the effect of exercise on global self-esteem: a

311

JOURNAL OF SPORT & EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY, 2005, 27, 311-334© 2005 Human Kinetics, Inc.

EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY

1Faculty of Physical Education and Recreation, & Alberta Centre for Active Living, E-424 Van Vliet, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2H9 Canada; 2Dept. of Health and Sport Studies, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242.

The Effect of Exercise on Global Self-Esteem: A Quantitative Review

John C. Spence1, Kerry R. McGannon2, and Pauline Poon1

1University of Alberta; 2University of Iowa

The purpose of this study was to quantitatively review the body of research on exercise and global self-esteem (GSE). This review focuses specifi cally on studies using adults and also incorporates both published and unpublished works. Computer and manual searches identifi ed 113 studies matching the selection criteria. Each study was coded according to 20 study features. A total of 128 effect sizes (d) were derived. As indicated by effect-size magnitude, participation in exercise brought about a small change in GSE (d = +0.23). d = +0.23). dChange in physical fi tness and type of program were signifi cant moderators of the effect of exercise on GSE. Larger effect sizes were observed for those who experienced signifi cant changes in physical fi tness and those participating in exercise or lifestyle programs as opposed to skills training.

Key Words: meta-analysis, self-concept, physical activity

The self is one of the most widely utilized psychological constructs in con-temporary society (Harter, 1999; Hattie, 1992). In Western culture, the academic literature and popular press presuppose that everyone not only has a sense of self but that the self we have is a social phenomenon (Cooley, 1902; James, 1890/1950; Mead, 1934). Stated differently, who we are is thought to be reciprocally infl uenced by our relationships with others, providing the key to understanding how and why we think, feel, and behave as we do, as well as the impetus for enriching our lives and relationships.

Researchers interested in exercise and physical activity have also recognized the importance of self-related phenomena. This is because exercise participation is linked to mental and psychological benefi ts (Gauvin, Spence, & Anderson, 1999; Landers & Arent, 2001). Involvement in regular exercise and physical activity programs that improve skill, knowledge, fi tness, and health are linked to enhanced self-perceptions (Fox, 1997). These changes may then generalize to more favor-able views about the self, leading to an improved sense of well-being (Berger & McInman, 1993; Morgan, 1985).

312 / Spence, McGannon, and Poon

If people experience a more favorable view of themselves as a result of par-ticipating in physical activity, they should be more likely to continue participating (Sonstroem, 1997b, 1998). Studying and understanding this connection is important because despite the well-documented physical, psychological, and social benefi ts of regular physical activity (Bouchard, Shephard, & Stephens, 1994; Gauvin et al., 1999), physical inactivity remains pervasive. It is estimated that upward of two-thirds of the industrialized world does not achieve minimum physical activity guidelines (Oja, 1995; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). Physical inactivity thus constitutes a major public health concern (U.S. Dept. HHS, 1996), along with related social and economic costs (Colditz, 1999; Katzmarzyk, Gledhill, & Shephard, 2000).

These notions have made the self and self-related phenomena an important topic of study in exercise psychology. In particular, self-esteem has been proposed as the variable with the highest payoff for refl ecting psychological benefi ts obtained from participation in regular exercise (Folkins & Sime, 1981; Hughes, 1984). In turn, self-esteem has been implicated as a central aspect of psychological health and well-being (e.g., Greenberg, Solomon, Pyszczynski, et al., 1992; DiLorenzo, Bargman, Stucky-Ropp, et al., 1999; Rosenberg, 1965) and, as mentioned, is a pos-sible key in helping to solve the problem of lack of exercise participation. Thus an abundance of literature has attempted to establish a link between physical activity participation and self-esteem.

Literature reviews (e.g., Gruber, 1986; Sonstroem, 1984) have noted that approximately 60% of studies reviewed report a positive association between physical activity participation and high self-esteem. This has led to the widespread assumption that enhanced overall or global self-esteem is an automatic outcome of participation in physical activity. However, recent studies (Calfas & Taylor, 1994; McAuley, Mihalko, & Bane, 1997; McAuley, Blissmer, Katula, Duncan, & Mihalko, 2000) have questioned the magnitude of change that may be expected for global self-esteem as a result of participating in physical activity.

Additionally, so far only one meta-analysis examining the effect of exercise on self-concept1 has included adults (McDonald & Hodgdon, 1991), and its results have several limitations. First, this study explored only aerobic forms of exercise (e.g., jogging, dancing) and their link to self-concept. Given the rising popularity of other forms of exercise (e.g., weight training, fl exibility training, leisure activities) and the differential value these might have in different segments of the population (e.g., the elderly might value leisure forms of activity as opposed to jogging; Martin & Sinden, 2001), exploring self-esteem and its relationship to other forms of exercise would also be advantageous. In fact, other meta-analyses found that weight training was more effective than aerobic exercise for enhancing mood (Arent, Landers, & Etnier, 2000; North, McCullagh, & Tran, 1990).

Second, McDonald and Hodgdon only included published studies on self-published studies on self-publishedconcept and exercise, which is somewhat problematic if we consider the tendency for journals to publish fi ndings that are statistically signifi cant as opposed to non-signifi cant (Spence & Blanchard, 2001). Thus, those researchers who do not fi nd signifi cant statistical evidence where self-esteem and exercise are concerned could be infl uenced to not submit their fi ndings, or to be rejected when they do submit them. Thus it is possible that the published literature overstates the signifi cance of fi ndings where self-concept or self-esteem and exercise are concerned.

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Exercise and Self-Esteem / 313

Finally, McDonald and Hodgdon combined different aspects of “self” such as global self-esteem, physical self-concept, and body cathexis. They justifi ed this procedure by claiming that the constructs were highly correlated. However, since clear theoretical distinctions have been made between these constructs, particularly in how they relate to physical activity (Fox & Corbin, 1989; Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989), it is important to summarize them independently. Moreover, Harter (1999) recently noted that aggregating specifi c self-evaluations into a single global score masks the meaningful distinctions between one’s sense of adequacy across vary-ing domains.

The division of self-esteem into subdomains has been the basis of Sonstroem and Morgan’s (1989) multidimensional Exercise and Self-Esteem Model (EXSEM). This model has been advocated as an important theoretical guide to employ for study and further advancement in understanding exercise and self-esteem (see Fox, 1997, 2000; Marsh, 1997; McAuley et al., 2000). Moreover, it has been noted that employing the EXSEM to study self-esteem in the physical activity domain will provide researchers with examinations of processes and pathways (i.e., mechanisms) that relate to changes in self-esteem (Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989).

The EXSEM is based on a multifaceted hierarchical model of self-esteem (see Shavelson, Hubner, & Stanton, 1976). In brief, the model is hierarchically arranged according to increasing situational specifi city, with global self-esteem (GSE) residing at the top, physical self-competence and physical acceptance in the middle, and physical self-effi cacy at the lower level. Constructs at the base/lower level feed into and affect the global elements, but are more closely related to the situation/context at hand. Sonstroem and Morgan (1989) have only included those elements in the model that have been shown in previous research to be typically associated with exercise behavior. This is a competence-based model in which changes in physical fi tness are proposed to lead to enhanced self-effi cacy, which in turn bolsters physical competence that then results in an increased perception of global self-esteem.

Hypothesized Moderators of Effect of Exercise on Self-Esteem

Because few studies have used the EXSEM in experimental designs (see Alfermann & Stoll, 2000; Caruso & Gill, 1992; Glassford, 1993; McAuley et al., 2000), the model cannot be tested in this meta-analysis. However, the EXSEM can still be used to help generate hypotheses about how exercise affects GSE and which factors may infl uence or moderate that relationship. Based on the original hypotheses proposed for the model (Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989) and other writ-ings of Sonstroem (1984, 1997a, 1998), we have identifi ed the following variables as potential moderators of the effect of exercise on GSE.

First, changes in physical fi tness2 are thought to be the mechanism through which exercise could affect self-effi cacy and subsequently GSE. Thus, exercise participants who experience changes in physical fi tness should experience larger changes in GSE as opposed to those who do not experience such changes.

Second, if physical fi tness change is a potential moderator of the exercise/GSE relationship, then initial physical fi tness level should also be considered a potential moderator, since less physically fi t individuals should experience more of a change in GSE as a result of exercising compared to more physically fi t individuals.

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Third, similar to the case for initial physical fi tness level, initial self-esteem level should also serve as a moderator of exercise on GSE. Thus, participants with initially lower GSE scores should experience the most change in self-esteem as a result of exercise and changes in fi tness.

Finally, since training volume and dose are related to changes in physical fi tness (McArdle, Katch, & Katch, 1986), aspects of the exercise program such as frequency, duration, intensity, and length of the program should be related to changes in GSE. Specifi cally, programs that take place over a longer period, with exercise bouts of higher frequency, intensity, and duration, should lead to larger changes in GSE vs. programs of shorter length with lower doses of exercise.

Despite the vast number of studies exploring the GSE and exercise relation-ship, it should be clear that while the potential benefi t of physical activity on GSE has long been espoused in the sport and exercise literature (Folkins & Sime, 1981; Hughes, 1984), the foregoing studies and their limitations have put into question the exact magnitude of change in GSE that results from participation in physical activity. Therefore, the primary purpose of this paper was to take the limitations of previous research into consideration and present the fi ndings of a more comprehen-sive meta-analysis in order to explore the effect of exercise on GSE. To accomplish this purpose, the current meta-analysis included published and unpublished studies (e.g., dissertations, theses) and also explored the effects of other forms of exercise (e.g., weight training) in addition to aerobic exercise on GSE.

