Claremont CollegesScholarship @ ClaremontEnvironmental Analysis Program Mellon StudentSummer Research Reports

Environmental Analysis Program at the ClaremontColleges

9-1-2011

'The Earth is Crying Out in Pains of Childbirth':Bauxite Mining and Sustainable RuralDevelopment in the Brazilian Atlantic ForestLena R. ConnorPomona College

This Undergraduate Research Project is brought to you for free and open access by the Environmental Analysis Program at the Claremont Colleges atScholarship @ Claremont. It has been accepted for inclusion in Environmental Analysis Program Mellon Student Summer Research Reports by anauthorized administrator of Scholarship @ Claremont. For more information, please contact scholarship@cuc.claremont.edu.

Recommended CitationConnor, Lena R., "'The Earth is Crying Out in Pains of Childbirth': Bauxite Mining and Sustainable Rural Development in theBrazilian Atlantic Forest" (2011). Environmental Analysis Program Mellon Student Summer Research Reports. Paper 4.http://scholarship.claremont.edu/eap_ea_mellonreports/4

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“TheEarthisCryingOutinPainsofChildbirth:”1BauxiteMiningandSustainableRural

DevelopmentintheBrazilianAtlanticForest

AndrewW.MellonFellowshipResearchProjectPresentedby:

LenaConnor,EnvironmentalAnalysis,Classof2013Supervisedby:

JenniferPerry,PomonaCollege,AssociateProfessor,AnthropologyDepartment

1SeeQuoteinAppendixC,Interview#8.AlludingtoRomans8:22:"Forweknowthatthewholecreationgroansandsuffersthepainsofchildbirthtogether…”

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Acknowledgements:

TotheClaremontCollegesMellonFellowshipBoard,foryourgeneroussupport.ToJenniferPerry,forallyourwiseguidance.

ToCharlotte,Laura,TimandallmyIracambifriends,foryouradventurousspirits.ToBinkaandRobinLeBreton,forinspiringmeandprovidingforanincredible

researchexperienceinyourhomethissummer.ToCarminha,foryournurturingcareandwonderfulpeanutbutter.

ToallthoseIinterviewed,foryoureloquenceandpassion.ToFreiGilberto,fordemonstratinganextraordinaryChristianenvironmentalethic.TotheAtlanticForest,foryourwealthoflifeandyourphenomenalresilience.

E,finalmente,paraosmoradoresgentileamáveldoTerritórioSerradoBrigadeiro,pormeensinandomuitosobrecomoviveravida.Euesperoquevocêcrescernasua

belasmontanhasparaosanosvindouros.

(Andfinally,forthegentleandkindresidentsoftheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritory,forteachingmemuchonhowtolivelife.Mayyouthriveinyourbeautifulmountains

foryearstocome.)

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TableofContents

I. Abstract………………………………………………………………………4II. IntroductionandStatementofResearchQuestion….……...5

I. Introduction II. Statement of Research QuestionIII. Iracambi’s Role in the AreaIV. Bauxite Mining Comes to the Serra do Brigadeiro

III. LiteratureReview………………………………………………………..12I. TheDestructionoftheAtlanticForestII. MinasGerais:AHistoryofMiningIII. BauxiteMiningonaGlobal‐ScaleIV. TheAnthropologyofMining

IV. ResearchMethodology…………………………………………………25V. PresentationandAnalysisofData……………………………...…34

I. TheRealandPotentialEffectsofMininginRelationtoIdentityi. MiningandtheEnvironmentii. MiningandSocietyiii. MiningandReligioniv. MiningandtheEconomy

II. VisionsofSustainableDevelopmentintheContextofMining

III. AdvocacyandNextStepsVI. Conclusions……………………………………………………………….….56

I. RevisitingtheResearchQuestionsII. LimitationsIII. FinalThoughts

VII. Bibliography…………………………………………………………………63VIII. Appendices……………………………………………………………….…..65

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ListofAppendices:

