u r c h i l l a t D e l h i t o d i s c u s s t h e Y a l t a a g r e e m e n t s .
T h e r e i s n o r e c o r d i n t h e p u b l i s h e d d o c u m e n t s t h a t t h i s
cable was ever ans wered . Perhaps it was one of the
man y which were om it ted . But Chiang never got his
chance to have a meetin g wi th Churchill and Roose-
v e l t .
Y a l t a 9 6 0
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64 The Enemy at His BackI n s t e a d o f p e r s u a d i n g J a p a n t o a c c e p t d e f e a t , h o w -
ever, Roosevelt was persuaded that he mus t buy Rus-
s i a n h e l p t o d ef e a t a n a l r e a d y d ef e a t e d f oe . T h e p ri c e
w a s h i g h i n b l o o d , t r e a s u r e , h o n o r a n d i n p e a c e i t s e l f .
P r e s i d e n t R o o s e v e l t d i e d t h e f o l l o w i n g A p r i l , b u t
President Truman carried out the word of his pred-
e c e s s o r . On Augus t 14, 1945, C h i a n g ' s F o r e i g n M i n i s -
t e r , W a n g S h i h - c h i e h , p u t h i s s i g n a t u r e t o a s e p a r a t e
treaty with Russia in Moscow, the news of which was
lost in the excitement of VJ-day . If China had n ot
s i g n e d , i t w a s a f o r e g o n e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t n o f u r t h e r a i d
would come from America in China's d esperate fight
agains t the Chinese Comm unists .
It must have been a very lonely day for the Gen-
e r a l i s s i m o , w h o , u n k n o w n t o t h e w o rl d , h a d a g r e e d t o
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Y a l t a a n d t h e A d v i s e r s 6 5
i n t h e P a c i f i c c a u s e d R o o s e v e l t t o a b a n d o n a n y " v i g o r -
o u s " a i d t o C h i n a . L a t e r , t h e s t o r y g oe s , c e r t a i n m e m -
bers of the State Department s taff came to refer
t o t h e m e e t i n g a t T e h e r a n a s " t h e c o r r e c t i v e c o n -
f e r e n c e , " p u t t i n g t h e i r s e a l o f a p p r o v a l o n t h e c h a n g e
i n p o l i c y t o w a r d C h i n a .
F r o m e a r l y i n t h e w a r F r a n k l i n R o o s e v e l t w a s d e -
termined to help Chiang as much as poss ible . He
l o o k e d u p o n t h e G e n e r a l i s s i m o a s o n e o f t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s ' s t a n c h e s t a l l i es . B u t s t r a n g e l y , h e a b a n d o n e d
h i s f r i e n d o n t h e i n s t a l m e n t p l a n , f i n a l l y e n d i n g w i t h
h i s s i g n a t u r e t o t h e Y a l t a A g r ee m e n t .
A s a f o o t n o t e , R o b e r t S h e r w o o d w r i t e s t h a t " a s i d e
f r o m t h e d e c l a r a t i o n a s s u r i n g t h e f r e e d o m a n d i n d e -
S h e r w oo d
800
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6 6 The Enemy a t H i s B a c k
C h i a n g K a i - s h e k a n d h i s N a t i o n a l i s t G o v e r n m e n t , a n d
i t w a s s o c o n s i d e r e d b y h i m , i f y o u c a n j u d g e b y h i s
p u b l i c s t a t e m e n t s . "
T h i s w a s a s t r a n g e s t a t e m e n t t o b e m a d e b y a m a n
w h o l a t e r b e c a m e o u r a m b a s s a d o r t o R u s s i a a s w e l l a s
o n e o f t h e c h i e f a d v i s e r s o f P r e s i d e n t E i s e n h o w e r a n d
S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e D u l l e s a t t h e 1 9 5 5 c o n f e r e n c e s i n
Geneva . B o h l e n k n e w , a s w e l l a s a n y o n e , y o u c a n ' t
j u d g e b y p u b l i c s t a t e m e n t s ) C h i a n g s t i l l h o p e d w e
w o u l d k e e p t h e R e d W o lf f r o m h i s d o o r - a n d a l s o , h e
h a d t o m a i n t a i n t h e m o r a l e o f t h e C hi n e s e p e o p l e . How
c o u l d h e t e l l t h e m t h e r e w a s a g o o d c h a n c e t h e R e d
h o r d e s w o u l d t a k e o v e r ?
General Albert C . W edemeyer, who went with
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Y a l t a a n d t h e A d v i s e r s 6 7
C h i n e s e c o u l d b e g i n t h e i r b i g p u s h t o t a k e o v e r a l l o f
C h i n a , e v e n t u a l l y f o r c i n g C h i a n g a n d t h e N a t i o n a l i s t
t r o o p s t o s e e k r e f u g e o n F o r m o s a . R u s s i a w a i t e d f r o m
1 9 3 6 ( D i m i t r o v ' s s p e e c h ) t o 1 9 4 9 f o r t h i s v i t a l l y i m -
p o r t a n t t e r r i t o r i a l g a i n t o w a r d w o r l d d o m i n a t i o n . I n
F e b ru a r y 1 9 5 0 t h e S o v i e t s s i g n e d a " t h i r t y - y e a r f r i e n d -
ship and mutual defense pact" with Mao Tse-tung,
t h e R e d l e a d e r . W i t h t h e f a l l o f C h i n a a n d t h i s p a c t
t h e K o r e a n w a r w a s a l l s e t t o g o f o u r m o n t h s l a t e r .
T h e s t o r y o f Y a l t a h i s s t r a n g e a n d s h o c k i n g . F u t u r e
h i s t o r i a n s w i l l a l w a y s w o n d e r w h y P r es i d e n t R o o s e v e l t ,
s p e a k i n g b e f o r e a j o i n t s e s s i o n o f t h e C o n g r e s s o f t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s , M a r c h 1 , 1 9 4 5 , s a i d , " Q u i t e n a t u r a l l y ,
t h i s c o n f e r e n c e c o n c e r n e d i t s e l f o n l y w i t h t h e E u r o p e a n
w a r a n d w i t h t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m s o f E u r o p e a n d
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S h e r w o o d
6 4 1
S h e r w o o d
6 4 1 - 3
6 8 T h e E n e m y a t H i s B a c k
b o s s . The subject of the memo was the absolute need
t o h a v e R u s s i a a s a f r i e n d . I t w a s , i n f a c t , t h e ba s i s f o r
o u r w a r t i m e f o r e i g n p o l i c y , a n d h a s r e m a i n e d s o e v e n
today . I n d e e d , i t seems to have r e p l a c ed t he Decla-
r a t i o n of Ind ependence .
F o r a n o f f i c i a l m e m o i t s m a c k s o f f a n a t i c i s m . R o b er t
S h e r wo o d pu b l i s h e d i t i n i t s e n t i r e t y b e c a u s e h e s a i d ,
" . . . it was an excellent statement of Hopkins ' own
v i e w s . . . "
T h e f o l l o w i n g s e l e c t e d i t e m s e x p l a i n m a n y a c t i o n s
by our government heretofore unexplainable .
6 . WITH REFERENCE TO OUR NEED FOR RUS SIAAS A REAL FRIEND AND CU STOMER IN THE
POST-W AR PERIOD .
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Yalta and the Advisers 69
were ̀ st ealin g' Lend-Lease material ass igned to them .
T h e r e w a s c o n s e q u e n t l y a n i n c r e a s i n g e f f o r t t o g e t t h e
ships through at whatever cost- and the cost was
awful . "
For a short time the Murm ansk run was aband oned .
Although Stalin was well inf ormed of our untenable
l o s s e s , n e i t h e r H o p k i n s n o r R o o s e v e l t c o u l d g e t u p h i s
nerve to tell him the las t con voy had been cancelled .
Finally on Oct . 5 , 1 9 4 2 , Roosevelt sent a cab le to
Churchill i n which he "in di cated he had reconsi dered
the question of cancelling the convoy PQ 19 ." He pro-
posed that the ships s ail in twos and threes " . . . a t
i n t e r v a l s o f t w e n t y - f o u r t o f o r t y - e i g h t h o u r s , s u p p o r t e d
b y t w o o r t h r e e e s c o r t s ." He emphasized to the Prime
Minister :
Sherwood
6 3 8 - 9
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Y a l t a P a p e r s
3 9 6
70 The Enem y at His Ba ck
t a c t s t h a t a r e l o y a l t o t h i s c o n c e p t . ( E m p h a s i s
mine . )
T h i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y p a r a g r a p h i m p l i e s t h a t o n l y p r o -
Russ ian Americans in our gov ernment service were to
b e s e l e c t e d t o m a k e c o n t a c t s w i t h R u s s i a n o f f i c i a l s , t h e
l a t t e r , o f c o u r s e , b e i n g t r a i n e d s p i e s .
A curious foll ow-up on this is to be found in a
memorandum f rom the join t Chiefs of Staf f to the
P r e s i d e n t d a t e d 23 January 1945 . I t w a s s i g n e d , n o t b y
the Chairm an of the JCS, Adm iral Leahy, but by
General George C . M a r s h a l l . The su bj ect concerned
" t h e s t a t u s t o d a t e o f n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e R u s s i a n s . "
T h e l a s t p a r a g r a p h e n u m e r a t e d t h e m a n y d e l a y s i n t h e
w a r e f f o r t c a u s e d b y t h e R u s s i a n s . M a r s h a l l s a i d t h e
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Y a l t a a n d t h e A d v i s e r s 7 1
l o w i n g s t o r y . Former G overnor George H . E a r l e o f
Pennsyl vani a was a Lieutenant Comm ander in the
Navy serving as assis tant naval attache in Turkey
w h e n h e s e n t f r a n t i c d i s p a t c h e s t o W a s h i n g t o n o f t h e
a l a r m i n g s i t u a t i o n i n t h a t c o u n t r y i n r e ga r d t o R u s s i a .
F r u s t r a t e d w h e n h e r ec e i v e d n o r e p l i e s , h e b e c a m e c o n -
v i n c e d t h a t h i s m e s s a g e s w e r e b e i n g p i g e o n h o l e d b y
l o w e r e c h e l o n o f f i c e r s . H e f l e w t o W a s h i n g t o n a n d h a d
a p e r s o n a l i n t e r v i e w w i t h P r e s i d e n t R o o s e v e l t . The
P r e s i d e n t a s s u m e d a f a t h e r ly a n d s y m p a t h e t i c a t t i t u d e ,
and noted that the strain of work in Turkey was
" t e l l i n g " o n t h e f o r m e r g o v e r n o r . H e s u g g e s t e d a n e w
p o s t w h e r e t h e w o r k w a s l i g h t a n d t h e w e a t h e r p l e a s -
a n t . With amaz ing speed, Comm ander Earle became
G o v e r n o r o f S a m o a , a r e m o t e i s l a n d i n t h e P a c i f i c .
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7The Enemy at His Back
eastw ard fr om the European t heater where the war
against Germany was d rawing to a close . "
Again we remember that the only stated reason for
keepin g the Yalta agreement secret from Chiang was
t h a t , i f t h e C h i n e s e k n e w , t h e y m i g h t l e a k t h e n e w s o f
these troop m ovements to the Japanese . How such
large troop mov ements could NOT be detected by the
e n e m y a n d a l l i e d a g e n t s a n d o b s e r v e r s i s d i f f i c u l t t o
understand . A n d t h e J a p a n e s e d i d k n o w i t . Mr . A c h e-
s o n m a d e n o m e n t i o n o f t h i s f a c t i n h i s L e t t e r o f T r a n s -
m i t t a l i n t h e W h i t e P a p e r .
It was not to be expected that Philip Jessu p, in
charge of writing the 1949 White Paper for Acheson,
would make known the fact that a num ber of the
P r e s i d e n t ' s a d v i s e r s n o t o n l y d i d n o t b el i e v e i t w a s
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Yalta and the Adv isers7 3
In comm enti ng on his own ad vice en route to Yalta,
Admi ral Leahy record ed :
" I w a s o f t h e f i r m o p i n i o n t h a t o u r w a r a g a i n s t J a p a n
h a d p r o g r e s s e d t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e h e r d e f e a t w a s o n l y a
m a t t e r of t i m e a n d a t t r i t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , w e d i d n o t n e e d
S t a l i n ' s h e l p t o d e f ea t o u r e n e m y i n t h e P a c i f i c . The Army
d i d n o t a g r e e w i t h m e . . . "
James F . Byrnes borrows Adm iral Leahy's "j aun-
diced" view in "Speaking Frankly"
" I m u s t f r a n k l y a d m i t t h a t i n v i e w o f w h a t w e k n o w o f
S o v i e t a c t i o n s i n e a s t e r n G e r m a n y a n d t h e v i o l a t i o n s o f
the Yalta agreements in Poland, Rumania and Bu lgaria,
L e a h y 2 9 3
B v r n e s 2 0 8
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W i l l o u g h b y
2 8 5
7 4 The Enemy at His Back
s i o n a l h e a r i n g s c a n b e s e r i o u s l y m i s l e d b y t h e o f t e n
r e p ea t e d s t a t e m e n t s t h a t " s u c h - a n d - s u c h w a s t h e u n a n i -
m o u s o p i n i o n o f t h e j o i n t C h i e f s of S t a f f . " T h i s l e a v e s
t h e i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t " t h e r e f o re i f e v e r y o n e a g r e e d, i t
mu st have been the best opinion . "
General MacArthur, however, did not join his Army
c o l l ea g u e s i n W a s h i n g t o n i n t h e b e l i e f t h a t R u s s i a n a i d
i n t h e P a c i f i c w a s a n e c e s s i t y . John Chamberlain who
c o l l a b o r a t e d w i t h M a j . G e n . C h a r l e s A . W i l lo u g h b y i n
the book, "MacArthur," qu otes the General' s com -
ment :
"From the viewpoin t of m y Headq uarters, Rus sian
p a r t i c i p a t i o n w a s n o t re q u i r e d . I h a d u r g e d R u s s i a n i n t e r -
v e n t i o n b a c k i n 1 9 4 1 t o d r a w t h e J a p a n e s e f r o m t h e i r
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Yalta and the Adv isers 75
a s s u r a n c e t o S t a l i n , a n d t h e n s e n t a m e s s a g e t o C h u r c h -
i l l s a y i n g " S t a l i n i s a t t h e p re s e n t t i m e s e n s i t i v e a b o u t
a n y d o u b t a s t o h i s i n t e n t i o n t o h e l p u s i n t h e O r i e n t . "
While the American public d id not have access to
t h i s i n s i d e i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e d a i l y p a p e r s h a d b e e n c o n -
s i s t e n t l y r e p or t i n g t h e s e r i e s o f d e f e a t s s u f f e r e d b y t h e
Japanese . Along with this was a sprinkli ng of propa-
gand a agains t the Emperor . The following are a few
i t e m s r e p o r t e d d i r e c t l y a f t e r Y a l t a :
N. Y . TIMES , FEB . 1 3 , 1945
London, Feb . 1 2 . - T h e C h i n e s e d e l e g a t i o n t o t h e W o r l d
T r a d e U n i o n c o n f e r e n c e d e m a n d e d t o d a y t h e E m p e r o r o f
J a p a n b e b r o u g h t t o t r i a l a s a w a r c r i m i n a l .
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7 6T h e Enemy a t H i s B a c k
s o o n e r t h a n t h e y h a d e x p e c t e d . H e w a r n e d t h a t i n t h e
Roth z4 f i r s t m o n t h s o f 3 1 9 4 5 , t h a t i s , a t t h e t i m e o f Y a l t a , i t
was realized that Japan, being on the rocks for all
p r a c t i c a l r ea s o n s , m i g h t m a k e o f f e r s o f pe a c e . T h i s a c -
counts for the almost frantic propagand a the Com-
mun ist s began to manuf acture agains t the Emperor,
s t e p p i n g u p t h e " l i n e " i n a f a s t e r a c c e l e r a t i o n .
T o u n d e r s t a n d f u l l y t h e a t t i t u d e o f t h e c o n t r o l l i n g
p o w e rs i n W a s h i n g t o n , i t i s h e l p f u l t o r e a d t h e c o m -
ments of those authors who favored the policies at
Yalta . R o b e r t S h e r w o o d w a s a c l o s e a s s o c i a t e o f t h e
White House group and had intimate knowledge of
t h o s e w h o m a d e o u r p o l i c i e s . I n h i s b o o k h e r e v e a l s t h e
fact that MacArthur's reports to Washington d id not
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Y a l t a a n d t h e A d v i s e r s7 7
" C o m m u n i s t s a n d B r i t i s h I m p e r i a l i s t s . " T h i s s t r a n g e m i s -
a p p r e h e n s i o n p r o du c e s a n o b v i o u s l y u n h e a l t h y s t a t e o f
m i n d , a n d a l s o t h e m o s t u n f o r t u n a t e p u b li c r e l a t i o n s p o l i c y
t h a t I h a v e s e e n i n a n y t h e a t e r o f w a r . . .
3 .. . . F o l l o wi n g i s a b r i e f s u m m a r y o f G e n e r a l M a c -
A rt h u r' s v i e ws o n t he f u t ure ha n dli n g o f J a p a n w h i c h h e
e x p r e s s e d t o m e a t c o n s i d e r a b l e l e n g t h a n d w i t h g r e a t p o s i -
t i v e n e s s a n d el o q u e n c e :
. . . T he t o t a l d e s t r u c t i on o f J a p a n e s e m i l i t a ry p ow er ,
t h er ef o re , c a n i n v ol v e ( f or t he J a pa n e se c i v il p o p u l a t i o n )
d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t o f H i r o h i t o ' s d i v i n i t y . T h i s w i l l
r e s u l t i n a s p i r i t u a l v a c u u m a n d a n o p p o r t u n i t y f or th e
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f n e w c o n c e p t s . . .
