the effectiveness of contextual teaching and learning to teach

perpustakaan.uns.ac.id digilib.uns.ac.id

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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND

LEARNING TO TEACH READING COMPREHENSION

VIEWED FROM STUDENTS’ INTELLIGENCE (An Experimental Study in SMPN 14 Surakarta in the Academic Year of

2009/2010)

THESIS

By

Kitri Katon Peni S 890209119

Submitted to Fulfill One of the Requirements for the Completion of the Graduate

Degree in English Education

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

GRADUATE SCHOOL

SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY OF SURAKARTA

2011


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PRONOUNCEMENT

This is to certify that I myself write this thesis, entitled “THE

EFFECTIVENESS OF CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND LEARNING TO

TEACH READING COMPREHENSION VIEWED FROM STUDENTS’

INTELLIGENCE” (An Experimental Study in SMPN 14 Surakarta in the Academic

Year of 2009/2010). It is not a plagiarism or made by others. Anything related to

other’s work is written in quotation, the source of which is listed on the bibliography.

If then the pronouncement proves incorrect, I am ready to accept any academic

punishment, including the withdrawal or cancellation of my academic degree.

Surakarta, June 2011

Faithfully yours

Kitri Katon Peni


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ABSTRACT

KITRI KATON PENI. The Effectiveness of Contextual Teaching and Learning to Teach Reading Comprehension Viewed from Students’ Intelligence: An Experimental Study in SMPN 14 Surakarta in the Academic Year of 2009/2010. A Thesis: English Education of Graduate School, Sebelas Maret University of Surakarta, 2010.

The objectives of the research were to examine: (1) whether the contextual teaching and learning method was more effective than grammar translation method in teaching reading for the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010; (2) whether the students having high intelligence quotient had better reading comprehension than those having low intelligence quotient for the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010; and (3) whether there was an interaction between teaching methods and the students’ intelligence in teaching reading for the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010.

The research was carried out at SMPN 14 Surakarta, from November 2009 to August 2010. The method used for the research was experimental study. The population of the research was the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta. The sampling technique used was cluster random sampling. The sample of the research was two classes; they were experimental class which was taught using contextual teaching and learning method and control class which was taught using grammar translation method. The number of sample used in the research was 36 students from experimental class and 36 students from control class. The technique of collecting data was documentary and test technique. The first was used to collect the data of students’ intelligence scores. The latter was used to know the students’ ability in reading comprehension. The reading test was in the form of multiple choices with four options. It had been tried out first, in order to know the validity and reliability of instrument. Meanwhile, to analyze the data, Multifactor Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test of 2x2 and Tukey test were used. Before conducting the ANOVA test, normality and homogeneity test were conducted.

The result of data analysis showed that: (1) contextual teaching and learning method was more effective than grammar translation method in teaching reading for the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010; (2) the students having high intelligence had better reading comprehension than those having low intelligence for the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010; and (3) there was an interaction between teaching methods and students’ intelligence in teaching reading for the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010.

Seeing the result of the research, it could be concluded that contextual teaching and learning method was an effective method to teach reading comprehension. The research also showed that the effect of teaching methods depended on the degree of intelligence. Therefore, the English teachers were recommended to apply the seven components of contextual teaching and learning method in the classroom, particularly in teaching reading comprehension.


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MOTTO

Our goal as faculty is to train minds, not merely transmit subject matter

(G. Doyle Daves)


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thanks to Allah S.W.T., Almighty God, for the blessing, mercy, health, and

guidance in leading her thesis entitled “The Effectiveness of Contextual Teaching and

Learning to Teach Reading Comprehension Viewed from Students’ Intelligence: An

Experimental Study in SMPN 14 Surakarta in the Academic Year of 2009/2010” to

the accomplishment.

She realizes that this thesis can be finished with the help of so many people.

She would like to express her profound gratitude and appreciation to:

1. Prof. Drs. Suranto, M. Sc., Ph.D. as the Director of Graduate School of Sebelas

Maret University who has given his permission to write this thesis.

2. Dr. Ngadiso, M. Pd. as the Head of English Education of Sebelas Maret

University and the first consultant who has patiently and willingly given

valuable advice, guidance, and time.

3. Dr. Abdul Asib, M. Pd. as the second consultant who has patiently and willingly

given valuable advice and guidance.

4. Hj. Ratna Purwaningtyastuti, S. Pd., M. Pd as the Headmaster of SMPN 14

Surakarta for her generosity in giving permission to study or conduct the

research.

5. Her beloved husband, mother, children and friends by whom the writer has been

assisted, supported, and encouraged over the months.

6. All her students, who have taken part in her research.

The writer realizes that this thesis is still far from being perfect. Therefore,

she will accept all constructive criticism and suggestion for the progress of the next

study. May this thesis be useful to increase the quality of the educational activities.

Surakarta, June 2011

KK


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TABLE OF CONTENT

Page TITLE .................................................................................................................... i

APPROVAL .......................................................................................................... ii

LEGITIMATION ................................................................................................. iii

PRONOUNCEMENT ............................................................................................ iv

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................... v

MOTTO ................................................................................................................. vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................... viii

LIST OF APPENDICES ........................................................................................ x

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. xi

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... xii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 1

A. Background of the Study ...................................................... 1

B. Identification of the Problems .............................................. 5

C. Limitation of the Problems.................................................... 6

D. Statement of the Problems .................................................... 7

E. Purpose of the Study ............................................................. 7

F. Benefits of the Study ............................................................. 8

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES ............................... 9

A. Theoritical Description ......................................................... 9

1. Reading Competence ..................................................... 9

a. Definition of Reading ................................................ 9

b. Types of Reading Competence ................................. 10

c. Reading Comprehension Skill ................................. 11

d. Approaches to Reading ............................................ 13

e. Strategies for Reading Comprehension ..................... 15

f. Micro Skills for Reading ........................................... 17


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g. Classroom Approaches to Reading .......................... 20

h. Factors Influencing Reading .................................... 22

2. Teaching Method ............................................................ 25

a. Grammar Translation Method .................................. 25

1) The Characteristics of GTM ................................. 25

2) The Advantages of GTM ...................................... 29

3) The Disadvantages of GTM .................................. 30

4) The Teaching Procedure of GTM. ........................ 32

b. Contextual Teaching and Learning .......................... 34

1) Contextual Teaching and Learning ...................... 34

2) The Characteristics of CTL .................................. 35

3) The Components of CTL ..................................... 36

4) The Principles of CTL ......................................... 37

5) The Teaching Procedure of CTL .......................... 40

6) The Advantages of CTL ...................................... 43

7) The Disadvantages of CTL .................................. 46

3. The Nature of Intelligence ............................................. 46

a. The Meaning of Intelligence .................................... 46

b. The Elements of Intelligence .................................... 47

c. The Requirements of Intelligence Test ..................... 52

d. The Types of Intelligence Test .................................. 53

e. The Influence of Intelligence on Reading ................ 56

B. Rationale .............................................................................. 56

C. Hypotheses ........................................................................... 60

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .............................................. 61

A. Place and Time of the Research ........................................... 61

B. Research Method .................................................................. 61

C. Research Design ................................................................... 62

D. Subject of the Research ........................................................ 63

E. Technique of Collecting the Data ........................................ 64

F. Technique of Analyzing the Data ........................................ 67


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CHAPTER IV THE RESULT OF THE STUDY .................................................. 71

A. The Description of the Data ................................................. 71

B. Normality and Homogeneity Test ......................................... 80

C. Hypothesis Test .................................................................... 82

D. Discussion of the Result of the Study .................................. 86

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION, AND SUGGESTION ............. 94

A. Conclusion ............................................................................. 94

B. Implication ............................................................................. 94

C. Suggestion ............................................................................. 95

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................. 97

APPENDICES ...................................................................................................... 100


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LIST OF APPENDICES

Page

Appendix 1 Lesson Plan ............................................................................. 101

Appendix 2 Blueprint of Reading Test (1) ................................................ 201

Appendix 3 Instrument of Reading Test (1) .............................................. 202

Appendix 4 The Valid and Nonvalid Items of Reading Test (1) .............. 215

The Valid and Nonvalid Items of Reading Test (2) .............. 221

Appendix 5 Reliability ............................................................................... 226

Appendix 6 Blueprint of Reading Test (2) ................................................. 227

Appendix 7 Instrument of Reading Test (2) .............................................. 228

Appendix 8 Scores of Reading Test ........................................................... 238

Appendix 9 Scores of Intelligence Test ...................................................... 243

Appendix 10 Descriptive Statistic ................................................................ 247

Appendix 11 Normality Test ........................................................................ 267

Appendix 12 Homogeneity Test ................................................................... 281

Appendix 13 Hypothesis Test ...................................................................... 283

Appendix 14 Lilliefors Tabel ....................................................................... 290

Appendix 15 Table Values of rproduct moment ................................................... 291

Appendix 16 Q Table Tuckey ...................................................................... 292

Appendix 17 Table Chi-Square .................................................................... 294

Appendix 18 Table Nilai F0,05 ...................................................................... 296


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LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1 Teaching Procedure of GTM in Teaching Reading ....................... 32

Table 2 Teaching Procedure of CTL in Teaching Reading ........................ 40

Table 3 Important Elements of Intelligence ................................................ 47

Table 4 Sample Items Similar to Those Used in WAIS-R .......................... 55

Table 5 Time Schedule for the Research .................................................... 61

Table 6 Frequency Distribution of Data A1 ................................................ 72

Table 7 Frequency Distribution of Data A2 ............................................... 73

Table 8 Frequency Distribution of Data B1 ................................................. 74

Table 9 Frequency Distribution of Data B2 ................................................ 75

Table 10 Frequency Distribution of Data A1B1 ............................................ 77

Table 11 Frequency Distribution of Data A1B2 ........................................... 78

Table 12 Frequency Distribution of Data A2B1 ............................................ 79

Table 13 Frequency Distribution of Data A2B2 ........................................... 80

Table 14 The Summary of Normality Test using Lilliefors .......................... 81

Table 15 The Homogeneity Test ................................................................... 81

Table 16 Multifactor Analysis of Variance .................................................. 82


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LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1 Research Design ............................................................................ 62

Figure 2 Design of Multifactor Analysis of Variance .................................. 67

Figure 3 Histogram and Polygon of Data A1 ................................................ 73

Figure 4 Histogram and Polygon of Data A2 ................................................ 74

Figure 5 Histogram and Polygon of Data B1 ................................................ 75

Figure 6 Histogram and Polygon of Data B2 ............................................... 76

Figure 7 Histogram and Polygon of Data A1B1 ............................................ 77


Figure 9 Histogram and Polygon of Data A2B1 ........................................... 79



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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Based on School-Based Curriculum (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan

Pendidikan) 2006 for junior high school, the aim of teaching English is to

develop communicative competence. Having communicative competence here

means to understand and express the information, minds and feelings in their

daily life. It is also to develop technology, science, and culture. The learners

are expected to master the ability to communicate completely. The ability is

called communicative competence. This is supported by the learners’

linguistic, actional, socio-cultural, and strategic competences in an integrated

way. The learners afterwards are able to produce the spoken and written text

realized in listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

One of the four language skills that the students have to master is

reading skill. Aebersold and Field (1997: 15) state, “Reading is what happens

when people look at a text and assign meaning to the written symbols in that

text”. Moreover, Dawson and Bamman (1997: 1) say, “Reading is truly a

basic mean of learning in all subjects” because in every subject, students’

learning activities involve reading. Through reading, students are able to

expand their view of all things, such as information, ideas, skills, values, and

ways of thinking, as it is stated by Williams (1996: 13) below:

The teachers’ reasons of having the learners read a foreign language (i.e.

English) are as follows:


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1) Learners can have further practice of language that they have already met

through listening and speaking,

2) They can practice language in order to re-use it in writing,

3) They can learn how to make sense of texts, in order to extract the

information they need from them,

4) They can find enjoyment through reading, and finally

5) The teachers can relax from time to time in the classroom.

The objective of teaching reading for junior high school students is

providing them with comprehending knowledge. It means that the ability of

reading must be followed by understanding or comprehending the text. The

competence standard and the basic competence for the eighth grade want the

students to be able to comprehend meaning. This meaning covers ideational,

interpersonal, or textual from various interactive and monolog written texts.

These texts are short functional text and genre, particularly in the form of

descriptive and recount. The comprehension of reading is measured from the

ability to identify words’ meaning, main idea, supporting details, factual

information, rhetorical steps, and purpose.

However, in reality the students of SMP 14 Surakarta still get

difficulties in comprehending the English text. It is indicated by their low

score of reading comprehension. Commonly, the students face the difficulty in

finding the main idea and supporting details, in getting meaning of word,

phrase, and sentence, in understanding text organization; and in answering the

questions dealing with the text. In addition, the students are not enthusiastic

and interested in learning reading. They find it difficult in comprehending a


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text when finding many new vocabularies and look sleepy and bored during

the lesson. The students are not actively engaged in learning activities.

Another factor influencing to the problem is the condition of the

students that come from different social situation, creativity, intelligence and

others. In the teaching and learning process, frequently, there are some

students that are able to study fast, but some cannot understand the items.

Meanwhile, the teachers get difficulty to be able to control the child one by

one whether they have understood the lesson or not. It happens because the

time available is limited, the number of the students is 35-40 children and

sometimes the students do not have the bravery to express the questions. That

is why it needs a method of teaching to make the students interact, collaborate,

assist and discuss with each other to solve the problems.

The fact that the teaching method is still dominated by traditional

system arises some serious problems. Most students could not relate what they

have learnt with the knowledge in recent and future life. It means that learning

was not meaningful for students to solve the problems occurring in their lives.

Learning had not been able to develop language knowledge, language skills,

and language competence comprehensively. It happened because the teaching

and learning process did not correlate the materials with the students’ daily

life, was not contextual, gave more abilities to memorize, but not to think

creatively, critically, and analytically.

Therefore, the researcher is interested in conducting an experimental

study by proposing a method of teaching reading comprehension, namely

contextual teaching and learning (CTL). This approach assumes that learning


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process would be actually occurring if the students could find meaningful

correlation between abstract thinking and practical application in the real

context. In such learning experience, facts, concepts, principles and

procedures as subject materials that are internalized through discovery,

reinforcement, interrelationship, and integrated processes. Contextual learning

is coordination between subject materials or content and intellectual skills that

should be possessed by the students in a situation which is suitable with the

students’ cognitive psychology and environmental needs (http://coe.ssusb.edu/

scarcella/help.pdf)

Furthermore, Johnson (2005: 25) describes contextual teaching learning

as an educational process that aims to help students see meaning in the

academic material they are studying by connecting academic subjects with the

context of their daily lives, that is, with context of their personal, social, and

cultural circumstance. To achieve their aims, the system encompasses the

following eight components: making meaningful connections, doing

significant work, self-regulated learning, and collaborating, critical and

creative thinking, nurturing the individual, reaching high standards, and using

authentic assessment.

Besides the teaching method, other factors which may influence the

effectiveness of students’ learning are external factors and internal factors.

External factors can be classified into two groups: social and non-social

factors. Social factors usually come from the students themselves and non-

social factors can be the place, the weather, and the time when the learning

process happens. Internal factors can also be classified into two groups. They


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are physiological factors and psychological factors. The physiological factors

include the function of certain organs that students have. The psychological

factors cover students’ intelligence, motivation, and interest.