Method

Literature Search and Study SelectionSearch Strategy. We conducted computer-based information searches in

Current Contents (July 1993–Sept. 2001), Dissertation Abstracts (1865–Dec. 2003), Medline (1966–Dec. 2003), PsycINFO (1960–Dec. 2003), and Sport Discus(1975–Dec. 2003). Also, manual searches were done through Current Contents(1987–June 1993), Physical Education Index (1983–1993), and Physical Education Index (1983–1993), and Physical Education Index Completed Research in Health, Physical Education, and Recreation (1968–1995). Reference lists of all major reviews and primary studies were checked for unidentifi ed references. To fi nd relevant studies on exercise and GSE, the keywords used in the searches included, but were not limited to, terms such as: exercise, physical activity, self-esteem, self-concept, and self-perception. The search was limited by language in that only studies published in English were included. In an attempt to obtain unpublished material, we emailed researchers with recent publications on the topic and asked if they would share any unpublished manuscripts or data in their possession. The fi nal cutoff date for articles to be included in this review was December 2003.

Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria. The criteria for including studies in the fi nal sample were as follows: (a) Information had to be reported in a study format, either published or unpublished, as opposed to a case study or editorial; (b) the dependent variable had to be a global measure of self-concept, self-esteem, or self-percep-tion; (c) the independent variable had to include exercise/physical activity as an intervention; (d) because of the large number of studies found in our initial search on the topic, we decided to limit our focus to adults and thus required that study participants be at least 18 years of age or that the mean age of the sample likewise be 18 years or older; (e) studies had to include a nonexercising control group or a

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control group that was maintaining its usual level of physical activity; (f) the train-ing program had to last more than 1 week; and (g) outcomes of the intervention had to be quantifi ed and sample size be provided.

Included Studies. The original search resulted in 426 potential studies. Based on our inclusion criteria, 113 studies (42 published, 71 unpublished) revealing 128 effect sizes were included in the analysis.3 In total, 7724 participants were included in these studies.

Coding of StudiesOnce studies were identifi ed for inclusion, they were collected, coded for

moderator effects, and an estimate of treatment effect was calculated.

Hypothesized Moderator Variables. Based on the original hypotheses proposed for the EXSEM (Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989) and other writings of Sonstroem (1984, 1997a, 1998), we hypothesized that changes in physical fi tness, initial self-esteem level, initial physical fi tness level, and dose of exercise (fre-quency, duration, intensity, and length of program) would explain any variation in the effect of exercise on GSE.

Additional Moderator Variables. Further, for each study we recorded the characteristics of the sample (age, sex, population, health status), methodology (self-term, questionnaire, participant assignment, control condition), and treatment (type of intervention, mode of exercise, type of physical fi tness measure). In order to address concerns about publication bias, we also coded the studies for publication status, i.e., published vs. unpublished. Finally, based on a subjective assessment of internal validity, we rated each study on a scale from 1 (poor) to 3 (good) for methodological quality.

The factors considered for this rating were assignment of participants to condi-tions, dropout rate, dose of exercise, and assessment of physical fi tness. This rating was applied in a hierachical fashion. First we assessed the method of assignment of participants to conditions and the dropout rate. If participants were not randomly assigned to conditions and/or the dropout rate was greater than 50%, the study was rated as poor. Second, if these conditions were met and a specifi c dose of exercise was required and/or the physical fi tness of participants was measured before and after the intervention, the study was rated as good. Otherwise the study was rated as being only fair. For example, studies were rated as good if random assignment was used to allocate participants to groups, the dropout rate was less than 50%, and assessments of physical fi tness were conducted before and after the intervention. Publication status and study quality were included as methodology moderators. Coding was undertaken independently by two coders. Their initial agreement rate was 84%. Disagreements between the two coders were resolved through discussion and further review of the disputed studies.

Effect Size Computation. Hedges and Olkin’s (1985) procedure to derive and analyze effect sizes was used. Specifi cally, the effect size, g, was defi ned as the difference between the means of the experimental group and the control group divided by the pooled within-group standard deviation. The pooled standard devia-tion is considered to be a representative indicator of within-study variance (Hedges & Olkin, 1985). If descriptive statistics were not available, then estimates of g were calculated from other statistics such as t, F, or p (see Dunlap, Cortina, Vaslow, & Burke, 1996; Glass, McGaw, & Smith, 1981; Ray & Shadish, 1996).

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Effect sizes are positive if exercisers exhibit higher levels of GSE. The effect sizes were corrected, d, for the bias from g’s overestimate of the population effect size for small samples (Hedges & Olkin, 1985). Statistical signifi cance of d was d was ddetermined by the presence or absence of 0 within the 95% CI for d. The absence of 0 from the CI indicates a signifi cant effect size. A d of 1 indicates a change in d of 1 indicates a change in dmagnitude equivalent to 1 SD. According to Cohen (1992), effect sizes can be categorized as small (d = 0.2), medium (d = 0.2), medium (d d = 0.5), or large (d = 0.5), or large (d d = 0.8).d = 0.8).d

Unit of Analysis. The unit of analysis was the study fi nding. Multiple effect sizes within outcomes were taken from studies only if different samples were used to produce these effect sizes (e.g., males vs. females).

Missing Data. An effect size of 0 was imputed if complete descriptive (i.e., means, variances, and sample size) and/or inferential statistics were unavailable and it was clear that there was no treatment effect (i.e., Meanexp – Meancont = 0). Also, cont = 0). Also, contif a result was only described as not signifi cant and n and/or direction of change could not be determined, then 0 was substituted for the effect size (see Lou, Abrami, Spence, et al., 1996). However, if a result was described as not signifi cant, and nand direction of change could be determined, then the effect size was calculated based on the value of t for t for t p = .05 and divided by a factor of 2 (Sedlmeier & Giger-enzer, 1989). Overall, 0 was substituted in 6 cases (5%) and t/2 was substituted in t/2 was substituted in t4 cases (3.4%).

Combining Effect Sizes. Because a great effort was made to identify and obtain every study conducted on the topic, a fi xed-effects model (Hedges & Olkin, 1985) was used when combining effect sizes. That is, we assumed that the stud-ies in our meta-analysis constituted the universe of studies. When calculating the overall average effect size for each outcome, d+, we weighted each study’s effect size by the reciprocal of its variance before averaging it with other effect sizes. This procedure typically gives additional weight to effect sizes that come from studies with larger sample sizes (Hedges, 1994).

Data AnalysisTo detect whether the studies shared a common effect size, we tested the

homogeneity of the set of effect sizes with a homogeneity statistic, Qt, which has an approximate chi-square distribution with k – 1 degree of freedom, where k – 1 degree of freedom, where k k is k is kthe number of effect sizes (Hedges & Olkin, 1985). If the resulting chi-square was signifi cant, the effect sizes were determined to be heterogeneous. In such a case, Hedges and Olkin (1985) recommend that the total homogeneity statistic be par-titioned into a between-classes effect and a test of the homogeneity of the effect sizes be conducted within each class. The between-classes effect was estimated by Qb, which has an approximate chi-square distribution with p – 1 degree of freedom, where p is the number of classes. A large value of Qb indicated that there were signifi cant differences among the classes of effect sizes. As suggested by Hedges (1994), for any variable with more than two levels, statistically signifi cant between-classes effects were followed-up with fi xed-effects contrasts (Bonferroni method). The homogeneity of the effect sizes within each class was estimated by Qwi, which has an approximate chi-square distribution with m – 1 degree of freedom, where mis the number of effect sizes in the class.

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Results

Based on the average weighted effect size (d+ = 0.23, SE = 0.02), adults in SE = 0.02), adults in SEthe studies in this analysis experienced approximately 1/4 of a standard deviation increase in GSE when they participated in physical activity or exercise. While this change was deemed small, it was signifi cantly different from zero (95% CI, .18/.28) and the effect sizes were found to be homogeneous, Qt(127) = 144.39, p = .14. This weighted effect size was similar in magnitude to the unweighted median effect size (M = 0.24) and the unweighted mean effect size (M = 0.24) and the unweighted mean effect size (M d = 0.27). Because d = 0.27). Because dof concerns about the imputing of zero for those cases in which the fi ndings were nonsignifi cant, and since it was not possible to calculate an effect size, we also calculated the average weighted effect size with those cases removed. Again, there was very little difference between the effect size with zero removed (d0–d0–d = 0.24, 0– = 0.24, 0– SE= 0.02, 95% CI, .19/.28) and the average weighted effect size.

Even though the effect sizes for GSE were homogeneous, we proceeded with an analysis of both the hypothesized and additional moderators as Rosenthal (1995) recommends.4 Because the additional moderators were tested in an exploratory fashion, we used a Bonferroni inequality to obtain a more conservative alpha of .004 (i.e., .05/13 categorical tests) to determine statistical signifi cance. Tables 1 and 2 provide the average weighted effect size for each level of each moderating variable, along with indicators of between-group differences (Qb) and within-group homogeneity (Qw).

Hypothesized Moderators of Exercise on Self-EsteemWe tested if any of the following variables served as signifi cant moderators

of exercise on GSE: change in physical fi tness, initial fi tness level, initial self-esteem level, exercise intensity, exercise frequency, exercise duration, and length of program. Change in physical fi tness, Qb (2) = 3.78, p < .05, was the only signifi -cant hypothesized moderator of GSE. Signifi cant changes in physical fi tness (d = d = d0.32) were associated with greater changes in GSE when compared to those cases where no changes occurred (d = 0.15). Furthermore, the effect size for the latter d = 0.15). Furthermore, the effect size for the latter dcategory did not differ signifi cantly from zero. In terms of initial physical fi tness level and initial self-esteem level, while not signifi cant, the direction of change was as we expected. Thus persons with lower initial physical fi tness (d = 0.29) d = 0.29) dand lower initial self-esteem (d = 0.28) demonstrated larger changes in GSE as a d = 0.28) demonstrated larger changes in GSE as a dresult of exercise than did those reporting moderate initial physical fi tness levels (d = 0.20) and moderate initial self-esteem (d = 0.20) and moderate initial self-esteem (d d = 0.22). A nonsignifi cant trend was d = 0.22). A nonsignifi cant trend was dalso observed for exercise frequency in that the more frequent the participation, the larger the increase in GSE.