A note from General W i l l o u g h b y , General Mac-
A r t h u r ' s c h i e f of i n t e l li g e n c e , s t a t e s t h a t " MacArthur
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page go
page 39
7 8 The Enemy at His Back
S e n a t o r F e r gu s o n . W a s i t n o t m o r e t h a n i n f l u e n c e ; w a s i t
n o t m e a n t t h a t m e a s u r e s w o u l d b e t a k e n ?
Mr . B o h l e n . I h a v e u n d e r s t o o d , s i r , t h a t t h e w o r d " m e a s -
u r e s " m e a n t t h a t y o u w e r e n o t g o i n g t o d o a n y t h i n g e x c e p t
t o u r g e u p o n t h e C h i n e s e a c c e p t a n c e o f t h i s .
* * *
S e n a t o r F e r g u s on . W e w e r e g oi n g t o f o r c e C h i n a t o d o t h i s .
Mr . B o h le n . T h i s i s t h e q u e s t i o n . T h e q u e s t i o n d i d n o t
a r i s e b e c a u s e i t w a s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o u s e a n y f o r c e or p r es -
s u r e o n t h e m . I n f a c t , q u i t e t h e c o n t r a ry .
S e n a t o r F e r g u s on . C h i a n g K a i - s h e k h a d t o h a v e h e l p f r o m
u s . T h e r e i s n ' t a n y d o u b t a b o u t i t , t o f i g h t R e d C h i n a .
* * *
S e n a t o r F e r gu s o n . D o y o u k n o w w h o s e w o r d s I r e a d t o y o u
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Yalta and the Adv isers 79Mr. B o h le n . Y e s , a s I u n d e rs t a n d i t ; I a m n o t t o o f a m i l i a r
w i t h t h e t e x t o f i t .
S e n a t o r F e rg u s o n . D o y o u b e l i e v e t h a t w h a t w a s d o n e a t
Y a l t a b r e a c h e d a n d r e pu d i a t e d t h a t p a r t o f t h e N i n e P o w e r
P a c t t h a t I r e a d t o y o u ?Mr. B o h l e n . S e n a t o r , t h a t i s a m a t t e r of o p i n i o n . . . .
S e n a t o r F e r g u s o n . T h e n y o u c o m e t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t B o h l e n 2 3
t h e o n l y w r on g t h a t y o u c a n f i n d i n t h e s e a g r ee m e n t s a t
Y a l t a , T e h er a n , o r a n y o f t h e o t h er s t h a t w e m a d e w i t h
R u s s i a , w a s i n t h e i n t e r pr e t a t i o n ?Mr . B o h l en . N o , s i r ; I t h i n k t h a t t h e c h i e f t h i n g t h a t w a s
w r o n g w a s t h e v i o l a t i o n o f t h e m a f t e r w a r d . ( B y t h e Ru s -
s i a n s . ) ( E m p h a s i s m i n e . )
8o The Enemy at His Back
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s a y i n g s o m e o f t h e s e p e o p l e " h a v e p r o f i t e d f r o m h i n d -
s i g h t . " ( A n d " h i n d s i g h t " i s t h e e x c u s e w e h a v e b e e n
h e a r i n g a l l a l o n g . ) " S t i l l o t h er s , " h e s a i d , " . . . have
d i s t o r t e d a n d p e r v e rt e d t h e f a c t s t o a p o i n t w h e re t h e i r
s t a t e m e n t s h a v e l i t t l e o r n o b a s i s i n r e a l i t y . "
B u t i f a n i n t e r e s t e d p a r t y s h o u l d a s k i f t h e r e h a d
b e e n a n y " f or e s i g h t " i n f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e Y a l t a , I wo u ld
unhesitatingly direct them to a memorandum found
Y a l t a P a p e r s i n t h e Y a l t a P a p e r s , w r i t t e n b y n o n e o t h e r t h a n A m -
4 5 0 - 5 bassad or to Russ ia W . Averell Harriman, Jan . i o ,
1 9 4 5 , a n d r e c e i v e d b y t h e S e c r et a r y o f S t a t e , S t e t t i n i u s ,
e x a c t l y o n e m o n t h b e f o r e t h e Y a l t a a g r e e m e n t s w e r e
s i g n e d ! I f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d e l e g a t i o n t o t h e Y a l t a
C o n f e r e n c e h a d m a d e t h i s d o c u m e n t , w r i t t e n b y H a r r i -
m a n , t h e b a s i s f o r t h e i r p o l i c i e s , t h e w or l d wo u l d h a v e
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Y a l t a a n d t h e A d v i s e r s 8 1
w h os e t e r r i t o r y i s l i b e r a t e d ( f r o m t h e N a z i s ) b y S o v i e t
troops and ex-enemy countries which have been oc-
c u p i e d . . . T h e S o v i e t c o n c e p t i o n o f ` s e c u r i t y ' d o e s Y a l t a P a p e r s
n o t a p p e a r c o g n i z a n t o f t h e s i m i l a r n e e d s o r ri g h t s o f 4 5 1
o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . . . "
I have found in m y research a number of other
memos from Harriman warning that Russia's actions
m a k e h e r a n u n t r u s t w o r t h y a l l y . A n d b e c a u s e o f t h e s e
memos, Mr . H a r r i m a n m u s t h a v e b e e n a w a r e t h a t t h e
" A g r e e m e n t R e g a r d i n g J a p a n , " w h i c h S t a l i n d r e a m e d
up and Harriman and Molotov negotiated, was bound
t o t h r o w a l l o f A s i a i n t o t h e R e d o r bi t .
H o w i s i t p o s s i b l e f o r h i m t o s a y i n h i s 1 9 5 1 s t a t e -
m e n t t h a t , " T h e p o s t w a r p r o b l e m s h a v e r e s u l t e d n o t M a c A 5 - 3 3 z 8
8 2 T h e E n e m y a t H i s B a c k
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documents . A n d , a l t h o u g h t h e R o o s e v e l t a n d H o p k i n s
papers kept in the Hyde Park Library were mad e
a v a i l a b l e on r e q u e s t , a f u l l s e a r c h o f t h o s e d o c u m e n t s
w a s n e v e r r e q u e s t e d . W h a t a r e t h es e h e a v y s e c r e t s s t i l l
s o c a r e f u l l y k e p t f r o m t h e A m e r i c a n p u b l i c ?
Yalta has become a new word with a new meaning
b e c a u s e i t w a s a t u r n i n g p o i n t i n w o r l d h i s t o r y. I t
p r o du c e d d e a t h i n s t e a d o f l i f e , w a r i n s t e a d o f p e a c e ,
h a t e i n s t e a d o f f r i e n d s h i p , l i e s i n s t e a d o f t r u t h .
Chapt er IV
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OKINAWA-SUZUKI-EUGENE DOOMANTESTIFIES
O k i n a w a , A p r i l r t o J u n e 2 1 , 1945 .
H i r o h i t o s e n d s u p a " s m o k e s i g n a l . "
P r e s s r e p o r t s .
P e a c e f e e l e r s .
E u g e n e D o o m a n t e s t i f i e s .
ON April Fool's Day 1 945, a U nited States Army,
Na vy and Marine force und er Adm iral Raymond A .
Sp ruan ce, lau nched an other D-d ay which was t o be
84 The Enem y at His Back
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Kase r o b
T r u m a n , i n h i s d e s i r e t o o b t a i n a i d f r o m R u s s i a i n t h e
P a c i f i c w a r .
T h a t O k i n a w a w a s a l o s t b a t t l e , a n d t h a t i t s l o s s
m e a n t u t t e r d i s a s t e r , w a s k n o w n t o t h e J a p a n e s e m i l i -
t a r y a n d r e c o g n i z e d b y t h e " m o d e r a t e s " a n d " l i b e r a l s "
o f t h e p e a c e p a r t y . T he s i t u a t i on c a l le d f o r d ra s t i c a n d
d e s p e r a t e s t e p s t o e n d t h e w a r . " O n A p r i l 4 t h , " M r .
K a s e w r i t e s , " t h e K o i s o c a b i n e t ( w h i c h f o l l o w e d t h e
T o j o c a b i n e t ) d i e d a n i g n o m i n i o u s d e a t h . " K o i s o w a s
a " s n o w m a n m e l t i n g a w a y i n t o w a t e r u n d e r t h e r a y s
o f t h e s u n , " M r . K a s e w e n t o n , a n d " T h e s u n w a s t h e
r i s i n g s e n t i m e n t o f t h e p e o p l e a t l a r g e f o r p e a c e -
p e a c e a t a n y p r i c e . "
I t w a s a t t h i s t i m e t h a t t h e E m p e r o r s e n t u p h i s
Okinawa- Suzuki-Eugene Dooman Testifies 8 5
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c a n c e o f S u z u k i a n d w e c a n f i n d t e s t i m o n y t o t h i s i n
Roth's "Dilemma in Japan . " H e w r o t e t h a t a l l t h a t w a s
needed to m ake the Suzuki Cabi net a complete peace
c a b i n e t w a s f o r t h e m t o g e t r i d of t h e " m i l i t a r i s t s o r
Gu m bat s u . "
For several days the press in America emphasized
t h e p e a c e s i g n a l b u t , l i k e t h e s e e d s t h a t f e l l o n b a r r e n
g r o u n d i n s t e a d o f f e r t i l e s o i l , S u z u k i ' s a p p o i n t m e n t m e t
w i t h o f f i c i a l e y e s t h a t w e r e " b l i n d " a n d e a r s t h a t w e r e
"d eaf . "
An editorial i n the Washington Evening S tar on
A p r i l 6 n o t e s
T h i s m i g h t b e t h e f i r s t m o v e t o w a r d a b i d f o r a c o m p r o -
m i s e p e a c e w i t h t h e w e s t e r n p o w e r s b e f o r e R u s s i a e n t e r e d
8 6 The Enemy at His Back
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a s s u c h ." These facts were all brought out by Mr .
H o o v e r i n t a l k i n g w i t h P r e s i d e n t T r u m a n . W h i l e t h e
l a t t e r l i s t e n e d w i t h a p p a r en t i n t e r e s t , h i s c l o s i n g r e -
m a r k , a s k i n g M r . H o o v e r t o m a k e a m e m o o n t h e s u b -
j e c t , t h r e w a w e t r a g o n M r . H o o v e r ' s h o p e s f o r p e a c e .
I t i s n o t o u t o f t h e w a y t o w o n d e r w h y M r . T r u m a n ' s
r e a c t i o n w a s s o n e g a t i v e . C o u l d i t b e p o s s i b l e t h a t , i n
p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e f o r m e r R ep u b l i c a n P r e s i d e n t ' s v i s i t
t o t h e W h i t e H o u s e , T r u m a n ' s a d v i s e r s h a d b r i e f e d
h i m i n a d v a n c e a n d c o n v i n c e d h i m t h a t t h e S u z u k i a p -
p o i n t m e n t w a s u n i m p o r t a n t ? W i t h a s e n s e o f f u t i l i t y ,Mr. Hoover went b ack to New York and sent them e m o .
W o r l d w i d e p o l i t i c a l e f f e c t s s o o f t e n d e p e n d o n
whether a man has a q uick m ind or a s low one ;
Okinawa- Suzuki-Eugene Dooman Testifies 8 7
it in any of the memoirs I have read . The JCS sai d
that " In no case to date in this war have organized
The Entry
of the
Soviet Union
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Japanese units s urrendered . The concept of 'uncon-
d i t i o n a l s u r r e n d e r ' i s f o r e i g n t o t h e J a p a n e s e n a t u r e "
and that "Unless a definition of unconditional sur-
render can be giv en which is acceptable to the Jap-
a n e s e , t h e r e i s n o a l t e r n a t i v e t o a n n i h i l a t i o n a n d n o
p r o s pe c t t h a t t h e t h r e a t o f a b s o l u t e d e f e a t w i l l b r i n g
c a p i t u l a t i o n . "
" A n n i h i l a t i o n , " o f c o u r s e , w a s t h e d es i r e o f R u s s i a .
The JCS report went on to recommend that the def-
i n i t i o n o f u n c o n d i t i o n a l s u r r e n d e r b e m a d e o n a " g o v -
e r n m e n t a l l e v e l . " " . . . i t i s p o s s i b le t h a t a g o v e r n m e n t
could be formed in Japan that would s ign and could
e n f o r c e a s u r r e n d e r i n s t r u m e n t . "
W a s t h i s s u g g e s t i o n m a d e i n r o c o g n i t i o n o f A d m i r a l
Suz uki's new position as premier a couple of weeks
into the War
A g a i n s t
Japan : M i l i -
t a r y P l a n s ,
1 9 4 1 - 4 5
P . 6 3
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Uni ted Nations whose role as Soviet representative
on the Security Council during the Korean W ar needs
Kase 1 7 1 n o r e c a l l i n g . Hirota had two talks with Malik, the
Soviet playing "cat" to the Japanese's "mouse," and
w h e n H i r o t a a s k e d f o r a t h i r d m e e t i n g , M a l i k d e c l i n e d
" p l e a d i n g ` i n d i s p o s i t i o n . ' "
Back home, the American press gav e a clear in -
dication of Japan's ultimate defeat as catastrophe
struck day after day while Japan's enemies were
demandi ng the death of the Emperor, strikin g even
m o r e t e r r o r i n t h e i r s o u l s :
NEW YORK TIMES, MAY7 ,
1 9 4 5
C h u n g k i n g , C h i n a , M a y 6 , U P - D e a t h f o r E m p e r o r H i r o -
h i t o , t e r m e d t h e N o . i J a p a n e s e w a r c r i m i n a l , w a s a s k e d
Okinawa- Suzuki- Eugene Doom an Tes tif ies 89
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AP- Japan s t i l l i s c a p a b l e o f w a g i n g a l o n g w a r d e s p i t e
d e s t ru c t i v e a i r a t t a c k s a n d n a v a l d e f e a t s w h i c h h a v e c u t
o f f a l m o s t e n t i r e l y h e r s t o l e n s o u r c e s o f r u b b e r, o i l a n d
t i n , t h e F o re i g n E c o n o m i c s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n s a i d l a s t n i g h t .
" A l a r g e p or t i o n o f t h e w a r i n d u s t r y s h e h a d a t P e a r l
H a r b or i s i n t a c t , " s a i d a r e po rt b y t h e E n e m y B r a n c h of
t h e a g e n c y . ( C h i e f o f t h e E n e m y B r a n c h was Henry N .
F o w l e r . )
During this time Harry Hopkins was in Moscow
h a v i n g a s e r i e s o f h i g h l y i m p o r t a n t m e e t i n g s w i t h
M a r s h a l S t a l i n , c a b l i n g h i s r e p o r t s t o W a s h i n g t o n
e v e r y d a y . And while Hopkins was in Moscow, t h e r e
began, among the policy makers, one of the mos t
strange and heated episodes . Und ersecretary Grew
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S h e r w oo d i . B y A u g u s t 8 t h e S o v i e t A r m y w i l l b e p r o pe r l y d e pl o y e d
9O 2 on the Manchurian positions .
2 . The Marshal (Stalin) repeated his statement m ade at
Y a l t a t h a t t h e R u s s i a n p e o p le m u s t h a v e a g o o d r e a s o n f o r
going to war and that depended on China's willingness to
a g r e e t o t h e p r o p o s a l s m a d e a t Y a l t a .
3 . F o r t h e f i rs t t i m e h e s t a t e d t h a t h e w a s w i l l i n g t o t a k e
these proposal s up directly with Soong when he comes to
Mos cow . H e w a n t s t o s e e S o o n g n o t l a t e r t h a n J u l y i a n d
expects us to take the matter up at the same tim e with
Chiang Kai-shek. This procedure seems from our point of
v i e w m o s t d e s i r a b l e i n l i g h t o f S t a l i n ' s s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e
Far East which follow .
4 . S t a l i n l e f t n o d o u b t i n o u r m i n d t h a t h e i n t e n d s t o a t -
tack during August . I t i s t h e r e f or e i m p o rt a n t t h a t S o o n g
c o m e h e r e n o t l a t e r t h a n J u l y i . S t a l i n i s r e a d y t o s e e h i m
Okinawa- Suz uki- -Eugene Dooman Testi fies 9 1
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u n d e r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , C h i n a , G r e a t B r i t a i n a n d t h e
S o v i e t U n i o n .
i o . W e w e r e v e r y e n c o u r a g e d b y t h e c o n f e r e n c e o n t h e F a r
E a s t .
I t i s m o r e t h a n l i k e l y t h a t t h i s r e p o r t w a s i n t h e
P r e s i d en t ' s hand s b y May 2 9 t h , t h e day of the
P e n t a g o n m e e t i n g . H a d G e n e r a l M a r s h a l l s e e n i t ? The
r e p o r t s t a t e s t h a t t h e R ed A r m y w o u l d n o t b e r e a d y t o
march into Manchuria b e f o r e A u g u s t 8 . A n d i t s a y s
a l s o t h a t t h e Y a l t a a g r e e m e n t s mus t be accepted by
Chiang Kai-shek a s R u s s i a ' s p r i c e . Again we ask,
w a s t h i s c a b l e d r e p o r t k e p t f r o m t h e o t h e r memb ers
of the Pentagon c o n f e r e n c e ? I n J a m e s F o r r e s t a l ' s
d i a r i e s h e s a y s t h a t McCloy had t old him a b o u t i t s
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S t a l i n m a d e i t q u i t e c l e a r t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w a n t s t o
g o t h r o u g h w i t h u n c o n d i t i o n a l s u r r e n d e r a n d a l l t h a t i s
i m p l i e d i n i t .