AppendixA.MapsMap1.ChangestotheAtlanticForestMap2.BauxiteConcessionsintheSerradoBrigadeiro

TerritoryMap3.IracambiinBauxiteConcessionsMap4.SantaLuciaCommunityinBauxiteConcessionsMap5.PedraAltaCommunityinBauxiteConcessionsMap6.SantaCatarinaCommunityinBauxiteConcessionsMap7.ExistingBauxiteMiningMap

AppendixB.Figures

Fig.1.WorldDistributionofBauxiteReservesFig.2.TimeTrendsinBauxiteProductionfrom1900‐2001Fig.3.WorldBauxitePerCapitaConsumptionfrom1990‐

2001Fig.4.SerradoBrigadeiroTerritoryEmployment

CategorizationFig.5.SerradoBrigadeiroTerritoryRuralPopulation

VarianceBetween1970‐2000Fig.6.RuralPopulationGraphofTerritoryfrom1970‐2000

AppendixC.InterviewData

Section1.FormalInterviewListSection2.AdditionalInterviewQuotes

AppendixD.Images

Section1.MiningImagesSection2.CommunityMappingImagesSection3.IracambiImagesSection4.EventImagesSection5.InterviewImages

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I. Abstract In2003,residentsoftheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritory,aruralareaof

SoutheasternBrazilinoneofthefewremainingpatchesoftheAtlanticForest,

learnedofalargenumberofbauxiteconcessionsintheirterritorygivenbythe

federalgovernmenttotheprominentCompanhiaBrasileiradeAlumínio(CBA),

Brazil’slargestaluminumproducer.Becausetheregionpridesitselfonitssmall‐

scaleagricultureanditslushnaturalenvironment,themininghasbeenthesource

ofmuchcontentioninthecommunity.Introducedtothetopicbytheinternational

conservationNGOandresearchcenter,Iracambi,Ispenttwomonthsintheterritory

thissummer,exploringhowthecommunityperceivesthemining.Anexercisein

anthropologicalresearch,thisreporttriestoanswerthequestion:Howhasthe

controversysurroundingthebauxitemininginformedhowthecitizensoftheSerra

doBrigadeiroterritoryperceivetheircommunalandindividualidentitiesin

relationshiptothedevelopmentoftheircommunities?Throughformaland

informalinterviewing,participantobservation,andfieldwork,Iconcludedthatthe

mininghasinstigatedcommunityinquiryintomanyfacetsoftheregion’sfuture,

including:thefateoffamilyagriculture;thevalueofecologicalresources;

globalizationanditseffectoneconomicandgenerationalchange;andtherhetoric

usedtoexpressopinionsonexternalforcessuchasbauxitemining.

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II. IntroductionandStatementofQuestionIntroduction

TheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritoryisasmallclumpofruralmunicipalitiesin

themountainousdepthsofthestateofMinasGerais,itselfconsideredthe“heartland”

ofBrazil.Itisaplaceofbreathtakingbeauty,atropicalSwitzerland.Itspatchwork

landscapesofrainforest,cropland,andgreenpasturesymbolizethelifestylethatthe

region’sfarmers,andthenativePuríIndiansbeforethem,havebeenweaving

togetherforcenturies,insearchforanecologicalbalancethathasnotalwaysbeen

easytoattain.

LocatedinoneofthefewremainingpatchesoftheoncemagnificentMata

Atlântica(AtlanticForest),theterritorynotonlyhousesthousandsofsubsistence

farmingfamilies,butalsosomeoftheworld’smostendangeredspecies,including

thelargestknownpopulationofthefamousWoollySpiderMonkey,themost

endangeredprimateintheAmericas.Accordingly,theregionhasbeenworkingfor

decadestoimplementaformofsustainabledevelopmentthatwouldnurtureallof

itsinhabitants,humanandnon‐humanalike,withthehelpoflocalorganizationsas

wellastheinternationalNGO,IracambiConservationandResearchCenter,theplace

Icalledhomefortwomonthsthissummer.