Additional Moderators of Exercise on Self-EsteemSample Variables. None of the sample variables served as signifi cant mod-

erators of exercise and GSE. Although population was a signifi cant moderator when tested at an alpha of .05, it was not signifi cant when the more conservative alpha of .004 was used. No signifi cant within-class variability was detected at the variable level; however, the effect sizes in the subcategories of women, Qw (56) = 76.18, p < .05, and the psychologically unhealthy, Qw (13) = 24.21, p < .05, were heterogeneous.

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Methodological Variables. None of the methodological variables served as signifi cant moderators of GSE. While no signifi cant within-class variability was detected at the variable level, the effect sizes in the subcategories of unpublished studies, Qw (79) = 103.58, p < .05, and poor quality studies, Qw (54) = 73.60, p < .05, were heterogeneous. In all, 43% of the effect sizes were from poor quality studies and 63% were from unpublished sources. Of the effect sizes from poor quality studies, 89% were from nonequivalent designs (i.e., no random assignment or matching), 84% were from unpublished sources, and 61% were from studies in which physical fi tness was not measured. As shown in Table 3, there was a relationship between

Table 1 Summary Statistics for Hypothesized Moderators of Exercise and Self-Esteem

Variable Qb k d+ SE 95% CI Qw

Initial fi tness level 3.10 141.04 Low 53 .29 .05 .20/.38 60.71 Moderate 73 .20 .03 .14/.26 80.33Initial self-esteem level 0.91 136.52 Low 28 .28 .06 .16/.41 25.83 Moderate 98 .22 .03 .17/.27 110.69Exercise intensity 0.81 125.36 Low (< 45%) 21 .26 .07 .13/.40 29.85 Moderate 70 .21 .03 .15/.28 76.56 High (70%+) 25 .26 .05 .15/.37 18.95Exercise frequency 3.27 125.41 < 3 times/wk 33 .22 .05 .13/.31 45.43 3 times/wk 63 .23 .04 .15/.30 67.91 > 3 times/wk 14 .36 .07 .22/.50 12.07Exercise duration 2.18 128.71 0–30 min 20 .32 .08 .15/.48 13.25 31–45 min 24 .19 .06 .07/.31 42.72 46–60 min 47 .24 .04 .16/.32 49.68 > 60 min 7 .13 .13 –.13/.38 7.94Length of program 0.52 113.59 < 9 wks 39 .24 .05 .14/.33 61.48* 9 to 14 wks 53 .26 .04 .18/.33 52.72 > 14 wks 20 .21 .05 .11/.31 14.51Change in physical fi tness 3.79* 63.20 Yes 59 .32 .04 .25/.40 52.68 No 16 .15 .08 .00/.31 10.53

Note: CI = confi dence interval; Qb = measure of between-group effect; k = number of k = number of keffect sizes; d+ = average weighted effect size; SE = standard error of SE = standard error of SE d+; 95% CI = 95% confi dence intervals for d+; Qw = measure of within-group homogeneity.

* p < .05

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Table 2 Summary Statistics for Additional Moderators of Exercise and Self-Esteem

Variable Qb k d+ SE 95%CI Qw

Sample VariablesAge 2.01 113.63 Young 58 .24 .03 .17/.30 64.41 Middle-age 32 .30 .06 .19/.41 33.64 Older adults 18 .18 .08 .03/.33 15.58Sex 1.00 143.31 Women 57 .21 .04 .14/.29 76.18* Men 21 .28 .05 .17/.38 15.57 Mixed sample 49 .22 .04 .15/.30 51.56Population 8.02 136.29 Public 48 .32 .04 .24/.41 44.00 Students 55 .19 .03 .12/.25 64.43 Patients 15 .28 .09 .10/.46 20.54 Other Other Other 9 .12 .09 –.06/.30 7.31Health status 0.64 143.67 Healthy 97 .22 .03 .17/.27 111.13 Physically unhealthy 15 .23 .08 .06/.40 8.33 Psychologically unhealthy 14 .29 .08 .13/.46 24.21*

Methodological VariablesSelf term 0.05 142.29 Self-esteem 44 .23 .04 .14/.31 49.48 Self-concept Self-concept Self-concept 83 .24 .04 .18/.30 92.81Scale 3.52 140.87 R-SES 27 .18 .05 .08/.28 20.57 TSCS 67 .24 .03 .18/.31 65.97 SCS 8 .39 .10 .18/.59 13.22 Other Other Other 26 .20 .05 .10/.31 41.11*Publication status 0.22 144.17 Published 48 .24 .04 .17/.32 40.59 Unpublished 80 .22 .03 .16/.28 103.58*Control group 0.16 144.22 No treatment No treatment No treatment 110 .23 .03 .18/.28 121.33 Other treatment Other treatment Other treatment 13 .24 .08 .07.40 17.83 Some exercise 5 .18 .14 –.09/.44 5.06Group assignment 6.60 137.82 Random 54 .26 .04 .18/.34 54.63 Matching 9 .48 .11 .26/.71 6.05 Nonequivalent Nonequivalent Nonequivalent 65 .20 .03 .14/.26 77.14

(continued)

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Study quality 5.29 139.10 Poor Poor Poor 55 .17 .04 .10/.24 73.60* Fair Fair Fair 52 .27 .04 .20/.35 52.11 Good 21 .31 .07 .18/.45 13.39

Treatment VariablesType of program 14.80** 129.58 Exercise a 109 .26 .03 .21/.31 111.26 Lifestyle a 8 .36 .11 .13/.58 7.54 Skills training b 11 –.03 .07 –.17/.11 10.79Exercise mode 4.78 131.85 Aerobic 59 .25 .04 .18/.32 68.56 Aerobic & other Aerobic & other Aerobic & other 31 .22 .05 .12/.32 25.42

Martial arts 4 .00 .12 –.22/.23 2.85 Flexibility 9 .20 .10 .00/.40 12.46 Strength 15 .26 .06 .14/.37 20.83 Mix 5 .18 .10 –.02/.38 1.72Type of fi tness measure 4.23 48.44 Aerobic 27 .32 .06 .20/.44 33.68 Body composition 4 .38 .19 –.01/.76 6.13 Strength 8 .37 .08 .22/.53 2.11 Other Other Other 5 .19 .15 –.11/.48 2.15 Combined fi tness 5 .18 .11 –.03/.38 2.16 Combined fi tness & body comp. 10 .41 .09 .24/.58 2.22

Note: CI = confi dence interval; Qb = measure of between-group effect; k = number of k = number of keffect sizes; d+ = average weighted effect size; SE = standard error of SE = standard error of SE d+; 95% CI = 95% confi dence intervals for d+; Qw = measure of within-group homogeneity; R-SES = Rosen-berg Self-Esteem Scale; TSCS = Tennessee Self-Concept Scale; SCS = Self-Cathexis Scale. a, b Variables with different superscripts differ signifi cantly at p < .01.*p*p* < .05; **p < .05; **p < .05; ** < .001

Table 2 (Continued)

Variable Qb k d+ SE 95%CI Qw

Table 3 Prevalence of Study Quality Among Published and Unpublished Studies

Published UnpublishedStudy quality (n = 48) (n = 80) χ2 (1)

Poor 9 46 24.89***Fair 28 23 0.49 Good 11 11 0.00

***p***p*** < .001

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publication status and study quality, χ2 (2, N = 128) = 18.54, N = 128) = 18.54, N p < .001, with effect sizes from poor quality studies being more likely to remain unpublished, χ2 (1, N= 55) = 24.89, p < .001.

Treatment Variables. Type of program, Qb (2) = 14.80, p < .001, was a signifi cant moderator of GSE. Those participating in exercise (d = 0.26) or lifestyle d = 0.26) or lifestyle denrichment programs (d = 0.36) experienced a larger increase in GSE than those d = 0.36) experienced a larger increase in GSE than those din skills training activities (d = –0.03).5 Also, the effect sizes for both exercise and lifestyle programs were larger than zero. The other variables, exercise mode and type of fi tness change, were not signifi cant moderators of GSE.

Sample Size and Power IssuesIn this meta-analysis, the unweighted median effect size (M = 0.24), the M = 0.24), the M

unweighted mean effect size (d = 0.27), and the weighted mean effect size (d = 0.27), and the weighted mean effect size (d d+ = 0.23) indicate a small treatment effect for exercise on GSE across studies. However, in order for this small treatment effect to be detected as being signifi cant (at α = .05, two-tailed test, and power = .80) in any one study, the sample sizes of studies would have to range between 200 and 235 (Overall & Doyle, 1994). The total sample sizes actually ranged from 12 (dePiano, dePiano, Carter, & Wanlass, 1984) to 343 (Wescott, 1980), with 95% of effect sizes coming from sample sizes less than 200. Furthermore, since the average number of participants per effect size was 61 and the median was 41, it appears that some small treatment effects went undetected and were classifi ed as nonsignifi cant.6

In answer to the question of whether unpublished studies were more under-powered than published ones, results revealed that there was no signifi cant differ-ence between the average sample size of unpublished (n = 58.55) vs. published (n= 63.81) studies. Furthermore, the median sample sizes were almost identical for unpublished (M = 40.5) and published (M = 40.5) and published (M M = 42) studies.M = 42) studies.M

Discussion

The current fi ndings demonstrate that exercise participation leads to small yet signifi cant increases in GSE. The effect sizes in this case were homogeneous. Thus while there is a positive and reliable effect of exercise on self-esteem, this relationship is small at the global level. These results are in contrast with McDonald and Hodgdon’s (1991) meta-analysis which found that exercise leads to moderate changes in global self-esteem. Some light can be shed on why these fi ndings differ if considered in terms of multidimensional or hierarchical models of self-esteem discussed earlier (e.g., Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989). In this regard it has been noted that the smallest change in self-esteem occurs at the global level. Part of the reason for this is that exercise participation is thought to have the greatest infl u-ence on self-esteem at domain-specifi c levels (e.g., physical self-worth, physical competence).