B . H o w e v e r , h e f e e l s t h a t i f w e s t i c k t o u n c o n d i t i o n a l s u r -
r e n d e r t h e J a p s w i l l n o t g i v e u p a n d w e w i l l h a v e t o d e s t r o y
them as we did Germany .
C . T h e J a p a n e s e m a y o f f e r t o s u r r e n d e r a n d s e e k s o f t e r
t e r m s . W h i l e c o n s i d e ra t i o n o f t h i s h a s c e r t a i n d a n g e r s a s
compared with (A) it nevertheless can not be ruled out .
S h o u l d t h e A ll i e s d e p a r t f r o m t h e a n n o u n c e d p o l i c y o f u n -
c o n d i t i o n a l s u r r e n d e r a n d b e pr e p a r e d t o a c c e p t a m o d i f i e d
s u r r e n d e r , S t a l i n v i s u a l i z e s i m p o s i n g o u r w i l l t h ro u g h o u r
o c c u p y i n g f o r c es a n d t h e r eb y g a i n i n g s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e s a m e
r e s u l t s a s u n d e r ( A ) . I n o t h e r w or d s , i t s e e m e d t o u s t h a t h e
p r o po s e s u n d e r t h i s h e a d i n g t o a g r e e t o m i l d e r p e a c e t e r m s
b u t o n c e w e g e t i n t o J a p a n t o g i v e t h e m t h e w o r k s .
Okinawa- Su zuki -Eugene Doom an Test if ies9 3
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q u a i n t e d w i t h t h o s e p e o p l e working i n t h e S t a t e
Department, and t h e c o n s t a n t b a t t l e b e t w e e n t h e
" r e a c t i o n a r i e s " a n d t h e " L ef t i s t s . " T h i s t e s t i m o n y o fMr. Doom an's was perhaps the most s e n s a t i o n a l t o
h a v e c o m e f r o m t h e s o - c a l l e d M c C a r r a n C o m m i t t e e ' s
i n v e s t i ga t i on of t h e I n s t i t u t e o f Pa c i f i c R e la t i o n s i n
1 9 5 1 - 5 2 . And, although there weres o m e t h i r t y , o r
f o r t y r e p o r t e r s p re s e n t , v e r y l i t t l e a p p e a r e d i n m o s t
p a p e r s .
F r i d a y , S e p t e m b er 1 4 , 1 9 5 1 I P R 3
pages 703-
T h e s u b c o m m i t t e e m e t a t i o a . m . 7 5 4
P r es e n t : S e n a t o rs M c C a r ra n , E a s t l a n d , a n d S m i t h o f N o rt h
C a r o l i n a .
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Mr . D o o m a n . A t t h a t t i m e , w h i c h m u s t h a v e b e e n e a r l y i n
1 9 4 5 , I w a s , a s I h a v e j u s t s a i d , a c t i n g a s C h a i rm a n o f t h i s
Far Eastern Subcommittee of S WINK . . . b u t o n e o f t h e
m e n i n t h e o f f i c e t o l d m e t h a t p a p e r s w e r e g oi n g t h r o u g h t h e
S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t c a l l i n g f o r t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f D r . L a t t i -
m o r e a s a d v i s e r t o t h e C h i n a D i v i s i o n , t h e p a p e r s h a v i n g
b e e n i n i t i a t e d b y t h e Ch i e f o f t h e C h i n a D i v i s i o n .
Mr . M o r r i s . Who was that?
Mr . D o o m a n . That was Mr . J o h n Ca r t e r V i n c e n t .
I d i s c u s s e d t h e m a t t e r w i t h M r . B a l l a n t i n e , w h o w a s t h e n
D i r e c t o r o f t h e F a r E a s t e r n D i v i s i o n , a n d p o i n t e d o u t t h a t
L a t t i m o r e a t t h a t t i m e , a n d f o r s e v e r a l m o n t h s p re v i o u s l y ,
h a d b e e n u s i n g e v e r y o p p o r t u n i t y t o d i s c r e d i t t h e t h e n
A c t i n g S e c r e t a ry o f S t a t e , Mr . G r e w.
A n d I p oi n t e d o u t t h a t i t w o u l d b e i n c o n g r u o u s f o r a m a n
who had expressed himself s o freely on Mr . G rew to be
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board of the Commun ist P olitical Association as ap-
proved on June 20, 1945 . The excerpts concern Japan ,
a n d i t w a s t h i s r e s o l u t i o n t h a t a l s o l a u n c h e d t h e s l o g a n
to remove the "reactionaries" and " fascist s" from
the St ate Depart ment . One important and s ignifi cant
p o i n t i s t h a t t h i s s l o g a n w a s a d o p t e d d i r e c t l y a f t e r t h e
"p rematu re" m eetin g in the Pentagon on May 29 th
at which time the "reactionary" Mr . Grew's surrender
paper to Japan had been d iscu ssed . These orders to
the comrades appeared i n t he July 1945 iss ue of
P o l i t i c a l A f a i r s , an official Communist magazine
T h i s g r o w i n g r e a c t i o n a r y o p p o s i t i o n t o a t r u l y d e m o -
c r a t i c a n d a n t i - F a s c i s t E u r o pe i n w h i c h t h e p e o pl e w i ll h a v e
t h e r i g h t t o f r e e l y c h o o s e t h e i r o w n f o r m s o f g o v e r n m e n t
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U n i v e r s i t y , c a m e t o s e e t h e P r e s i d e n t . . . . H e c a m e t o s e e
t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d a s k e d t h e P r e s i d e n t t o i n t e r v e n e o n b e h a l f
o f D r . L a t t i m o r e w i t h t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t . A n d t he m a t t e r
w a s b r o u g ht t o t h e a t t e n t i o n t h e n o f t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t
a n d n o f u r t h e r a c t i o n w a s t a k e n .
M a y I c o r r e c t i t a g a i n ? T h i s m u s t h a v e b e e n a b o u t A p r i l
of 1945.
Mr . M o r r i s . W h a t p o s i t i o n d i d J o h n C a r t e r V i n c e n t h o l d a t
that time, Mr . Dooman, at the time these papers f o r
employing Mr . L a t t i m o r e a s c o n s u l t a n t w e r e s u b m i t t e d ?
Mr . D o o m a n . H e w a s C h i e f o f t h e C h i n a D i v i s i o n .
Mr . M o r r i s . D i d h e h o l d a n y o t h e r p o s i t i o n i n t h e S t a t e
Department?
Mr . D o o m a n . N o t a t t h a t t i m e .
Mr . M o r r i s . W a s h e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o n e of t h e a r e a c o m m i t -
t e e s ?
O k i n a w a - S u z u k i - E u g e n e D oo m a n T e s t i f i e s 9 ?
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( a g a i n s t J u l i a n F r i e d m a n ) b e c a u s e t h a t i m p l i e d t h a t I ha d
c o m p l a i n e d t o s o m e h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y .
T h e f a c t w a s t h a t a v e r y s h or t t i m e a f t e r s t a t e m e n t s h a d
b e e n m a d e i n s e c r e t m e e t i n g s o f t h i s F a r E a s t A r e a C o m -
m i t t e e , t h e p ro c e e d i n g s a n d t h e s t a t e m e n t s m a d e b y v a r i o u s
i n d i v i d u a l s i m m e d i a t e l y w e r e q u o t e d i n v a r i o u s l e f t - w i n g
p e r i o d i c a l s a n d n e w s p a p e r s . T h e r e w e re l i t e r a l l y d o z e n s o f
s u c h o c c a s i o n s .
S e n a t o r E a s t l a n d . Such as PM?
Mr . D o o m a n . That would inclu de PM .
I t s o h a p p en s t h a t a m o n g a l l t h e s e i n s t a n c e s t h a t a c t u a l l y
occurred, I happened to keep one, and that was in The
N a t i o n o f F e b r u a r y 3 , 1 9 4 5 , w h e r e t h e r e a p pe a r s a n a r t i c l e
b y o n e P a c i f i c u s , e n t i t l e d " Da n g e r o u s E x p e r t s . "
Among other things here is the following paragraph
which I would l ike to read, if I may . I m i g h t s a y t h a t
9 8 T h e E n e m y a t H i s B a c k
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7 1 5 - i 6 Mr . M o r r i s . Mr . D o o m a n , w o u l d y o u t e l l u s t o t h e b e s t o f
y o u r a b i l i t y t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t O w e n L a t t i m o r e t o o k a t t h a t
t i m e w i t h r e s p e c t t o J a p a n ? T h i s i s i n 1 9 4 5.Mr. Dooman . W e l l , t h e r e i s a w h o l e l i b r a r y t h a t c o u l d b e
made up of s tatements mad e by Mr . L a t t i m o r e d u r i n g t h a t
p e r i o d . I s u p p o s e t h e b e s t k n o w n , t h e o n e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y
quoted . . . is a book called Solution in Asia, which was
published, I think, in about February 1945, and was very
widely circulated during the spring and early summer, in
f a c t u n t i l t h e s u r r e n d e r o f J a p a n .
I n g e n e r a l , h e t o o k t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e J a p a n e s e p e o p l e,
w h e n t h e y w e r e d ef e a t e d , w o u l d r i s e i n r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t t h e
sys tem and overthrow the monarchy ; t h a t t h e r e w e r e el e -
ments in the State Department, the so-called reactionary
Fascist elements , who knew nothing whatever about Japan
. . . and that these elements were intended to use the
O k i n a w a - S u z u k i - E u g e n e D oo m a n T e s t i f i e s 9 9
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J a p a n e s e w a n t e d t o d i s e s t a b l i s h t h e m o n a r c h y . T h a t i s n o t
t h e w h o l e s t o r y .
I n S o l u t i o n i n A s i a , h e m a k e s t h i s s t a t e m e n t , w h i c h I
c a n n o t q u o t e t e x t u a l l y , b u t i t r u n s s o m e w h a t a l o n g t h e s e
l i n e s . H e s a y s :
I w i l l v e n t u r e t h e p o li t i c a l p r o p h e c y t h a t t h e J a p a n e s e
p e o pl e w i l l t h e m s e l v e s r e v o l t a n d d i s e s t a b l i s h t h e m o n -
a r c h .
N o w , t h e s u g ge s t i o n a t t h e s a m e t i m e , a t t h a t t i m e - t h a t
i s , b e f o r e t h e s u r r e n d e r - t h a t p e o p l e l i k e M r . Grew and
m y s e l f w e r e i n t e n d i n g t o k e e p t h e E m p e r o r i n p o w e r i m -
p l i e d , t h e n , t h a t w e p ro p o s e d t o u s e t h e i n f l u e n c e a n d t h e
p o s i t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o p r e v e n t t h e e x e r c i s e b y t h e
J a p a n e s e p e o pl e o f t h e i r o w n w i l l .
W e l l, l e t m e s a y a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t t h i s w h o l e di s c u s s i o n
i o o The Enemy a t H i s B a c k
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M Mr. Dooman begins here to tell an unusual s tory .
The SWINK subcom mi ttee had been workin g forabout 7 or 8 mon ths on a paper called "The Un ited
States Initial Post- Surrender Policy for Japan . " I t
s p e l l e d o u t e x a c t l y w h a t t h e U n i t e dd S t a t e s p r o p o s e d t o
do with our defeated enemy . On August 1 6 , 1 9 4 5 , MrGrew reti red an d w as repl aced b y Dean Acheson as
Und ersecretary of St ate . Mr . Do om an then ask ed
A s s i s t a n t S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e , J a m e s C . Dunn, chairman
of the ful l SW INK comm ittee, to cal l a meetin g of
the SW INK sub comm ittee on August 2 9, 1 945 f or
t h e p u r p o s e o f p a s s i n g o n t h i s p a p e r . T h i s t h e y d i d ,
and on that same day i t was cab led to General Mac-
A r t h u r a s " a f i r m U n i t e d S t a t e s p o li c y f o r J a p a n . "
Two days l ater, Augus t 31s t, Mr . Dooman retired
Okinawa- Su zuki -Eugene Doom an Test if ies iox
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c i s e d c o n t r o l o f a l a r g e pa r t o f J a p a n ' s t r a d e a n d i n -
d u s t r y. "
I t i s o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e t w o c l a u s e s t h a t w o r k w a s
u n d e r t a k e n t o d e s t r o y , f i r s t o f a l l , t o e l i m i n a t e t h e c a p i t a l i s t
c l a s s i n J a p a n .
S e n a t o r E a s t l a n d . W h o a t t e m p t e d t o e l i m i n a t e i t ?
Mr. Dooman . T h e s e w e r e t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s s e n t f r o m W a s h -
i n g t o n .
S e n a t o r E a s t l a n d . That was the American St ate Depart-
ment?Mr. Dooman . Wi th the concurrence of the Navy Depart-
ment and the War Department .
T h e s e w e r e t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s s e n t t o G e n e r a l M a c A r t h u r
t h r o u g h t h e J o i n t C h i e f s o f S t a f f .
1 0 2 The Enemy at His Back
S e n a t o r E a s t l a n d . G o a h e a d a n d d e s c r i b e w h a t e l s e t h e r e
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was .
Mr . D o om a n . T h e n a l l h o l d i n g s b y a n y o n e i n d i v i d u a l i n
a n y l a r g e c o r p o r a t i o n i n e x c e s s o f 3 p e r c e n t w e re c o n -
f i s c a t e d. T h e r e w e r e m o r e p ol i t e t e r m s u s e d . T h a t i s , t h e y
w e r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o a g o v e r n m e n t p o o l .
A n d t h e n t h e J a p a n e s e G o v e r n m e n t w a s o r d er e d t o s e l l
t h o s e s h a r e s i n a c e r t a i n o r d e r o f p ri o r i t y t o f a r m e r s ' c o -
o pe ra t i v es , l a bo r u n i on s , a n d s h op k e ep er s , a t w h a t e v e r
p r i c e m i g h t b e o f f e r e d .
A n d , f u r t h e r m o r e , t h e J a p a n e s e G o v e r n m e n t w a s o r d e r e d
t o d i s r e g a r d a n y r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p r i c e o f f e r e d a n d
t h e r e a l v a l u e ; a n d f u r t h e r m o r e , t h e J a p a n e s e G o v e r n m e n t
w a s o r d er e d t o f i n a n c e a n y b i d s f o r t h e s h a r e s b y f a r m e r s '
c o o p e r a t i v e s a n d l a b o r u n i o n s . . .
T h e n e t r e s u l t w a s t h e n t o r e p l a c e p e o p l e w h o had
Okinawa-S uzuki- Eugene Dooman Testi fies 103
MacArthur was not in Japan to make p o li c y , b u t t o
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c a r r y o u t o r d er s ; p o l i c y f o r J a p a n w o u l d b e m a d e b y
t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t , h e s a i d . T h i s
" r e p u d i a t i o n " c o m i n g i n t h e f i r s t month of the oc-
cupation boomeranged b e c a u s e i t l e d t o t h e p u b l i c a -
tion of the SWINK directive . MacArthur could not,
t h e r e a f t e r , b e b l a m e d f o r e x e c u t i n g o r d er s !
I n c o n t i n u i n g h i s t e s t i m o n y o n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between MacArthur a n d t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t , Mr .
Dooman sharply pin points t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p o l i c y
toward Russ ia and Communism . I t w o u l d b e i n t e r e s t -
i n g t o l e a r n o n e d a y w h a t t h e J a p a n e s e w e r e t h i n k i n g
when their American Su preme Com mand er was so
o f t e n r e p u d i a t e d by W ashington o f f i c i a l s , a n d o f t e n
i n f a v o r o f Ru s s i a . T h a t h e r e m a i n e d t h e i r i d o l under
104 The Enemy at His Back
Stat e Departm ent s o u r c e s s a i d n o d i r e c t i v e s h a d b e e n
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s e n t t o G e n e r a l M a c A r t h u r i n d i c a t i n g a n y d e s i r e o n t h e
p a r t o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h e r e t o r a i s e t h e c r y o f " c o m -
munism" in Japan . The source said they were taken
completely by surprise by com ments in the MacArthur
s t a t e m e n t , s u c h a s t h a t t h e J a p a n e s e i s l a n d s m i g h t b e c o m e
e i t h e r " a p o w e r f u l b u l w a r k f o r p e a c e o r a d a n g e r o u s s p r i n g -
b o a r d f o r w a r . "
T h e i n c i d e n t w a s c o n s i d e r e d h e r e a s p a r t i c u l a r l y i r r i t a t i n g
s i n c e i t c a m e i n t h e m i d s t o f d e l i c a t e A m e ri c a n - S o v i e t r e -
l a t i o n s e l s e w h e r e i n t h e w o r ld .
T h e a i m o f A m e r i c a n f o r e i g n p o l i c y i n t h e F a r E a s t i s
e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a j u s t a n d d u r a b l e p e a c e , t h e S t a t e D e -
p a r t m e n t s o u r c e s s a i d . I t i s a i m e d a t " b u i l d i n g a b r i d g e o f
f r i e n d s h i p t o S o v i e t R u s s i a " a n d i s n o t i n t e n d e d t o s e t u p
" a b u l w a r k a g a i n s t c o m m u n i s m " o r t o i n s p i r e a n t i - S o v i e t
f e e l i n g , t h e s o u r c e s a d d e d .
O k i n a w a - - S u z u k i - E u g e n e D o om a n T e s t i f i e s 105
S e n a t o r E a s t l a n d . Was it not an attempt to destroy Japa-
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n e s e c a p i t a l i s m ?
Mr . D o om a n . It was an attempt to destroy and eliminate
t h e b r a i n s o f J a p a n e s e b u s i n e s s .
* * *
S e n a t o r E a s t la n d . A l l r i g h t .
W h a t e l s e d i d t h e y a t t e m p t t o p u t o v e r ?