Intelligence is an important determinant of reading. Reading is a

process of thinking. Intelligence is the ability to learn and to apply what has

been learned. A measure of verbal intelligence was significantly more strongly

correlated with the rate of reading, single- word reading, vocabulary or word

knowledge, and understanding of what was read in a text (Sue, et al., 2009: 2)

Considering the characteristics of contextual teaching and learning

method and the intelligence, thus there is an expectation that this learning

method will be able to give a positive contribution towards English teaching

and learning particularly in improving students’ reading comprehension. In

order to be more convinced whether this research works well, the writer tends

to compare the result of students’ reading comprehension achievement

between the control class taught using grammar translation method (GTM)

and the experimental class taught by using CTL viewed from their

intelligence.

B. Identification of the Problems

Based on the background of the study, there are many problems that

may arise. The writer identifies some problems as follows:

1. Why do students tend to have low reading comprehension?

2. Do students need a good environment in teaching learning process?

3. Can students apply the knowledge in their daily life?


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4. Does the teacher create a real situation in a class which supports teaching

and learning process?

5. What kinds of technique can be used to improve students’ reading

comprehension?

6. To what extent is CTL effective and helpful in teaching reading

comprehension?

7. Does students’ intelligence also influence their reading comprehension?

C. Limitation of the Problems

The research has a broad scope and it is nearly impossible for the writer

to handle all of the problems. Therefore, in this research the problems are only

focused on the following aspects:

1. The teaching methods used in this research are CTL and GTM

2. Reading comprehension in this study is limited to the level of literal and

interpretative comprehension such as identifying main points,

understanding explicitly stated information, understanding implicitly

stated information, guessing the meaning of words from context,

understanding or finding reference, identifying the generic structure of a

text and finding the communicative purpose of a text.

3. The effectiveness in this study is based on the mean score of reading

comprehension test conducted after the teaching learning process for the

students taught using CTL (experimental group) and those taught using

GTM (control group)

4. The research is viewed from the students’ intelligence of the eighth grade

students of SMP 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010.


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D. Statement of the Problems

In order to be operational, the problems of the study can be formulated

into the following questions:

1. Is CTL method more effective than GTM in teaching reading

comprehension for the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the

academic year of 2009/2010?

2. Do the students having high intelligence have better reading

comprehension than those having low intelligence for the eighth grade

students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010?

3. Is there any interaction between teaching methods and students’

intelligence in teaching reading comprehension for the eighth grade

students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010?

E. Purpose of the Study

Related to the title and the problems stated above, the purposes of the

study are as follows:

1. To examine whether the CTL method is more effective than GTM method

in teaching reading comprehension for the eighth grade students of SMPN

14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010

2. To examine whether the students having high intelligence have better

reading comprehension than those having low intelligence for the eighth

grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010

3. To find out whether there is an interaction between teaching methods and

the students’ intelligence in teaching reading comprehension for the eighth

grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010


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F. Benefits of the Study

1. For students

a) The students hopefully are able to develop their deep understanding of

reading material thoroughly.

b) The students are more interested in studying English since the

materials given are related to students’ real life, not abstract.

c) The teaching learning process will be fun, so the students are actively

involved during teaching and learning process.

2. For teachers

a) The teachers will be able to implement the suitable teaching method to

improve students’ reading comprehension.

b) The teachers are able to determine the contextual materials which

relate to students’ real life, so what she gives to her students will be

meaningful for their life.

c) The teachers are able to explore their creativity to teach reading

comprehension for students with high and low intelligence.

3. For other researcher

a) Hopefully the coming researchers can conduct any further research in

the field by extending it to other levels and subjects.

b) The research can give additional contribution to develop instructional

model and strengthen the similar theory.


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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES

A. Theoretical Description

1. Reading Competence

a. Definition of Reading

William (1996: 2) defines reading as a process whereby someone looks

at and understands what has been written. Along with the definition it is said

that reading involves processing language messages, a process of receiving

and interpreting information encoded in language via the medium of print

(Urguhart, 1998: 15). According to Nunan (2003, 68) reading is a fluent

process of readers combining information from a text and their own

background knowledge to build meaning.

Moreover, Dechant and Smith (1977: 237) explain that an effective

reading should include not only a literal comprehension of an author’s word,

but also an interpretation of his mood, tone, feeling, and attitude. It means that

reading for comprehension skill is not only merely the ability to recognize

words and sentences but the intention of the writer as well. When people read

something they understand it at three levels. First, the purely literal responding

to the graphic signals only with little depth of understanding, the second level

at which the reader recognizes the author’s meaning and the third level where

the reader’s own personal experiences and judgments influence his response to

the text.


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On the other hand, there is a definition of reading stating that there are

three basic definitions of reading. The first definition states that learning to

read means learning to pronounce words. The second definition says that

learning to read means learning to identify words and get their meaning. And

the third definition explains that learning to read means learning to bring

meaning to a text in order to get meaning from it

(http//www.ncrel.org/sdrs/ares/issues/content/cntares/reading /li7lkl.htm)

So, it can be concluded that there are two types of reading. They are

reading aloud of written material and reading for comprehension.

b. Types of Reading Performance

Reading aloud of written material is also called oral performance but

reading for comprehension is recognized as silent performance. Reading aloud

is closer to pronunciation than to comprehension. The reader shares

information that the members of the audience want. The real life purpose of

reading aloud to others is to convey information to them, to entertain them, or

to share a good story that they do not have.

Brown (2001: 312) shows a chart of classroom reading performance as

follows:

Classroom Reading Performance

Oral Silent Intensive Extensive Linguistic Content Skimming Scanning Global


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Reading performance in classroom activity can be classified into oral

and silent performance. The first deals with pronunciation skill and the latter

with intensive and extensive performance. Intensive reading performance

focuses on linguistic and semantic details of a passage. Intensive reading calls

students’ attention to grammatical forms, discourse markers, and other surface

structure details for the purpose of understanding literal meaning,

implications, rhetorical relationships, and the like.

Extensive reading performance has to do with general understanding of

a text, usually longer text (book, long article, or essays, etc.).

c. Reading Comprehension Skill

Comprehension takes place when a person is reading. It needs a set of

skills that let her find the information and able to understand it. Grellet (1998:

3) states that reading comprehension means extracting the required

information from it as efficiently as possible. And according to Smith and

Robinson (1980: 54), reading comprehension is the understanding, evaluating,

and utilizing of information and idea gained through an interaction between

the reader and author.

Kennedy (1981: 192) defines reading comprehension as a thought

process through which readers become aware of an idea, understand it in terms

of their experiential background and interpret it in relation to their own needs

and purpose. Husein and Postlethwaithe (1994: 4940-4941) state that reading

comprehension is an extraction of certain meaning from text by the reader. It

is an adaptive that is a dynamic process where the reader applies different


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cognitive strategies according to both their aims and the given situational

context. This idea is supported by Yoakam (in Smith and Dechant, 1961: 213).

He says that comprehending reading matter involves the correct association of

meanings with word symbols, the evaluation of meanings which are suggested

in context, the selection of the correct meaning, the organization of ideas as

they are read, the retention of these ideas and their use in some present or

future activity.

Kustaryo (in Widiastuti, 2003: 18) states that reading comprehension

skill cannot be completely isolated because they are so interrelated that one

skill depends on some degree on another skill. In a broader sense

comprehension could be divided into three levels of skills, namely:

1) Literal Comprehension

Literal reading refers to the ideas and facts that are directly stated on

the printed page. Literal reading places much emphasis on what a writer

says. It requires ability to locate specific facts, to identify happenings that

are described directly, to find answers to questions based on given facts, to

classify or categorize information given and to summarize the details

expressed in a selection.

2) Inferential Comprehension

Inferential reading is referred as reading between the lines. It means

that if students want to get inferences, implied meaning, from the reading

material one must read between lines. Inferences are ideas a reader

receives when he goes beneath the surface to the sense relationships, put

facts and ideas together to draw conclusions and make generalizations, and


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detects the mood of the material. Making inferences requires more

thinking on one’s part because one must depend less on the author and

more on personal insight. Finding what a writer says is not always enough.

3) Critical Comprehension

Critical reading requires higher degree of skill development and

perception. Critical reading requires reading with an inquiring mind and

with active, creative looking for false statement by making judgment. It

means questioning, comparing, evaluating and appreciating.

d. Approaches to Reading

Nuttall (1996: 16-17) proposes two approaches to reading: a top-down

approach and a bottom-up approach.

1) The top-down approach

The top-down approach is the approach to reading in which one can make predictions based on the schemata he/she has acquired – to understand the text. This kind of processing is used when one interprets assumptions and draws inferences. He/she makes conscious use of it when he/she tries to see the overall purpose of the text, or get a rough idea of the pattern of the writer’s argument, in order to make a reasoned guess at the next step. This approach might be compared to an eagle’s eye view of the landscape. From a great height, the eagle can see a wide area spread out below; it understands the nature of the whole terrain, its general pattern and the relationships between various parts of it, far better than an observer on the ground. A reader adopts an eagle’s eye view of the text when he considers it as a whole and relates it to his own knowledge and experience. This enables him to predict the writer’s purpose, the likely trend of the argument and so on, and then use this framework to interpret difficult parts of the text. The top-down approach gives a sense of perspective and makes use of all that the reader brings to the text: prior knowledge, common sense, etc, which have sometimes been undervalued in the reading class.


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In this case, the reader brings a great deal of knowledge (cultural,

syntactic, linguistic, and historical) they already possess to the text, then

check back when new/unexpected information appears.

2) The bottom-up approach

The bottom-up approach is the approach to reading in which the reader builds up a meaning from the black marks on the page: recognizing letters and words, working out sentence structure. One can make conscious use of it when the initial reading leaves him confused. Perhaps he cannot believe that the apparent message was really what the writer intended; this can happen if his world knowledge is inadequate, or if the writer’s point of view is very different from his own. In that case, one must scrutinize the vocabulary and syntax to make sure he has grasped the plain sense correctly. Thus bottom-up processing can be used as a corrective to ‘tunnel vision’ (seeing things only from one’s own limited point of view). One’s image of bottom-up processing might be a scientist with a magnifying glass examining the ecology of a transect – a tiny part of the landscape the eagle surveys. The scientist develops a detailed understanding of that one little area (which might represent a sentence in the text); but full understanding only comes if this is combined with knowledge of adjacent areas and the wider terrain, so that their effects on one another can be recognized. In other words, bottom-up and top-down approaches are used to complement each other.

Here, the readers construct the text from the smallest units (letters to words

to phrases to sentences, etc) and use their linguistic data to understand the

text well.

3) The interaction of top-down and bottom-up processing

Although logically one might expect that he ought to understand the plain sense if he wants to understand anything else, in practice a reader continually shifts from one focus to another, now adopting a top-down approach to predict the probable meaning, then moving to the bottom-up approach to check whether that is really what the writer says. This has become known as interactive reading. Both approaches can be mobilized by conscious choice, and both are important strategies for readers.


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In order to be able to understand or interpret the text comprehensively,

both top down and bottom up approach can be used to complement each

other.

e. Strategies for Reading Comprehension

A successful reading comprehension is much determined by the effective

strategies conducted in classroom activities. Brown (1984: 291-296) shows ten

strategies for reading comprehension as follows:

1) Identifying the purpose in reading

Effective reading consists of clearly identifying the purpose in reading

something. Therefore, learners will understand what they are looking for

in the reading materials.

2) Using grapheme rules and patterns to aid in bottom-up decoding

At the beginning levels of learning English, one of the difficulties

students encounter in earning to read is making the correspondence

between spoken and written English. In many cases, learners have become

acquainted with oral language and have some difficulty learning English

spelling conventions. They may need to be given hints and explanations

about certain English orthographic rules and peculiarities.

3) Using efficient silent reading techniques foe relatively rapid

comprehension

The efficiency of silent reading techniques can be increased by giving

learners some reading rules as follow:

3.1. Minimizing to pronounce each word

3.2. Trying to perceive visually more than one word at a time

3.3. Trying to infer meaning through context


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4) Skimming

Skimming is one of the most important and useful reading skills. It is a

method of quickly gathering information from the printed page. It also

gives readers the advantages of being able to predict the purpose of

passage, the main topic or message, and possibly some of the developing

or supporting ideas (Brown, 1994: 293).

5) Scanning

In scanning the reader runs his eyes down the page with the purpose of

finding an answer to a specific question (Dechant and Smith, 1983: 284).

The purpose of scanning is to extract certain specific information without

reading through the whole text (Brown. 1994: 293).

6) Semantic mapping

The strategy of semantic mapping helps the readers to provide some

order to the chaos. Learners attempt to explore ideas or events relating to

certain passage.

7) Guessing

Guessing is an extremely board category. Learners can use it to their

advantage to:

7.1. Guess the meaning of a word

7.2. Guess a grammatical relationship

7.3. Guess a discourse relationship

7.4. Infer implied meaning

7.5. Guess about a cultural reference

7.6. Guess content messages


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Teachers can make their students become accurate guessers by

encouraging them to use effective compensation strategies in which they

fill gaps in their competence by intelligent attempts to use whatever clues

are available.

8) Vocabulary analysis

Several techniques in analyzing vocabulary are as follows:

8.1. Looking for prefixes

8.2. Looking for suffixes

8.3. Looking for roots that are familiar

8.4. Looking for grammatical context that may signal information

8.5. Looking for the semantic context for clues

9) Distinguishing between literal and implied meanings

The fact that not all language can be interpreted appropriately by

attending to its literal, syntactic surface structure makes special demands

on readers. Implied meaning usually has to be derived from processing

pragmatic information.

10) Capitalizing on discourse markers to process relationships

There are many discourse markers in English that signal relationships

among ideas as expressed through phrases, clauses, and sentences. A clear

comprehension of such markers can greatly enhance learners’ reading

efficiency.

f. Micro Skills for Reading

Reading comprehension involves some skills that can indicate the

students’ competence in having good reading skill. Brown (2001: 307) states

that there are fourteen micro-skills for reading comprehension:


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1) Discriminating among the distinctive graphemes and orthographic patterns

of English.

2) Retaining chunks of language of different lengths in short-term memory.

3) Processing writing at efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose.

4) Recognizing a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and their

significance.

5) Recognizing grammatical word classes (noun, verb, etc), systems (e.g.

tense, agreement, pluralization), patterns, rules, and elliptical forms.

6) Recognizing that a particular meaning may be expressed in different

grammatical forms.

7) Recognizing cohesive devices in written discourse and their role in

signaling the relationship between and among clauses.

8) Recognizing the rhetorical forms of written discourse and their

significance for interpretation.

9) Recognizing the communicative functions of written texts, according to

form and purpose.

10) Inferring context that is not explicit by using background knowledge.

11) Inferring links and connections between events, ideas, supporting ideas,

etc., deducing causes and effects, and detecting such relations as main

idea, supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization,

and exemplification.

12) Distinguishing between literal and implied meanings.

13) Detecting culturally specific references and interpret them in a context of

the appropriate cultural schemata.


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14) Developing and use a battery of reading strategies such as scanning and

skimming, detecting discourse markers, guessing the meaning of words

from context, and activating schemata for interpretation of texts.

In relation to what Brown states, here are sub skills that can also be used:

1) Recognizing the script of a language.

2) Deducing the meaning of unfamiliar lexical items.

3) Understanding explicitly stated information.

4) Understanding conceptual meaning.