While McDonald and Hodgdon (1991) included domain-specific self-evaluations in their study, these were subsumed into, and used interchangeably with, a global construct, i.e., self-concept. Given that the current meta-analysis employed only measures of GSE, it is possible that McDonald and Hodgdon’s (1991) fi ndings regarding self-esteem and exercise participation were larger because of their inclusion of these domain-specifi c components.

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It has been claimed that self-concept is the psychological construct with the most potential for change because of participation in an exercise program (e.g., Folkins & Sime, 1981; Hughes, 1984). In comparison with meta-analyses of other psychological constructs, it appears that state anxiety (d = –0.34, Long & van d = –0.34, Long & van dStavel, 1995; d = –0.25, Petruzzello, Landers, Hatfi eld, Kubitz, & Salazar, 1991) d = –0.25, Petruzzello, Landers, Hatfi eld, Kubitz, & Salazar, 1991) dand depression (d = –0.72, Craft & Landers, 1998; d = –0.72, Craft & Landers, 1998; d d = –0.59, North et al., 1990) d = –0.59, North et al., 1990) dshow just as much if not more change than GSE as a result of exercise. Thus, from the results of the present meta-analysis it appears that the benefi ts of exercise for GSE are overstated in the literature on physical activity and exercise. Much of this optimism about the potential effectiveness for exercise increasing GSE is probably the result of the McDonald and Hodgdon (1991) review. Also, earlier reviews (e.g., Folkins & Sime, 1981) base their claims about the benefi ts of exercise on the results of a few studies, some with unique populations (e.g., mentally retarded students).

Effects of the Exercise ProgramThe only two signifi cant moderators of exercise on GSE were type of program

and change in fi tness. In the former, exercise and lifestyle programs resulted in small to moderate increases in self-esteem, respectively, while skills training activities had no effect on self-esteem. The fact that skills training activities had no effect on GSE is somewhat surprising, considering that participation in such activities should lead to enhanced physical competence which is one of the antecedents of GSE in the EXSEM (Sonstroem & Morgan, 1989).

Alternatively, changes in physical fi tness are related to signifi cant increases in GSE. While this latter fi nding supports one of the original tenets of the EXSEM, Sonstroem (1997a) has since modifi ed the claim that increased physical fi tness is required for enhanced GSE and placed more of an emphasis on “perceptions of improvement” in physical fi tness. The idea that perception of fi tness is a mediator of the relationship between exercise and mental health has become popular in the literature (see Heaps, 1978; O’Donoghue, 1990; Plante, 1999; Plante Coscarelli, Caputo, & Oppezzo, 2000; Plante, LeCaptain, & McLain, 2000).

We cannot comment on the role that perceived changes in physical fi tness played in our analysis because it was not measured in the original studies. Future studies should test whether perceived physical fi tness serves as a mediator or modera-tor of the effect of exercise on GSE. However, it does appear from our analysis that increases in actual physical fi tness are related to enhanced GSE. Thus, participation in programs that lead primarily to enhanced physical fi tness vs. enhanced physical competencies may be more effective for improving the self-esteem of adults. One caveat is that approximately 40% of effect sizes came from studies in which actual physical fi tness was not measured. Thus, along with perceived fi tness, future studies of exercise and self-esteem should test for changes in actual physical fi tness.

Given that change in physical fi tness is a signifi cant moderator of the effect of exercise on GSE, the overall lack of support for a dose-response (i.e., intensity, fre-quency, duration, or length of program) relationship might be surprising. However, it has been argued that little data supports the existence of a strong dose-response relationship for exercise and most psychosocial variables (Gauvin et al., 1999; Rejeski, 1994). Similar to the case that has been made for the role of perceived changes in fi tness, perhaps it is the subjective perception of the dose (Dishman, 1994) that is more important in determining the effect of exercise on GSE.

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Methodological IssuesNo moderator effects were observed for methodological variables in the lit-

erature on exercise and self-esteem. The fact that there was no difference in effect size between published and unpublished studies suggests it is not because of a lack of treatment effect that the unpublished studies remain unpublished. Since 58% of unpublished effect sizes were derived from studies deemed to be of poor quality, it is likely the quality of those studies that explains why they remain unpublished. An interesting trend was observed for study quality in that studies rated as either fair (d = 0.27) or good (d = 0.27) or good (d d = 0.31) had larger effect sizes than those rated as poor (d = 0.31) had larger effect sizes than those rated as poor (d d= 0.17). While no signifi cant within-class variability was detected for study quality overall, the effect sizes in the poor category were heterogeneous, suggesting that some other factor may explain the effect size for that group.

Based on the sample sizes of the studies in this meta-analysis, it can be surmised that GSE studies are generally undersized and underpowered. That is, researchers are not using samples of suffi cient size to provide adequate power in their studies in order to detect signifi cant fi ndings for the effect of exercise on GSE. This was the case regardless of whether studies were published or unpublished. In fact, 95% of the effect sizes in this analysis came from sample sizes too small to detect the average weighted effect size to be signifi cant. Thus it is likely that lack of statistical power has contributed to some of the confusion surrounding exercise and GSE.

Limitations of This ReviewA potential limitation of this meta-analysis was the choice to use a fi xed-

effects as opposed to a random-effects model when analyzing our effect sizes. In the fi xed-effects model it is assumed that the population effect size is the same for all studies in the analysis. The alternative is that the population effect sizes vary randomly from study to study. As a result, the error term in the fi xed-effects model uses only the within-study variability while the error term in the random-effects model includes both the within-study variability and the variability due to differ-ences between studies (Hedges & Vevea, 1998). Thus when a fi xed-effects model is used, it is assumed that all the studies conducted on a particular topic have been included, whereas in a random-effects model it is assumed that only a sample of the studies that could be done have been found (Hedges, 1994).

Technically, any fi ndings and subsequent conclusions drawn from a fi xed-effects model should be limited to the studies in that analysis. If one wants to make more general conclusions about the research topic, then a random-effects approach is more appropriate. Therefore the fi ndings and conclusions of this meta-analysis should be limited to the studies reviewed. Because every effort was made to fi nd studies of exercise and GSE, as evidenced by the fact that approximately two-thirds of the studies included were unpublished, we believe our fi ndings closely approxi-mate the universe of studies on the topic and thus provide insight on the population effect size.

Conclusions and Future Directions

In summary, participation in physical activity results in small signifi cant improvements in global self-esteem. From a statistical point of view, these improve-ments are small. However, more studies are needed in order to determine the clini-

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cal or practical signifi cance of such changes. Further, it appears that increases in actual physical fi tness are required for enhanced self-esteem to occur. Based on these fi ndings, we suggest, as previous research by McAuley and colleagues (1997; 2000) has done, that the link between GSE and physical activity participation has been to some degree overstated.

For many years, self-esteem research in the exercise domain has remained largely descriptive, with studies documenting group differences in self-esteem in various settings such as work, school, or sport. However, multidimensional models have allowed researchers who are interested in self-esteem and its role in exercise participation to learn more about the specifi c subcomponents of the physical self and its link to the global self (Fox, 1997, 2000). Despite this, if we are to progress beyond the documentation of links between specifi c subcomponents of the self and related behaviors and map changes in self-perception more precisely, future research must focus more directly on the mechanisms of change involved in the self-system.

The current fi ndings reinforce the call for more studies that focus on domain- specifi c self-evaluations if the mechanisms through which self-esteem affects exer-cise participation and vice versa are to be identifi ed. Our fi ndings also underscore the need for future studies to include specifi c measures of physical fi tness and competencies or attributes (e.g., physical self-worth, perceived fi tness) that might be expected to be most responsive to intervention and change (Baranowski, Anderson, & Carmack, 1998; Kraemer, Stice, Kazdin, Offord, & Kupfer, 2001).

To conclude, despite the current meta-analytic fi nding that physical activity participation results in small improvements in GSE, the potential payoff from a more focused exploration of multidimensional self-esteem change in the exercise domain is high. Not only is this topic understudied but, as the research of McAuley and colleagues (1997, 2000) indicates, it has great potential from a practical standpoint for designing exercise interventions in areas such as rehabilitation from illness and/or injury and weight management.

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Notes1 When exploring the self in the physical domain, the terms self-esteem and self-con-

cept tend to be used interchangeably; there is no one unifi ed, operational defi nition per se. McDonald and Hodgdon (1991) used the two terms in a unifi ed form, and for the purposes in this paper so do we.

2 According to Caspersen et al. (1985), physical fi tness consists of both health related components (cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular endurance, muscular strength, body composition, fl exibility) and performance related components (muscular speed, speed, agility, balance, reaction time).