Mr . D o o m a n . J u s t f o l l o w i n g t h a t q u e s t i o n , f o l l o w i n g t h a t
p o i n t , I w a n t t o q u o t e f r o m t h i s r o u n d - t a b l e d i s c u s s i o n o f
the University of Chicago on July 8, this statement at-
tributed to Mr . L a t t i m o r e ( r e a d i n g )
T h a t i n c l u d e s a l o t o f e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n a s
well because we cannot forget that the civi lian war-
m a k e r s , t h a t i s t h e b i g i n d u s t r i a l i s t s a n d f i n a n c i e r s o f
i o 6 The Enemy at His Back
o t h e r f i e l d , s h o u l d be reduced t o t h e s m a l l e s t p o s s i b l e
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e l e m e n t .
T h e C h a i r m a n . H o w i s t h a t t i e d i n h e r e ? W h o i s t h e a r t i c l e
by?
Mr . D o om a n . W e l l , i t w a s a p a p e r . I t w a s i n t r o d u c e d a s
f o l l o w s : T o t h e F a r E a s t e r n C o m m i s s i o n b y t h e S e c r e t a r y
General, Mr . Nelson T . J o n a t h a n ( s i c l ) , und er a paper
w h i c h r e a d s a s f o l l o w s ( r e a d i n g ) :
T h e e n c l o s u r e , a s t a t e m e n t o f p r o p o s e d p o l i c y w i t h
r e s p e c t t o e x c e s s i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f e c o n o m i c p o w e r i n
Japan, subm itted by the Unit ed States, i s c i r c u l a t ed
herewith for the consi deration of the Far East Co m-
m i s s i o n a n d i s r e f e r r e d t o C o m m i t t e e N o . 2 , econom ic and
f i n a n c i a l a f f a i r s .
Okinawa- Su zuki -Eugene Doom an Test if ies 107
S e n a t o r E a s t l a n d . I t w a s s e n t b y o u r S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t ?
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Mr. Dooman . S e n t b y w h o m , I d o n o t k n o w . B u t i t w a s s e n t
t o t h e o c c u p a t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s a n d t h e y a c t e d o n i t .
A n d w h e n t h e d i s c l o s u r e w a s m a d e b y m y f r i e n d , K a u f -
m a n , t h a t t h i s p a p e r h a d b e e n a c t e d o n , i t w a s t h e n d i s -
a v o w e d a s m e r e l y b e i n g a d r a f t a n d m e r e l y p r e s e n t e d t o t h e
F a r E a s t e r n C o m m i s s i o n f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
B u t t h e p o i n t I w a n t t o e m p h a s i z e w a s t h a t i t w a s , f o r
a l l p ra c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , a n o f f i c i a l d o c u m e n t , b e c a u s e i t w a s
o n t h e ba s i s o f t h i s t h a t t h e v a r i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n s w e r e s e n t
t o t h e J a p a n e s e g o v e r n m e n t .
S e n a t o r E a s t l a n d . A s a m a t t e r o f f a c t , t o p u t i t v e r y m i l d l y ,
t h e r e i s a s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e A m e r i c a n p o l i c y
t o w a r d J a p a n a n d t h e p o l i c i e s l a i d d o wn b y R u s s i a t o t h e
s a t e l l i t e s t a t e s i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e , i s t h e r e n o t ?Mr. Dooman . I t h i n k t h a t w o u l d b e a f a i r s t a t e m e n t t o
x o 8 The Enemy at His Back
S e n a t o r S m i t h . W h a t p o s i t i o n i s h e i n n o w ?
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Mr. Dooman . Ib e l i e v e h e i s i n Y u g o s l a v i a a s c o u n s e l o r o f
t h e E m b a s s y , I b e l i e v e .Mr. M o rr i s . W h a t w a s h i s p o s i t i o n a t t h a t t i m e ?Mr. Dooman . H e h a d j u s t r e t u r n e d f r o m t h e F a r E a s t a n d
was assig ned as deputy to Mr . V i n c e n t i n t h e F a r E a s t
Subcomm ittee of S WINK .
N o w , s u b s e q u e n t l y - a n d t h i s i s h e a r s a y - t h e p e o p l e w h o
h a v e b e e n b u s y o n J a p a n e s e a f f a i r s , J a p a n e s e p o l i c i e s , i n
add iti on to those I have named would incl ude Mr . J o h n
A l l i s o n , a n d - w h a t i s h i s n a m e n o w - a n e c o n o m i s t , B a r n e t t .
I d on ' t k n o w w ha t h i s f i r s t n a m e i s . ( R o be r t ? ) B a r n e t t .
I t h i n k t h o s e a r e t h e p r i n c i p a l o n e s .
S e n a t o r S m i t h . W e l l , n o w, i s t h e r e a n y i n d i c a t i o n o f a n y a c -
t i v i t y b y t h e t o p t w o m e n y o u m e n t i o n e d i n t h e f u r t h e r a n c e
o f t h i s p o l i c y , M r . Byrnes or Mr . A c h e s o n ? I s t h e r e a n y
O k i n a w a - S u z u k i - E u g e n e D o o m a n T e s t i f i e s l o g
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a d o z e n . A n d y o u c a n f i n d s o m e e x p e r t s w h i c h w i l l s u p -
p or t a n y p oi n t o f v i e w t h a t y o u c a re t o h a v e . A n d I , m y -
s e l f , d o n o t g o a l o n g w i t h w h a t w e h a v e j u s t h e a r d . I
p r e f e r t o b e g u i d e d b y e x p e r t s w h o t h i n k m o r e a l o n g m y
p o i n t o f v i e w . . .
This brings a thought to mind . Since Mr . Acheson,
according to this testim ony, preferred to be guided
b y e x p e r t s w h o t h o u g h t a s h e d i d , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g
that du rin g the Korean War he rejected the adv ice
o f m i l i t a r y e x p e r t s w h o s a i d t h a t t h e s t r a t e g i c c i t y o f
Rashin could be bombed without hitting Red territory )
And it was not bomb ed u nti l G eneral MacArthur won
the argum ent a year or two lat er .
x i o The Enemy at His Back
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Mr . M o r r i s . . . . I a l s o o f f e r y o u j u s t b y wa y o f a s s i s t a n c e
in con nection wi th that extract f rom Mr . L a t t i m o r e ' s
S o l u t i o n i n A s i a t h a t m a y a i d y o u i n a n s w e r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n
I h a v e j u s t p u t t o y o u .
Mr . Dooman . Here is a v ery remin iscent p hrase . . .
( r e a d i n g )
Washington is full of experts who will tell you that
the Japanese are mys terious, fanatical, and not to be
understood by any ordinary use of the intellect . The
same experts are also addicted to citing bits of lore
which, they tell you condescendingly, explain why the
J a p a n e s e a l w a y s d o t h i s o r n e v e r d o t h a t .
Here is an example of the attempts on the part of Dr .
Lattimore to put into rid icule people who did not agree
O k i n a w a - S u z u k i - E u g e n e D oo m a n T e s t i f i e s III
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Perhaps t h a t i s a l i t t l e d u l l r e a d i n g , bu t what
Lattim ore's s ugg esti ons woul d have meant to Japan is
VERY clear in 1 956 1 American Korean W ar pri soners
held in Red China have been barbarically and shame-
f u l l y u s e d a s p o l i t i c a l h o s t a g e s t o g r e a t a d v a n t a g e t o
the Co mm un is ts . If the Japanese Emperor had been
held in Red China as a hostage, the demand s Russ ia
and the Chinese Reds could have made on Japan would
have been end less !Mr . Dooman now begins to tell of the important
part the status of Emperor Hirohito played, and then
goes into the extraord inary s tory of " premature"
r e f e r re d t o b r i e f l y i n t h i s c h a p t e r .
112 The Enemy at His Back
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as Prime Minister and there was a reconstitution of the
Gov ernment at the head of which was Admiral Suz uki,
who was then Chamberlai n t o the Emperor and who had
been throughout his career a moderate . He (Col . J o h n s o n )
took that as a very clear signal that the Japanese were
r e a d y t o s u r r e n d e r, r e a d y t o t a l k a b o u t t h i s m a t t e r .
Furthermore, we had the advantage of reading messages
between the Japanese Governm ent an d their Ambas sad or
i n M o s c o w , a n d i t w a s c l e a r f r o m t h e s e a n d o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n s
t h a t t h e J a p a n e s e w e r e r e a d y t o s u r r e n d e r i f o n l y i t w e r e
made clear that this trend of opinion that had been de-
v e l o p e d b y t h e l e f t i s t p r e s s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , n a m e l y ,
that the Emperor would be tried as a war crim inal and
the monarchial system disestablished, it was made clear
t h a t t h o s e w e r e n o t p o l i c i e s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
O k i n a w a - S u z u k i - E u g e n e D o o m a n T e s t i f i e s 1 1 1 3
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h a v e b e e n a c c o m p l i s h e d a n d t h e r e h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d
b e y o n d d o u b t a p e a c e f u l l y i n c l i n e d , r e s p o n s i b l e g o v e r n -
m e n t o f a c h a r a c t e r r e p re s e n t a t i v e o f t h e J a p a n e s e p e o p l e .
T h i s m a y i n c l u d e a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m o n a r c h y u n d e r t h e
p r e s e n t d y n a s t y i f t h e p e a c e - l o v i n g n a t i o n s c a n b e c o n -
v i n c e d o f t h e g e n u i n e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s u c h a g o v e r n -
ment to f ollow p olicies of peace which will render
i m p o s s i b l e t h e f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a g g re s s i v e m i l i t a -
r i s m i n J a p a n .
(Note : P a r a g r a p h 1 2 w a s r e w r i t t e n a t P o t s d a m t o r e a d
a s f o l l o ws :
T h e o c c u p y i n g f o r c e s o f t h e A l l i e s s h a l l b e w i t h d r a w n
f r o m J a p a n a s s o o n a s t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s h a v e b e e n a c -
c o m p l i s h e d a n d t h e r e h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d i n a c c o r d a n c e
w i t h t h e f r e e l y e x p r e s s e d w i l l o f t h e J a p a n e s e p e o p l e a
D e c a d e o f
A m e r i c a n
F o r e i g n
P o l i c y p . 5 0
114 The Enemy a t H i s B a c k
729 Mr . D o om a n . I was not present at the meetin g bu t the
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w h o l e i d e a o f a l l o w i n g t h e m o n a r c h y t o r e m a i n w a s d i s -
t a s t e f u l .
Mr . M o r r i s . T o Mess rs . Acheson and MacLeish?
Mr . D o om a n . Yes .
Mr . S o u r w i n e . Mr . Dooman . i f y o u w e r e n o t p r e s e n t a t
t h e m e e t i n g , I t h i n k y o u o u g h t t o e x p l a i n h o w y o u k n e w
w h a t t o o k p l a c e .
Mr . D o o m a n . This was im mediately told to me by Mr
G r e w a f t e r t h e m e e t i n g .
Mr . S o u r w i n e . W h a t y o u a r e d e s c r i b i n g, t h e n , i s M r . G r e w ' s
d e s c r i p t i o n o f w h a t t o o k p l a c e a t t h e m e e t i n g ?
Mr . D o o m a n . T h a t i s c o r r e c t . Mr . G r e w s a i d t h a t t h i s
c o m m i t t e e w a s , a f t e r a l l , a d v i s o r y t o h i m , a n d t h a t h e
w a s u l t i m a t e l y r e s p o n s i b l e , a n d t h a t h e w o u l d t a k e t h e
O k i n a w a - S u z u k i - E u g e n e D oo m a n T e s t i f i e s 115
Mr. F o r r e s t a l r e a d i t o v e r a n d h e a g r e e d . Mr . McCloy
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a g r e e d a l s o .
T h e C h a i r m a n . A g r e e d , o r a p p r o v e d ?
Mr . D o o m a n . Approved. Mr . Elmer Davis reacted very
v i o l e n t l y a n d w ou l d h a v e n o n e o f i t .
Mr . M o r r i s . W h a t p o s i t i o n d i d h e h o l d a t t h i s t i m e ?
Mr . D o om a n . H e w a s , a s I s a i d , D i r e c t o r of t h e O f f i c e o f
War Informat ion . V a r i o u s o t h e r o f f i c e rs a p p r ov e d o f i t , b u t
t h e r e w a s a f e e l i n g t h a t t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h a t d o c u m e n t -
Mr . M o r r i s . V i n c e n t w a s n o t p r e s e n t ?
Mr . D o o m a n . No . A s a m a t t e r o f f a c t , i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h i s
was restricted to a very sm all nu mber of people, those
p e o pl e t h a t I h a v e j u s t i n d i c a t e d .
Mr . S o u r w i n e . Y o uw e r e pr e s e n t a t t h i s c o n f e r e n c e ?
Mr . D o o m a n . I w a s p r e s e n t .
Mr . S o u r wi n e . When yo u s peak of Mr
7 3 0
116 The Enem y at His Back
"premature" di d n o t c o n v i n c e t h e S e c r e t a r y of War
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C u r r e n t
2 2 5
b e c a u s e h e i m m e d i a t e l y r e q u e s t e d t h e O p e r a t i o n s P l a n s
D i v i s i o n o f t h e W a r D e p a r t m e n t t o p r e p a r e t w o s t u d i e s
o n t h e s u b j e c t w h i c h t h e y d i d :
I n t h e f i r s t o f t h e s e t h e O P D c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e e n e m y ' s
p r o t ra c t e d r e s i s t a n c e w a s b a s e d o n t h e h o p e o f o bt a i n i n g
a c o n d i t i o n a l s u r r en d e r , a n d i n t h e s e c o n d , t h a t a p u b l i c
d e c l a r a t i o n o f w a r a i m s , a m o u n t i n g t o a d e f i n i t i o n o f
u n c o n d i t i o n a l s u rr en de r, w o u ld b e ad v i s a bl e a s a m e a n s
o f " p o l i t i c a l a n d ps y c ho lo gi c a l p re s s u r e" s u p pl em e n t i n g
m i l i t a r y p r e p a r a t i o n s . A m o n t h o r s o l a t e r ( J u l y 1 2 ) t h e
OPD recomm end ed h o l di n g t o t h e i n v a s i o n pl a n s , b u t
a d d ed : " T h e r e i s m u c h t o b e ga i n e d by d e f i n i n g , a s c o m -
p l e t e l y a s p o s s i b l e , t h e d e t a i l e d U . S . w a r a i m s i n J a p a n . "
Okinawa- Su zuki -Eugene Doom an Test if ies 117
s t r o n g l y a g a i n s t any p o s i t i o n o r d e c i s i o n t a k e n b y t h i s
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Gov ernment which woul d enable the mon archy to remain
i n Japan .
(Note : Lattim ore drew up a memorandum for President IPR 9- 3086
Truman dated June io, 1 9 4 5 , and a special memorandum I P R 1 0 - 3 3 8 7 -
f o r h i s i n t e r v i e w w i t h t h e P r e s i d en t d a t e d J u l y 3 , 1 9 4 5 . ) 9
Mr . S o u rw i n e . What do you mean "inf ormation was avail-
a b l e i n t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t , " M r . Dooman? . . .
Mr . Dooman . It was Mr . G rew who told me
. . .
Now, 7 3 1Mr. Lattimore had been usi ng every opportun ity f o r a
p e r i o d o f a y e a r o r m o r e t o p r o p o u n d t h e d o c t r i n e t h a t
the Japanese people would overturn the monarchy and
t h a t t h e r e w e r e a g r ou p o f p e o p le i n t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t ,
F a s c i s t s a n d r e a c t i o n a r i e s , w h o w e r e g o i n g t o k e e p t h e
E m p e r o r i n p o w e r a g a i n s t t h e w i l l o f t h e J a p a n e s e p e o p l e .
1 1 1 8 The Enemy at His Back
" W h y , " h e a s k s , " w a s t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f J u l y 2 6 t h
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`prematu re' on May 29th? Upon what d i d M a r s h a l l
b a s e h i s d e c i s i o n ? "
G r e w 1 4 2 4 Mr. G r e w w r o t e t h a t t h e r e a s o n g i v e n w a s b e c a u s e
t h e b a t t l e f o r O k i n a w a w a s s t i l l g o i n g o n a n d i t might
a p p e a r t o t h e e n e m y a s a s h o w o f w e a k n e s s i f w e p r e -
s e n t e d t h e m w i t h a p e a c e o v e r t u r e . B u t , h e a ls o p o i n t s
o u t t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n s h a d a l r e a d y r e a c h e d t h e "mop-
p i n g u p " s t a g e s o n O k i n a w a b y t h a t t i m e .
I P R 7 4 6 W e n o w c o m e t o a p a s s a g e i n t h e t e s t i m o n y w h i c h
presents a good example of how American S t a t e D e -
p a r t m e n t o f f i c e r s w o r k e d c l o s e l y w i t h t h e C h i n e s e a n d
Japanese Commun ists , s ome of whom were employed
by our v ery "hush, hush" and "cloak and dagger"
O k i n a w a - S u z u k i - E u g e n e D oo m a n T e s t i f i e s 119
nam ed John K . E m m e r s o n , w h o , b e f o r e t h e w a r , h a d b e e n
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one of my su bord inates at the American Embas sy i n
Tokyo . I understood that he had been sent to Yenan .
Yenan i n China then was the capital of the Chinese
Communists . There were present at that time in Yenan
a Nosaka, the leading Japanese Communist, and other
leading Communis ts .
Mr . M o r r i s . I s Nosaka the same as Susu mo Okano, head
o f t h e J a p a n e s e C o m m u n i s t P a r t y ?