Asifachievingecologicalandagriculturalharmonyinasensitivetropical

environmentwasnotenoughofastruggle,in2003,theterritorylearnedofan

addedcomplexity.Thatyear,theBrazilianfederalgovernmentgaveCompanhia

BrasileiradeAlumínio(CBA),Brazil’slargestaluminumproducer,over6,700

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hectaresofbauxiteminingconcessionsintheterritory.Thecompanyhadcompleted

theinitialprospectingofthearea25yearspreviously,sowereprimedtobeginthe

miningprocessimmediately.2Theconcessions,whichencompassover11,000

familyfarmsandlargesectionsoftheSerradoBrigadeiroStateParkBufferZone

andthesurroundingenvironmentalprotectionareas(APAs),containanestimated

73.7milliontonsofbauxite,whichwillproduceaboutUSD$3.5billionworthof

aluminum.3IntheeightyearssinceCBAannounceditsplans,thecompanyhasbeen

movingforwardwiththelicensingprocessontheconcessionareas,hasbegunto

mineinthesoutherncorneroftheterritory,andhasplanstoproceednorth.

Meanwhile,theresidentsofSerradoBrigadeirohavebeengrapplingwiththe

realityofthesituationandrespondingtotheprospectofmininginavariedmanner.

Ibecameawareofthebauxiteminingissuewhen,enamoredofIracambi’s

vision“toworkwithourcommunitytomaketheconservationoftheAtlanticForest

moreattractivethanitsdestruction,”IprobedRobinLeBreton,theorganization’s

researchdirector,forpotentialtopicsofstudy.AsanEnvironmentalAnalysisand

PoliticsmajorwithaparticularinterestinChristianecologyandsustainable

agriculture,themininginitiallyseemedoutsidemyrealmofexpertise.Robinspoke

ofthedireneedforethnographicresearchonthesubjectinordertomitigatethe

effectsoftheminingonthecommunity,soIsignedupdespitemylackofspecialized

knowledge.Yet,asIbecameimmersedinthecomplexityoftheissue,Idiscovered

howveryintertwinedtheregion’sminingcontroversyiswithsubjectsI’macutely

2NicolaDugdale&LenaConnor,“MiningBriefingDocument,”IracambiConservationandResearchCenter(2011),3‐5.3Dugdale&Connor,34.

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familiarwith.Theminingcomesatacriticaltimefortheregion’sidentity.Ina

periodofideologicalflux,thebauxiteminingbecomesametaphorinaculture

burgeoningwitheconomic,environmental,religiousandsociologicalchange.

StatementofQuestion

Therefore,thepurposeofthisreportistoexaminehowthediscourseon

mininghasadvancedsofar,andtoanalyzethewaysinwhichithasinfluenced

visionsforthefutureoftheterritory.Iidentifiedmyprimaryresearchquestionas:

Howhasthecontroversysurroundingthebauxitemininginformedhowthe

citizensoftheSerradoBrigadeiroterritoryperceivetheircommunaland

individualidentitiesinrelationshiptothedevelopmentoftheircommunities?

Inordertounderstandthecontroversyfully,Iexploredthenecessarysub‐questions,

including:

• Whatareasandwhichcommunitieswillbeaffectedbytheproposedmining?

• Whatarethetangibleexistingandpotentialeconomic,environmental,andsociologicaleffectsofbauxitemining?

• Howdothecitizensperceivetheeffectsofthebauxiteminingrelativetotheirpersonalandcommunalidentity?Whatcomponentsoftheiridentitydocitizensfeelarebeingthreatenedorreinforcedbythemining’sexistence?

• Howdoesthecommunitydefinesustainabledevelopmentandhowdotheyseemininginthiscontext?

• Whatarethecommunity’sperceptionsoftheanti­miningandpro­miningadvocacy?Howwouldthecommunityliketomoveforwardinreconcilingtheminingwiththeirregionalidentity?

TheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritory

TheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritoryislocatedinthenorthernsectionoftheZona

daMataofMinasGerais,andcontainsthefollowingcounties:Serecita,Divino,

Araponga,PedraBonita,Fervedouro,Ervália,Muriaé,Miradouro,RosáriodaLimeira.

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Ithasatotalareaof3,000km2,equivalenttothestateofRhodeIsland,andin2000

hadapopulationof171,135(seeAppendixBfordemographicinformation).Though

theregion’slargesturbancenter,Muriaé,containsabout80,000residents,the

majorityoftheterritory’spopulationlivesinruralareas(muchhigherthanthe

nationalaverage),andmostfamilies’livelihoodsremainintheagriculturaland

servicesectors.AstheeconomictableinAppendixshows,theindustrialsectoris

moderateinMuriaé(at28.62%),andclaimsonlyasmallpercentageoftheeconomy

inmostcounties(16.97%inRosariodaLimeira).AndwhileotherpartsofMinas

GeraisandBrazilhavebeenshiftingtocommercialagricultural,theSerrado

Brigadeirohaverejectedlarge‐scaleagribusinessthusfar,continuingwithafamily

agriculturetradition.4

Iracambi’sRoleintheArea

RobinLeBreton,anagriculturaleconomistandconservationist(and

reformedWorldBankspecialist)andBinkaLeBreton,aconcertpianistandwell‐

knownauthoronenvironmentalandhumanrightsintheAmazon,foundedIracambi

becausetheyweredrawntothearea’snaturalheritage.Theywantedtoworkwith

localfarmerstopreservetheagriculturalandlifestylepracticesthatallowedthe

nativeecosystemstoflourish.Alongwithlocalactivists,Iracambifoughttohavethe

SerradoBrigadeiroStateParkandthebufferzonesurroundingitestablishedin

ordertoprotecttheimportantpatchofsemi‐deciduousAtlanticForestlocatedin

themountainrange,apartoftheUNBiosphereReserve.Thelocalforestecosystem

isrichinplantspeciessuchasbromeliads,orchids,andpalms.Itisalsoarefugefor4“Território da Serra do Brigadeiro – MG: Sistemização e análise dos dados secundarios.” CTA-ZM: Centro de Tecnologias Alternativas da Zona da Mata de Minas Gerais (Viçosa: 2004), 10-15.

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endangeredfaunasuchastheMaskedTitimonkey,theWoollySpidermonkey,

jaguar,ocelot,andvariousfrogandbirdspecies.Theysucceededin1996.The

BrazilianfederalgovernmentsubsequentlysetuptheSerradoBrigadeiroRural

DevelopmentTerritorywithamodelofsustainabledevelopmentforthe10‐km

bufferzonethatwascompatiblewiththeconservationgoalsoftheStatePark.A

progressivemoveonthepartoftheBraziliangovernment,theactionestablisheda

precedentforsustainabledevelopmentinthearea.

BauxiteMiningComestotheTerritory

Consequently,itcameasquiteasurprisetoIracambiandlocal

environmentalistswhenthefederalgovernmentallowedCBAtoselecttheprotected

areaforitsintendedbauxitemining.CBAannounceditsplansquietlyin2003,ina

smallnewspaperinBeloHorizonte,thestatecapital,andbydoingso“startedthe

entireprocessoffonthewrongfoot,”accordingtoRobinLeBreton.Thecompany’s

dissimulationmadethecommunitysuspiciousandhostile.CBAfailedinitiallyto

reachouttothecommunityandexplainwhattheminingwouldentail.5Accordingto

LeBreton,thestateenvironmentallicensingauthorities(FundaçãoEstadualdoMeio

Ambiente)didlittletocurtailthecompany’schoiceofconcessionsandmadethe

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)highlyinaccessibletothepublic.Iracambi

mobilizedseveralconcernedcommunitygroupsandindividualsandformedthe

“CommissionofthoseAffectedbyMining,”commonlyreferredtoastheMining

Commission.Thecommissionhasbeenactiveinstudyinganddiscussingthemining

sinceitsformationin2003andmeetsmonthly.ItincludestheSerradoBrigadeiro

5Dugdale&Connor,3‐5.