5) Understanding the communicative values of sentences and utterances.

6) Understanding relations within the sentence.

7) Understanding relations between sentences through grammatical and

lexical cohesive devices.

8) Interpreting text by going outside it.

9) Identifying main points in a discourse.

10) Extracting salient points to summarize.

11) Basic reference skills (contents, index, abbreviations, ordering)

12) Skimming

13) Scanning

14) Transcoding written information to tabular or diagram form and vice versa

(file://G:/reading/Approaches%20to%20Reading.htm).

From the definition given above, reading comprehension can be

summarized as the act of one’s mind to understand or to interpret written or

printed material containing information. It involves the activity of the mind to

comprehend the meaning of the text intended by the writer, to know the


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organization of the ideas and finally reuse it in writing or future activity.

Those activities include deducing the meaning of unfamiliar lexical items,

guessing the meaning of words from context, understanding explicitly stated

information, distinguishing between literal and implied meanings, detecting

culturally specific references, detecting such relations as main idea, and

recognizing the communicative functions of written texts, according to form

and purpose.

g. Classroom Approaches to Reading

William (1996: 35) says that there are some common problems that

teachers have in teaching reading. They are learners lack motivation to read;

teachers are uncertain as to how they should carry out language preparation;

teachers are unsure about selecting and devising reading – related activities.

Furthermore, he proposes three phases to teach reading: pre-reading,

while-reading, and post-reading.

1) Pre-Reading

‘Please turn to page 34. Read the passage and answer the questions.’ A teacher who starts the lesson in this way is hardly likely to motivate the learners. What the pre-reading phase tries to do is: 1. to introduce and arouse interest in the topic 2. to motivate learners by giving a reason for reading 3. to provide some language preparation for the text Of course not all of these aims will be relevant for all texts. In some cases the language might already have been introduced, or there may be no particular language problems. In any case, language preparation does not mean that the teacher should explain every possible unknown word and structure in the text, but that he should ensure that the learners will be able to tackle the text tasks without being totally frustrated by language difficulties. Furthermore, as we shall see, language preparation can often be carried out by the learners, as well as by the teacher.


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In order to know what knowledge, ideas or opinions might the learners

already have on the topic and how this knowledge can be drawn out and

used, the phase should be carried out in the classroom. The other ways of

pre-reading may be in visuals (eg diagrams, maps, photographs) drawing

up of lists, or answering questions (oral or written).

2) While-Reading

This phase draws on the text, rather than the learner’s ideas previous to reading. The aims of this phase are: 1. to help understanding of the writer’s purpose 2. to help understanding of the text structure 3. to clarify text content The traditional ‘comprehension exercise’ at the end of a text is a typical while-reading activity. In other cases the learners may be asked to find the answers to questions given at the beginning of the text (pre-text questions), or to questions inserted at various points within the text. Completing diagrams or maps, making lists, taking notes are other types of while-reading work.

In this phase, learners are supposed to know the function of this text, how

the text is organized, the content, the inference, and the reading styles.

3) Post-Reading

‘Right! We’ve read the passage on page 34, and finished the comprehension exercises. Now turn to page 42.’ Perhaps some passages deserve to be finished with and erased from the memory as soon as possible! Put certainty not all. The aims of post-reading work are: 1. to consolidate or reflect upon what has been read 2. to relate the text to the learners’ own knowledge, interests, or

views The work does not refer directly to the text, but ‘grows out’ of it. Post-reading may also include any reactions to the text and to the while-reading work, for example, learners say whether they liked it, and found it useful or not.


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The learners in the last phase are hoped to know and present a similar

situation to that presented in the text. The works that can be given to them

may be writing, interaction, drawing a diagram, etc.

William (1996: 40) also states that this three phase approach

obviously is not to be carried out mechanically on every occasion.

Sometimes the teacher may wish to cut out the pre-reading stage and get

learners to work on the text directly. Sometimes post-reading work may

not be suitable.

h. Factors Influencing Reading

a) Physical Factors

Physical deficiencies cause reading disability. Visual, auditory,

speech impairments and neurological status are some physical deficiencies,

which cause reading disability.

b) Sociological Factors

Language background depends on the extent of experience. Though

the school can do much in the matter of language background and general

experiences with speech and vocabulary, reading ability is a concomitant of

home conditions.

There is a close relation between reading and social factors. Home

background can include:

a) Economic condition.

b) Opportunities for play and for social experience

c) Nature and amount of speech and language patterns of children

particularly as they are influenced by the talk of the parents.


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d) Amount of reading done in the home and the availability of books.

e) Quality of family life in terms of inter-parental relationships.

School environment also plays a significant role in the development

of reading skill. The school library or multi media have an important role in

reading program. To progress satisfactorily in learning to read there should

be a balance between the skill and home and school environment available

for the learners.

c) The Psychological Factors

a) Interest

Interest is an emotional involvement of like or dislike which is

associated with attention to some object. Interest is the tendency to

give selection attention to something. Lack of interest is the cause of

poor reading.

b) Intelligence

Intelligence is an important determinant of reading. Reading is a

process of thinking. Intelligence is the ability to learn and to apply

what has been learned. Measures of reading comprehension tend to be

more strongly correlated with intelligence than are measures for

orthographic decoding (Sue, et al., 2009: 1)

c) Reading Readiness

Success in reading depends on the child’s overall level of

maturity. The child has to pass through different stages of mental

maturity before he can receive reading instruction.


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d) Attitude towards Reading

The child should develop a favorable attitude towards school,

classmates, and reading. Positive attitudes progress in learning to read

and negative attitudes result in reading difficulties. Personal and social

adjustment, home conditions, peer relationship, teacher-students

relations and the instructional program all influence attitudes towards

reading.

e) Cognitive Style

Cognition and reading are related in two important ways. First,

specific cognitive abilities are essential for the acquisition of reading

skills. Second, reading is a powerful; means for knowledge acquisition,

structuring and application.

d) Teacher Related Factors

Success in teaching children to read depends much on the teacher.

The teachers’ language teaching competence influences the reading skill of

the students. Teachers themselves sometimes are not good readers. They

seldom give illustrations from other books. In school teachers never

encourage the students to read anything other than the text.

Sometimes the teachers’ professionalism and the teaching method

used by them influence the reading skill of the students.


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2. Teaching Method

a. Grammar Translation Method

1) The Characteristics of Grammar Translation Method

Grammar Translation Method is a method that was dominated

European language teaching from the 1840s to the 1940s, it is widely used in

some parts of the world today.

Language teaching came into its own as a profession in the twentieth

century. The whole foundation of contemporary language teaching was

developed during the early of the twentieth century, as applied linguists and

others sought to developed principles and procedures for the design of

teaching method and material. Grammar Translation Method based on the

study of Latin had become the standard way of studying foreign languages in

school. In the process of teaching learning to master L2 the activities that the

learner have to do are reading and writing. In this method speaking and

listening are less to be thought so it makes the students just do the task from

the teacher (teacher-centered).

In Grammar Translation Method, while teaching the text book the

teacher translates every word, phrase from English into the mother tongue of

learners. Further, students are required to translate sentences from their mother

tongue into English. These exercises in translation are based on various items

covering the grammar of the target language. The method emphasizes the

study of grammar through deduction that is through the study of the rules of

grammar. A contrastive study of the target language with the mother tongue

gives an insight into the structure not only of the foreign language but also of

the mother tongue. The Grammar Translation Method or classical method

emerged when people of the western world wanted to learn "foreign"


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languages such as Latin and Greek. Its focus was on grammatical rules, the

memorization of vocabulary and of various declensions and conjugations,

translations of texts, doing written exercises.

a) Theory of Language

(1) Language is a system of rules—learned through literature—a formal

system.

(2) Literary language is superior to spoken language; culture is literature

and the fine arts.

(3) The learner’s L1 is the medium in class; translation is used to make

meanings clear in the TL.

(4) Languages can be compared and contrasted.

(5) Structures, rules of grammar, sentence formation are what is

considered.

b) Theory of Language Learning

(1) The learning process is conceived of as a process of memorizing rules

& examples. The learner would learn vocabulary & conjugations off

by heart.

(2) Language learning is primarily memorizing rules & facts to understand

& manipulate structures of language.

(3) Translation is used as a means of language learning.

(4) Learning is facilitated through attention to similarities between TL and

NL.

c) Teaching Objectives

The goal of foreign language study is to learn a language in order to read

its literature (text) it also to get the benefit from mental discipline and


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intellectual development that the results from foreign language study.

Grammar translation method is a way of studying a language that the first

what we have done is by learned grammar rules and vocabulary.

d) Syllabus

The ways to teach the grammar translation method are:

(1) Structural.

(2) From simple to more complex.

(3) Systematic presentation.

e) Types of Learning and Teaching Activities

There are some types that differentiate the Grammar Translation Method

from the other method in language teaching:

(1) Literary language is superior to spoken language.

(2) Successful learners are to translate each language into the other.

(3) The primary skills are reading and writing.

(4) To find native language equivalents for target language words.

(5) To learn about the rules of traditional grammar.

(6) Learner should memorize verb conjugations and forms.

f) Teacher Roles

In Grammar Translation Method teacher is the center of the process of

teaching learning. Teacher has to explain the material like the grammar

system/rules to the learner after that teacher give the learner exercise.

g) Learner Roles

Learners only do what the teacher has given, so it is not learner-centered

but it is teacher-centered. In the teaching learning process the students


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have to learn vocabulary, the grammatical rules, translating, memorize

rules, read and write the text from source language into target language.

h) The Role of Instructional Materials

In most versions of the method, grammar was taught deductively—i.e. the

rule was announced prior to the exercises. In some cases, it was taught

inductively—i.e. learners were asked to puzzle over the exercises, and

expected to figure out the rules from the examples. However, grammar is

taught deductively not inductively (more usually associated with more

'learner-centered' approaches). Besides that it provides samples of

literature.

i) Teaching Procedure

There is a procedure or technique in which classes are taught in the mother

tongue, with little active use of the target language, much vocabulary is

taught in the form of lists of isolated words, long elaborate explanations of

the intricacies of grammar are given, the grammar provides the rule for

putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and

inflection of words, reading of difficult classical texts is begun early. Little

attention is paid to the context of texts, which are treated as exercises in

grammatical analysis (http://www.google.co.id/#hl=id&q=grammar+

translation+method+on+language+teaching.ppt&start=20&sa=N&fp=ca19

d887132bd2da).


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2) The Advantages of Grammar Translation Method

a) The phraseology of the target language is quickly explained. Translation is

the easiest way of explaining meanings or words and phrases from one

language into another. Any other method of explaining vocabulary items

in the second language is found time consuming. A lot of time is wasted if

the meanings of lexical items are explained through definitions and

illustrations in the second language. Further, learners acquire some short

of accuracy in understanding synonyms in the source language and the

target language.

b) Teacher’s labor is saved. Since the textbooks are taught through the

medium of the mother tongue, the teacher may ask comprehension

questions on the text taught in the mother tongue. Pupils will not have

much difficulty in responding to questions on the mother tongue. So, the

teacher can easily assess whether the students have learned what he has

taught them. Communication between the teacher and the learner does not

cause linguistic problems. Even teachers who are not fluent in English can

teach English through this method. That is perhaps the reason why this

method has been practiced so widely and has survived so long

(http://en.wikipedia .org/wiki/ Grammar _translation).


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3) The Disadvantages of Grammar Translation Method:

a) It is an unnatural method. The natural order of learning a language is

listening, speaking, reading and writing. That is the way how the child

learns his mother tongue in natural surroundings, but in the Grammar

Translation Method the teaching of the second language starts with the

teaching of reading. Thus, the learning process is reversed. This poses

problems.

b) Speech is neglected. The Grammar Translation Method lays emphasis on

reading and writing. It neglects speech. Thus, the students who are taught

English through this method fail to express themselves adequately in

spoken English. Even at the undergraduate stage they feel shy of

communicating through English. It has been observed that in a class,

which is taught English through this method, learners listen to the mother

tongue more than that to the second/foreign language. Since language

learning involves habit formation such students fail to acquire habit of

speaking English. Thus, they have to pay a heavy price for being taught

through this method.

c) Exact translation is not possible. Translation is, indeed, a difficult task and

exact translation from one language to another is not always possible. A

language is the result of various customs, traditions, and modes of

behavior of a speech community and these traditions differ from

community to community. There are several lexical items in one language,

which have no synonyms/equivalents in another language. For instance,

the meaning of the English word ‘table’ does not fit in such expression as


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the ‘table of contents’, ‘table of figures’, ‘multiplication table’, ‘time table’

and ‘table the resolution’, etc. English prepositions are also difficult to

translate. Consider sentences such as ‘We see with our eyes’, ‘Bombay is

far from Delhi’, ‘He died of cholera’, He succeeded through hard work’. In

these sentences ‘with’, ‘from’, ‘of’, ‘through’ can be translated into the

Hindi preposition ‘se’ and vice versa. Each language has its own structure,

idiom and usage, which do not have their exact counterparts in another

language. Thus, translation should be considered an index of one’s

proficiency in a language.

d) It does not give pattern practice. A person can learn a language only when

he internalizes its patterns to the extent that they form his habit. But the

Grammar Translation Method does not provide any such practice to the

learner of a language. It rather attempts to teach language through rules

and not by use. Researchers in linguistics have proved that to speak any

language, whether native or foreign, entirely by rule is quite impossible.

Language learning means acquiring certain skills, which can be learned

through practice and not by just memorizing rules. The persons who have

learned a foreign or second language through this method find it difficult

to give up the habit of first thinking in their mother tongue and then

translating their ideas into the second language. They, therefore, fail to get

proficiency in the second language approximating that in the first

language. The method, therefore, suffers from certain weaknesses for

which there is no remedy (http://en.wikipedia .org/wiki/ Grammar

_translation)


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4) The Teaching Procedure of Grammar Translation Method

The teaching procedure of grammar translation method according to

Sujoko (1990: 1-28) and supported by Diane Larsen and Freeman (2000: 11-

21) is seen as follows:

Table 1. The Teaching Procedure of GTM in Teaching Reading

Phase Component of GTM Indicator

− Opening − Pre-teaching of

reading activities − Whilst-teaching of

reading activities

− Presentation of

Pattern in Context

− Greeting − Praying − Calling the roll

− Asking the previous

lessons. − Asking students some

questions to arouse interest in the new topic/theme.

− Presenting any new

vocabulary which is crucial to an understanding of the passage in the native language by writing down in the whiteboard.

− Reading the text, while the students just listen to the teacher.

− Asking the students to translate the passage from English into Indonesian in a written form


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-Closing

− Comprehension Questions

− Identification of the

Pattern − Functional

Explication − Conducting and

Correcting Drills

− Asking some questions in the native language to make sure that the students have understood.

− Giving an example of

the pattern in the whiteboard

− Asking the students to find the other occurrences of the same pattern.

− Asking the students to

learn when to use the pattern.

− Asking the students to

answer the questions individually in their books.

− Asking the students to write down the answer on the whiteboard, if the answer is wrong the teacher corrects it.

− Asking questions from the students

− Making conclusion about the material

− Giving the homework to the students to memorize the vocabulary and the grammar rule.


