Struggles for Independence

Struggles for IndependenceThe End of Empire in World HistoryIndia, Pakistan, Burma, Indonesia, Iraq, Jordan, and Israel won independence in 1940sAfrican independence came between mid-1950s and mid-1970s (50%)Imperial breakup wasnt new Popular Sovereignty was

The Fall of EmpiresFall of many empires in the twentieth century- Austrian and Ottoman empires collapsed in the wake of World War I- Russian Empire collapsed but was soon recreated - USSR- German/Japanese empires ended with World War IIDisintegration of the USSR (1991) was propelled by national self-determination (creation of 15 new states)

Explanations for DecolonizationContradictions- Christianity didnt fit the reality of racism, exploitation, and poverty- Europeans democratic values were in conflict with colonial dictatorship- ideal of national self-determination was at odds with repression of the same in colonies

How Empires EndedTiming of Decolonization- world wars had weakened Europe and undermined European superiority- United States and USSR opposed older European colonial empires- UN provided a platform for anti-colonial movesThe role of specific groups and individuals- often, colonial powers themselves planned for independence of colonies- pressure of nationalist movements- millions of ordinary people joined in

Decolonization of Africa

The Case of India:Ending British Rule Before 1900, few people of the Indian subcontinent thought of themselves as Indians- cultural identity was primarily local- diversity was enormousBritish rule promoted a growing sense of Indian identity- unlike earlier foreign rulers, the British didnt assimilate - Indians shared more similarities to each other than to the rulers- British communications and administrative networks, schools, and use of English bound India together

Indian National Congress (INC)est. 1885Association of English-educated, high-caste Hindus- first asked for a greater role in British India- British rejected their claim to speak for all Indians- the INC became popular post-WWI- 1917, Britain promised future of self-government- British attacks on the Ottoman Empire antagonized Muslim Indians- repressive actions by the British caused outrageMohandas Gandhi (18691948)Studied law in England but wasnt a very successful lawyer1893, joined a movement to fight racial segregation- developed a notion of India that included both Hindus and Muslims- developed the satyagraha (truth force) - active but nonviolent confrontation

Ghandi in the INCIn India, Gandhi became a leader of the INC- 1920s -30s: mass campaigns that won massive public support- British responded with repression and concessions- Gandhi transformed the INC into a mass organizationGandhi won the name Mahatma (Great Soul)- attacked not just colonial rule but also mistreatment of Indias untouchables and the evils of modernization

Gandhi and Nehru (1st prime minister of India 1947)

People Dislike Gandhi?Especially important was a growing Muslim/Hindu divide- 1906: creation of an All-India Muslim League- Hindu politicians defined the struggle in religious termsMuhammad Ali Jinnah, head of the Muslim League- argued that Muslim areas should be separate (Pakistan)- independence in 1947 created two countries- Pakistan (Muslim)- India (secular but mostly Hindu)Process was accompanied by massive violence- 1 million died, 12 million refugees relocated- 1948: a Hindu extremist assassinated Gandhi

South AfricaSouth Africa won freedom from Great Britain in 1910- but its government was controlled by a white settler minority- so the black South African freedom struggle was against an internal opponent- white population was split - British descendants (had economic superiority) - Afrikaners (Boers) of Dutch descent (had political dominance)- white groups felt threatened by any move toward black majority ruleRace and Economy in S. Africa Early 1900s - South Africa had a mature industrial economy- by the 1960s, had major foreign investments and loans- black South Africans: dependent on the white-controlled economyThe issue of race was overwhelmingly prominent- policy of apartheid tried to keep blacks and white completely separate, while retaining black labor power- enormous repressive powers enforced social segregation

Apartheid

The ANC and ProtestAfrican National Congress (ANC) founded in 1912- like Indias INC, it consisted of elite Africans who wanted a voice in society- for 40 years, the ANC was peaceful and moderate- 1950s: moved to nonviolent civil disobedience- the governments response was overwhelming repression- 69 unarmed demonstrators shot at Sharpville in 1960- ANC was banned and its leadership imprisoned