3 An interesting phenomenon in this meta-analysis was that approximately two-thirds (n = 80) of the effect sizes came from unpublished sources. This is a much greater proportion of unpublished effect sizes than is typically seen in meta-analyses. In fact, the majority of meta-analyses in sport and exercise psychology include no unpublished works (see Gauvin et al., 1999).

4 Rosenthal (1995) does not agree that moderator analyses should only proceed after the detection of signifi cant heterogeneity of variance among a set of effect sizes. He argues that scientifi c progress can result from scientists “continually reducing the magnitude of sampling error by increasing their understanding of moderator variables” (p. 186). While Overton (1998) claims such exploratory analyses are justifi ed in meta-analyses as long as they are preceded by homogeneity testing and conducted on a priori hypothesized modera-tors, Rosenthal states that “planned contrasts should be computed without reference to the overall F, and even unplanned contrasts can be computed with appropriate adjustments of their levels of signifi cance” (p. 188).

5 Lifestyle programs included exercise along with stress reduction and nutrition counseling. Skills training activities were those in which the goal was primarily to develop competence in a skill as opposed to enhancing physical fi tness. Such activities included martial arts and physical education courses.

6 One reviewer of this paper inquired about the statistical power of our analysis. According to Field (2001), we have suffi cient power, based both on number of studies (k= 118) and average sample size (n = 61), at an overall level to detect any signifi cant effect sizes. True, we may be underpowered in several levels of our moderator variables. However, none of the effect sizes for these levels is greater than d = .15. Thus we do not think we are d = .15. Thus we do not think we are dmissing any substantial effects in those categories due to low power.

Acknowledgment

We express our appreciation to Trish Dyck who provided assistance with the study.

Manuscript submitted: June 7, 2004Revision accepted: March 28, 2005

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P t v p t f nt rn t n l t d nt Tr n t n : l t t v n r

L r , N t l P p d

Journal of College Student Development, Volume 52, Number 3, May-June2011, pp. 291-306 (Article)

P bl h d b J hn H p n n v r t PrDOI: 10.1353/csd.2011.0040

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May/June 2011 ◆ vol 52 no 3 291

Positive Aspects of International Student Transitions: A Qualitative InquiryLisa Moores Natalee Popadiuk

Despite the considerable growth of the international student population, positive aspects of their experience have received little attention. The current study combines a Critical Incident Technique methodology and a positive psychology lens to explore the crosscultural transition of seven international students, focusing on facilitative factors, growth, and personal resources. Eight categories of helpful factors emerged from the 134 critical incidents recounted in the interviews: Growth and/or change, social support/building relationships, learning to navigate host culture, enjoyable activities outside of schoolwork, previous experiences and preparation, supportive faculty and staff, persevering through hard times, and a sense of belonging.

In the 2007–2008 academic year, almost 625,000 international students from around the world attended U.S. colleges, an increase of 7% from the previous year (Institute for International Education, 2008). According to this report, the top four countries to send students to the United States included India, China, South Korea, and Japan. The cultural distance between these home cultures and Western host cultures, such as the United States and Canada, are inevitably significant. These student visitors or temporary residents, typically described as sojourners, are people who live in a different country anywhere from one semester to many years for the purpose of obtaining overseas or international educational credentials (Kuo & Roysircar, 2006; Popadiuk,

2010; Ying, 2001). One difference is the beliefs and understandings related to help-seeking and how people from these countries perceive counselors and counseling services offered by college student service departments (Komiya & Eels, 2001). This discrepancy may create significant challenges in how college counseling centers think about and support students, which may be demonstrated by the fact that international students typically underutilize counseling services (Mori, 2000). Therefore, learning more about how international students negotiate transitions successfully, what type of support is helpful, and what kinds of strengths these students draw upon would greatly add to our current understanding. In deciding to cross cultures, international students face many demands that include building new friendships, navigating differ-ent social and cultural norms, and facing the challenges associated with daily living (Mori, 2000). In one review, Arthur (2004) drew attention to academic concerns, commu-nication issues, social support, family matters, discrimination, gender roles, and financial support as key issues. These findings highlight the broad range of concerns and roles to be considered, rather than a more narrow focus on the person as student to the exclusion of other parts of his or her life. For example, in the life role of intimate partner, students must often negotiate intimate relationships, both at home and abroad, including whether to continue a significant relationship, difficulties

Lisa Moores is a doctoral student of Psychology at Memorial University of Newfoundland. Natalee Popadiuk is Assistant Professor and Registered Psychologist of Counseling Psychology at the University of Victoria. This research was financially supported by Simon Fraser University Graduate Fellowship Awards.

292 Journal of College Student Development

Moores & Popadiuk

associated with long-distance relationships, and dating while living in the host culture (Popadiuk, 2008), as well as the trauma that may be associated with relationship break-ups (Hebert & Popadiuk, 2008). The contrast between life in host and home cultures often creates a dissonance, which can result in physical, psychological, and social decline (Mori, 2000; Poyrazli, Kavanaugh, Baker, & Al-Timimi, 2004), and can contribute to more severe mental health issues, including psychiatric disorders (Furukawa, Sarason, & Sarason, 1998; Lee, Koeske, & Sales, 2004; Wilton & Constantine, 2003). These issues suggest that counseling could be especially relevant for international students, although post-secondary counselors often lack detailed, concrete information to guide their work (Zhang & Dixon, 2003). An examination of the literature emphasizes the problems that might influence adjustment of international students and an overall impression of vulnerability. Nevertheless, despite the prevailing negative depiction, many international students manage these challenges well. Parr, Bradley, and Bingi (1992) observed that the emotional profile of international students showed them to be determined, thankful, happy, confident, cheerful, and cautious individuals. The researchers found they seemed to cope well, overcome obstacles, and manage their needs, acknowledging them as “robust.” In providing a “self-portrait,” students described experiencing more positive than negative feelings and saw themselves as coping well. However, there is a paucity of research exploring the international student experience beyond the struggles reported in the literature, and research identifying the strengths and resources of this population is lacking. The gap concerning international student strengths exists partly because of a focus on alleviating distress, which is shared by the field of psychology at large. This yields an unbalanced

view of the students’ experiences of crossing cultures, which deprives us of the opportunity to learn how they navigate the transition and what meaning they make of their challenges and successes. Furthermore, this perspective encourages a view of these students as a burden to the system and has been indicated as a potential obstacle to providing appropriate counseling services (Popadiuk & Arthur, 2004). Yoon and Portman (2004) have noted that research identifying the strengths, skills, knowledge, and resources of these international students would benefit students and the host university. In this current study, therefore, we provide a unique perspective to the existing literature by exploring the positive aspects of crossing cultures, and the experiences and resources that facilitate this transition.

MethodsThe design of the current investigation encompasses two major influences: The Critical Incident Technique (CIT), pioneered by Flanagan (1954), and positive psychology established by Seligman (2008). The CIT is both qualitative and exploratory; it involves collecting observer accounts of significant incidents contributing to a particular out-come. The CIT was chosen as a good fit for this investigation because it offers consider able flexibility, taps into personal experi ences, and mirrors the humanistic values and collaborative skills used by counselors (Woolsey, 1986). Positive psychology is the scientific study of positive experiences and personal characteristics, which seeks to expand the focus of psychology beyond pathology and the goals of therapy beyond repairing dysfunction and easing distress (Duckworth, Steen, & Seligman, 2005; Seligman, 2005). Counseling psychology’s historical focus on client strengths, resources, and psychological well-being suggests a strong alignment with the goals of positive psychology and allows for a unique contribution to the

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International Student Transitions

growth of this area of research (Linley, 2006; Mollen, Ethington, & Ridley, 2006). Participants were seven international students, six women and one man, enrolled at a mid-sized university in Western Canada. Of the seven participants, four were Chinese from the People’s Republic of China, two were Latino/Latina from Honduras and Argentina, and one was Danish from Denmark. All participants (five graduate and two undergraduate students) were required to be enrolled as international students and have completed at least one semester of studies. At the time of the interview, participants had been studying in Canada for a period of 6 months to 4.5 years, with an average of 17 months. Only two of the participants had lived abroad previously. Once this research was approved by the university ethics board, participants were recruited at a mid-sized university. Data was gathered through seven one-on-one semistructured interviews of 1 hour each, which were audiotaped and transcribed. Participants were provided with a list of key questions in advance of the interview and then were invited to think back over their cross-cultural transition—that is, the process of transitioning from home to host cultures, and identify experiences or events that helped them during this time. Because this research was purposefully focused on positive facilitative events, negative cases were not considered, except as background information about how a participant coped well with the situation or how he or she learned new aspects about self. After identification of a critical incident by a participant, questions were asked to gather further, detailed information about the incident. Participants were asked to recall other incidents until no further incidents could be recalled. Critical incidents were analyzed in three stages: (a) Extraction of incidents from the interviews, (b) category formation, and (c) assessment of trustworthiness and credibility. At first, anything resembling an event of

interest, a positive experience that facilitated the cross-cultural transition, was extracted from the interview transcripts after carefully reading and rereading the incidents. These excerpts were cut and pasted into a separate Word document for later consideration, once all the preliminary incidents were identified. We scrutinized the events and only accepted critical incidents based on the following: The participant’s account was stated with sufficient completeness (excluding fragments and inadequate descriptions), the event was clearly identified, and the outcome of the event was related to the focus of the study (i.e., a positive experience relating to cross-cultural transition). Incident information, including the source, the event, and the outcome, was recorded on blank index cards, which were sorted based on similarity, becoming preliminary categories. Tentative category names were assigned to each of the groupings at this time, but during the analysis, some categories were renamed to allow for a crisper definition of the category. The researchers undertook the initial analysis together, given that the second author was familiar with the CIT, and then the first author continued the data analysis on her own. The researchers met on several occasions and corresponded by e-mail about the process to review the developing categories and to ensure trustworthiness of the data. We continued sorting and progressively refining the categories until stabilization occurred. By the end of the sorting process, each category was found to be appropriate and contained only those incidents that were relevant. Categorization required a consistent focus on the event itself rather than on the source or the outcome. Paradigm cases of each category were specifically studied, because these events represented cases that best exemplified the category. Throughout this inductive category formation process, we evaluated categories, reworked and modified them, and continued