Mr . D o o m a n . I b e li e v e t h e l a t t e r i s a p s e u d o n y m . I b e li e v e
that Emm erson had been sent to Yenan to st udy methods
u s e d b y t h e J a p a n e s e C o m m u n i s t s i n Y e n a n i n i n d o c t r i n a t -
i n g J a p a n e s e p r i s o n e r s o f w a r t a k e n b y t h e C h i n e s e . A s
I s a i d , h e r e t u r n e d t o W a s h i n g t o n i n a b o u t M a y o f 1 9 4 5.
T h e C h a i r m a n . Who did ?
Mr . D o o m a n . Emm erson . H e b r o u g ht b a c k a r e p o r t d e s c r i b-
120 The Enem y at His Back
before a Hous e committee investigating t h e Katy n
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F o r e s t m a s s a c r e i n P o l a n d , h e b r u s h e d a s i d e a l l q u e r i e s
K a t y n 1 9 9 3concerning Polish Communi sts working for OWI in
the foll owing m anner : " I f I h a d t a k e n s e r i o u s l y a l l o f
the sto ries about agents of the Com mu nis ts in the
Office of War Inform ation I would have had nothing
e l s e t o d o b u t t o f i r e t h e w h o l e s t a f f . "
I p R 3 Mr . M o rr i s . Mr . C h a i r m a n , w e h a v e h a d J o h n K . F a i r ba n k ' s
P . 7 5 , a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e I n s t i t u t e o f P a c i f i c R e l a t i o n s s e t f o r t h
i n t h e r e c o r d a t g r e a t d e t a i l .
W e h a v e a l s o h a d t e s t i m o n y o n t h e p a r t o f t h r e e w i t n e s s e s
i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h h i s a s s o c i a t i o n i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e
Communist Party .
I am asking Mr . D o o m a n i f h e h a d e n c o u n t e r e d a t a l l M r .
Okinawa-Suzuki-Eugene Dooman Testifies 121
penciled these items referring to the Emperor . However,
they would always appear either overtly or covertly in the
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next program that would be presented .
There was, in other words, a persistent effort on the
part of the Office of War Information to get our approval
toward psychological warfare directed at the relationship
between the Japanese people and the Emperor .
Mr. Morris . Have we neglected anything that we should 754
know, Mr. Dooman? . . .
Mr. Dooman . Well, my purpose, Mr. Morris, has not been
to give you any evidence as to whether this, that, or the
other man was a Communist or not, because I am in noposition to give you any such evidence.
My purpose in testifying here was to indicate in general
Chapter V
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THE "RESIGNATION" OF MR. GREW
THEspring of 1945 was the year and the season which
sealed the fate of Undersecretary of State Joseph C .
Grew and the group of "reactionaries" working under
him. On June loth, as you have read in Mr . Dooman's
testimony in the previous chapter, the CommunistPolitical Association transmitted the "Party directive"
to the CPA and to the readers of Political Affairs (July
1 945), that all people of Grew's stripe be eliminated
from the Department of State . This action was pro-
The "Resignation" of Mr. Grew 123
conspiracy going on around him . In his eyes, all men
were honest, if somewhat blind to facts. Being unable
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to realize he had enemies, there was of course noprogram on his part to outwit them. And so, in thespring of
1945, he made a number of serious errorsin the view of his alert antagonists. In his book,"Turbulent Era" he naively writes of these "errors"
without any realization of their connection with his
"resignation" from State . The first was the incident of
May 19, 1 945 .
On that date he spent a restless and sleepless night,
his mind in a turmoil of deep concern for the nation
in the light of our "floundering" diplomacy . In des-
peration he arose at five in the morning, determined
that, if he put his worries on paper, it would calm his
124 The Enemy at His Back
The tragedy is that this analysis came in 1945 . I t
should have come as a commentary on the Burns'
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estimate in 1942 and policy should have "stiffened"
thenl Even in 1945, however, much could still have
been done .
see Chap. I I Without error, Grew had predicted the outcome of
the war in Europe and the fate of China and Korea ;
as of this writing, Japan is beginning to slip down the
ways into "Russia's orbit." Mr. Grew gives us nohint that he had read the edict of Georgi Dimitrov
and the Communists' plans for Asia, but he saw and
read the signs. When he advocated that "We shalltherefore do well to keep up our fighting strength,"
Grew 1445 he was of course completely unaware that at that very
time, two weeks after the fall of Germany, the Com-
The "Resignation" o f Mr. Grew 125
said because his own thoughts had been following the Grew r43r
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same line . "
Error No. 3 was perhaps the most "unforgivable"
of them all . He unknowingly urged the arrest of two
men important to the Communist Party, John S .
Service and Andrew Roth . Service, working in the
Far East Division, had recently returned from China
and had been suspected for some time for following
the Communist "line." In this event he had been
discovered giving secret documents to the editor of
the magazine, "Amerasia ." Roth was a lieutenant in
the Naval Intelligence Reserve who was guilty of the
same offense, and was at that very moment in theprocess of writing his book in which Mr . Grew came
Grew 1452-3
126 The Enemy at His Back
been held up allegedly by the White House . General
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Holmes and Mr. Grew immediately went to see Presi-dent Truman to find out why. But the Chief Executive
knew nothing about it. In fact he was so outraged
that Mr. Grew writes, "I have seldom seen a man
more angry . . . The President had the telephone off
the hook while we were still with him and he told
Justice (Department) in no uncertain terms that he
wished nothing whatever to interfere with the prompt
and thorough prosecution of the cases . "
Mr. Grew later discovered that the "hold-up" wascaused by the same policy that exists even today .
It seems the President was having "current conversa-
tions with the Soviet Government," and the inevitable
The "Resignation" o f Mr. Grew 127
to the United States as to preclude any attempt by the
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United States Government to obtain Soviet agreement to
certain desirable political objectives in the Far East prior
to such entry?
2 . Should the Yalta decision in regard to Soviet political
desires in the Far East be reconsidered or carried into effect
in whole or in part?
3. Should a Soviet demand, if made, for participationin the military occupation of the Japanese home islands
be granted or would such occupation adversely affect our
long term policy for the future treatment of Japan?
In the opinion of the Department of State it would be
desirable politically to obtain from the Soviet Government
the following commitments and clarifications regarding
the Far East prior to any implementation on our part of
Grew 1456-7
Pentagon
128 The Enemy at His Back
The reply to this from the War Department con-
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Papers 71
Grew 1458-9
curred in by Secretary Forrestal (Navy) was dated
May 21, 1945 and was over Stimson's name . It wasa sharp reply to the man who would suggest that
we obtain "certain desirable political objectives" from
Soviet Russia . And it is astonishing, to say the least,
in the light of American military tradition . The memo
is long, but every sentence is so provocative, I can't
feel justified in omitting any of them:
i . The War Department considers that Russian entryinto the war against- Japan will be decided by the Russian
on their own military and political basis with little regard
to any political action taken by the United States . The
The "Resignation" of Mr . G r e w 129
then seize the objectives they desire at a cost to them
relatively much less than would be occasioned by their entry
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into the war at an early date.
From the foregoing, it appears we can bring little, if
any, military leverage to bear on the Russians in so far
as the Far East is concerned, unless we choose to use force.
From the military point of view it would be desirable to
have a complete understanding and agreement with theRussians concerning the Far East . If it is believed that
the reconsideration of the Yalta agreement will assist such
a complete understanding and agreement, then the WarDepartment would favor it, but it is not believed that
much good will come of a rediscussion at this time.
3. With regard to Soviet participation in the military
occupation of the Japanese homeland, the War Depart-
ment considers this to be a matter for political. decision .
130 The Enemy at His Back
must be found to persuade the Russians to give their agree-
ment to the four points listed in the State Department
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Grew 1406-7
memorandum .
So you see, away back in 1945, the United States
policy was "fear" of Russian might . And at that time
we had the largest navy, and the greatest standing
army in the world
Our obstreperous "boy," Mr. Grew, got his feet in
even more hot water when, as Acting Secretary of
State, he dipped his fingers into the propaganda
machine and gummed up the works for a short minute
He emphasized in his memoirs that throughout the
war he took the position "that propaganda by any
branch of our Government against the Emperor of
The "Resignation" o f Mr. Grew 131
To Samuel I . Rosenman, June 16, 1945 Grew 1438
The campaign in Okinawa is likely to be finished in the
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not distant future and I am wondering whether, with the
announcement of its fall, a suitable opportunity would not
be presented for us to make some sort of public statement
again calling upon the Japanese to surrender . . . morelives of Americans may ultimately be saved .
But this, too, was to meet defeat. The President, on
June 18, 1945, said ". . that while he liked the Grew 1437
idea he had decided to hold this up until it could be
discussed at the Big Three meeting." That same day
Truman held a briefing session with Stimson, For-
restal, McCloy and his joint Chiefs in preparation for
the Potsdam Conference. The Pentagon papers pub-
132 The Enemy at His Back
passed along to their "friends" in the State Depart-
ment and in the White House, who knew how to
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carry out the orders with great finesse .
The day after that, June 21, 1945, the battle fo
Okinawa ended. The total casualties were enormous andhorrible. But during the battle, in May and June, the
Japanese were trying to persuade the Russians to
USSBS help them negotiate for peace-first by way of theJapan's
Struggle toSoviet Ambassador to Japan, Malik, and then directl
End the War to Moscow. They were asking the Russians to tel7 the United States they wanted to surrender-an
certain of our officials knew this .
One might ask the question-why was Mr. Greallowed all this time to play "monkey wrench" wit
The "Resignation" of Mr. Grew 133
maneuver made easier by the advent of a new Presi-
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dent . As has been the custom in the past all members
of the Cabinet submitted their resignations when
President Truman took office . However, Mr. Truman
did not immediately accept the resignations, asking
the Secretaries to stay on until he got his feet on the
ground .
It was on July 1st when James F . Byrnes was
appointed to be Secretary of State in place of Stet-
tinius. Grew immediately informed President Truman
that he was going to tell Byrnes that he could take
advantage of his resignation any time he wanted to,
but- " .. .
I would certainly not let anyone down,
and if Mr. Byrnes should wish me to stay at least for Grew rg21
134 The Enemy at His Back
This was the "writing on the wall" that even a stub-
born "blindness" should have seen .
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The team of Grew, Ballantine and Dooman found
itself isolated from their usual contacts and con-
ferences, and the policies being "put forward" were
entirely against its views and better judgment . It
soon became apparent to them that their usefulness
to the government had come to an end . After Mr . Grew
left the Department on August 16th, the others,
Dooman and Ballantine, soon followed .
A number of people in Washington at that time
understood the true nature of this triple "resigning"
for what it was, but, of the three, only Mr . Dooman
realized he was, in fact, fired .
The "Resignation" of Mr. Grew 135
"myth" of August 1945 has been confirmed by events .
Mr. Grew had to be fired . Being instinctively and
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automatically a loyal American and not understanding
our "New Look" toward Russia, he was messing things
up!
The story of Joseph Grew is important because it
explains a part of the reason why our foreign policies
since 1933 have consistently resulted in disaster, and
also, how the enemy maneuvers. That Mr. Grew did
not-fully sense the betrayal of himself and the United
States was a powerful weapon in the hands of the
leftists and Communists then working in our State
Department and White House. Strangely enough, Mr .
Churchill, in "Triumph and Tragedy" delicately hints
136 The Enemy at His Back
friendly appeasement in any form is regarded as a clear
sign of weakness and an invitation to further demands or
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encroachments . "
But let us see how "blind" Mr . Grew himself was .
Did he not know that the American people wereblind because of the misinformation they were receiv-
ing from their leaders who "handled" the press and
radio channels? If he had stopped to analyse the ma-
nipulations of those "elements in government," wouldhe still believe that they were "woefully blind"?
Had Mr. Grew read further than the doctrines of
the Communist leaders, and delved into the vol-uminous hearings of the House Un-American Activities
Chapter VI
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POTSDAM AND THE ADVISERS
The Potsdam Conference .
Forrestal makes a last desperate effort.
The Japanese are also desperate.
Military Intelligence makes a report on Red China.
Surrender is set for Nov. z5, z946 .
U . S . rejects aid in the Pacific from other allies.
The Potsdam Proclamation .
138 The Enemy at His Back
not even the shadow of a shadow for such excuses at
Potsdam in July 1945.
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Why did the new President and his aides rush to
Potsdam to confirm the top-secret agreements made
at Yalta? The Soviets had already been breaking the
Yalta agreements concerning Poland and Rumania
with mass murder and the spread of terror . Stettinius
mentioned this when he wrote that " . . . the military
s t e t 97 leaders and I discussed the failure of the Soviet Union
to abide by the Yalta agreement on the Balkans . "
But this apparently did not break our faith in Russia
as our "real friend ." However, our officials had even
more evidence of Russia's contempt for commondecency . They were well acquainted with the inexcus-
Potsdam and the Advisers 139
Conference : Undersecretary of State Grew, Secretary
of the Navy James Forrestal, General of the Army
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Douglas MacArthur, and Admiral of the Fleet Chester
Nimitz .
Grew was obviously in the dog house and had been
for some time . But his absence from Potsdam could
be rationalized by the fact that he was obliged to be
Acting Secretary of State while Byrnes was away at
the Conference . As for MacArthur and Nimitz, themajor conferences were only open to the "European
brass," although Wedemeyer, Chennault and Stilwell
did manage to rate the "bush league" Cairo Conference
in 1943, and Wedemeyer was at the Casablanca meet-
ing. Years later, MacArthur's startled "I?," when
140 The Enemy at His Back
But the day he arrived the conference came to an
end and the damage was done.
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Forrestal was not alone in his attempt to bring the
Japanese cry for peace to official attention . Senator
Homer Capehart, Republican from Indiana, had come
across the information and publicly announced on
June 28th that the Japanese had made peace offers
"within recent weeks which would be acceptable to
me personally." The following day Mr. Grew madea short denial. But apparently the Senator's statement
to the press attracted public interest which the short
denial did not pacify. On July loth, Mr. Grew pre-
sented a long and detailed statement to the press
which, in view of his past actions and convictions
Potsdam and the Advisers 141
this view. "He insisted that she still had a great army
and was full of fight . Likewise, he made it clear that
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he had little faith in the Japanese overtures for peace . "
(Emphasis mine .)
General Kenney later said he didn't give up hope
and made a bee-line to the White House to talk with
President Roosevelt . After he'd told his story he met talk with
with another exasperating stone wall . The President,Kenney
he said, merely grinned at him and replied, "That is
not what my Chiefs of Staff tell me ."
On July 12, 1945, five days before the Potsdam
Conference opened, the Emperor of Japan, frustrated
by the unproductive talks between Japanese Ambas-
sador to the Kremlin and the Soviet officials, ordered 189 a l s o
142 The Enemy at His Back
for the trial of the Emperor as a war criminal . Th
Daily Worker, which heretofore had made few men-
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tions of Japan, and none of the Emperor, now went
"all out . "
Increasing alarm filled the minds of many-thos
who were trying to get Russia into the war before it
was too late, and those on the opposite side of th
fence who dreaded the consequences if this were to
occur. It was early in July when General of the Army,
Dwight D. Eisenhower, went to Antwerp to meetPresident Truman and his party on their arrival fo
the Potsdam Conference. In his book, "Crusade in
Europe," written some years later, General Eisenhower
wrote
Potsdam and the Advisers 143
his opinion, indispensable, and he did not think that we
should go so far as to beg them to come in . While the
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cost of defeating Japan would be greater without Russian
aid, there was no question in King's mind but that we .
could handle it alone . He thought the realization of this ;
fact should greatly strengthen the President's hand irk
the forthcoming conference in Potsdam.
Also the politically naive Mr. Stettinius gave the
proposal an incredulous glance when he wrote
Even as late as the Potsdam Conference, after the first
atomic bomb had exploded at Los Alamos (Note : he means
Alamogordo) on July 16th, the military insisted that the
Soviet Union had to be brought into the Far Eastern war .
S t e t 9 8
144 The Enemy at His Back
This was a "dangerous" statement because, as we all
know, the policy of "certain elements" at that time
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2315
2317
and up to the Korean war, was that the Red Chinese
were "agrarian reformers ." Also, it was in direct con-
tradiction to the following dispatch by an American
official in Chungking which was quoted in the intelli-
gence report "it is unfortunate that the present day
Communist Party (in China) bears that name ." But
the intelligence report goes on to quote Mao Tse-tung,
Chinese Communist leader, in his booklet, "New De-
mocracy" (Jan . 1 9 4 1 ) , who was more candid than the
American official when he said, "We (Chinese) cannot
separate ourselves from the assistance of the Soviet
Union. "
Potsdam and the Advisers 145
marked "secret." i i o copies of the summary were
made and were distributed in July to ig government
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agencies and overseas military theaters-15 went to
the White House and three to the State Department,
Shortly after it was distributed, it was recalled .
The fat got thrown into the fire when on August 5,
1949, Secretary of State Acheson made public the
famous one-sided White Paper on China. Everyonewho had been following our "blunders" in China with
real anxiety, read the White Paper carefully, andCongressman Walter H. Judd, Republican of Minne-sota, one of the few who had knowledge of the intelli-
gence report, noticed it was never mentioned in the
White Paper. He gave out a press release in which he
146 The Enemy at His Back
cerning Japan. It's an easy guess that President Tru
man was never shown either the summary or threport of our Military Intelligence Service
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. I was n
surprised either when Admiral Leahy told me that h
had never seen or heard of these documents until h
had read the manuscript of this book! The Admiral'
office was in the White House and 15 copies were sen
there .