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b. Contextual Teaching and Learning

1) Contextual Teaching and Learning

Although contextual teaching and learning is relatively new concept in

the field of education, its principles and practices have been around for

centuries. The concept of teaching students in a context as close to real life as

possible can be dated back to the 16th century. It assumes that children learn

better if the situation around them is created naturally. It will be more

meaningful if the children experience what they learn, not only to know what

they learn or just memorize what the teacher transfers to them.

Contextual teaching and learning is defined as a conception of teaching

and learning that helps teachers relate subject matter content to real world

situations (United States Department of Education Office of Vocational and

Adult Education, 2001). As an innovative instructional process, it helps

students connect the content they are learning to the life contexts in which that

content could be used. The students could learn more from travelling and

experiencing the world first hand than they could from studying a textbook.

The school fieldtrips that students take today could be a result of the belief

that students learn without the textbook: fieldtrips give students an opportunity

to interact with society and gain valuable experiences. Creating a setting in

which students learn as realistically as possible is a goal of teachers who use

contextual teaching and learning. Teachers who use contextual teaching and

learning practices not only place emphasis on fieldtrips, but they also

emphasize practices such as learning by doing, problem solving, and

cooperative learning.


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2) The Characteristics of Contextual Teaching and Learning

According to Nurhadi (2003: 35-36) there are twenty characteristics of

CTL. They are as follows: (1) Students are actively involved in teaching and

learning process; (2) Students learn from his friends, discuss, and correct each

other in groups; (3) Learning are connected to the real world or simulated

problems; (4) Behavior is build by self awareness; (5) Skills are developed by

understanding; (6) Reward for good behavior is self-satisfaction; (7) Because

of the awareness, someone does not do anything bad; (8) Language is taught

communicatively, that is students asked to use language in real context; (9)

The understanding of formula is developed based on the students’ prior

schemata; (10) The understanding of formula is relatively different among the

students; it depends on their schemata (ongoing process of development); (11)

Students use critical thinking, are involved and responsible in the effective

teaching and learning process, and also bring their schemata to the learning

process; (12) The existing knowledge is developed by him; (13) Knowledge is

constructed by himself. Humans always innovate, so knowledge is tentative

and incomplete; (14) The students should be responsible to monitor and

develop their own learning; (15) Reward on students’ experience is

paramount; (16) The achievement is measured by authentic assessment:

working process, students’ performance, and masterpiece, record of students,

activity, and test; (17) The teaching and learning process happens in various

places, context, and setting; (18) Regret is the consequence of bad behavior;

(19) Good behavior is based on intrinsic motivation; and (20) Someone

behaves well because he believes that it is good and beneficial. It is clearly

stated that CTL is student-centered and emphasizes students’ active learning.


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3) The Components of Contextual Teaching and Learning

CTL has seven main components. Those are constructivism, inquiry,

questioning, learning community, modeling, reflection, and authentic

assessment (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, 2003: 10-19).

a) Constructivism. Knowledge is constructed by human little by little. It is

not a set of facts, concepts, or laws waiting to be discovered. Humans

create or construct knowledge as they attempt to bring meaning to their

experience.

b) Inquiry. Inquiring is the main learning activity. Students themselves

inquiry knowledge, science, and skills, not by memorizing them.

c) Questioning. It is believed that questioning can help teacher to lead,

motivate, and guide students in the teaching and learning process.

d) Learning Community. Teacher makes the students into some groups which

consist of good and poor students. In this case the good student will help

the poor one.

e) Modeling. Students can imitate what their teacher does, such as repeating

how their teacher pronounces English words.

f) Reflection. Reflection is a respond to the events, activities, knowledge,

and science, the students newly have.

g) Authentic Assessment. Assessment is a process of collecting datum which

views the students’ development. Learning is focused on learning how to

learn. Datum collected is based on the process, not the result.


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4) The Principles of Contextual Teaching and Learning

CTL has different principles from other approaches. Johnson (2002: 26-

37) states that CTL encompasses three typical principles, namely, the principle

of interdependence, the principle of differentiation, and the principle of self-

organization.

The principle of interdependence states that all things both in and out of

the schools are interconnected that creates a learning environment. The

schools are built in societies. Students, parents, teachers, principles,

administration staffs, gardeners are from societies. The output of the schools

will be back to society too. The principle of interdependence connects

everything in the universe to everything else. It requires connecting,

collaborating, thinking actively and creatively, engaging in hands-on learning,

formulating clear objectives, identifying high standards, doing significant

tasks that benefit others, valuing each person, and using assessment methods

that link learning with the real world (Johnson, 2003: 29)

The principle of differentiation is related to the uniqueness and

differences of each student. It frees students to explore their individual talents,

cultivates their own learning style, and progress at their own pace. CTL

challenges the students to respect that uniqueness, diversity, and creativity by

collaborating in a group in search for meaning, insight, and a fresh

perspective, and to realize that diversity as a sign of robustness and strength

(Johnson, 2003: 31-32)

The principle of self-organization enables the students to develop their

potentials, achieve academic excellence, and have career skills by connecting

school work with their prior experience and knowledge. They are responsible


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on what they are doing. The decision will be made after planning and

evaluating the evidence critically. The collaboration with others is conducted

to gain new insights and to enlarge their perceptions (Johnson, 2002: 34-35)

To maintain the balance, those three principles are not separable. In other

words, those three principles are intertwined or interconnected. The world is

not dead but living and dynamic. So, everything in the world is possible to

make relationships each other. Although in fact they are unique, they can

make a new relationship in the world. Each student with his/her own

personality, awareness about his/herself, and his/her potential to preserve and

to become him/herself, finally will exist in the world.

Nurhadi and Senduk (2003: 20-21) furthermore state that to fulfill the

students’ needs, in implementing CTL teacher must occupy learning principles

as follow:

1. Developmentally Appropriate

In constructing methodology and curriculum content, teacher must

consider students’ age, emotion, social condition, and the development of

students’ intelligence.

2. Independent Learning Group

Students work in small groups, take and give, and cooperate. Just like the

adult, when they are working, they cannot work alone. They need friends

and work in teams.

3. Self-regulated Learning

School, society support and guide students to reach aspiration. Diversity of

Students in teaching and learning process, teacher considers students’

background; their religion, tribe, social-economy, mother tongue, and

weakness.


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4. Multiple Intelligences

Because of the students’ multiple intelligence, teacher must be creative to

find appropriate strategy for their students.

5. Questioning

Questions are designed to stimulate critical and creative thinking.

6. Authentic Assessment

The assessment is based on the participation and performance how

students apply knowledge in the process of learning, not memorizing.

Johnson (2002: 25) argues that the CTL system is an educational process

that aims to help students see meaning in the academic material they are

studying by connecting academic subject with the context of their lives, that

is, with the context of their personal, social, and cultural circumstances. To

achieve this aim, the system encompasses the following eight components:

making meaningful connections, doing significant work, self-regulated

learning, and collaborating, critical and creative thinking, nurturing the

individual, reaching high standards, using authentic assessment.

According to The Washington State Consortium for Contextual Teaching

and Learning (in Nurhadi and Senduk, 2003: 12) Contextual teaching is

teaching that enables students to reinforce, expand, and apply their academic

knowledge and skills in a variety, in school and out of school setting, in order

to solve simulated or real world problems. Contextual learning occurs when

students apply and experience what is being taught referencing real problems

associated with their roles and responsibilities as family members, citizens,

students, and workers. CTL emphasizes higher level thinking, knowledge

transfer across academic disciplines, and collect, analyze and synthesize

information and data from multiple sources and point of views.


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5) The Teaching Procedure of Contextual Teaching and Learning

CTL is characterized by the use of some learning strategies more than

others. In implementing CTL in this research, the researcher will apply all

components of CTL. However, the researcher will not apply all of those

components in every meeting. The design of implementing CTL in teaching

reading can be seen in Table 2 (Nurhadi and Senduk, 2003: 31-54).

Table 2. The Teaching Procedure of CTL in Teaching Reading

Phase Component of CTL Indicator

− Opening

− Pre-teaching of

reading activities

− While-teaching of

reading activities

− Questioning

− Modeling

− Greeting

− Praying

− Calling the roll

− Asking the previous

lessons.

− Asking students

some questions to

arouse interest in the

new topic/theme.

− Reading the text and

giving an example

of how to find the

meaning of words,

the explicitly and

implicitly stated

information, the

reference, the main

idea, the generic

structure, and

purpose of the text.


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− Inquiry

− Constructivism

− Learning

community

− Questioning

− Asking students to

find the formula,

pattern, order, and

meaning of difficult

words.


observe, gather data,

and draw

conclusion.

− Asking the students

to find the meaning

of words, the

explicitly and

implicitly stated

information, the

reference, the main

idea, the generic

structure, and the

purpose of the text.


work and

understand the

passage in small

groups.

− Asking and

answering students’

questions about the


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− Post-Teaching of

Reading Activities

− Closing

− Reflection

topic/theme.

− Giving students’

assistance.

− Reviewing and

resuming to events,

experiences, and

activities orally in

front of the class

− Recording what

students have

learned, how they

feel during teaching

and learning

process.

− Asking the students to retell in front of the class

− Giving a homework

to the student

− Saying a few words

of farewell.

In addition, the strategies used in this research are:

1. Problem-based learning. Students are given either a real or simulated

problem and must use critical thinking skills and inquiry to solve it.

Problems which have some personal relevance to the students are the best

choices to encourage maximum participation and learning.


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2. Cooperative Learning. Students work together in small group and focus on

achieving a common goal through collaboration. Each student within the

group makes a significant contribution to the goal.

3. Authentic assessment. Students are evaluated by means of their

performance on tasks whether in an oral or written form.

In order that the preceding strategies to be used effectively, they will be

integrated with other commonly accepted good teaching practices. The use of

pictures, schedule of journey, artificial media are considered effective for

these strategies.

6) The Advantages of Contextual Teaching and Learning

a. Teaching reading through the real experience will be effective to develop

the students’ understanding towards the passage, for examples: the use of

pictures, schedule of journey, artificial media, etc. It is stated by Nurhadi

and Senduk (2003: 34):

Landasan berpikir konstruktivisme agak berbeda dengan pandangan kaum objektivis dalam hal tujuan pembelajaran. Kaum objektivis lebih menekankan pada hasil pembelajaran yang berupa pengetahuan. Dalam pandangan konstruktivis, ‘strategi memperoleh’ lebih diutamakan dibandingkan seberapa banyak siswa memperoleh dan mengingat pengetahuan. Untuk itu, tugas guru adalah memfasilitasi proses tersebut dengan cara: (1) menjadikan pengetahuan bermakna dan relevan bagi siswa (2) memberi kesempatan siswa menemukan dan menerapkan idenya

sendiri, dan (3) menyadarkan siswa agar menerapkan strategi mereka sendiri dalam

belajar

b. The students will have critical and creative thinking through searching,

observing, investigating, and analyzing. For example they will find the

type of the text by searching who are the participants, what they do, where,

when, and how they do that, the events, the complications, the resolution,


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and the coda. After that they observe, investigate and finally analyze them.

In this case, the students try to make hypothesis, gather data, and draw

conclusion. It is in line with Nurhadi and Senduk(2003: 43) who state:

Pengetahuan dan ketrampilan yang diperoleh siswa diharapkan bukan hasil mengingat seperangkat fakta-fakta, tetapi hasil dari menemukan sendiri. Guru harus selalu merancang kegiatan yang merujuk pada kegiatan menemukan, apa pun materi yang diajarkannya.

c. Questioning used by the teacher to check the students’ understanding, to

encourage students’ responses, and to know what the students had known

will make the students confident to express their answer. Moreover

Nurhadi and Senduk (2003: 47) state:

Aktivitas bertanya juga ditemukan ketika siswa berdiskusi, bekerja dalam kelompok, ketika menemui kesulitan, ketika mengamati, dan sebagainya. Kegiatan-kegiatan itu akan menumbuhkan dorongan untuk ‘bertanya’.

d. The students that work in a small group to implement learning community

will give the opportunities to ask questions freely among the members.

They will ask their friends about the meaning of different words and how

to do the task. The students who are shy to ask questions to the teacher

will be motivated to study together with their friends. In this case,

Nurhadi and Senduk (2003: 47) state:

Kegiatan pembelajaran dilakukan dalam kelompok-kelompok belajar: siswa yang pandai mengajari yang lemah dan yang tahu memberi tahu yang belum tahu. Masyarakat belajar bisa tercipta apabila ada proses komunikasi dua arah, anggota kelompok yang terlibat dalam komunikasi pembelajaran dapat saling belajar. Siswa yang terlibat dalam kegiatan masyarakat belajar memberi informasi yang diperlukan oleh teman bicaranya dan juga meminta informasi yang diperlukan dari teman bicaranya.

e. Modeling by the teacher or the students can improve the students’

performance. After seeing how the teacher or the students answer the


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questions of the text, the other students will imitate like what they did.

This activity makes them know how to find the purpose of the text well.

In the case Nurhadi and Senduk (2003: 49) state:

Pemodelan dapat berbentuk demonstrasi, pemberian contoh tentang konsep atau aktivitas belajar. Dengan kata lain, model itu bisa berupa cara mengoperasikan sesuatu, cara melempar bola dalam olahraga, contoh karya tulis, cara melafalkan Bahasa Inggris, dan sebagainya. Atau, guru member contoh cara mengerjakan sesuatu. Dengan begitu, guru memberi model tentang “bagaimana cara belajar”.

f. The activity of asking the students to do the task whether in a written or

oral form will check the students’ understanding, to encourage the

students’ responses, and to know what the students have known. The

teacher can ask the students to present or retell what they have learned in

front of class based on the material given. Moreover, Nurhadi and

Senduk (2003: 51) state:

Refleksi merupakan respon terhadap kejadian, aktivitas, atau pengetahuan yang baru diterima. Misalnya, ketika pelajaran terakhir, siswa merenung, “Kalau begitu, cara saya menyimpan file selama ini salah, ya! Mestinya, dengan cara yang baru dipelajari ini, file komputer saya lebih tertata.”

g. The activity of giving score through the performance of the students

during the teaching and learning process will make students feel easy to

join the class. It is in line with Nurhadi and Senduk (2003: 53) who state:

Karena assessment menekankan pada proses pembelajaran, maka data yang dikumpulkan harus diperoleh dari kegiatan nyata yang dikerjakan siswa pada saat melakukan proses pembelajaran. Guru yang ingin mengetahui perkembangan belajar bahasa Inggris harus mengumpulkan data dari kegiatan nyata saat siswa menggunakan bahasa Inggris.


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7) The Disadvantages of Contextual Teaching and Learning

a. The students have lack of vocabulary and grammar to understand the text.

They get difficulties to understand the meaning of some words and to

comprehend the passage. They just depend on the active students.

b. The students have lack of learning motivation, especially for the low. They

are passive and they preferred keeping silent. They just rely upon the other

members of the group.

c. It is not easy to give the students understanding of the importance of

studying using real media. Sometimes they just play with the media. They

feel funny looking at the media.

d. The process of learning takes place in different places, so the teacher

cannot control all the students well. While discussing all the materials, the

students are noisy instead of doing the task (http://www.scribd.com

/doc/7785445/CONTEXTUAL-LEARNING-STRATEGIES).