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until all incidents were placed in a category. The incidents within each category were examined for fit and a small number of incidents were moved from one category to another. Once the categories had been fully devel-oped, the researchers continued with a similar process to create subcategories within each category, if a given category seemed to need further classification. This procedure was completed in a manner similar to that described; that is, the researchers grouped the incidents found within each of the particular categories according to similarities. For example, under the category of Growth and/or Change, we created subcategories to highlight the differences within each category, including Personal Development, Change in Goals, and Change in Perspective. Although the first researcher conducted much of the analysis independently, discussing the categories with the second researcher helped to develop clarity around the definitions, as well as ensured that the analysis was solid. We agreed on the majority of the data analysis, although in some instances, we needed to discuss differences in opinion until we reached consensus. In the end, each part of the data analysis was found to be appropriate and contained only those incidents that were relevant. Various criteria for judging the soundness and adequacy of qualitative research, in general, have been developed over the decades. Guba and Lincoln (1989) proposed that qualitative research should be judged on trustworthiness, which they described as being composed of credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. For example, in discussing the standards for establishing credibility, they propose several techniques including: (a) Prolonged engagement with the participants, (b) persistent observation to add depth to the scope, (c) peer debriefing with a disinterested colleague to discuss one’s findings, conclusions, and analyses, and (d) progressive

subjectivity, the process of monitoring one’s own construction of the research. These four techniques, along with specific strategies developed for the CIT, were utilized in ensuring the quality of research. Each participant was engaged in semistructured interviews where their experiences were explored in depth and the researchers spent countless hours reading, thinking about, and analyzing the data. Additionally, one of the researchers familiar with the CIT provided input regarding the findings, analyses, and conclusions of this research. Finally, the first author monitored the construction of the research through field notes and reflective process notes. More specifically, however, we followed the credibility checks, gleaned from the CIT literature to ensure that the findings were adequately sound (e.g., Butterfield, Borgen, Amundson, & Maglio, 2005; Flanagan, 1954; Popadiuk, 2009; Woolsey, 1986). These included expert approval of the interview protocol, two tests of interrater agreement between researchers (resulting in agreement rates of 75% and 89% respectively), and an assessment of the comprehensiveness of categories using a random 10% sample of incidents that had been withheld before categorization. Additionally, participants were invited to provide feedback on whether the interpretation reflected in the categories was consistent with their experiences. Although incident frequencies are provided, it is essential to note that experiences were not deemed more or less important based on how frequently the category was reported or by how many participants. This stance is consistent with the exploratory aim of the investigation and the personal nature of cross-cultural transition.

ResuLtsFrom analyzing the data from the 134 critical incidents, we constructed a total of eight categories and nine subcategories.

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Category 1: Growth and/or Change (35 Incidents)

This category comprised incidents detailing growth or change within the participants, in terms of both personal growth and academic career. The students expressed an awareness of the progress made and skills gained over the course of their transition. Incidents in this category were further delineated into more specific subcategories, including personal development, change in goals, change in perspective, and academic growth. All of the participants reported these instances as helpful during their transition, consistent with the positive aim of this research. Personal Development. The majority of participants described considerable personal growth and an increased sense of independence as they crossed cultures. Participants realized strengths within themselves they did not know existed before the cross-cultural transition and often expressed surprise at their capabilities: “I’m still working at being better. . . . I’m always learning, learning some new things and also maybe I find something new in myself.” The concept of process came up repeatedly in this category, as did a shift in focus from outcome to process: “Learning and studying, it needs perseverance. Because maybe it’s not, you cannot do it immediately, but if you focus on it and put your effort on it so you’ll make progress. Step by step . . . it’s a process.” Growth sometimes involved stepping outside their comfort zones and taking risks to reap considerable rewards. Many participants reported that developing independence and learning to make their own life decisions were influential in making a successful transition. One participant noted, “I never did anything for myself. So it was a really big change when I came here . . . . If I didn’t come here I would have never known that I could do so many things.”

Change in Goals. A number of participants also reported a change in goals over the course of their transition. Goals were commonly adjusted to be more realistic, thus reducing the pressure felt by the students. This change was particularly evident with respect to their outlook on their English skills, such as when a student who was a former English teacher realized that, “[I] should face the fact that I am not a native English speaker. English is just a foreign language, so I should try to get more chance to practice and hope that would be helpful to improve.” As a result, participants reported greater ease in social interactions and a more relaxed approach. A further change noted in this category was a shift from focusing on learning about the host culture and making friends among host nationals to an increased interest in their own cultural identity. Change in Perspective. These events entailed a change in participants’ personal viewpoints regarding their home culture and how it is seen by others, their status as international students, or a change in their viewpoint as a professional. For example, stepping outside his culture provided one student new insights into “[historical events] that I knew happened but since I was in the system I couldn’t appreciate them from other points of view.” Overall, the participants recounted a broadening of their perspectives and a tendency to be more open-minded. Academic Growth. The participants also observed that academic progress facilitated their cross-cultural transition. Adjusting to a new educational system and the rigors of studying in a second language are considerable challenges. Participants spoke of educational goals as their main objective in the host country and expressed a sense of achievement and confidence as they came to understand and meet academic demands, noting “I know I made progress,” and “I feel better and better.”


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Category 2: social support/Building Relationships With Peers (24 Incidents)

This category involved the creation of social networks through building relationships with peers, which included two subcategories—Supportive Living Environment and Peer Sup port. The majority of participants indi-cated these supportive relationships as essential positive factors in their cross-cultural transitions. As one participant noted, “You cannot live alone in this world.” Supportive Living Environment. Having support in the place where they resided including roommates or peers in residence was reported as being a significant asset and first social connection. These relationships created a sense of “family” when they were far from loved ones, a connection that was appreciated when they felt vulnerable. One participant described how overwhelming the early days of transition could be and how vital this first contact: “The first time you come to a new place, if you knew nobody and you even didn’t dare to go out alone, you really needed a person to accompany you to do everything.” Having this level of comfort and support in their living environment, participants were able to create a type of sanctuary away from the frustrations they might experience in their daily lives. Peer Support. Relationships with friends and peers played a role in facilitating cross-cultural transition. As one student shared, “This kind of support is invisible but it’s very strong.” It was noted that connecting with domestic students over academic work could be a stepping stone to creating social networks and more meaningful relationships: “I have to go to class and I have to talk with my classmates and those kind of social activities are helpful.” Finally, the impact of social support often had nothing to do with specific external

incidents, but rather an internal shift that occurs within an individual. As one student described, feeling valued as a person and knowing that others were genuinely interested in getting to know you was an integral part of communicating across cultures: “It’s about just being comfortable to speak and your opinion being valued. So I realized from the very beginning like when I’m with some other people who are very friendly and who want to learn more about my country, I feel I have a lot of things to say.” Supportive peers from the international student community were particularly identi-fied as vital in easing the cross-cultural transition. Forming ties with other students from abroad was often easier than building other relationships because of a shared status as student sojourners, defined as temporary residents, and shared interests in exploring new cultures and creating new friendships. These relationships also offered exposure to a diverse array of cultures apart from the host culture. One participant was keenly aware of how essential fellow sojourners had become: “They’re interested and you can go and approach them and they’ll take care of you. I think that’s like the most meaningful thing I have here.” Connection with another student going through a cross-cultural transition also reminded participants that others had succeeded despite obstacles. Taken together, these observations underscore the idea that building relationships is about far more than simply social interaction for international students. Participants described peer relationships as deeply meaningful cross-cultural experiences and vital sources of practical support.

Category 3: Learning to Navigate the host Culture (22 Incidents)Events in this category involved participants finding their way through a confusing array

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of changes, particularly during the early phase of cross-cultural transition, with a focus on practical support and learning about the host culture. In a new culture, even the most mundane tasks can become challenging as sojourners learn how to procure basic needs such as food, accommodation, transportation, and banking, as well as deciphering new societal norms. Incidents in this category are characterized by a sense of discovering “how things are done” in the host culture. This process varied greatly for students from different nations owing to the extent of cultural distance. Having a Guide. These international students overwhelmingly identified having the aid of a cultural guide, frequently another international student, to navigate crossing cultures as helpful. Fellow sojourners provided a “shortcut” for new students who gained valuable information from their peers’ struggles in crossing cultures rather than having to learn through their own mistakes: “What we confront now, they confronted [before]. . . . If they can do this, I can do it.” Cultural guidance was most commonly given to secure basic needs and introduce participants to aspects of the host culture. Peers were an essential resource for learning the nuances of more casual aspects of the language and culture, which helped to close this gap. Cultural Learning. Second, a number of incidents of general cultural learning were shared. In this subcategory, events were related to the overall transitional experience, rather than a particular helpful other. Incidents ranged from learning about relevant cultural differences through an international teaching assistant course or through residence activities to insights attained through crossing cultures. One participant depicted a deeper internal transformation as a result of living in a foreign culture: “If you only know what you know, that’s all you know . . . knowing

that your reality is just your reality.” This comment illustrates the impact an interna-tional experience can have on international students’ developing worldviews. Recognizing Academic Differences. Finally, learning about the differences between the educational systems in the host culture versus the home culture throughout their transition was reported to be helpful. Despite the fact that all participants were students, a small set of incidents were only reported by Chinese students, who may have experienced a greater divergence in academic structure than students from Western countries. One Chinese student saw the goal of education in her homeland as “how to educate students to be very useful people,” whereas the focus of North American universities was to encourage a student to become a “fulfilled human being.” This comment underscores the importance of divergent worldviews of the role and meaning of people and education in any given society. In the first instance, the participant seems to be referring to the societal expectation in China that people become educated to become useful and productive citizens who contribute to the good of the greater society with little emphasis on their personal needs or desire. Alternatively, the focus in Canada and the United States tends toward education that develops individuals to be primarily nurtured and fulfilled, to ensure holistic development encompassing both personal and professional well-being, and to create people who have high self-esteem and a solid sense of self-efficacy.