I am curious to know what went on in HarrTruman's mind at that time. I wrote him a letter an
asked him, but he never replied . Neither do his "Mem
oirs" answer the question I put to him . He had beePresident only three months, a job for which he hahad no schooling whatever . Only a year before, he'
Potsdam and the Advisers 147
ship. The President was accompanied by his newSecretary of State, Jimmy Byrnes, who had been with
Roosevelt at Yalta even though he had played only a
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small part in the negotiations. Mr. Byrnes gave agraphic picture of the importance of the advisers in
his book . He said that they had brought along memo-
randa covering almost every subject that might bebrought up. "We worked hard on board the Augusta. . . Every morning throughout the trip, Ben Cohen, Byrnes 67H. Freeman (Doc) Matthews, and Charles E . (Chip)
Bohlen would meet with me in my cabin to consider
these papers . Anew Secretary of State could not have
asked for a finer trio of advisers ."
Ben Cohen, Mr . Byrnes wrote, " . . . has had ahand in important issues ever since the early days of
148 The Enemy at His Back
Information, headed by Elmer Davis, backed up by a
certain element in the State Department were advising
him that the Japanese Emperor system should be
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IPR 1o-3386 abolished. Owen Lattimore even paid a call on the
President to convince him of this view . General Mar-
shall insisted that it was necessary for Russia to enter
the war in order to "save millions of American lives ."
Surely the drafted paper, which Truman had dis-
cussed with Mr. Grew and others, must have pre-
sented a puzzle to him while the Army continued with
plans for the invasion of the Japanese home islands .
This was the question I asked him in my letter . I
wanted to know how he reconciled all this conflicting
information and advice .
Meanwhile, Russia had not waited until the fall of
Potsdam and the Advisers 149
And now we come to a very curious incident occurring
at Potsdam. A year before, at the Quebec meeting in
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September 1944, it was decided that Russia would
enter the war against Japan (as Stalin had promised at
Moscow and Teheran) go days after the surrender of
Germany and that the target date for Japan's sur-
render should be 18 months, or a year and 6 months
from the fall of Germany . This was arrived at in the
following manner . "While the British Chiefs of Staff
proposed an estimate of two years after the defeat of
Germany, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who had been
using a one year period, recommended as a compro-
mise an 18-month period, `to be adjusted periodically
to conform to the course of the war .'"
Pentagon
papers 31
150 The Enemy at His Back
But other memoirs proved the typesetter not in error .
To some of those who witnessed it, this decision
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must have seemed most unrealistic . But what was the
reaction of President Truman? One of those present at
Potsdam has told that, on the day Stalin arrived and
had his first meeting with the President, the former
told the President that he had received a message from
the Japanese Government expressing an intention to
send Prince Konoye to Moscow to negotiate for sur-
render. According to the story, Truman asked, "What
are you going to do about it?" And Stalin's reply was-
with a laugh and a shrug, "Nothing . "
Nowhere in the history book do I find any questions
from Truman on the logic of the target date for Nov .
Potsdam and the Advisers 151
July 26, 1945 Tokyo Radio Suggests Japan Would Accept
Easier Peace Terms
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On August 4, 1945 a story appearing on page 4 of
the Washington Evening Star gave one of the most
important news reports of that day, two days before
the atomic bomb was dropped and ten days before the
actual surrender :
AP. with the US 3rd Army in Germany, Aug . 4-Herbert von Dircksen, former German ambassador to Tokyo
and London, said yesterday the German Government was
advised last January that Japan was forming a new govern-
ment, with Baron Kantaro Suzuki as Premier to try to
152 The Enemy at His Back
Perhaps no paper in the United States carries as
much influence as the New York Times . Its columnist,
Arthur Krock, had won the respect and confidence of
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thousands of people across the country . And yet we find
the Times' editorials as well as Mr . Krock parroting
the Communist line. Mr. Krock wrote on July 5,1 945
"Unless the imperial Japanese power is removed-even
though it is wielded from behind the throne-no peace
with Japan will be more than an armistice . "
Perhaps Mr. Krock was only following the editorialpolicy of his employers, for a few days later, on July
14, 1945, the Times' editorial proposed that the Em-
Potsdam and the Advisers 153
From his office in Washington, Secretary of the
Navy Forrestal kept a close watch on both Potsdam
and the war in the Pacific . His diaries of those days
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tell many unusual stories notwithstanding the fact that
they were carefully "edited" and much was deleted by
the Truman administration after Forrestal's death,
and, notwithstanding the fact that one of the compilers
of "The Forrestal Diaries" was Walter Millis. Millis'
political philosophy can be summed up by the fact that
the St. Louis Post Dispatch reviewed an article he
wrote for the Saturday Review in which he strongly
attacked the Loyalty Security program and called the
FBI "secret political police ." (For instance, in the
"Diaries" the "premature" meeting of May 29th in the
Pentagon was mentioned, but NOT the "premature"
St. Louis
Post Dis-
patch Sept .
20, 1955
154 The Enemy at His Back
USSBS the matter directly to the Vice Commissar for Foreig
Japan's Affairs in Moscow. Russia asked for more details conStruggle to
End the War cerning the mission and Sato was directed to explai
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p•7 the mission as follows : . . . ( 2) to ask Russia to in
tercede with the United States in order to stop the war
The Soviets replied on 13 July that since Stalin an
Molotov were just leaving for Potsdam no answe
could be given until their return to Moscow . On 1
July meanwhile the Emperor had called in Konoye an
secretly instructed him to accept any terms he coul
get and to wire these terms direct to the Emperor
Konoye also testified that when Sato was sounding out
the Russians he reported the Russians would not con
sider a peace role unless the terms were unconditional
surrender, and that this reply had a great influence on
Potsdam and the Advisers 155
The elderly and trusting Mr . Stimson writes that he
was informed that the grand total of armed mightnecessary for the invasion would be 5,000,000 men, ex- stimson 619
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clusive of those not directly concerned . They also in-
formed him that the casualties expected would be over
a million. These figures were presented to the Secre-
tary of War by the military and the Interim Committee
on the atom bomb .
This estimate was given by General Marshall, and
those who went along with him cited the awful toll
of dead and wounded at Okinawa as an example ofwhat could be expected in Japan . The figure of five
million men with one million casualties, or 20 percent,
in a battle with an already defeated enemy is hard to
15 6 The Enemy at His Back
be a major power in the Pacific-and they still weren't
in the Pacific war 1
So anxious were Russia's "real friends" in Wash-
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ington to share with them "all that we have," ourfighting forces in the Pacific were beginning to feel
the pinch. Major General Courtney Whitney in his
Whitney 186 book, "MacArthur : His Rendezvous with History"
tells about a shocking incident . He wrote that when
the Japanese were putting up a desperate resistance on
Luzon and our boys were having a rough time of it,
General MacArthur received orders from Washingtonwhich "at this critical moment" upset MacArthur's
timetable . " . . . one hundred of his transport ships,"
General Whitney writes, "were to be withdrawn im-
Potsdam and the Advisers 157
Badger testified at the MacArthur hearings in 19951
that at the Cairo Conference in1943,
the British and
American Combined Chiefs of Staff discussed the sub-
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ject of whether there was a need for Russia's help in
the Pacific. He reminded the committee before which
he was appearing that the Teheran Conference was to
follow the Cairo meeting within a few days and that
"an immediate decision was necessary in order that
they might advise Mr. Stalin accordingly . "
Admiral Badger went on to explain that the Allied
agencies, after careful study of their evidence and
statistics, concluded that the U . S .S.R. was "so weak
logistically in the Far East" that they were almost
completely dependent for their supplies coming from
MacA 4-2730
158 The Enemy at His Back
July 18th he had received a request from Japan to
mediate. He explained that the proposals had been
"too vague" for him to give an affirmative answer
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He also added that on that very day, July 2 8th, he had
received another vague proposal and that he would
make the same reply .
Now we know from the United States StrategicBombing Survey reports that at the time of Potsdam
USSBS the Japanese were not at all "vague" but quite definite,
J t r u g g l epan's t oand definitely desperate in their "struggle to end the
End the War war." What is more, the United States was interceptingP. 7 all the Japanese messages between Moscow and Tokyo
Obviously Mr . Truman was not aware of this vitally
important information. Who kept this from him?But even without this information, what would the
Potsdam and the Advisers 159
sell the idea that its use would hasten the end of the
war. With a little pathos, Mr. Grew writes in his
memoirs that, when Byrnes became Secretary of State, Grew 1424
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he tried to see him to tell him how important andurgent the paper was. But Mr. Byrnes was too busypreparing for the coming conference . It was not until
the day before Byrnes left for Europe that Mr . Grewwas finally able to hand him the draft of the Procla-
mation. However it was not Byrnes who acted upon
the paper. Perhaps his advisers on whom he "reliedheavily" advised him against it .
But, even Mr. Stimson was unable to hang on to the
famous Paragraph 12 which provided for the retention
of the Emperor. In its final draft, the paragraph wasrewritten in vague language, by whom we don't know,
16o The Enemy at His Back
mation raises some questions . It had been constantly
repeated-and Mr . Grew made the statement in Wash-
ington on July loth-that Japan had never made
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Kase 2ro also
formal offers to surrender to our Government . So it was
ironic if not tragic that the Allies, not only knowing
Japan wanted to surrender but also what terms they
had been giving, never made an official offer to accept
surrender to their government. In view of our negoti-
ations and leniency with Italy, why didn't we do the
same with Japan? Neither the United States Govern-
ment nor the Allies jointly, ever sent a direct message
to a Japanese official saying in effect, "If you want to
surrender, here are our terms, among which you may
keep your Emperor." Mr. Kase reminds us that theProclamation sent to Japan by the United States, Great
Potsdam and the Advisers 161
to the surrender. Prime Minister Suzuki made a state- I a s e 2 1 1 ,
ment to the press that "it was the policy of the gov-
ernment to ignore the proclamation entirely." At least
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this was the English translation which the Tokyo radio
flashed to America. It has since been argued that this
was a wrong interpretation of the announcement, but
no one in America asked for an explanation nor left
any margin for error . On August 5th, 1945, the atomic
bomb was dropped into history and destroyed the city
of Hiroshima.
Chapter VII
THE ATOMICBOMB AND SURRENDER
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Why did we drop the atom bomb?Major Jordan opens a diplomatic suitcase.
Mr. Stimson is persuaded to change his mind.
Why we share the atom .
THE final acceptance of the Japanese surrender a
the dropping of the atom bombs were events so inte
twined that they must be told together . Of the tw
the atom bombs were of the greater consequenc
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender 163
in those final days listening to every word which re-
lated to the closing of the war .
But before we go into the great decision of those
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responsible, a picture of the surrounding conditions
must first be drawn. Two items found in the 1954
World Almanac should be inserted here and borne in
mind throughout the rest of the chapter . These items
are proof that the Russians were getting atomic in-formation from the very beginning of the experiments .
Dr. Klaus J . E . Fuchs, German-born atomic research World
physicist at Harwell, Eng ., pleaded guilty March 1 (1950), Almanac
to violating the Official Secrets Act and received 14 years954 P. 149
in prison. He had communicated valuable atomic informa-
164 The Enemy at His Back
him "expediency." And so at Potsdam Mr. Truman felt
he was honor bound to inform Stalin of the successful
experiment with the A bomb . He discussed the ways
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Churchill
T & T 669-70
and means with Mr. Churchill and finally decided to
break the news on July 24th, after a round table con-
ference. Winston Churchill in his last book, "Triumph
and Tragedy," relates this episode in great detail . I t i s
especially interesting because the P.M. appeared to
be highly puzzled by Stalin's reaction and, though his
book was published in 1953, after the trial of Klaus
Fuchs, he added no "hindsight" comment :
"Next day, July 24 . . . we all got up from the round table
. . . I saw the President go up to Stalin, and the two con-
versed alone with only their interpreters . . . What was
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender 165
our security agents immediately or we are headed for
a sticky wicket indeed!"
But neither Mr . Churchill nor Mr. Truman caught
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the dreadful significance of Stalin's indifference . (They
weren't even suspicious when Stalin arrived at Potsdam
a day late. The atomic bomb was tested at Alamogordo
July 16th, the same day the Conference was to have
begun. Did Stalin wait with his alleged "heart at-
tack" until he had learned if the test in New Mexico
was a success?) Had Churchill and Truman, on the
contrary, started an intensive investigation they would
have discovered not only Klaus Fuchs and the Rosen-
bergs, but perhaps it would have brought about the
removal of J . Robert Oppenheimer as a security risk
166 The Enemy at His Back
ment Board, and unofficial head of the atomic bomb
development, among others, was intent that Russia
should "share all that we have," regardless of our own
needs and those of our other allies . And at Fairbanks,
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Arnold 471 writes General "Hap" Arnold, "We gave them every-
thing it was possible to give them, even turning over to
them the houses of our own officers and enlisted men
and their families . . . They never gave us anythanks . . . "
Hopkins explained to Stalin in Moscow that al-
though the Lend-Lease Act clearly stated that it ap-
plied only to materials "useful in the process of the war
Sherwood . . . The United States Government, however, had in-
896terpreted this in its broadest sense and had included
in addition to munitions of war foodstuff and other
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender 167
To General Deane's dismay this proved to be true .
Although General Marshall cabled his approval of
Deane's stand, the order was immediately reversed in
a cable from Hopkins to Harriman "to attach no
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strings to our aid to Russia." From then on every-
thing from aluminum, dress goods, house paint, frying
pans and lipstick went to Russia unchallenged . A care-
ful reading of the stories of World War II leaves no
doubt that Hopkins wooed Russia on the allegedground that Soviet "favor" must be assured for the
future, regardless of the cost in goods, prestige, or our
own security .
It was Major Jordan's job to expedite Lend-Lease
going to Russia from Alaska . This necessitated his
Jordan
168 The Enemy at His Back
relating to the Aberdeen Proving Grounds, and folders
with naval shipping intelligence . He writes :
I distinctly remember five or six State Department folders,
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77-81
bound with stout rubber bands . Clipped to each was a tab.
The first read: "From Sayre." I took down the words be-cause it ran through my head that someone of that name had
recently been High Commissioner to the Philippines.
Then I copied the legend: "From Hiss." I had neverheard of Alger Hiss . . . A suitcase opened midway in the
search appeared to contain nothing but engineering and
scientific treatises . They bristled with formulae, calculations
and professional jargon. I was about to close the case and
pass on when my eye was caught by a specimen of station-
ery such as I had never before seen.
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender 169
excerpt ran thus : "-had a hell of a time getting these away Jordan 79from Groves ." (Jordan didn't know if the name was "Oscar"
or "Carrie . " )
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The name "Groves," Jordan explains, referred toMajor General Leslie R. Groves, commander of the
Manhattan Engineering District, later called the Man-
hattan Project. The Major rightly points out that Gen-
eral Groves was one of the few Washington high of-
ficials who thoroughly disliked the Russians .
Jordan continues :
. . . The first thing I had done, on finding the White House
note, was to flip over the page to look for a signature. I
penciled it on my envelope as "H.H." . . . It was to Jordan 8o
170 The Enemy at His Back
Although all of this was "Greek" to him, the Maj
felt it was of great importance to our war machine. T
awful realization came over him that what he h
found in the few "diplomatic" suitcases he had open
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was only a drop in the bucket . Every plane leaving f
the U.S . S .R. was literally loaded with such informatio
Jordan was a simple American businessman who h
no ideas of politics, spies and subversion, and h
naively thought someone ought to stop Harry Hopki
from giving maps of our scientific plants and our sci
entific secrets to the Russians . In January 1944made a trip to Washington to report his unusual a
alarming findings . In the Capital he met with a stran
and formidable reception) The juggernaut of con
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender 171
set out once again for Washington and Goliath . Heselected the Army Counter-Intelligence as one agency
which might listen . This time he struck pay dirt . They Jordan 194
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made an intensive investigation of his charges, and
presented a report dated March 28, 1944 . The report
strongly recommended further investigation and that
the State Department be contacted in order that "cor-
rective measures be taken . "
Jordan writes that "When the report and indorse-
ment arrived at the State Department, it was neces- Jordan 195-6
sary to make at least a show of activity . The matter
was assigned to Charles E . Bohlen . . ." Bohlen
handled the matter in a correct if not enthusiastic man-
ner. He called a proper meeting of the chiefs of all in-
172 The Enemy at His Back
The bloodcurdling debut of the atom bomb onJapanese cities will be a subject for heated discussions
for a long time to come . President Truman's decision
had been based on reports and recommendations from
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the scientists and the joint Chiefs of Staff . The resolve
could not have been his alone .
Those who defend the confirmation of the Yalta
agreements at Potsdam explain that the A bomb had
not been tested by dropping it from a plane and they
didn't know if it would be a dud or not . The scientists,
however, apparently were convinced it was a surething. Mr. Byrnes wrote that on July 1, 1945, just
Byrnes 261 before Truman went to Potsdam, " . . . the Interim
Committee unanimously recommended to the Presi-
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender 173
sion with the Interim Committee it was " . . . feared Byrnes 26!
that, if the Japanese were told that the bomb would be
used on a given locality, they might bring our boys
who were prisoners of war to that area . "
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Was there no one present to point out that for some
time the Americans had been dropping leaflets over
Japan warning them which cities were to be attacked
before devastating those cities with "conventional"bombs? If the Japanese wanted to bring our prisoners
to those cities, there is no doubt they would have .
According to Mr. Byrnes another excuse for notgiving a warning of the atom bomb was because at
Alamogordo the test was on the ground and that
". . . would not be conclusive proof that the bomb Byrnes 26!
Daniels 281
174 The Enemy at His Back
to the President's question-"how many American
casualties a landing on the Tokyo plain would in-
volve?" The General's reply, according to Mr. Truman,
was "It would take a million men for the landing and a
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Leahy 441
million to hold it and that he thought such a landing
would involve half a million casualties . "
Mr. Truman told Mr. Daniels that "all at the con-ference urged using it." But let us see how history
books have recorded the opinions of some of Mr.