3. The Nature of Intelligence

a. The Meaning of Intelligence

Philip (in Wiley, 2005: 1) states that intelligence may be narrowly

defined as the capacity to acquire knowledge and understanding, and use it

in different novel situations. It is the ability or capacity which enables the

individual to deal with real situations and profit intellectually from sensory

experience. Meanwhile, Gardner viewed intelligence as 'the capacity to

solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more

cultural setting' (Gardner & Hatch, 1999). Moreover, Wechsler’s general

description of intelligence stated that it is the global capacity to act


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purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the

environment (Coon, 1989: 468).

b. The Elements of Intelligence

To add the definition, Wechsler shows results from a recent survey

of 1020 experts on intelligence. At least, three-quarters of this group

agreed that the listed elements are important parts of intelligence.

Table 3. Important Elements of Intelligence

DESCRIPTION PERCENT OF

AGREEMENT

Abstract thinking or reasoning

Problem-solving ability

Capacity to acquire knowledge

Memory

Adaptation to one’s environment

99.3

97.7

96.0

80.5

77.2

(Adapted from Snyderman & Rothman, 1987)

A test that measures memory, reasoning, and verbal fluency offers a very

different definition of intelligence (Coon, 1989: 468).

Gardner initially formulated a list of seven intelligences. His listing

was provisional. The first two are ones that have been typically valued in

schools; the next three are usually associated with the arts; and the final

two are what Gardner called 'personal intelligences' (Gardner 1999: 41-

43). It is called the Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligences. The theory

challenges traditional, narrower views of intelligence. Previously accepted

ideas of human intellectual capacity contend that an individual's

intelligence is a fixed entity throughout his lifetime and that intelligence


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can be measured through an individual's logical and language abilities.

According to Gardner's theory, intelligence encompasses the ability to

create and solve problems, create products or provide services that are

valued within a culture or society. These nine intelligences may define the

human species.

1) Verbal/Linguistic

Verbal/Linguistic intelligence refers to an individual's ability to

understand and manipulate words and languages. Everyone is thought

to possess this intelligence at some level. This includes reading,

writing, speaking, and other forms of verbal and written

communication. Teachers can enhance their students' verbal/linguistic

intelligence by having them keep journals, play word games, and by

encouraging discussion. People with strong rhetorical and oratory

skills such as poets, authors, and attorneys exhibit strong linguistic

intelligence. Traditionally, linguistic intelligence and

Logical/Mathematical intelligence have been highly valued in

education and learning environments.

2) Logical/Mathematical

Logical/Mathematical intelligence refers to an individual's ability

to do things with data: collect, and organize, analyze and interpret,

conclude and predict. Individuals strong in this intelligence see

patterns and relationships. These individuals are oriented toward

thinking: inductive and deductive logic, numeration, and abstract

patterns. They would be a contemplative problem solver; one who


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likes to play strategy games and to solve mathematical problems.

Being strong in this intelligence often implies great scientific ability.

This is the kind of intelligence studied and documented by Piaget.

Teachers can strengthen this intelligence by encouraging the use of

computer programming languages, critical-thinking activities, linear

outlining, Piagetian cognitive stretching exercises, science-fiction

scenarios, logic puzzles, and through the use of logical/sequential

presentation of subject matter.

3) Visual/Spatial

Visual/Spatial intelligence refers to the ability to form and

manipulate a mental model. Individuals with strength in this area

depend on visual thinking and are very imaginative. People with this

kind of intelligence tend to learn most readily from visual

presentations such as movies, pictures, videos, and demonstrations

using models and props. They like to draw, paint, or sculpt their ideas

and often express their feelings and moods through art. These

individuals often daydream, imagine and pretend. They are good at

reading diagrams and maps and enjoy solving mazes and jigsaw

puzzles. Teachers can foster this intelligence by utilizing charts,

graphs, diagrams, graphic organizers, videotapes, color, art activities,

doodling, microscopes and computer graphics software. It could be

characterized as right-brain activity.


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4) Bodily/Kinesthetic

Bodily/Kinesthetic intelligence refers to people who process

information through the sensations they feel in their bodies. These

people like to move around, touch the people they are talking to and

act things out. They are good at small and large muscle skills; they

enjoy all types of sports and physical activities. They often express

themselves through dance. Teachers may encourage growth in this area

of intelligence through the use of touching, feeling, movement,

improvisation, "hands-on" activities, permission to squirm and wiggle

facial expressions and physical relaxation exercises.

5) Naturalistic

Naturalistic intelligence is seen in someone who recognizes and

classifies plants, animals, and minerals including a mastery of

taxonomies. They are holistic thinkers who recognize specimens and

value the unusual. They are aware of species such as the flora and

fauna around them. They notice natural and artificial taxonomies such

as dinosaurs to algae and cars to clothes. Teachers can best foster this

intelligence by using relationships among systems of species, and

classification activities. Encourage the study of relationships such as

patterns and order, and compare-and-contrast sets of groups or look at

connections to real life and science issues.

6) Musical Intelligence

Musical intelligence refers to the ability to understand, create,

and interpret musical pitches, timbre, rhythm, and tones and the

capability to compose music. Teachers can integrate activities into

their lessons that encourage students' musical intelligence by playing


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music for the class and assigning tasks that involve students creating

lyrics about the material being taught. Composers and instrumentalists

are individuals with strength in this area.

7) Interpersonal

Although Gardner classifies interpersonal and intrapersonal

intelligences separately, there is a lot of interplay between the two and

they are often grouped together. Interpersonal intelligence is the ability

to interpret and respond to the moods, emotions, motivations, and

actions of others. Interpersonal intelligence also requires good

communication and interaction skills, and the ability show empathy

towards the feelings of other individuals. Teachers can encourage the

growth of Interpersonal Intelligences by designing lessons that include

group work and by planning cooperative learning activities.

Counselors and social workers are professions that require strength in

this area.

8) Intrapersonal

Intrapersonal Intelligence, simply put, is the ability to know

oneself. It is an internalized version of Interpersonal Intelligence. To

exhibit strength in Intrapersonal Intelligence, an individual must be

able to understand their own emotions, motivations, and be aware of

their own strengths and weaknesses. Teachers can assign reflective

activities, such as journaling to awaken students' Intrapersonal

Intelligence. It’s important to note that this intelligence involves the

use of all others. An individual should tap into their other intelligences

to completely express their Intrapersonal Intelligence.


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9) Existential intelligence

There is a ninth intelligence that has yet to experience full

acceptance by educators in the classroom. This is Existential

intelligence, which encompasses the ability to pose and ponder

questions regarding the existence -- including life and death. This

would be in the domain of philosophers and religious leaders.

Scores from standardized intelligence tests (IQ scores) are often

used to define one’s intelligence level. It is, however, becoming

increasingly accepted that they do not reveal the complete picture and

only provide a snapshot of a person’s ability in the area under

examination so that, for example, someone who has high score on a

verbal test can only be said to have a high verbal IQ and someone who

has high score on a mathematical test can only be said to have a high

numerical IQ. Therefore, the more different types of disciplines that

are tested and examined, the more accurately the intelligence level of

the individual can be assessed (Philip in Wiley, 2005: 1).

c. The Requirements of Intelligence Test

First, the test must be reliable. It must yield the same score, or close

to the same score, each time it is given to the same individual. In other

words, the scores should be consistent and highly correlated. For instance,

a medical test for pregnancy gives positive and negative responses for the

same woman on the same day.


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Second, the test must be valid. A test has validity when it measures

what it claims to measure. The test could not be valid if the person who

wrote it is the only one who can pass it. Validity is usually demonstrated

by comparing test scores to actual performance. This is called criterion

validity. For example, a test of legal aptitude might be validated by

comparing scores on the test to grades in law school. If high scores

correlate with high grades or some other standard of success, the test may

be considered valid.

The test, at least, is objective. If the test gives the same score when

corrected by different people, it is objective.

Fourth, a psychological test must also be standardized. Test

standardization refers to two things. First, it means that standard

procedures are used in giving the test to all people. That is, the

instructions, answer forms, amount of time to work, and so forth, are the

same for all test takers. Second, it means finding the norm, or average

score, made by a large group of people like those for whom the test was

designed. Without standardization, it would be unfair to compare the

scores of people taking a test on different occasion. And without norms,

there would be no way to tell if a score is high, low, or average (Coon,

1989: 469).

d. The Types of Intelligence Test

The first practical intelligence test was assembled by Binet. A

modern version of Binet’s test is the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. It

is usually used to test children. A widely used alternative to the Stanford-

Binet is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised, or WAIS-R. This


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test also has a form for use with children, called the Wechler Intelligence

Scale for Children-Revised, or WISC-R. The Wechler tests are generally

similar to the Stanford-Binet, but differ in some important ways. The

WAIS-R is specially designed to test adult intelligence. Also, both the

WAIS-R and the WISC-R rate performance (non-verbal) intelligence in

addition to verbal intelligence. The Stanford-Binet only gives one overall

IQ, whereas the Wechler tests can be broken down to reveal strengths and

weaknesses in various areas.

The two types of intelligence measured by the WAIS-R: (1)

Performance Intelligence: Intelligence as demonstrated in solving puzzles,

assembling objects, completing pictures, and performing other nonverbal

tasks; and (2) Verbal Intelligence: Intelligence as revealed by answering

questions involving vocabulary, general information, arithmetic, and other

language- or symbol-oriented tasks.


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Table 4. Sample Items Similar to Those Used on the WAIS-R

I

Both the Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler tests are individual

intelligence tests. Other tests of intelligence are designed for use with large

groups of people. Group intelligence tests are usually in paper-and-pencil

form. Typically, they require test takers to read, to follow instructions, and

to solve problems of logic, reasoning, mathematics, or spatial skills. The

Verbal Subtest Sample Items

Information How many wings does a bird have? Who wrote Paradise Lost? Digit Span Repeat from memory a series of digits, such

as 3 1 0 6 7 4 2 5, after hearing it once. General Comprehension What is the advantages of keeping money in a

bank? Why is copper often used in electrical wires? Arithmetic Three men divided 18 golf balls equally

among themselves. How many golf balls did each man receive? If 2 apples cost 15 , what will be the cost of a dozen apples?

Similarities In what way are a lion and a tiger alike? In what way are a saw and a hammer alike? Vocabulary This test consist simply of asking, “What is a

_____?” or “What does _____ mean?” The words cover a wide range of difficulty or familiarity.

Performance Subtest Description of Item

Picture arrangement Arrange a series of cartoon panels to make a meaningful story.

Picture completion What is missing from these pictures?

Block design Copy designs with blocks. (as shown at right) Object assembly Put together a jigsaw puzzle. Digit symbol

1 2 3 4 X III I 0

Fill in the symbols: 3 4 1 3 4 2 1 2


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group intelligence tests are the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), the

American College Test (ACT), and the College Qualification Test (CQT).

They can be used to estimate intelligence as well as a person’s chances for

success in college (Coon, 1989: 472-473).

In conclusion, intelligence is the general capacity to think

rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively with the environment.

They cover three elements. They are visual-spatial intelligence, verbal-

linguistic intelligence, and logical-mathematical intelligence.

e. The Influence of Intelligence on Reading

Reading comprehension is a complex process involving

perception, recall, reasoning, evaluating, imagining, organizing,

application, and problem solving. The goal of all reading is the

comprehension of meaning. Students with low IQ tend to meet

problem when dealing with reading comprehension if the appropriate

educational adaptations are not made. A measure of verbal intelligence

was significantly more strongly correlated with the rate of reading,

single-word reading, vocabulary or word knowledge, and under-

standing of what was read in a text (Sue, et al., 2009: 2)

B. Rationale

1. The Difference between Contextual Teaching and Learning and

Grammar Translation Method to Teach Reading

One of the important factors influencing the results of the teaching

and learning process is a teaching technique used by the teacher. Teaching


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technique occupies a very crucial role in getting a good result at the end of

the study. All the teaching techniques have strengths as well as

weaknesses. Therefore, a teacher must give a wise decision in choosing the

most appropriate teaching technique in order to teach reading

comprehension successfully.

There are many kinds of teaching technique for reading

comprehension. However, the technique chosen in reading comprehension

must be suitable with the purpose of teaching and make reading itself as

something interesting and is not difficult at all. Consequently, the

technique used must be communicative, stimulating students’ active

learning, improving their idea, knowledge and skill and of course, the

technique should be attractive and interesting for the students.

One of the techniques which is suitable with the criteria of good

technique to apply in teaching reading comprehension as stated above is

CTL. In this case the teacher is no more as the only source in the teaching

and learning process, rather he or she plays a role as a mediator, stabilizer,

and learning manager. By using this technique, the students can learn from

their prior knowledge and are expected to be communicative and active

during the teaching and learning process, so that it enables them to

improve their knowledge and understanding in learning reading

comprehension. Besides, this technique is often relaxed and enjoyable than

GTM classes. This creates a positive learning environment, with more

students attentive to assign tasks. As a result, academic achievement

increases for all students.


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On the other hand, GTM used by the teacher is focused on the

mastery of content with less emphasis on the development of skills and the

nurturing of inquiring attitude. It also more concerns with preparation for

the next grade level and in-school success than with helping a student

learn to learn throughout life. That is why it is supposed less effective to

improve students’ reading competence since the GTM less motivate the

students to involve in the teaching learning process. So, the CTL is

supposed to be more effective than the GTM to teach reading.

2. The Difference between the Students Having High Intelligence and the

Students Having Low Intelligence

Students having high intelligence tend to be active during teaching

and learning process. They practice the language and master the four

language skill. They become self-regulated learners developing knowledge

by themselves. Finally, the students are hoped to obtain and develop

knowledge, attitude, value, and also social skills which are useful for their

life in society. Those students not only learn and receive whatever teacher

teaches in the teaching and learning process, but also able to learn from the

other students and they all have a chance at once to make the other

students learn.

On the other hand, the students having low intelligence prefer

listening to the teacher’s explanation during the lesson rather than

discussing together to overcome the problem. They do so since they don’t

have desire to learn more. They are reluctant to open the dictionaries to

find out the difficult terms.


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That is why, the students having high intelligence are supposed to

have better reading comprehension than the students having low

intelligence.

3. Interaction between Teaching Methods and Intelligence to Teach

Reading

Contextual Teaching and Learning method requires the students to

be active in the learning process. The teacher serves primarily as a

facilitator, organizer, and consultant to students engaged in discussing

about a subject matter together with their friends. Many teachers choose

Contextual Teaching and Learning because it is motivating and fosters

creativity. The teachers create a setting in which students learn as

realistically as possible. The teachers will also motivate the students to

have critical and creative thinking through searching, observing,

investigating, and analyzing. Then, the teachers will check the students’

understanding to encourage their responses, and to know what they have

known through questioning, modeling, reflection, and authentic

assessment. The students having high intelligence tend to be active,

creative, and self-regulated learners developing knowledge by themselves.

On the other hand, Grammar Translation Method places the students

in a passive learning role. This method neglects speech, so the students

feel shy of communicating through English. It also rather attempts to teach

language through rules and not by use. In fact, researchers in linguistics

have proved that to speak any language, whether native or foreign, entirely

by rule is quite impossible. Language learning means acquiring certain


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skills, which can be learned through practice and not by just memorizing

rules. The students having low intelligence prefer listening to the teachers’

explanation, feeling shy and passive during the teaching learning process

rather than practicing the language in their daily life.

That is why it is supposed that there is an interaction between

teaching methods and students’ intelligence in teaching reading.

Contextual Teaching and Learning is suitable for students having high

intelligence and Grammar Translation Method is suitable for students

having low intelligence.

D. Hypothesis

Based on the rationale above, the hypotheses proposed in this research

are as follows:

1. Contextual teaching and learning is more effective than grammar

translation method for teaching reading.