Category 4: enjoyable Activities outside of schoolwork (12 Incidents)Events in this category underline the impor-tance of having a life in the host culture outside of the student role. Participants noted that “getting involved” and “staying busy” provided numerous benefits including a way to relax, meet new people, explore the


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environment, learn new skills, fill free time, and avoid loneliness. Activities also offered a chance to communicate in English with people in the “real world” and to learn about other international cultures as well as host national life away from the university community. Moreover, it was a chance to really be in the moment and enjoy the experience. Critical incidents included leisure activities such as joining clubs, pursuing a hobby, doing volunteer work, or taking a part-time job. One commonality among these incidents was the sense of enhancing one’s quality of life by nurturing areas beyond the academic role: “We came here not only to study, but also to live the life, you know, the life experience abroad.”

Category 5: Previous experiences/Preparation (10 Incidents)This category captures the students’ ability to draw on previous experiences or knowledge as a resource to facilitate crossing cultures. It also includes preparation for the sojourn. The majority of events in this category involved previous international experiences, either through an earlier sojourn or contact with people from different cultures. Participants carried forward knowledge gained and used it to address potential problems before they happened. Having gone through a previous cross-cultural transition was also seen as helpful in setting realistic expectations for the current transition and contributing to a sense of maturity: “The fact that I already had gone through the whole process of arriving to a place where I knew nobody and where it felt like you are being born again, was something that I wasn’t afraid of, was something expected.” However, even the most seasoned traveler was not immune to transitional difficulties: “It’s never easy. . . . You always have to readjust and settle in and figure out what you shouldn’t do in a new culture.” Participants were also able to gain cultural knowledge from the comfort

of home through international media and sojourner experiences detailed on the Internet (blogs, message boards).

Category 6: supportive Faculty and staff (9 Incidents)Several participants acknowledged support from faculty and staff as helpful during their transition. Incidents primarily involved faculty members, who were found to provide both academic and personal support. Despite high-level English skills, taking university classes in a foreign language can be an overwhelming experience for new international students, particularly those who lack experience abroad. Participants were appreciative of instructors who were mindful of this challenge and did what they could to ease the transition. This reassurance eased the anxiety of one student during her first class: “I talked with my instructor and she said, ‘Oh, don’t worry. As time goes by, you will get used to it and if you have some problems or some difficulties, in studying or in life, you can talk to me.’” A dedicated contact person, such as a program coordinator or staff member, helped participants to sort out the potentially overwhelming practical and administrative details of attending a foreign university. This type of support was especially beneficial during the early days of the transition. In several instances, participants spoke of their coordinator almost like a surrogate parent: “She is like a mommy. . . . She takes care of us and when we have problems we can ask her and she gives us some suggestions.” Participants expressed the quality of the relationships between faculty members and their students and the genuine support and caring expressed by professors. Incidents in this category highlight how support from the university community may be more meaningful for many international students than their domestic peers.

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Category 7: Persevering through hard times (8 Incidents)

This category explores how even difficult or negative experiences were seen by the inter-national students as contributing positively to their cross-cultural transition. Challenges were characterized by experiences of depression, culture shock, self-doubt, cultural differences, and the demands of independent living and a foreign academic environment. Participants overcame these challenges in a variety of ways. Most participants mentioned the importance of being persistent despite the obstacles and learning to believe in oneself, demonstrating considerable determination. Focusing on challenges as part of the process and finding a way to use struggles as a catalyst for change were iden ti fied as facilitative outcomes. A participant explained the process of her transition: “I felt depressed . . . but I told myself everything could be better than this. I just need time to get used, get accustomed to it. So I told myself: You should not give up.” Process and progress were recurring themes in this category. Students were able to maintain a positive outlook despite struggles. In some cases, the sense of challenge itself provided motivation, “That kind of frustration actually pushed me to work harder.” Overall, these incidents reflected tenacity among the international students to get through the challenges of crossing cultures and an acknowledgement of hard times as part of the international experience.

Category 8: sense of Belonging (14 Incidents)

This category refers to the international students’ impression of having a place or experiencing a sense of belonging in the host culture and/or their home culture. Participants described staying connected to their roots through contact with family, culture (language, music, cultural community), and

personal identity, although overlap between these subcategories is inevitable. Regular contact with family was identified as a way of providing structure and something to look forward to. Family members were also seen as a touchstone during difficult times and as a reminder of one’s identity beyond the host culture. One participant described how family could be a safe place to land when crossing cultures became a struggle: “When you go through these transitions sometimes you feel like you go into a labyrinth and then you don’t find a way out. So when you don’t find a way out that’s where you go.” Connecting with one’s cultural subgroup was also seen as helpful, allowing participants to access fellow compatriots and an opportunity to enjoy their culture and speak their native language. The importance of balancing immersion with the preservation of one’s own identity was also noted. One participant remarked that international students would benefit from understanding that sojourners need not sacrifice their own cultural identity when crossing cultures: “I don’t need to leave [my cultural identity] behind. I mean it’s not one or the other. I can live somewhere else and I can still be who I am.” Interestingly, only participants from Latin America reported a connection to their roots as helpful. This may suggest a strong cultural preference for family as a source of support for these students, and may indicate that research focusing on particular cultures is needed. Furthermore, having a sense of belonging in the host culture was also seen as influential. Because the “outsider” nature of the sojourner role can make it difficult to fit in, such incidents can be very meaningful. Events provided a feeling of inclusion and comfort in the host environment most often by finding their place either in Canadian society, within the university community, or with host nationals. The role of cultural representative


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also contributed to a sense of having a place in the new culture as it provided a purpose. For one student, educating others about his homeland helped him to feel like a contributing member of his new society: “It really made me feel that . . . I was from somewhere else but that even though I’m from somewhere else I can still be someone from here.”

dIsCussIoN

The incidents that facilitated the cross-cultural transition of international students fall under four overarching themes that provide a broader perspective on the process.

Connecting With othersIn a variety of incidents spanning several categories, the participants of this study emphasized the magnitude of “knowing I’m not alone.” Across the international student adjustment literature, social support has been one of the only factors that have consistently predicted a successful transition (Poyrazli et al., 2004), a finding supported here. Social support has been acknowledged as having both a direct and indirect buffering effect on stress related to crossing cultures (Mallinckrodt & Leong, 1992). However, without the perspective of students themselves it has been difficult to know exactly what meaning they attach to this concept. The participants in this study clearly felt that connecting with others went beyond assembling a social support network to include building a sense of meaningful community. Several studies (Poyrazli et al., 2004; Surdam & Collins, 1984) have linked social interaction with host nationals and inter-national student adjustment, reporting benefits such as greater knowledge of the host culture (Kashima & Loh, 2006), better perceived self-esteem, and more positive attitudes about host nationals (Barratt & Huba, 1994). Nevertheless, host nationals (people from the host country)

did not appear frequently in critical facilitative incidents in this investigation. On the other hand, participants described relationships with co-nationals (international students from the same home culture) and international students from other cultures as tremendously influ ential. Although some authors (Pedersen, 1991; Yang & Clum, 1995) have noted the importance of support from co-nationals, the bond with international students from other cultures has been noted by fewer researchers (Arthur, 2001; Kashima & Loh, 2006; Schmitt, Spears, & Branscombe, 2003). A further finding from the literature that is supported by this study is the association between social interaction and language proficiency in their impact on transition. Participants reported that, through their interactions with host nationals, they were able to immerse themselves in the sort of casual communication that cannot be taught in a classroom. A second link was the impact on language skills of feeling comfortable and valued by those around them. Feeling at ease was associated with easier communication and a better ability to express oneself. However, perhaps surprisingly, actual language ability seemed to be less of a factor, a result supported by Swagler and Ellis (2003). This indicates that a lack of self-confidence in and anxiety about communicating in another language might be a greater obstacle than lack of skill. As one participant in the current study explained, the anxiety could be paralyzing: “Whenever I went out with [my] friends I couldn’t talk, I couldn’t talk English. I was so conscious of my English and so afraid of making mistakes.”