Truman's advisers. Admiral Leahy wrote :
It is my opinion that the use of this barbarous weapon
at Hiroshima and Nagasaki was of no material assistance in
our war against Japan. The Japanese were already de-. . .
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender 175
troops would be killed in invading Japan, and in this he was
entirely correct; but King felt, as he had pointed out many
times, that the dilemma was an unnecessary one . . . TheArmy, however, with its underestimation of sea power, had
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insisted upon a direct invasion and an occupational con-
quest of Japan proper. King still believes this was wrong.
General Eisenhower is reported to have been un-
enthusiastic about the bomb in Alden Hatch's book,
"General Ike." Hatch wrote that "Eisenhower begged Hatch 274
the Secretary (Stimson) to consider the consequences
carefully. "
General "Hap" Arnold, Chief of the Air Force, had
little to say about . the decision . He cautiously wrote
17 6 The Enemy at His Back
conditional surrender which did not specify its mean-
ing. A few days later, and notwithstanding Washing-
ton's knowledge of these talks in Moscow, the first
atom bomb was dropped on August 5th. With the
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"wrath of the gods" raining obliteration on a dev-
astated Nippon, a desperate Sato again requested
an interview with Molotov. The answer was to beanother crushing blow . It was at this meeting, August
8, 1945, that Molotov announced Russia's declaration
of war against Japan effective the next day . The
Russians moved a few hours later .
The Soviets never did consider common courtes
as a part of their agenda . Although Stalin had tol
Hopkins in May that Russia would be at war with
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender 177
Emperor once again brought delay because of the
whim of Secretary Byrnes . "Admiral Leahy urged
that the Japanese offer be accepted promptly," reports
Mr. Byrnes, but "I told the President I would likeByrnes 209
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a little time to think about a reply to the message .
'I do not see why we should retreat from our demand
for unconditional surrender' I said ." And so the debate
over the Emperor went on for two days more .
The future Governor of South Carolina went off to
his private office to mull over his reply and to solicit
the help of his then trusted aide, Ben Cohen, whose
mind he believed to be "one of the best." Cohen,Counselor of the State Department, was one of the
so-called brilliant young lawyers brought to Washing-
178 The Enemy at His Back
that he thought he could be of some help. Byrne
rather grudgingly invited him in and also allowe
Grew to call in James Dunn, Eugene Dooman andJoseph Ballantine. When the draft was handed to th
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newcomers for their perusals, they took exception to
the stipulation that the Emperor was to sign th
surrender terms. Mr. Grew said he was certain thathe British would object . Their exceptions were over
ruled by Byrnes and Cohen but, when the British ha
looked over the draft, they demanded that this stipula
tion be deleted and it was .
The American reply arrived in Tokyo August 13th
This, finally, was the end of the war-at leasofficially. Looking at official dates, the Soviets woul
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender 179
ready to offer up her war leaders as hara-kiri victims and
retreat to her 1931 boundaries as conditions of peace, even
before the first atomic bomb fell and the Soviet Union en-
tered the Pacific war .
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And so it was "the beginning of a new chapter"
as the history of the last ten years has proven . Since
that time eleven small nations who put their hopes in
the Atlantic Charter and their big brother the United
States, have been gobbled up in part or in whole by
Russia. The remaining free countries are gradually
turning towards the expedient : the exchange of free-
dom for "peaceful coexistence" and trade with Soviet
Russia. And it was Japan, we know, whose overtures
Truman 419
180 The Enemy at His Back
lished in 1956, added one of the recommendations
of the Interim Committee which is strangely similar to
my friend's conclusion. Truman wrote, "It was their
(the Interim Committee) conclusion that no technical
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demonstration they might propose, such as over a
deserted island, would be likely to bring the war to
an end . It had to be used against an enemy target . "
(Emphasis mine.) An "enemy target," of course, isthe same as a "living city . "
Who were some of those who protested the use of
the bomb in June of 1945? The Metallurgical Labo-
ratory in Chicago appointed a seven man "Committee
on Social and Political Implications" for the purpose
of studying the proposed use of the new weapon. And
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender 181
mittee in his book, nor for that matter do Byrnes,Forrestal or Leahy, or Truman. Yet, how could suchan important report and petition escape attention?
Apparently someone must have read the report
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because the recommendation that the bomb be demon-
strated before the United Nations and an ultimatum to
Japan be made was presented for consideration inthe conferences in Washington. At this time Mr .
Byrnes warned that, if the demonstration proved to be
a "dud," it would damage our effort to bring the war Byrnes 261
to an end, while Henry Stimson had been apparently
sold on the idea of speed because he said "We hadno bombs to waste . It was vital that a sufficienteffect be quickly obtained with the few we had
. "Harper's Feb .
182 The Enemy at His Back
self, and him alone ; and that the order was sent from
aboard the Augusta which was taking the President
home from Potsdam. This would have been about
August 2 or 3 . One of the authors of the Air Force
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Army AirForce in WW
I I , vol 5
i n s e rt , 9 1 2 - 3
book, Professor James Lea Cate, wrote to the former
President in 1953, pointing out that his statements
did not jibe with the Handy order . It would seem that
Harry Truman didn't catch the significance or the
facts as stated in the professor's letter . On January
12, 1953, he replied that-
"In your letter, you raise the fact that the directive to
General Spaatz to prepare for delivering the bomb is dated
July twenty-fifth. It was, of course, necessary to set the
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender 183
merely surplus baggage . No records have been found
that it was ever sent . It didn't need to be 1
Although it was only two years (or more likely less)
between the time Mr . Truman had his correspondence
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with Professor Cate and the writing of "Year of Deci-
sions," he seemed to have forgotten all about the
letters when he came to his chapter on the atomic
bomb. Not only that, but the story is different . The
former President inserted General Handy's orderto General Spaatz (which was not a photostat) and
it carries the dateline of "24 July 1945 . " The photostat
carries the dateline of July 25th . But, the story
Harry Truman tells would lead one to believe that
the order to Spaatz was the ONLY one he gave . He
Truman 420
421
184 The Enemy at His Back
a. Earliest date, r July 1 945
b. Date beyond which the war is unlikely to con-
tinue-31 December 1945"
This was a procedure which commanding generals
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have been following for an eternity. Why was it not
done in regard to the war against Japan? The sur-
render time for Japan was first set at the second
Quebec Conference in 1944 on the premise that Russia
would enter the war 3 months after the fall of Ger-
many; and Japan would surrender 18 months afterthat event. This was discussed at Yalta in February
1945 and reaffirmed at Potsdam in the following July l
Let us look at the chronology
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender i85
That everything was delayed until after Potsdamdoes seem very strange .
Now we have noted that Secretary Byrnes' excuse
for not warning Japan of the A bomb was because "it
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was a real possibility" it might be a dud . But that
this assumption was in error can be found in thehearings which were provoked by General MacArthur's
recall from Japan in 195 1 .
A member of the committee, Senator Bourke B .
Hickenlooper, Republican from Iowa, asked permission
to place in the record two telegrams "with regard to
the question of information on the possibility or the
probabilities of the success of the atomic bomb project
prior to the Yalta Conference ." The first telegram MacA 4-3x19
186 The Enemy at His Back
representing the Manhattan Project, and who had been
sent to Malta, just before the Yalta Conference, to
deliver papers to Secretary of State Stettinius . These
papers were to inform the Secretary of the probable
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MacA 3-1985
success of the atomic bomb . Colonel Considine also
sent an affirmative telegram to the Senator .
Prior to this testimony, the then Secretary of State,
Dean Acheson, who had been Assistant Secretary at
the time of Yalta, was a witness . Senator AlexanderWiley, Republican from Wisconsin, interrogated him :
Senator Wiley . What was the significance of the bomb not
having been dropped at the time we negotiated at Yalta?
Mr. Acheson . Well, I pointed out in my statement, Senator,
that when we were discussing the question of bringing the
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender 187
tary of War under Taft and Secretary of State under
Hoover. He had lived in a world already passed, and,coming from retirement again to take the position of
Secretary of War in 1941, he was not attuned to the
"New Deal Era." His appointment had been one of
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political strategy-as a Republican, he was the symbol
of nonpartisanship in the fight against fascism . Andas devoted and loyal as he was to the cause, the old
gentleman was never fully accepted by the WhiteHouse elite corps . President Roosevelt "relegated him
to a distinctly subordinated role" in the high strategy Current 213
conferences, and "after Pearl Harbor he was included
in few ." Nearly all his communications to the White
House were made through "go-betweens." His memoirs
188 The Enemy at His Back
would be in a very embarrassing position . . ." Hedid get one of his rare interviews with Roosevelt a
day or so later, but it bore no results .
The "work plan" as set up for Mr . Stimson, seems
to have been devised to keep him busy with domestic
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Stimson 342
affairs, and even then his four advisers took most
of those sticky problems from off his weary shoulders .
His chief advisers, in addition to "the Army," were
four in number : Robert Patterson, Undersecretary of
War; Robert A. Lovett, Assistant Secretary for Air ;
Harvey H. Bundy who "became the Secretary's
personal agent in dealing with scientists and educa-
tors," and John J . McCloy, Assistant Secretary, who
later became one of President Eisenhower's unofficial
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender 189
pressed himself even more clearly and more pointedly
than he did in his first memo .
i . With each international conference that passes and, in Stimson 639-
fact, with each month that passes between conferences, it 40
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becomes clearer that the great basic problem of the future
is the stability of the relations of the Western democracies
with Russia .
2 . With each such time that passes it also becomes clear
that that problem arises out of the fundamental differences
between a nation of free thought, free speech, free elections,
in fact a really free people (and), a nation which is not
basically free but which is systematically controlled from
above by secret police and in which free speech is not per-
mitted .
Igo The Enemy at His Back
with Russia we should consider carefully whether we can do
so safely under any system of control until Russia puts into
effective action the proposed constitution which I have men-
tioned . . . .
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And now we come to the most remarkable part of
the story . No paraphrasing of mine could do justice to
Mr. Bundy's authorship. But it is here we see themethod of persuasion :
Stimson 641 "Returning from Potsdam, Stimson found himself
nearing the limits of his strength, and after two weeks
made crowded by the atomic attacks and their an-
nouncement followed by the surrender negotiations,
he retreated from Washington for three weeks of rest
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender 191
petition-Stimson modified his earlier opinion and on
September i i he sent to the President a memorandum
urging immediate and direct negotiations with the
Russians looking toward a `covenant' for the control
of the atom . "
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And indeed, Mr. Stimson did more than "modify"
his previous memo to the President for he completely
reversed himself. The following excerpt from his
memorandum to Truman dated i i September 1945
is the kernel of the nut :
. . . unless the Soviets are voluntarily invited into the part-
nership upon a basis of co-operation and trust, we are going
to maintain the Anglo-Saxon bloc over against the Soviet
in the possession of this weapon . Such a condition will al-
Stimson 643
192 The Enemy at His Back
p. 5 the Daily Worker an article written by William Z .
Foster, who had been recently made head of the Com-
munist Party in the United States . You can be sure
that whatever Foster wrote then and continues to write
now is considered by the comrades as the true line
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coming from Moscow .
Atomic power, as scientists and engineers confidently
inform us, is capable not only of unparalleled destruction in
war, but also of far reaching consequences in industry . . .
I f . . . the new atomic power which is a product of inter-
national science, is to be directed to constructive uses, the
general military control o f it will have to be vested in the
Security Council of the United Nations . . . ( Emphasis
mine . )
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender193
of the American people ." In his "Diaries" we find the
report of a Cabinet meeting on September 21, 1 945,
ten days after Mr . Stimson's last memo to the Presi-
dent . Walter Millis who edited the Forrestal Diaries
after Forrestal's death wrote that "The idea of a sole
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trusteeship (by the United States) (if that was what F o r r e s t a l 9 6
Forrestal had in mind) seems to have got no support,
but the idea of submitting the matter for adjustment
under the machinery of the United Nations, became
basic to subsequent American policy . " (Emphasismine. ) Forrestal ios
At another meeting held on Oct . 16, 1945, Secretary
Byrnes also strongly advised against giving informa-
tion to the Russians, but without results .
194 The Enemy at His Back
and ominously similar to the words of William Z
Foster written only three months before. Here wa
the kernel of the nut : " . . . at the earliest practicabl
date a Commission should be set up under the Unite
Nations Organization to prepare recommendation
Decade of
American
Foreign
Policy 1077
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for submission to the Organization ." The Commissio
was set up Jan. 24, 1946 .
But there was more than just "control" of the ato
bomb and atomic energy. The next step was to trto persuade the United States to destroy every means
for making the bomb and also the bombs we alread
had! Six months after Foster's manifesto, Feb . 13
1946, Dr. Philip Jessup, then professor at Columbi
University, and later ambassador at large, and Dr
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender 195
New York Times is punctuated by the fact that four
months later, on June 19, 1946, Andrei A. Gromyko,USSR Representative to the Atomic Energy Com-
mission of the United Nations, made a proposal for a
convention which is strangely similar . He said, "The
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object of such a convention should be the prohibition
of the production and employment of atomic weapons,
the destruction of existing stocks of atomic weapons Decade of
and the condemnation of all activities undertaken in AmericanForeign
violation of this convention . " Policy 1088
The whole subject of atomic control is still pending,
but where did Jessup and Rabi get their bright idea
which stony-faced Gromyko liked so much?
Former Senator Claude Pepper, Democrat from 7
Florida, thought it was a good idea too, but he went
196 The Enemy at His Back
In major policies, you will notice, the Communists
always play "heads I win, tails you lose ." And so it
was in this case . The Communists didn't get everything
at once-the complete sell-out was stalled on the
question of inspection, as it still is in 1956 . But surely
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these long discussions produced much information for
them. You can't talk about how to share your recipefor baking a cake without also sharing some of your
"trade secrets" I Furthermore, we know the Russianshad a great deal of information in 1945 . All they
needed was time, and while they kept us talking and
hoping, our program was slowing down .
The manifesto of William Z . Foster of August 13,
1945 had been successfully carried out. And theCommunists were assured of further success when in
The Atomic Bomb and Surrender 197
inspiration to say, "Here youl-the United States is
the country that invented the atomic bomb . Where dowe come in on regional centers?"
On March 15, 1954, an Associated Press dispatchinformed us :
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The United States plans soon to propose to Russia spe-
cific measures for organizing a world pool of atomic energy
for peaceful purposes . United States officials have consulted
with their British and French colleagues, it was reported
Sunday, and have decided to carry forward negotiations for
Soviet acceptance of President Eisenhower's atomic pool
project a while longer in secret, two-nation talks.
D C . Times
Herald
And this brings up another entry in Forrestal's
198 The Enemy at His Back
shima was held up to the world as a victim of American
brutality . The August 4, 1955 issue of Moscow's New
Times, carried a lead article called "The Spirit of
Geneva" advocating sweetness and light . However, the
last article in the magazine was entitled "Hiroshima"
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in which the Communist author points his finger and
says, " . . . the atomic blow at the densely populated
peaceful city was totally unwarranted . "
Chapter VIII
THE MACARTHUR HEARINGS
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The MacArthur hearings of 19p,
and the testimony of General MacArthur,
General Marshall,
Secretary Acheson,
Admiral Badger,
General Wedemeyer,
General O'Donnell,
and General Hurley .
200 The Enemy at His Back
win, an unprecedented policy in American fighting his-
tory .
Speeches were made on the Senate floor delving into
the immediate history of Korea, and a number ofpeople pointed out the significance of Dean Acheson's
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speech before the Washington National Press Club in
February of 195o-four months before the start of the
war. As Secretary of State, Mr. Acheson told the mem-bers of the press (and thus Russia as well), that our
line of defense in the Pacific would not include Korea .
His statement was as good as a "go ahead" signal to
the Communists-an assurance that if North Koreainvaded South Korea no interference would come from
the United States .
The MacArthur Hearings 201
plain that what occurred at Yalta was the first in a
succession of steps, the omitting of any one of which
could have prevented the Korean debacle .
The dismissal of General MacArthur brought thematter to a head, and the result became the well-known
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"MacArthur hearings ." The investigation by the Joint
Armed Services and Foreign Relations committees was
an "executive" or secret hearing which prevented the
press from direct reporting . And hereby hangs a little
stub tale l The decision was taken by the committee
members themselves, the majority of Democrats car-
rying the vote . The Republican senators felt that the
hearings should be completely open to the public and
proceeded to bring the issue to the floor of the Senate
202 The Enemy at His Back
When the Republican Administration came in in1 953,
those Republican members of Congress who had for
the past twenty years been fearless and persistent in
exposing wrong doing in government, were suddenlyand strangely silent. Former Secretary of State Dean
Acheson frankly told my husband that President Tru-
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man was afraid to accept the Korean armistice terms
of the Reds for fear of impeachment talk . But the new
Republican President was able to accept those sameterms without fear of opposition from members of
Congress .
Senators in both parties vote to protect their ad-
ministration from embarrassment. I do not mean thatit is quite as simple as that, because politics in the
"dirty" sense of the word enters into it too
The MacArthur Hearings 203
senators vastly important and pertinent questions . At
the same time, China experts all over the country sent
questions to the committee . And all the while, theRepublicans were boasting that they were going to put
Acheson and Marshall on the spot . Nothing of the sort
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happened, and few of the volunteered questions were
used. Here was the golden time to ask questions of
people intimately acquainted with recent events while
they were still clear in their minds . But General Mac-
Arthur was never questioned about the Pacific War,
and General Marshall and Secretary Acheson were
challenged with only delicate respect .