2. The students having high intelligence have better reading comprehension

than the students having low intelligence.

3. There is an interaction between teaching methods and students’

intelligence in teaching reading.


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III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A. Place and Time of the Research

The research was carried out at SMP N 14 Surakarta which is located at

Jl. Prof. WZ. Johannes No. 54, Surakarta. The research was held from

December ‘09 to June, 2010. The following is the time schedule for the

research.

Table 5. The Time Schedule for the Research

Activities Dec ‘09

Jan ‘10

Feb ‘10

Mar ‘10

Apr ‘10

May ‘10

Jun ‘10

Proposal

Reviewing literatures

Developing instruments

Doing treatment

Collecting and analyzing the data

Writing the report

Submitting the document

B. Research Method

According to Ary (2007: 39) there are four different categories

developed in classifying educational research: experimental, experimental ex-

post facto, descriptive, and historical studies. The framework used in this

research is quantitative research. It means the hypotheses of the research will

be concluded through various techniques such as: collecting, describing, and


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analyzing data collected which are mostly on the form of numerical data. The

research is also categorized as an experimental study since it attempts to give

treatment to experimental group and maintain control over all factors that may

affect the result of an experiment. In other words, the experimental research

attempts to investigate the influence of one or more variables to other

variables (Nana Syaodih, 2006: 57).

Experimental research has some characteristics as follows: (1)

manipulation or treatment of an independent variable; (2) other extraneous

variables are controlled; and (3) effect is observed of the manipulation of the

independent variable on the dependent variable (Donald Ary, 2007: 338).

This experimental research is aimed at observing whether there is an

interaction between teaching methods and intelligence for teaching reading.

The technique used in conducting the experiment is by comparing the

experimental group which is taught by contextual teaching and learning

method and the control group taught by grammar translation method. Each

group is classified into two different levels of intelligence quotient: the high

and the low.

C. Research Design

The research design used in the research is a 2 by 2 factorial design.

The research design is as follows:

Intelligence Quotient (B)

Teaching Method (A)

Contextual Teaching and Learning

Grammar Translation Method

High (B1) (A1B1) (A2B1)

Low (B2) (A1B2) (A2B2)

Figure 1. Research Design


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The research design, consisting of 4 different cells, can be defined as

column A for the teaching methods and column B for intelligence quotient.

The table shows that column A1 is Contextual Teaching and Learning method

and column A2 is Grammar Translation Method. Column B consists of B1 for

students with high intelligence quotient and B2 for students with low

intelligence quotient. The intelligence ranked scores are categorized into 50%

of upper group (the students having high intelligence scores) and 50% of

lower group (the students having low intelligence scores) from both classes. In

this research, there are 36 students for each class, either experiment or control

class. That is why, there are eighteen students of the upper group and eighteen

students of the lower group, for both the experiment and control class.

The variables in the research are: (1) Independent variables (X),

consisting of (X1) for Contextual Teaching and Learning and Grammar

Translation Methods, and (X2) for the students' intelligence quotient (IQ);

(2) Dependent variable (Y), namely, reading comprehension.

D. Subject of the Research

1. Population

Population is a large group to which a researcher wants to generalize

his or her sample result (Cristensen, 2000: 158). The population of the

research is the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the

academic year of 2009/2010. It consists of six classes.

2. Sample

A sample is a set of elements taken from a larger population

(Cristensen, 2000: 158). Hadi (2000: 182) defines sample as part of the

population. The sample used in the research is the students of class 8F and


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8A of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the 2009/2010 academic year. The first one

is treated as the experimental class and the other as the control class.

3. Sampling Technique

Sampling is the way to get sample. The writer uses cluster random

sampling to get the sample. It is a type of sampling in which clusters are

randomly selected (Cristensen, 2000: 172). In other words, cluster random

sampling is the selection of groups or clusters of subjects rather than

individuals. The writer uses cluster random sampling because it has some

advantages, such as: it can be used when it is difficult or impossible to

select a random sample of individuals, it is often far easier to implement in

schools, and it is frequently less time consuming (Cristensen, 2000: 173).

E. Technique of Collecting the Data

The way to get the data in a research activity is usually known as a

technique of collecting data. The techniques used to get the data are

documentary and test methods. The first is used to collect the data of the

students’ intelligence scores. The latter will be used to know the students'

ability in reading comprehension. The reading comprehension test is in the

form of multiple choice tests with four options.


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1. Intelligence Quotient Test

The IQ test used in this research has been conducted by Yayasan

Psikologi ANAVA which is located at Jl. Satrio Wibowo Selatan No. 39A

Purwotomo, Solo. Telp. (0271)725454. The scores used in this research

deals with the aspect of GI (General Intelligence). Intelligence is the

general capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and to deal

effectively with the environment. The test covers three elements. They are

visual-spatial intelligence, verbal-linguistic intelligence, and logical-

mathematical intelligence. There are a hundred test items. It has been

tested before treatment.

The intelligence quotient test has been valid and reliable because it

has been tested by a psychological institution which has been standardized

The result of intelligence quotient test is used to classify students

into two groups, the students who have high intelligence quotient and

those who have low intelligence quotient. The scores of students’

intelligence for experiment class are 125, 125, 124, 124, 119, 119, 119,

119, 119,119, 118, 118, 118, 117, 116, 116, 116, 116, 114, 114, 113, 113,

113, 112, 112, 112, 111, 109, 109, 108, 107, 107, 107, 105, 105, and 104.

Whereas, the scores of the students’ intelligence quotient for control class

are 131, 130, 130, 130, 130, 130, 130, 128, 126, 126, 124,124, 124, 124,

123, 122, 122, 122, 118, 118, 118, 118, 118, 118, 115, 115, 114, 113, 113,

113, 112, 112, 107, 105, 105, and 103


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2. Reading Comprehension Test

The test of reading is to know the students’ ability in reading. The

reading test is administered after treatment. The treatment is done twelve

times. The reading test items consist of 60 multiple choice items with four

options. The students must choose one of a correct answer. The items are

based on the reading skills including deducing the meaning of unfamiliar

lexical items, guessing the meaning of words from context, understanding

explicitly stated information, distinguishing between literal and implied

meanings, detecting culturally specific references, detecting such relations

as main idea, and recognizing the communicative functions of written

text, according to form and purpose.

The reading test must be valid and reliable. Therefore, firstly the

reading test is tried out to know the validity and the reliability. The tryout

is done to the class 8E, which are not the experiment and the control one.

To find out the validity of the reading test, the following formula is used:

st = nx∑ 2

ro = t

ti

sXX −

1

1

qp

The item is valid if ro is higher than rt.

The reliability of the reading test is known by using the formula below:

rkk = ⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛−

−∑

211 ts

pqk

k

The item is reliable if ro is higher than rt.


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Then, the valid and reliable items are used to get the data. The result of

reading test is forty-one items are valid and reliable. The valid items are

items number: 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 23, 25, 28,

29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 38, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54,

55, 56, 59, 60.

F. Technique of Analyzing the Data

The technique used in analyzing the data is descriptive analysis and

inferential analysis. Descriptive analysis is used to know the mean, median,

mode, and standard deviation of the scores of the reading test. The normality

and homogeneity test are done before testing the hypothesis. Inferential

analysis used is multifactor analysis of variance 2 x 2. H0 is rejected if F0 is

higher than Ft. If H0 is rejected the analysis is continued to know which group

is better using Tukey test. The design of multifactor analysis of variance is

shown in the following table.

Method of

Teaching (A)

Intelligence

Quotient (B)

Contextual Teaching

and Learning

(A1)

Grammar

Translation

(A2)

High (B1) A1B1 A2B1 B1

Low (B2) A1B2 A2B2 B2

A1 A2

Figure 2. The Design of Multifactor Analysis of Variance


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Note:

A1 : The mean score of reading test of experimental class which is taught

by Contextual Teaching and Learning Method.

A2 : The mean score of reading test of control class which is taught by

Grammar Translation Method.

B1 : The mean score of reading test of students having high intelligence

quotient.

B2 : The mean score of reading test of students having low intelligence

quotient.

A1B1 : The mean score of reading test of students having high intelligence

quotient who are taught by Contextual Teaching and Learning Method.

A1B2 : The mean score of reading test of students having low intelligence

quotient who are taught by Contextual Teaching and Learning Method.

A2B1 : The mean score of reading test of students having high intelligence

quotient who are taught by Grammar Translation Method.

A2B2 : The mean score of reading test of students having low intelligence

quotient who are taught by Grammar Translation Method.

The data are analyzed using the following ways

1. The total sum of squares

∑ ∑∑ −=n

)X(Xx

2t2

t2

t

2. The sum of squares between groups

N

)X(n

)X(n

)X(n

)X(n

)X(x

2t

4

24

3

23

2

22

1

212

b∑∑∑∑∑ ∑ −+++=

3. The sum of squares within groups


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Σxw2 = Σxt

2 – Σxb2

4. The between – columns sum of squares

Σxbc2 =

( ) ( ) ( )N

X

n

X

n

X 2t

c

2c

c

2c

2

2

1

1 ∑∑∑−+

5. The between – columns sum of squares

Σxbr2 =

( ) ( ) ( )N

X

n

X

n

X 2t

r

2r

r

2r

2

2

1

1 ∑∑∑−+

6. The sum of squares interaction

Σxint = Σxb

2 – (Σxbc2 +Σxbr

2 )

7. df for between - columns sum of squares = C – 1

df for between - rows sum of squares = R – 1

df for interaction = (C-1) (R-1)

df for between - groups sum of squares = G – 1

df for within - columns sum of squares = Σ(n-1)

df for total sum of squares = N – 1

C = the number of columns

R = the number of rows

G = the number of groups

n = the number of subjects in one group

N = the number of subjects in all groups


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8. The finding of q is found by dividing the difference between the means by

the square root of the ratio of the within group variation and the sample

size (http://people.richland.edu/james/lecture/m170/ch13-dif.html).

q = ns

xx

w

ji

/2

−

a. Between column (qA) = ance/nError varicXcX 21 −

b. Between rows (qB) = nianceError

XrXr/var

21 −

c. Between column(HI) q = ance/nError vari

rcXrcX 1211 −

d. Between column(LI) q = ance/nError vari

rcXrcX 2221 − or q =

ance/nError varircXrcX 2122 −

9. The statistic test is found by dividing the difference between means by the

square root of the ratio of the within group variation and the sample size.

Tukey test is used to know which teaching method is more effective or

better to teach reading comprehension.


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CHAPTER IV

THE RESULT OF THE STUDY

This chapter presents the result of the study. It is divided into four parts,

the description of data, normality and homogeneity test, hypothesis test, and the

discussion of the result of the study.

A. The Description of the Data

The data described here are the result of the reading test. The description

includes the mean, the mode, the median, the standard deviation and

frequency distribution followed by histogram and polygon. Based on the

group analyzed, the descriptions of the data are divided into eight groups as

follows:

1. The data of the reading test of the students or the group that are taught

using Contextual Teaching and Learning (A1)

2. The data of the reading test of the students or the group that are taught

using Grammar Translation Method (A2)

3. The data of the reading test of the students having high intelligence (B1)

4. The data of the reading test of the students having low intelligence (B2)

5. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having high

intelligence quotient that are taught using Contextual Teaching and

Learning Method (A1B1)

6. The data of the reading test of the students or the group having low




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intelligence quotient that are taught using Grammar Translation Method

(A2B1)



(A2B2).

The data of each group are presented as below:

1. The data of the reading test of the students or the groups that are taught

using Contextual Teaching and Learning Method (A1)

Descriptive analysis of the data of A1 shows that the score is 40 up to

83. The mean is 63.1 the standard deviation is 12.0, the mode is 59.1, the

median is 63.5. The frequency distribution of the data of B1 is in table 6,

histogram and polygon are presented in figure 3.

Table 6. Frequency Distribution of A1

Class Limit fi Xi fiXi

40 - 46 5 43 215 47 - 53 3 50 150 54 - 60 7 57 399 61 - 67 6 64 384 68 - 74 8 71 568 75 - 83 7 79 553

Sum 36 364 2269


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s

Figure 3. Histogram and Polygon Data A1

2. The data of the reading test of the students or the groups that are taught

using Grammar Translation Method (A2)

Descriptive analysis of the data of A2 shows that the score is 43 up to


median is 60.4. The frequency distribution of the data of A2 is in table 7,


Table 7. Frequency Distribution of A2


43 - 47 2 45 90 48 - 52 4 50 200 53 - 57 5 55 275 58 - 62 12 60 720 63 - 67 7 65 455 68 - 73 6 71 423

Sum 36 346 2163

5

3

7 7

8

6

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Interval

Freq

uenc

y

39.5 46.5 53.5 60.5 67.5 74.5 82.5


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s

Figure 4. Histogram and Polygon Data A2

3. The data of the reading test of the students having high intelligence (B1)

Descriptive analysis of the data of B1 shows that the score is 43 up to

83. The mean is 63.1 the standard deviation is 12.6, the mode is 74.7, and

the median is 67.9. The frequency distribution of the data of B1 is in table

8, histogram and polygon are presented in figure 5.

Table 8. Frequency Distribution of B1


40 - 47 5 44 218 48 - 55 7 52 361 56 - 63 6 60 357 64 - 71 5 68 338 72 - 79 11 76 831 80 - 87 2 84 167

Sum 36 381 2270

2

45

6

7

12

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

Interval

Frek

uens

i

42.5 47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5


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s

Figure 5. Histogram and Polygon Data B1

4. The data of the reading test of the students having low intelligence (B2)

Descriptive analysis of the data of B2 shows that the score is 40 up to


median is 57.5. The frequency distribution of the data of B2 is in table 9,


Table 9. Frequency Distribution of B2


40 - 45 5 43 213 46 - 51 5 49 243 52 - 57 8 55 436 58 - 63 12 61 726 64 - 69 4 67 266 70 - 75 2 73 145

Sum 36 345 2028

5

7

6

2

11

5

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Interval

Freq

uenc

y

39.5 47.5 55.5 63.5 71.5 79.5 86.5


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s

Figure 6. Histogram and Polygon Data B2

5. The data of reading test of the students or the group having high



Descriptive analysis of the data of A1B1 shows that the score is 68

up to 83. The mean is 74.9 the standard deviation is 4.01, the mode is 73.5,

the median is 75.5. The frequency distribution of the data of A1B1 is in

table 10, histogram and polygon are presented in figure 7.