Maintaining a FoundationStudents in this study utilized aspects of their life before the sojourn to facilitate their transition. By preserving their identity and ties to their culture, preparing for the sojourn, using previous experiences to help them

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navigate experiences in a new culture, and keeping up a life outside of their student role, participants were able to maintain a solid base that steadied them during the turbulence of cross-cultural transition. Doing so may have provided some protection against the loss of identity that has been associated with crossing cultures (Arthur & Popadiuk, 2010; Brinson & Kottler, 1995; Pedersen, 1991). One aspect of maintaining a foundation was continued support from family members and friends despite distance. Family provided a link to identity in the home culture and a comforting sense of constancy. This finding is supported by results from Mallinckrodt and Leong (1992), who found that family support lowered international students’ acculturative stress. However, it is noteworthy that, although family contact was important for the students from Latin American, participants from China expressed a need to avoid relying on family members. One explanation, emerging from participant comments, is that whereas Latin American students saw family support as facilitating their transitional experience, Asian students discussed that continued reliance on family support was incompatible with the independence required in the host culture. It also seemed that Asian students were motivated by a desire to “save face” and avoid bringing shame on themselves and their families in times of struggle. A final means of staying connected to ones’ roots was maintaining an identity outside the student role. Students participated in various activities on and off campus and emphasized the importance of “staying busy.” The literature supports extracurricular activities as a facilitative factor during cross-cultural transition (Barratt & Huba, 1994; Toyokawa & Toyokawa, 2002).

embracing the ProcessParticipants in this study demonstrated a

high degree of flexibility and openness to the transition experiences. They were receptive to new ideas and points of view, and in some situations reported that their own goals and perspectives were altered as a result. This finding is supported by research from Kitsantas (2004) and McCabe (1994), who found that flexibility and openness increased among international students over the duration of study abroad. It is also noteworthy that many of the changes reported by participants were adaptive, meaning they were not only a response to aspects of the transition, but they also helped to facilitate the transition. For example, modifying highly ambitious language objectives to those more realistically attainable during the time in the host country ensured that goals were achievable and motivating, rather than intimidating. This finding is a possible extension to work done by Kitsantas (2004), which indicated that student goals play a pivotal role in students’ development of cross-cultural skills, suggesting that flexibility within these goals might also contribute to international student development. Moreover, this change demonstrates an ability to switch focus from weaknesses to strengths and a sense of agency. Furthermore, students’ flexibility and open-ness extended to their perspectives on their home and host cultures as well. Participants in this study confronted stereotypes they harbored about the host culture and were able to look at their own culture from an outside perspective that offered new insights. McCabe (1994) reported a similar finding among “Semester at Sea” participants, noting a shift from ethno-centricity to a global perspective. Similarly, international study programs have been found to afford a multicultural perspective and skill set to participants (Kitsantas, 2004), lending further backing to the current findings. Additionally, the experiences shared under this theme provide support for Furnham and


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Bochner’s (1986) cultural learning model, which views the struggling international student as a person who has not yet attained culturally appropriate social skills, rather than as a person who is inadequate. Participants in this study clearly identified experiences of cultural learning, both positive and negative, as helpful. These students demonstrated a flexibility that allowed them to be open to new encounters and embrace the environmental and intrapersonal changes they experienced. They showed awareness that challenges, although considerable, were part of the process and could be overcome with time and experience. As such, the experiences shared by international students in this study defy the conceptualization of culture shock as harmful and maladaptive. However, these participants depict such experiences as an integral part of their transition and development. This finding provides robust support for the developmental perspectives on culture shock, as a continual learning process, espoused by Adler (1975), Pedersen (1991, 1995), and Arthur (2004).

discovering strengths WithinThe final overarching theme that emerged from these data was international students’ discovery of their individual strengths. This is an area that has received little attention in the psychological literature. However, every international student participating in this study acknowledged the impact of ongoing self-discovery throughout his or her cross-cultural transition. Participants spoke of rising to the challenge, finding out who they are, and doing something they never thought they could do. Participants appeared to discover strengths in two ways: Through the experience of living as an independent adult and through cross-cultural experiences. Overall, participants shared an expanding view of their potential that they related to the process of transition. Participants remarked,

“I realized my potential,” and noted that the study abroad experience was “very important for shaping the person that you’re going to be.” These findings support those of Arthur (2001), who found that self-awareness intensified through cross-cultural transition. The accounts gathered in this study illustrate the strengths and resources that have only been alluded to in the academic research. The considerable array of personal strengths detailed herein provides compelling support for the application of a positive psychology approach to the topic of cross-cultural transition. Once given the opportunity to voice their perspectives and share their personal journeys, international students provided a rich portrait of the positive aspects of crossing cultures. They described meaningful relationships, increased self-awareness, cultural learning, positive experiences of growth, and an emerging global perspective. This contribution illuminates their capacity for coping with challenges and highlights their considerable resources. Also of interest are substantial parallels between information emerging from this study and the resiliency literature. Like the resilient individuals described by Fredrickson, Tugade, Waugh, and Larkin, (2003), participants in this study were found to possess an optimistic outlook and the ability to carry forward knowledge gained under difficult circumstances to apply to future situations. They also displayed a capacity to create meaning from trying times, supporting the consideration of cross-culture transition from a resilience perspective. However, the overriding value of the current study lies in its contribution to a more holistic view of the international student experience, as called for by numerous researchers (e.g., Adler, 1975; Arthur, 2004; Pedersen, 1995; Popadiuk & Arthur, 2004; Tseng & Newton, 2002). International students in this study clearly identified numerous instances of personal growth in a variety of areas and linked this development directly to their

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cross-cultural transition. Also significant were the parallel processes of cultural and personal transition reported.

ReCoMMeNdAtIoNs ANd IMPLICAtIoNs

Despite their student status, strictly academic aspects of the participants’ sojourn featured far less prominently than social aspects and experi-ences of personal growth. Furthermore, when dis cussing critical experiences in the academic environ ment, students focused on their relational and developmental facets. This underscores the importance of research from the perspective of the international student and suggests the value of their participation in resource development. Findings also suggested preparing students before their sojourn and limiting orientation focus to essential information to avoid overwhelming students. Finally, adequate support must be sustained throughout the sojourn with attention paid to issues arising late in the experience, such as reentry. Social support plays a prominent role in facilitating cross-cultural transition. Many post secondary institutions try various means of encouraging contact with host nationals. However, differences in expectations and cultural norms around relationships pose a challenge for such initiatives and education regarding these potential obstacles would facilitate their success. Increasing the multicultural competence of the university community as a whole is a goal that could be furthered by encouraging cross-cultural experiences and providing international students the opportunity to share their unique perspectives and cultural knowledge. The findings of this study also indicate that support within the international student community is valuable and should be fostered. Regular gatherings through the university departments that support international students would help to establish these connections, as would

international clubs on campus. Universities could also consider international residences that could house students studying abroad and domestic students who have a particular interest in international perspectives and global initiatives, following the example of high-profile endeavors such as International House, New York, and International House, University of California, Berkeley. Informing counselors about the inter-national student experience was one of the key objectives of this study. Knowing how student sojourners navigate their cross-cultural transitions, professionals who work with this population can have a better understanding of how they overcome challenges. The factors and personal resources identified here complement a strengths-based counseling approach. Coun-selors could utilize the facilitative factors that emerged from this study to illustrate how others have managed their transition, to inform the design and implementation of counseling strategies and interventions, and as an entry point for the exploration of clients’ own personal resources and positive transitional experiences. Counselors can also avoid the tendency to focus solely on the problems associated with cross-cultural transition and the interpretation of culture shock as a negative experience. Because social support has repeatedly been recognized as vital for international students, counselors may consider means of integrating support into counseling services through psychoeducational groups and peer counseling programs facilitated by experienced international students. The needs of international students span a variety of areas both within and outside the field of counseling. A collaborative approach across student services, including faculty and health services physicians, can create a network of supports that ensure all these needs are addressed (Komiya & Eells, 2001; Mori, 2000; Popadiuk & Arthur, 2004).


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The final implication emerging from this study involves the training of counseling professionals. Despite the growing number of international students attending Canadian postsecondary institutions, counselors-in-training learn little about this population (Popadiuk & Arthur, 2004). In addition to required coursework in multicultural competencies, counseling programs can prepare future counselors through pursuing cultural diversity within the student body, encouraging cross-cultural experience and by inviting international students, both within the program and the university at large, to educate counselors-in-training on the process of cross-cultural transition from their personal perspectives. Finally, counselors can be open to exploring the more positive aspects of cross-cultural transition and spend time integrating it into their view of the international student population to achieve a balanced perspective. This study contributes to a small body of knowledge regarding the positive aspects of cross-cultural transition. However, it is limited by a number of factors. All interviews were conducted in English, an additional language for the participants. Hence, it is possible that participants were not able to express themselves as fully as in their first or preferred language. Second, that participants came from divergent parts of the world (Asia, South and Central America, and Europe) and represent a range of cultural ethnicities is a limitation of this study. Similar studies that focus on the positive experiences of international students from one ethnicity and country of origin may shed further light on group differences of cultural transition. A further limitation is that participation was entirely voluntary and students were recruited to take part in a study focusing on positive aspects of cross-cultural transition. As a result, international students who have

had more positive experiences may have been attracted to this study. This limitation is significant because the resources of this group may differ considerably from those of the average international student. It may also have contributed to expectations about what was appropriate to disclose, although negative experiences were reported.

CoNCLusIoN

The experience of cross-cultural transition presents many challenges both to international students and those who support them. These concerns combined with the rapid growth of this student population underscore the importance of ensuring adequate and relevant support from the university community. The literature provides a body of knowledge on reported transition problems and factors that may predict them, and suggests that this is a vulnerable population. However, little attention has been paid to how international students navigate challenges, what factors help them through their transitions, and what personal assets they develop and utilize to succeed. Our study explored the experiences, characteristics, and resources students found helpful while crossing cultures, based on their own accounts. Participants recounted events that facilitated their transition and contributed to considerable personal growth and development. They described how they overcame problems, gathered support, remained open to the experience, and discovered strengths to experience success in their cross-cultural transition. This information is particularly important because skills and resources gathered may be drawn upon during future difficulties. Furthermore, this knowledge will contribute to a greater understanding of the international student experience and inform appropriate and relevant supports and services.

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