Those who had hoped that the mysteries of the
Korean and Pacific wars would be cleared. up suffered
20 4 The Enemy at His Back
rogator attempted to put words in the mouths of the
witnesses in order to make his point . And the testimony
shows in bold relief the personal character of the wit-
nesses . Some gave straightforward answers, while
others were masters of evasion . Some clearly placed the
interest of their country first, even ahead of their per-
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sonal and professional fortunes .
An attempt was made by some members of the com-mittee to discover who was responsible for the Yalta
agreements on China . Senator William F . Knowland,
Republican from California, asked General Marshall,
the only witness who had been present at Yalta, if,
while at the Conference he had been familiar with the
provisions regarding Manchuria . The General's answer
The MacArthur Hearings 205
Another witness before the committee, General
Patrick Hurley, who was ambassador to China in 1945,
ripped into Secretary Acheson, and tore apart theagreements concerning Japan and China . He told the
committee that for the first time in American history
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our nation had expressed fear of another nation . He
began by quoting from Secretary Acheson's "Letter of
Transmittal" to the President dated July 20 , 1949 . I t
was the foreword" to the State Department's infa-
mous White Paper on China .
General Hurley . (On) July 20 , 1949, Secretary MacA 4-x840
Acheson said :
AT YALTA, MARSHAL STALIN NOT ONLY
206 The Enemy at His Back
China, were given away in secret because our State De-
partment was convinced that Russia would not keep her
commitments and was in a position to seize all the properties
that we gave her in secret.
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MacA 4-2839 . . . America was in a position at Yalta to speak the only
language the Communists understand, the language ofpower. The President of the United States at Yalta was incommand of the greatest land, Navy and Air Force everassembled on earth . . .
When a "hot" subject is before a Congressional hear-
ing, the questioning progresses much like a football
game. The "hot pigskin" in this case was passed, inter-
The MacArthur Hearings 207
Manchuria capable of replacing much of this material as
it was used up?
Secretary Acheson . There were arsenals in Manchuria .
Secretary Acheson does not say that the arsenals
were practically out of commission because they lacked
materials for manufacture .
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Senator Morse . As a result of the Yalta agreement were
not the Chinese deprived of the use of the two best ports
in Manchuria, Port Arthur, and Dairen?
Secretary Acheson . I don't think so, Senator.
Senator Morse now put a question to the Secretary
which would elicit a more definite answer-he has
made his speech and wants to get the pigskin clearly
over the goal posts :
208 The Enemy at His Back
Senator Morse continues to question Mr. Acheson,
and although the Secretary is essentially a diplomat
and not a military man, the Senator asks him questions
concerning military strategy . And perhaps that is cor-
rect, because some people say Acheson was in charge
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MacA 3-1882
of the Korean War, and would have known muchabout the military problems in World War II .
Senator Morse. Now, in regard to the questioning as to
why the surrender of the Japanese troops in Manchuriawas not either to the Generalissimo or to the United State
forces, am I correct in my understanding that the very
physical aspects of the problem would have made that im
possible, first, because as far as Nationalist troops wer
concerned, they were down in the southwest of Asia
The MacArthur Hearings 209
He wrote that "Less than five hundred airborne in- Kenney
fantry were on the ground when MacArthur and all his 18o-1
top generals of the South West Pacific landed. . ."
The Generals, he continues, were in the habit of carry-
ing pistols in their shoulder holsters . But before the
group left, MacArthur suggested that this time they
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leave them behind. "If the Japs didn't really mean
what they had said about surrendering, those pistols
wouldn't do us much g9od . . ." With good reason-there were about fifteen, fully armed divisions within
a few miles of MacArthur and his "five hundred . "
"A number of Japs told me afterwards," General
Kenney went on, "that' the sight of all those generals
and officers of MacArthur's staff walking around un-
210 The Enemyat His Back
war to an early termination, we anticipated a very powerf
influence from the Kwantung Army (Japanese Army)
Manchuria and probably the portions that were in Kore
. . . it was the opinion of the Chiefs of Staff that it w
highly important that the Soviets carry out the campai
against Manchuria and against Korea .
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Senator Knowland . Were the Chiefs unanimous in thaviewpoint?
General Marshall . I think they were unanimous. We caascertain that, but I am quite certain they were . . .
Both Acheson and Marshall kept talking about th
powerful Kwantung Army, yet intelligence makes i
clear that Marshall, at least, knew that this army ha
been greatly reduced .
The MacArthur Hearings 211
back up the surrender with enforcement. Otherwise, i t
would have been an empty gesture, and the only forces
you had there to enforce the surrender were the Russian
forces.
General Wedemeyer. No, s i r . That is the part I did disagree
with you about because of my personal experience there,
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Senator .
Senator Morse . That is what I wanted to clear up.
General Wedemeyer. The Japanese were completely co-operative as soon as they got their order to lay down their
arms. We had no trouble with them whatsoever, sir . It
wasn't necessary-one person could go and take chargeof thousands of them. There was no resistance whatsoever;
they became docile and cooperative.
General Wedemeyer's testimony clearly agrees with
212 The Enemy at His Back
perfectly capable of making arrangements to receive
the surrender of enemy troops anywheie in the Thea-
ter . We did accept the surrender of the Japanese in the
central part of China at Nanking although we were
located 8oo miles to the west in Chungking, the war-
time capital. Also we sent appropriate representatives
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to receive the surrender in southeast China, more than
1,500 miles from Chungking . Actually the British sent
representatives from Ceylon and India, to receive the
surrender of the Japanese in Hongkong . "
I also asked General Wedemeyer to give his views on
the testimony of Secretary Acheson when he statedthat there were "several hundred thousand heavily
armed, very effective Japanese troops" in Manchuria
The MacArthur Hearings 213
Japan at that time? Was there? We had command of the
sea .
Secretary Acheson . The general military situation at the
time of Yalta was that in Germany the Rhine had not yet
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been crossed, and it was not crossed until some time in
March 1 945 .
In the Pacific, American troops had entered Manila on
the first day of the conference; the battles of Iwo Jima
and Okinawa still lay ahead; information as to the Japanese
Army showed an army of approximately 5 million .
Senator Wiley . We had command of the sea then, didn't we?
Secretary Acheson . The estimates were that these operations
would involve an American force of approximately 5 million
214 The Enemy at His Back
we must also believe that the final conquest of a broken
and beaten Japan would cost more in American casualties
than all the battles of the Pacific, all the battles of the
islands, all the battles of Burma and China, all the battles
of the Atlantic, all the battles of Africa, all the battles of
the Mediterranean, all the battles of Italy, all the battles
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of England, all the battles of France, all the battles of
Holland, all the battles of Belgium, and all the battles of
Germany. America had less than i,ooo,ooo casualties in
all those battles .
(Note: The grand total of World War II casualties
according to the World Almanac was 1,078,674 .)
Vice Admiral Oscar Charles Badger, who had an a s -
signment in the Pacific during those days, was inter-
The MacArthur Hearings 215
over with me at that time, and I thought . . . that that
Muroran thing was all the evidence that we needed that
they were right flat on their backs.
Major General Emmett O'Donnell, Jr. was ques-tioned by Sen. Bourke Hickenlooper concerning the
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necessity for a land invasion of Japan scheduled for
November 1 , 1945
General O'Donnell . . . . once we were in the Marianas MacA 4-3111
(Saipan, July 1944) we were convinced it was over ; because
they were taking the most horrible pounding . . . I thought
-we all thought- I thought personally in a couple of
weeks it would be all over .
216 The Enemy at His Back
General Wedemeyer . Yes, sir ; that is true, Senator Connally,
and your military leaders must have advised the President
that it was necessary to bring the Russians in in order to
save American lives and to bring about an early victory .
The thing that disturbs me right now as an American is
the fact that the Japanese were trying so hard, as I under-
stand it, sir-you could check on this information-trying
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hard to accomplish an armistice.
They wanted to use Moscow people as their intermediarie
and they couldn't get any response to their efforts to
stop the war, this before I think we dropped the atomic
weapon .
Senator Connally . And we did not know of that at thetime either, did we? We had no knowledge of it?
General Wedemeyer. Well, I think we did, sir, because we
had means of knowing what the Japanese were striving to
The MacArthur Hearings 217
Secretary Acheson . . . . I do not believe that there was
any attempt by the Japanese to bring the war to an end
before the negotiations which finally led to its being brought
to an end .
There was considerable active correspondence between
Japanese in various capitals and Japanese in Tokyo as to
proposals which might be made to save for themselves
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more than they were able to save at the time of thesurrender .
Earlier, Senator Knowland had asked the same questions
of General Marshall .
Senator Knowland . . . . Do you have any knowledge,directly or indirectly, that there had been preliminary
offers of surrender from Japan?
General Marshall. I
have no recollection of any that were
MacA z-561
218 The Enemy at His Back
signed by an interesting group of Republican senators
in view of more recent history . They were :
Styles Bridges of New Hampshire
Bourke B. Hickenlooper of IowaHarry P. Cain of Washington
William F. Knowland of California
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H Alexander Smith of New Jersey
Alexander Wiley of Wisconsin
Ralph E. Flanders of Vermont
Owen Brewster of Maine
The Republicans who did not sign the report but
filed separate ones of their own were as follows :
The MacArthur Hearings 219
the Korean War and had dismissed their commanderin 1951, this strange history continued . We then settled
down for two years of truce talks, while the Redsfeverishly built up their badly depleted forces and their
defenses on the China mainland .
On April 16, 1953, our new President, Dwight
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Eisenhower, assured the American people that " . . .
an armistice in Korea that merely releases aggressive
armies to attack elsewhere would be a fraud ." Yet we
signed an armistice which prepared the ground for the
fall of Indo-China and released thousands of Red
troops which now are threatening Formosa . We have"viewed with grave concern" the many instances in
which the Reds have broken the signed armistice .
220 The Enemy at His Back
"proteges" of Harry Hopkins continue to play an im-
portant role in our destinies . Sitting by the side of
President Eisenhower as his adviser and interpreter at
Geneva in 1955 was a man who was "discovered" atCairo in 1943 by Harry Hopkins . For it was during
that Conference that Hopkins was so impressed with
this young career diplomat he persuaded President
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Roosevelt to appoint him to a White House post . From
Sherwood then on, his "star was very much in the ascendent . "
775 This was Charles E . Bohlen .
I do not mean to imply that Charles Bohlen was the
chief and only adviser at Geneva . There were others .
One of the most important, according to the New York
Times' Arthur Krock, was Herman Phleger who Mr .
Krock describes as "one of the really strong men of
The MacArthur Hearings 221
eral James H. Burns, author of the important 1942
memorandum . (See appendix.) Like Milton Eisenhower,
he has never lost his usefulness in government during
the last 20 years . An old friend of Milton, General
Burns is now retired . But his advice is still sought by
the official family of the Chief Executive .
There are many, many others of the New Dealfamily still in important positions in our government .
Whoever our President and Secretary of State may be,
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now and in the future, Americans have a right to ask,
"Who are your advisers?"Until Soviet agents and their unwitting tools are re-
moved from our midst, the United States of America
can never win another war, hot or cold . Not until these
influences are removed will the American flag again
be the trusted protector of American fighting men .
To sum it all up THE ONLY ENEMY THE
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APPENDIX
Memorandum for Harry Hopkins from Gen . James H . Sherwood
Burns, 1942 p a g e 642
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6 . WITH REFERENCE TO OUR NEED FOR RUSSIAAS A REAL FRIEND AND CUSTOMER IN THEPOST-WAR PERIOD .
If the Allies are victorious, Russia will be one of the
three most powerful countries in the world . For the future
peace of the world, we should be real friends so that we
can help shape world events in such a way as to provide
s e c u r i t y a n d p r o s p e r i t y .
224 Appendix
way to kelp Russia by sending supplies to the limit of
shipping possibilities and by sending forces to Russia t
join with her in the fight against Germany.
* * *
(e) Send to Russia an ambassador of top rank as tonational standing, vision, ability and willingness to serv
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the country first .
( f ) In general, treat Russia as one of the three foremos
powers in the world.
( g ) Establish the general policy throughout all U .S
departments and agencies that Russia must be considered a
a real friend and be treated accordingly and that personne
must be assigned to Russian contacts that are loyal to thi
concept .
* * *
Appendix 225
inheres no social values but which takes on such significance
only when it us used, is a gross misunderstanding of its
history . In the complexities of Japanese social development
the institution of the Emperor has inevitably given the
Japanese state structure a certain bias which has predis-
posed it_ to the side of reaction ! "
Before the occupation force leaves Japan, it should have
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enforced the following measures: (i) Destruction of mili-
tary, naval, and air armaments . (2) Conversion of muni-
tions factories to civilian production, as far as possible;
otherwise destruction. (3) Payment of reparations to China
consisting of industrial equipment produced in Japan, with
raw materials supplied by China . (4) Establishment of
import controls to guarantee continued enforcement of steps
(2) and (3) . (5) Abolition of the army and navy, including
inter alia the conscription system. (6) Punishment of war
226 Appendix
either by government regulation or outright nationalizati
(18) Introduction of agrarian reforms.
No final peace agreement should be concluded when th
army of occupation withdraws . Relaxation of steps (3) a
(4) and (5),conclusion of a final peace agreement, an
readmission of Japan into the community of nationshould be made contingent on satisfactory progress towa
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effectuation of the recommended measures, as well as ad
quate maintenance of those previously enforced.
The steps in this program are interrelated and interd
pendent. The crucial political reforms, included under step
(i3) and (14), may be safely postponed to the post
occupation period only if the provisionally establishe
democratic leadership gives promise of stability and ef
fectiveness. Otherwise, the occupation must either be pr
Appendix 997
advice concerning the immediate future of the Empire.
On 14 February 1945 Prince Konoye had such an interview page zz
with the Emperor. In advance of that, Prince Konoye pre-pared a memorandum of his views which were verballypresented to the Emperor. An English translation of thememorandum, prepared by T . Ushiba, Konoye's long-time
private secretary, is reproduced below. . .
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Parts of the following translation are not literal rendi-
tions of the original Japanese but represent an accurate
summary of salient points . . . .
* * *
"I think that there is no longer any doubt about our
defeat. A defeat is, of course, a serious stain on ourhistory, but we can accept it, so long as we can maintain
our Tenno system. Public opinion in America and Britain on
228 Appendix
the Tenno system. I have now come to seriously doubt
whether the whole series of events from the ManchurianIncident to the present war have not been what they have
purposefully planned. It is a well-known fact that the
openly declared the aim of the Manchurian war was to
achieve drastic reforms in domestic affairs . A central figu
of theirs also declared that the longer the China Inciden
continues, the better, for otherwise, the intended reform
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would not be accomplished . Of course, the "reform" aime
at by the military may not necessarily be a Communistrevolution, but the group of bureaucrats and civilians (bot
left and right) who are in a close collaboration with th
military are definitely intending to bring about such a
revolution . In the light of this conclusion, I now realiz
that I have, during the last ten years, come across man
events the meaning of which I did not then fully appreciate
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arnold, H. H . Global Mission, Harper & Brothers, New
York, 1949 .
Baldwin, HansonW, G r e a t M i s t a k es o f t h e W a r , Harper &
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Brothers, New York, 1950 .
Budenz, Louis F. ,The Techniques of Communism, Henry
Regnery Company, Chicago, 1954 .
Budenz, Louis F . , The Cry Is Peace, Henry Regnery Com-
pany, Chicago, 1952 .
Byrnes, James F . , Speaking Frankly, Harper & Brothers,
New York, 1947.
Chambers, Whittaker, Witness, Random House, New York,
232 Bibliography
Kenney, General George C . , The MacArthur I Know, Duell,
Sloan and Pearce, New York, 1951 .
King, Ernest J . , Fleet Admiral King, W. W . Norton &Company, Inc., New York, 1952 .
Lattimore, Owen, Solution in Asia, Little, Brown and Com-
pany, Boston, 1945 .
Leahy, Fleet Admiral William D, I Was There, Whittlesley
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Lea, Clark, and Henschel, Richard, Douglas MacArthur,Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1952 .
Marshall, General of the Army, George C . , Selected Speeches
and Statements, Edited by Major H. A. DeWeerd, The
Infantry Journal, Washington, 1945 .
Marshall, General of the Army, George C. , Biennial Report,
July 1943 to June 30, Infantry Journal Press,
STATE DEPARTMENT
"White Paper," United States Relations with China, with
Special Reference to the Period 1944- 1949.
Department of State Publication 3573
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Far Eastern Series 30
Released August 1 949 .
"White Paper," A Decade of American Foreign Policy,Basic Documents, 1941 - 1949.
Prepared at the Request of the Senate Committee onForeign Relations by the staff of the committee and the
Department of State
May 3 to Aug. 17, 1951United States Government Printing Office, Washington
"Tydings Hearings" State Department Employee LoyaltyInvestigation
Hearings before a subcommittee of the Committee on
Foreign Relations,
United States Senate, 81st Congress, Second Session
pursuant to S. Res. 231
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March 8 to June 28, 1950
2 volumesUnited States Government Printing Office, Washington
The Katyn Forest Massacre
Hearings before the Select Committee to conduct an
investigation of the facts, evidence, and circumstances
H i s t o r i c a l D i v i s i o n
Headquarters
U.S. Marine Corps, 1950
The Guadalcanal Campaign
Major John L. Zimmerman, USMCR
H i s t o r i c a l D i v i s i o n
Headquarters
U.S . Marine Corps, 1949
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UNITED STATES STRATEGIC BOMBING SURVEY
The Campaigns of the Pacific War
USSBS (Pacific)
Naval Analysis Division
Rear Admiral, R . A . Ofstie, USN
"Pentagon Papers," The Entry of the Soviet Union into the
War Against Japan: Military Plans, z94z - 1945September 1955
Federal Broadcast Intelligence Service
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