5 5

8

2

4

12

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

Interval

Freq

uenc

y

39.5 45.5 51.5 57.5 63.5 69.5 74.5


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Table 10. Frequency Distribution of A1B1


68 - 70 3 69.00 207.0 71 - 73 4 72.00 288.0 74 - 76 4 75.00 300.0 77 - 79 5 78.00 390.0 80 - 83 2 81.50 163.0

Sum 18 375.50 1348.0

Figure 7. Histogram and Polygon Data A1B1




Descriptive analysis of the data of A1B2 shows that the score is 40 up

to 63. The mean is 51.7 the standard deviation is 6.5, the mode is 52.8, the

median is 50.8. The frequency distribution of the data of A1B2 is in table


3

4 4

2

5

0

1

2

3

4

5

Interval

Freq

uenc

y

67.5 70.5 73.5 76.5 79.5 83.5


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40 - 44 2 42 84 45 - 49 6 47 282 50 - 54 4 52 208 55 - 59 3 57 171 60 - 64 3 62 186

Sum 18 260 931



intelligence quotient who are taught using Grammar Translation Method

(A2B1)


to 70. The mean is 56.5 the standard deviation is 7.2, the mode is 57.2, the

median is 56.8. The frequency distribution of the data of A2B1 is in table


2

6

4

33

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Interval

Freq

uenc

y

39.5 44.5 49.5 54.5 59.5 64.5


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43 - 48 3 45.50 136.5 49 - 54 3 51.50 154.5 55 - 60 8 57.50 460.0 61 - 66 2 63.50 127.0 67 - 72 2 69.50 139.0

Sum 18 287.50 1017.0




(A2B2)


to 73. The mean is 62 the standard deviation is 5.9, the mode is 62, the

median is 62. The frequency distribution of the data of A2B2 is in table 13,


3 3

8

22

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Interval

Freq

uenc

y

42.5 48.5 54.5 60.5 66.5 72.5


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50 - 54 2 52 104 55 - 59 4 57 228 60 - 64 6 62 372 65 - 69 4 67 268 70 - 74 2 72 144

Sum 18 310 1116


B. Normality and Homogeneity Test

Before analyzing the data using inferential analysis, normality and

homogeneity test must be done. The normality test is to know that the sample

is in normal distribution and the homogeneity test is to know that the data are

homogenous. Each test is presented in the following section.

1. Normality Test

The sample is in normal distribution if L0 (L obtained) is lower than

Lt (L table), α = 0.05. L stands for Lilliefors.

2

4

6

2

4

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Interval

Freq

uenc

y

49.5 54.5 59.5 64.5 69.5 74.5


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Table 14. The Summary of Normality Test using Lilliefors

No. Data

The Number

of Sample

L Obtained (Lo)

L Table (Lt)

Alfa (α)

Distribution of

Population

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

A1 A2 B1 B2

A1B1 A1B2 A2B1 A2B2

36 36 36 36 18 18 18 18

0.146 0.095 0.091 0.071 0.147 0.129 0.097 0.114

0.148 0.148 0.148 0.148 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200

0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal

2. Homogeneity Test

Homogeneity test is done to know that the data are homogeneous. If

χo2 is lower than χt

2(0.05)

, it can be concluded that the data are

homogeneous.

Table 15. The Homogeneity Test

Sample df 1/df s12 log s1

2 (df) log s12

1 2 3 4

17 17 17 17

0.059 0.059 0.059 0.059

18.30 55.91 40.41 39.32

1.262 1.748 1.606 1.595

21.462 29.708 27.080 27.109

68 0.235 105.589

χ2 = 2,303{B – (ΣlogSi x n-1)}

= 2,303(107.801 – 105.589)

= 5.09

Based on the result of calculation above, it can be seen that the χ2 (5.09) is

lower than χt at the level of significance (α) 5% = 7.81. So χ2 < χt (5.09 <

7.81) and the data are homogeneous.


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C. Hypothesis Test

Hypothesis test can be done after the result of normality and

homogeneity test are fulfilled. The test is done by using multifactor analysis of

variance 2 x 2. Ho is rejected if Fo > Ft meaning that there are a difference and

an interaction. If Ho is rejected the analysis is continued to know which group

is better using Tukey test. The multifactor analysis of variance 2 x 2 and

Tukey test are described as below.

1. Summary of a 2 x 2 Multifactor Analysis of Variance

Table 16. Multifactor Analysis of Variance

Source of Variance SS df MS Fo Ft 0,05

Between columns 284.014 1 284.014 7.38 4.00

Between rows 1596.125 1 1596.125 41.47 4.00

Columns by rows (interaction)

3916.125 1 3916.125 101.75 4.00

Between groups 5796.264 3 1932.088 - -

Within group 2617.056 68 38.486 - -

Total 8413.319 71 - - -

The table above shows that:

a. Because Fo between columns (7.38) is higher than Ft at the level of

significance (α) = 0.05 (4.00) and (α) = 0.01 (7.08), the difference

between columns is significant. It can be concluded that the methods

of teaching differ significantly from one another in their effect on the

reading comprehension of the subject in the experiment.

b. Because Fo between rows (41.47) is higher than Ft at the level of

significance (α) = 0.05 (4.00) and (α) = 0.01 (7.08), the difference

between rows is significant. It can be concluded that the students


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having high intelligence and those having low intelligence are

significantly different in their reading comprehension.

c. Because Fo interaction between group (101.75) is higher than Ft at the

level of significance (α) = 0.05 (4.00) and (α) = 0.01 (7.08), there is

interaction between the two variables, teaching methods and

intelligence. It means the effect of teaching methods depends on the

degree of intelligence to teach reading.

2. Tukey Test

The finding of q is found by dividing the difference between the

means by the square root of the ratio of the within group variation and the

sample size.

q = nsw /

)x-x(2

ji

Data

TeachingMethod

Intelligence

Contextual Teaching and Learning (A1)

Grammar Translation Method (A2)

Sum

Group 1 Group 2 High (B1) Data = 18 Data = 18 Data = 36

ΣX = 1354 X = 75.2 ΣX = 1017 X = 56.5 ΣX = 2371 X = 65.9 Group 3 Group 4

Low (B2) Data = 18 Data = 18 Data = 36 ΣX = 919 X = 51.1 ΣX = 1113 X = 61.8 ΣX = 2031 X = 56.4

Total Data = 36 Data = 36 Data = 72 ΣX = 2273 X = 63.1 ΣX = 2130 X = 59.2 ΣX = 4403 X = 61.2

a. Between columns

qA = n / anceerror vari

)X-X(21 AA =

36 / 38.4862.591.63 −

= 03.19.3 = 3.84


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Because between columns (qA) =3.84 is higher than qt at the level of

significance (α) = 0.05 (2.86), contextual teaching and learning

method differs significantly from grammar translation method for

teaching reading. The mean score of the students who are taught using

CTL (A1) (63.1) is higher than A2 (59.2), so it can be concluded that

contextual teaching and learning method is more effective to teach

reading than grammar translation method.

b. Between rows

qB = n / anceerror vari

)X-X(21 BB =

36 / 38.4864.569.65 −

= 03.14.9 = 9.11

Because between rows (qB) = 9.11 is higher than qt at the level of

significance (α) = 0.05 (2.86), the students having high intelligence

differs significantly from the students having low intelligence. The

mean score of the students having high intelligence (B1) (65.9) is

higher than (B2) (56.4), so it can be concluded that the students having

high intelligence have better reading comprehension than those having

low intelligence.

c. Between cells A1B1 and A2B1

qHI = n / anceerror vari

)X-X(1211 BABA =

18 / 38.4865.562.75 −

= 46.17.18 = 12.8

Because between cells A1B1 and A2B1 = 12.8 is higher than qt at the

level of significance (α) = 0.05 (2.97), contextual teaching and


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learning method differs significantly from grammar translation method

for students having high intelligence. The mean score of the students

having high intelligence who are taught using CTL (A1B1) (75.2) is

higher than A2B1 (56.5), so it can be concluded that contextual

teaching and learning method is more effective than grammar

translation method to teach reading for students having high

intelligence

d. Between cells A1B2 and A2B2

qLI = n / anceerror vari

)X-X(2221 BABA =

18 / 38.4868.611.51 −

= 46.13.5 = 3.65

Because between cells (qLI) = 3.65 is higher than qt at the level of

significance (α) = 0.05 (2.97), grammar translation method differs

significantly from contextual teaching and learning method for

students having low intelligence. The mean score of the students

having low intelligence who are taught using GTM (A2B2) (61.8) is

higher than A1B2 (51.1), so it can be concluded that grammar

translation method is more effective than contextual teaching and

learning for students having low intelligence.

e. Based on the result of analysis on the above points (c) and (d), that is

contextual teaching and learning method is more effective than

grammar translation method for the students having high intelligence

and grammar translation method is more effective than contextual

teaching and learning method for the students having low intelligence,


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so it can be summarized that there is an interaction between teaching

methods and students’ intelligence in teaching reading comprehension.

D. Discussion of the Result of the Study

Based on the computation result of data analysis, it can be explained as

follows:

1. Contextual Teaching and Learning Method is more effective than

Grammar Translation Method to teach reading comprehension.

The method of Contextual Teaching and Learning in learning

reading gives opportunities for students to understand the passage through

the real experience. The students learn better if the situation around them

is created naturally. It will be more meaningful if the children experience

what they learn, not only to know what they learn or just memorize what

the teacher transfers to them. Creating a setting in which students learn as

realistically as possible is a goal of Contextual Teaching and Learning

method (Nurhadi and Senduk, 2003: 34). It is also supported by Gholam,

et al., (2008: 2) who state that in constructivism, transferring knowledge is

done by involvement in authentic tasks in meaningful situations. The main

feature in transferring knowledge is that learning always takes place in a

context; therefore, transferring knowledge should also take place in an

authentic contextualized situation. Nobody learns to use a tool by

following a set of rules. They must use those tools in real world situations

for the learning to be appropriate and effective.

Moreover, students who are taught using Contextual Teaching and

Learning method will have critical and creative thinking through

searching, observing, investigating, and analyzing (Nurhadi and Senduk,

2003: 43). The use of inquiry in the reading activity needs the students’


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involvement to find answers themselves and ask the questions along the

way. The students view themselves as learners in the process of learning

and they look forward to learning. They exhibit curiosity and ponder

observation. They ask questions and use the questions to lead them to

activities generating further questions or ideas (http;//www.youthlearn

.org/learning/approach/inquiry.asp). By presenting variety of different

types of texts, they search who are the participants, what they do, where,

when, and how they do that, the events, the complication, the resolution,

and the code. After that they observe, investigate and finally analyze them.

Questioning used by the teacher to check the students’

understanding, to encourage students’ responses, and to know what the

students have known make the students confident to express their answers.

In addition, the students that work in a small group have the opportunities

to ask questions freely among the members. Even the students who are shy

to ask questions to the teacher are motivated to study together with their

friends (Nurhadi and Senduk, 2003: 47). The implementation of learning

community really provides students more time to share their ideas or

knowledge to each other. Wehrli in AABB Conference (2003: 4) says the

advantages of implementing learning community are the students are

actively involved and stimulate peer group learning and it helps

participants explore pre-existing knowledge and build on what they know.

It also facilitates exchange of ideas and awareness of mutual concerns and

develops leadership, teamwork, communication, and collaboration skills.

Then, modeling by the teacher or the students improves the students’

performance. After seeing how the teacher or their friends answer the

questions of text, the other students imitate like what they did. A long with


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this, the students have self-confidence to present or retell what they have

learned in front of the class (Nurhadi and Senduk, 2003: 49). As it is stated

by Wehrli in AABB Conference (2003: 4) that role modeling is intentional

teaching strategy in which learners listen and observe role model

performing regular duties of the profession and/or “thinking out loud”. The

advantages of role modeling can be subtle but powerful learning. It tends

to generate high learner interest.

Reflection is one of the components of CTL which has also given

great contribution to the improvement of students’ reading comprehension.

Kemmis (in Zakia Ahmad, 2006: 2) states that reflection is not just an

individual, psychological process. It is an action oriented, historically

embedded, social and political frame, to locate oneself in the history of a

situation, to participate in a social activity, and to take sides on issues.

Therefore, a reading development program according to Nuttal (in Zakia

Ahmad, 2006: 2) should be to enable students to enjoy (or at least feel

comfortable with) reading in the foreign language, and to read without

help unfamiliar authentic texts, at appropriate speed, silently and with

adequate understanding.

After that, the teaching learning process needs feedback. According

to Stiggins as cited by Amin, et al., (2007: 3) there are two types of

assessment: formative assessment, that is, assessment for learning, and

summative assessment, or assessment of learning. In fact, authentic

assessment requires both. Boston (in Amin, et al., 2007: 3) say that

summative assessment is a test that is usually given at the end of a term,

semester or year, the purpose of which is to measure proficiency.

O’Malley & Pierce (in Amin, et al., 2007: 3) states that formative


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assessment takes place during a course of teaching and is used essentially

as feedback to the teaching learning process. According to Amin, et al.,

(2007: 3) it is an ongoing process of collecting information about the

students’ performance through various techniques of classroom

assessment. The purpose of this is not only to measure proficiency, but

also to improve it as well. In this case, the teacher gives the score through

the performance of the students during the teaching and learning process

easily. Finally the students feel comfortable to join the class.

On the other hand, Grammar Translation Method is unnatural

method. The natural order of learning a language is listening, speaking,

reading and writing. That is the way how the child learns his language in

natural surroundings, but in Grammar Translation Method the teaching of

language starts with the teaching of reading. So, speech is neglected,

consequently the students feel shy of communicating through English

(http://en.wikipedia .org/wiki/Grammartranslation).

Grammar Translation Method also rather attempts to teach language

through rules and not by use. In fact, researchers in linguistics have proved

that to speak any language, whether native or foreign, entirely by rule is

quite impossible. Language learning means acquiring certain skills, which

can be learned through practice and not by just memorizing rules. The

students who have learned a foreign or second language through this

method find it difficult to get proficiency in the second language

approximating that in the first language (http://en.wikipedia

.org/wiki/Grammartranslation)


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2. The students having high intelligence have better reading comprehension

than those having low intelligence.

Intelligence is one key to be successful in learning. Students who

have high intelligence will solve the problem of learning without

difficulty. High intelligence toward the method of learning strongly affects

the success of learning reading and surely can affect the student’s reading

comprehension.

Students who have high intelligence have high curiosity. They also

learn by full of self confidence, responsible to the learning assignment,

autonomous, and hard effort to attain a higher competence, and always

enjoy in learning process. By high intelligence, students have hard effort

optimally to achieve the success. As it is stated by Gardner that

intelligence encompasses the ability to create and solve problems, create

products or provide services that are valued within a culture or society

(Gardner, 1999: 41-43).

On contrary, students who have low intelligence are passive recipient

of knowledge; they only receive what teacher has said. They always

depend on someone else, don’t try hard, give up easily in the face of

challenge, and do not have desire to improve their competencies. Students

who have low intelligence are discouraged to involve in doing learning

activities, lazy to learn, get bored easily, and they do not feel pleasure in

classroom. It happens because they have less capacity to learn and carry on

abstract thinking. They often meet problem when dealing with reading

comprehension. Low intelligence is the cause of reading disability when

appropriate educational adaptations are not made.


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intelligence.

Success of learning includes not only the teaching methods but also

the students’ intelligence. Students’ participation and involvement in

learning activities is strongly affected by the teaching method. Grammar

translation method cannot motivate the students because it is teacher-

centered; the teacher is regarded as the source of knowledge. Whereas

contextual teaching and learning method is student-centered; the students

should actively participate in learning activities.

In contextual teaching and learning method teaching reading gives

opportunities for the students to understand the passage through the real

experience. The students find the type of the text by searching who are the

participants, what they do, where, and how they do that, and the like. Then

if they find difficulties they can express their questions to the teacher or

their friends in a small group. They can also make model from the teacher

or their friends in answering the questions of the text (Nurhadi and

Senduk, 2003: 34-51).