Violence in AfricaUnderground nationalist leaders turned to sabotage and assassination- opposition came to focus on student groups- Soweto uprising (1976) was the start of spreading violence - organization of strikes

Protest Against Apartheid

International Pressure Helps Bring an End to ApartheidGrowing international pressure- exclusion from international sporting events- economic boycotts- withdrawal of private investment fundsNegotiations began in the late 1980s- key apartheid policies were abandoned- Mandela was freed and the ANC legalized1994: national elections brought the ANC to power- apartheid was ended without major bloodshed- most important threat was a number of separatist and Africans only groups

Nelson Mandela

Experiments with FreedomWith freedom this problem arises:How to create economic development, industrial growth, unification, and political participationThird World (developing countries, the Global South)19502000: developing nations contained 75 percent of world populationPolitical order inhibited by:- explosive population growth- high expectations for independence-cultural diversity, with little loyalty to a central state

The Third World

1950s : Democracy SpreadsBritish, French, and Belgians set up democratic institutions in their African colonies- few still survived by the early 1970s- many were swept away by military coups- some evolved into one-party systemsIn India, Western-style democracy succeeded- power was handed over gradually- many more Indians than Africans had administrative and technical skills at the time of independence- INC embraced nationalist movement, less internal discord than in AfricaAfrican Problems with DemocracyAfricans initially rejected democracy - Arguments- not ready for democracy or lacked some necessary element?- communal culture was not compatible with party politics?- Democracy was inadequate to the task of development?Economic disappointment discredited early African democracies- economic performance since independence has been poor- widespread economic hardshipTroubles with DemocracyThe well-educated elite benefited most, obtaining high-paying bureaucratic jobs that caused resentmentEconomic resentment found expression in ethnic conflictRepeatedly, the military took power in a crisisStarting in the 1980s, Western-style democracy has resurfaced

African Dictators. Why were we giving these guys millions?

Experiments in Economic DevelopmentProblems- little infrastructure for modern development- most developing countries didnt have leverage in negotiation with wealthy nations and corporations- African leaders got contradictory advice on how to develop successfullyUntil the fall of the Soviet Union, many developing countries followed the state-run modelAfter fall of USSR, west pushed democracy on developing markets

Berlin Wall Falls

Economic Development VariedEast Asia has been the most successful- 1990s: India opened itself to the world market- several Latin American states developed industriallyMost of Africa, much of the Arab world, and parts of Asia didnt catch up, and standards of living often declinedNo general agreement about why such great variations developed

Westernization in TurkeyTurkey and Iran different approachesTurkey: emerged in the wake of World War I, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatrk- major cultural revolution in the 1920s and 1930s- effort to create a thoroughly modern, Western society- much of the Islamic parts of society were abolished- effort to keep Islam personal, rather than an official part of public life

Turkey ChangesMen ordered not to wear the fez; many elite women gave up the veilWomen gained legal rights- polygamy was abolished- women got the vote (1930s)State-organized enterprises were set upGovernment remained authoritarian, although a parliamentary system emerged after 1938

Didim, Turkey: Beach Resort

Iran: the center of Islamic revival (1970s)Growing opposition to Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavis modernizing, secularizing, U.S.-supported government- many of the shahs reforms offended traditional Islamic practices- the mosque became the main center of opposition to the government- Shia ulama had stayed independent from the state- Shia leaders became the voice of opposition, especially the Ayatollah Khomeini

Ayatollah KhomeiniShah was forced to abdicate in 1979Khomeini assumed control of the state- established the sharia as the law of the land- secular officials were purged- rejection of many Western practices as anti-IslamicIslamic revolution in Iran wasnt revolutionary in social termsIran also continued to work on economic modernityShah and Ayatollah

Ayatollah Khomeini often speaks to millions about how the USA is the devil and how Israel will be wiped off the face of the earth. ReflectionsIt is difficult for historians to discuss more recent events and themes like those described in this chapter, because that history is still in the making.- detachment is difficult- we dont know the final outcomes