The students having high intelligence have high curiosity, self

confidence are responsible for the learning assignment, autonomous and

effort to attain a higher competence. It is stated by Gardner (1999: 41-43)

that intelligence encompasses the ability to create and solve problems,

create products or provide services that are valued within a culture or

society. Therefore, when they are taught using contextual teaching and

learning they understand the passage easily; they have creative thinking


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and do the assignment better. The students do not depend on the teacher’s

translation and explanation. They try to find the meaning and the message

from the text by themselves or they will ask friends that work in a small

group. Nurhadi and Senduk (2003: 47-51) said that questioning and

modeling used by their friends or their teacher can improve the students’

performance. Then, the teacher gives the score through the performance

during the teaching and learning process. Finally the students are free to

join the class. The students who have high intelligence have high ability in

comprehending the various text types. It is revealed by Fathi, et al., (2009:

12) that the multiple intelligence program was effective in improving the

reading comprehension skills of the students in experimental group,

compared to the control group whose individuals were left to be taught

conventionally. That is why contextual teaching and learning method is

more effective for the students having high intelligence in teaching reading

comprehension.

On the other hand, in grammar translation method the teaching of the

second language starts with the teaching of reading. It is unnatural order.

The natural one is listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Then

translation is the easiest way of explaining meanings or words and phrases

from one language into another. Since the passages are also taught through

the medium of the mother tongue, the teacher may ask comprehension

questions on the text taught in the mother tongue (http://en. wikipedia.

org/wiki/Grammar translation).


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In learning the second language the students having low intelligence

prefer reading to listening. In fact, according to Nurhayati, a Malay

psychologist membiasakannya mendengarkan … sejak dalam kandungan,

membantunya untuk tumbuh dengan intelegensi tinggi, kemampuan

berbahasa yang baik, dan kepribadian yang baik pula

(http://10091fda.blogspot.com/2011/03/benarkah-al-quran-dapat-merang

sang.html). They are also passive recipient of knowledge. They depend on

the teacher’s explanation to read the text. They do not have initiative. They

just wait for the teacher’s translation to know the meaning and the

message of the text. That is why when they are taught using grammar

translation method they become active, listen carefully to the teacher’s

explanation to read the text and enjoy the teacher’s translation to know the

meaning and the message of the text. They become enthusiastically in

learning process because they can respond the questions in the mother

tongue. Even, they can communicate with the teachers without linguistic

problems (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar translation). Finally, they

do not get difficulty in doing the assignment. So, grammar translation

method is more effective for the students having low intelligence for

teaching reading comprehension. This is supported by Sue, et al., (2009: 2)

who state that therefore the correlation between reading and intelligence is

strongest when the child is a proficient reader.

Therefore, there is an interaction between teaching methods and

students’ intelligence in teaching reading comprehension. Contextual

teaching and learning method is suitable for students having high

intelligence and grammar translation method is suitable for students

having low intelligence.


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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION, IMPLICATION, AND SUGGESTION

A. Conclusion

Based on the data analysis, research findings are concluded as follows:

1. Contextual Teaching and Learning method is more effective than

Grammar Translation Method to teach reading comprehension for the

eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of

2009/2010.

2. Students having high intelligence have better reading comprehension than

those having low intelligence for the eighth grade students of SMPN 14

Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010.


intelligence in teaching reading comprehension for the eighth grade

students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of 2009/2010.

From the research findings, it can be concluded that Contextual

Teaching and Learning method is an effective method in teaching reading for

the eighth grade students of SMPN 14 Surakarta in the academic year of

2009/2010. The effectiveness of the method is influence by the students’ level

of intelligence.

B. Implication

The research findings imply that Contextual Teaching and Learning

method can affect the students’ reading comprehension. It is proved from the

research findings that Contextual Teaching and Learning method is more

effective than Grammar Translation Method in teaching reading. Contextual


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Teaching and Learning is recommended by applying the seven components in

the reading class. The students having high intelligence who are taught using

Contextual Teaching and Learning method have highest score among them

meaning that Contextual Teaching and Learning is well and suitably used for

high intelligence students. For low intelligence students, Grammar Translation

Method is more effective than Contextual Teaching and Learning. Because

each class has students having high and low intelligence, so Contextual

Teaching and Learning method can be used with Grammar Translation

Method to complement each other.

Contextual Teaching and Learning method is focused on processing

approach whereas in class activity students are involved to actively participate,

do cooperation, share experiences, work together, analyze, summarize and

evaluate the activity. The teaching learning process is more student-oriented,

while the role of the teacher is to be a facilitator. The students are directed to

be able to do and think. The aim of the learning activity emphasizes not only

to the substances and knowledge but also its values so that it feels more

meaningful.

C. Suggestion

1. For teachers

a) The teachers should implement the contextual teaching and learning

method to improve students’ reading comprehension.

b) The teachers should determine the contextual materials which relate to

students’ real life, so what she gives to her students will be meaningful

for their life.


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c) The teachers should consider deeply the students’ intelligence, so it

will enable the teachers to set an appropriate action in implementing

the teaching method.

2. For students

a) The students should be active and involved thoroughly in the teaching

and learning process in order to improve their reading comprehension.

b) The students should be interested in studying English since the

materials given are related to students’ real life, not abstract.

c) The students who have low intelligence should increase their English

reading activities through various resources such as: textbook,

magazine, newspaper, internet, natural surroundings, etc.

3. For other researcher

a) The coming researchers can conduct any further research in the field

by extending it to other levels and subjects.

b) The research can give additional contribution to develop instructional

model and strengthen the similar theory.


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aebersold, Jo Ann & Field, Marry Lee. 1997. From Reader to Reading Teacher. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ary, Donald, Lucy Cheser Jacobs and Asghar Razavieh. 2007. Pengantar Penelitian Dalam Pendidikan (Edisi terjemahan oleh Arief Furchan). Surabaya: Usaha Nasional.

Brown, H. Douglas, 1994. Principle of Language Teaching and Learning. San Francisco: Practice Hall Regents.

Carter, Philip 2005. The Complete Book of Intelligence Tests. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England.

Christensen, Larry B. 2000. Educational Research. London: Allyn and Bacon Inc.

Coon, Dennis, 1989. Introduction to Psychology Exploration and Application. San Francisco. West Publishing Company

Dechant V. Emerald and Henry P. Smith, 1983, Psychology in Teaching Reading, 2nd ed. United States of America, Prentice Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs.

Departemen Pendidikan Nasional Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah. 2003. Pendekatan Kontekstual, Jakarta

Grellet, Francoise. 1998. Developing Reading Skills. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Husein, Torsten and Postlehwaite T. Neville. 1994. The International Encyclopedia of Education vol. 8. London: BPC Wheaton Ltd.

Johnson, E, B. 2002. Contextual Teaching and Learning. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, INC.

Kennedy, Eddie C. 1981. Methods in Teaching Developmental Reading (second edition). Itasca: F. E. Peacock Publisher, Inc.

Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 2000. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. New York: Oxford University Press.

Nana Syaodih Sukmadinata. 2007. Landasan Psikologi Proses Pendidikan. Bandung: Remaja Rosda Karya.

Nanik Y. Widiastuti. 2003. A Correlational Study on Translation Ability, Reading Interest, and Reading Comprehension Ability at the Second Year Students of MAN 2 Banjarnegara in 2002/2003 Academic Year. Surakarta: FKIP UNS


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Nunan, David. 1998. Designing Task for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Nurhadi & Senduk, A. G. 2003. Pembelajaran Kontekstual dan Penerapannya dalam KBK. Malang: Penerbit Universitas Negeri Malang

Smith, Nila B and Robinson, H Alan. 1980. Reading Instruction for Today’s Children. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, Inc.

Sujoko. 1990. Teaching English As a Foreign Language. Surakarta: Penerbit Universitas Sebelas Maret

Sutrisno Hadi. 2000. Statistik. Yogyakarta: Andi.

United States Department of Education Office of Vocational and Adult Education, 2001

Wallace, Catherine. 1996. Reading. New York: Oxford University Press.

Wehrli, G. and Nyuquist, J.G. 2003. Teaching Strategies/Methodologies. Available at http;hsc.unm.edu/som/ted/TEACHING%20 STRATEGIES .pdf

Williams, Eddie. 1996. Reading in the Language Classroom. Hertfordshire: Phoenix.

Internet :

Abdulkader, Fathi Abdulhamid & Kerim Gundogdu & Mourad Ali Eissa. 2009. The Effectiveness of a Multiple Intelligences-based Program on Improving Certain Reading Skills in 5th-year Primary Learning Disabled Students. Available at http://www.investigacion-psicopedagogica org/revista/articulos/18/english/Art 18_313.pdf Accessed on June 10, 2011

Ahmad, Zakia. 2006. Reflection and the Teaching of Reading. Available at http://nepjol.info/nepal/index.php/NELTA/article/download/3129/2730 Accessed on June 9, 2011

Cotton, Sue M. & Sheila G. Crewther. 2009. The Relationship between Reading and Intelligence in Primary School Aged Children: Implications for Definitional Models of Dyslexia. Available at http://www.bentham science.com/open/toeduj/articles/V002/42TOEDUJ.pdf Accessed on June 10, 2011

http://coe.ssusb.edu/scarcella/helpr.pdf

http://people.richland.edu/james/lecture/m170/ch13-dif.html


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http://www.google.co.id/#hl=id&q=grammar+translation+method+on+language+teaching.ppt&start=20&sa=N&fp=ca19d887132bd2da)

http://www.youthlearn .org/learning/approach/inquiry.asp

http://10091fda.blogspot.com/2011/03/benarkah-al-quran-dapat-merang sang.html

http://www.scribd.com/doc/7785445/CONTEXTUAL-LEARNING-STRATEGIES Accessed on July 2010

Moheidat, Amin Saleh & Abdallah Ahmad Baniabdelrahman. 2007. The Impact of Omani Twelfth-Grade Students’ Self-Assessment on their Performance in Reading in English. Available at http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/PDF /March-2011-asm.pdf Accessed on June 10, 2011

Zarei, Gholam Reza & Mohammad Ali Esfandiari. 2008. The Effect of Constructivist vs Conventional Teaching on Reading Comprehension. Available at http://docsdrive.com/pdfs/medwelljournals/sscience/ 2008/ 606-610.pdf Accessed on June 9, 2011


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aebersold, Jo Ann & Field, Marry Lee. 1997. From Reader to Reading Teacher. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ary, Donald, Lucy Cheser Jacobs and Asghar Razavieh. 2007. Pengantar Penelitian Dalam Pendidikan (Edisi terjemahan oleh Arief Furchan). Surabaya: Usaha Nasional.

Barbe, Walter B. (1952). A Study of the Reading of Gifted High School Students, Educational Administration and Supervision, Tennessee: University of Chttanooga Press.

Bond, Guy L and Eva Bond Wagner. 1963. Teaching the Child to Read. New York: Brett. Mac Millan Ltd.

Brown, H. Douglas, 1994. Principle of Language Teaching and Learning. San Francisco: Practice Hall Regents.

Buttery, T.J. and G.E. Mason (1979). Reading Improvement for Mainstreamed Children Who Are Mildly Mentally Handicapped. Reading Children

Carter, Philip 2005. The Complete Book of Intelligence Tests. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England.

Christensen, Larry B. 1977. Experimental Methodology. London: Allyn and Bacon Inc.

Coon, Dennis, 1989. Introduction to Psychology Exploration and Application. San Francisco. West Publishing Company

Dechant V. Emerald and Henry P. Smith, 1983, Psychology in Teaching Reading, 2nd ed. United States of America, Prentice Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs.

Departemen Pendidikan Nasional Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah. 2003. Pendekatan Kontekstual, Jakarta

Grellet, Francoise. 1998. Developing Reading Skills. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Husein, Torsten and Postlehwaite T. Neville. 1994. The International Encyclopedia of Education vol. 8. London: BPC Wheaton Ltd.

Johnson, E, B. 2002. Contextual Teaching and Learning. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, INC.

Kennedy, Eddie C. 1981. Methods in Teaching Developmental Reading (second edition). Itasca: F. E. Peacock Publisher, Inc.


commit to user

99

Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 1986. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. New York: Oxford University Press.

Nana Syaodih Sukmadinata. 2007. Landasan Psikologi Proses Pendidikan. Bandung: Remaja Rosda Karya.

Nanik Y. Widiastuti. 2003. A Correlational Study on Translation Ability, Reading Interest, and Reading Comprehension Ability at the Second Year Students of MAN 2 Banjarnegara in 2002/2003 Academic Year. Surakarta: FKIP UNS

Nunan, David. 1998. Designing Task for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Nurhadi & Senduk, A. G. 2003. Pembelajaran Kontekstual dan Penerapannya dalam KBK. Malang: Penerbit Universitas Negeri Malang

Smith, Nila B and Robinson, H Alan. 1980. Reading Instruction for Today’s Children. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, Inc.

Sujoko. 1990. Teaching English As a Foreign Language. Surakarta: Penerbit Universitas Sebelas Maret

Sutrisno Hadi. 2000. Statistik. Yogyakarta: Andi.

Tuckman, Bruce W. 1978. Conducting Educational Research. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc.

United States Department of Education Office of Vocational and Adult Education, 2001

Wallace, Catherine. 1996. Reading. New York: Oxford University Press.

Wehrli, G. and Nyuquist, J.G. 2003. Teaching Strategies/Methodologies. Available at http;hsc.unm.edu/som/ted/TEACHING%20 STRATEGIES .pdf

Williams, Eddie. 1996. Reading in the Language Classroom. Hertfordshire: Phoenix.

Internet :

Abdulkader, Fathi Abdulhamid & Kerim Gundogdu & Mourad Ali Eissa. 2009. The Effectiveness of a Multiple Intelligences-based Program on Improving Certain Reading Skills in 5th-year Primary Learning Disabled Students. Available at http://www.investigacion-psicopedagogica org/revista/articulos/18/english/Art 18_313.pdf Accessed on June 10, 2011


commit to user

100

Ahmad, Zakia. 2006. Reflection and the Teaching of Reading. Available at http://nepjol.info/nepal/index.php/NELTA/article/download/3129/2730 Accessed on June 9, 2011

Cotton, Sue M. & Sheila G. Crewther. 2009. The Relationship between Reading and Intelligence in Primary School Aged Children: Implications for Definitional Models of Dyslexia. Available at http://www.bentham science.com/open/toeduj/articles/V002/42TOEDUJ.pdf Accessed on June 10, 2011

http://coe.ssusb.edu/scarcella/helpr.pdf

http://people.richland.edu/james/lecture/m170/ch13-dif.html

http://www.google.co.id/#hl=id&q=grammar+translation+method+on+language+teaching.ppt&start=20&sa=N&fp=ca19d887132bd2da)

http://www.youthlearn .org/learning/approach/inquiry.asp

http://10091fda.blogspot.com/2011/03/benarkah-al-quran-dapat-merang sang.html

http://www.scribd.com/doc/7785445/CONTEXTUAL-LEARNING-STRATEGIES Accessed on July 2010

Moheidat, Amin Saleh & Abdallah Ahmad Baniabdelrahman. 2007. The Impact of Omani Twelfth-Grade Students’ Self-Assessment on their Performance in Reading in English. Available at http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/PDF /March-2011-asm.pdf Accessed on June 10, 2011

Zarei, Gholam Reza & Mohammad Ali Esfandiari. 2008. The Effect of Constructivist vs Conventional Teaching on Reading Comprehension. Available at http://docsdrive.com/pdfs/medwelljournals/sscience/ 2008/ 606-610.pdf Accessed on June 9, 2011

the effectiveness of contextual teaching and learning to teach

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