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StateParkcouncil,theRuralWorkers’Union(SindicatodeTrabalhadoresRurais),

theCenterforAlternativeTechnology(CTA),theCatholicPastoralLandCommission

(CPT),theFederalTechnicalInstituteofMuriaé,andAmigosdeIracambi.6

In2006,theMiningCommissionobtainedacourtorderthatblockedCBA

fromproceedingwithminingwithinthebufferzoneofthepark,butIracambifears

thatthecompanyhasthepoliticalclouttogetthisorderreversedandprobablywill

doso,asthemajorityoftheconcessionsarewithinthebufferboundary.However,

atthemoment,itappearsthatCBAiscontenttocommencewiththemininginthe

areasofleastresistance,outsideofthebufferzoneinthesouth.TheMining

Commissionhasbeenworkingforeightyearstoraisecommunityawarenessofthe

miningthroughpublicforumsandpublishedpamphlets.Iracambireceiveda

$195,000grantfromtheInter‐AmericanFoundationin2007toconductresearchon

themining’saffectonlocalfarmers,designacommunitytrainingprogramforlocal

leadersinmanagingthemining,andtopushthroughlegislationintheterritoryfor

theestablishmentofenvironmentalprotectionareas(APAs)withinthebufferzone

toprovidefurtherlegalprotectionagainstthemining.7However,recently,the

commissionworkhascometostandstill,asitsmembersdisagreeonwhether

resistanceornegotiationwithCBAisthepreferablestrategy.ThoughIracambiisin

favourofwisenegotiation,itrefusestomoveunilaterally,andthereforemustwait

untiltheMiningCommissioncomestoaconclusionontheissue.

6JessicaHarper,“ConfrontingCorporateDevelopment:Anti‐MiningAdvocacyintheBrazilianAtlanticRainforest,”MastersCapstonePaper,(SchoolforInternationalTraining,2007)14.7Dugdale&Connor,4.

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Meanwhile,CBArespondedtothecourtorderandpublicmeetingsby

becomingmuchmoreopenwiththecommunity.Itbegantohirelocalsfor

constructionworkinitsminingareasandnewly‐builtwashingfacilityand

contractedoutlocalcompaniesforservicesliketruckingandroadconstruction.The

companyalsohiredGaiain2009,aPRfirmwithaspecialityincorporatesocialand

environmentalresponsibility,toworkwiththelocalmunicipalitiestocreatea“30‐

year‐vision”forsustainabledevelopmentintheterritory.Gaiahostedseveralpublic

forumsaboutmininganddevelopmentanddesignedpilotsocialprojectsforthe

region.Italsopresentedinlocalschoolsandchurchesandwidelydistributed

pamphletsandradiocommercials.

Since2003,thebauxitemininghasbecomeanimportantfixtureofthe

internationalresearchcenteratIracambi,andseveralstudentshavedevotedtheir

timeinBraziltostudyingtheimpactofmining.Manyhavefocusedonimproving

IracambibankofGISinformationontheconcessionsandtheirplacementinthe

regionandaddedmappinglayersdepictinghydrology,forestareas,etc.Jessica

Harper,agraduatestudentfromtheVermontSchoolofInternationalTraining,

studiedtheadvocacyeffortsoftheMiningCommissionin2006andLindsey

Witthaus,anundergraduatestudentfromWisconsinonaFulbrightScholarship,

studiedthesamesubjectin2008.However,sincetheirresearchreportswere

written,muchhaschangedintheterritory,astheminingbecomesawell‐known

realityandtheopportunityforresistancefadesaway.Theregionstandsata

precipice,anditsinhabitantsfaceadrasticchangetotheirterrainandwayoflife.

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III. RelevantLiterature

TheDestructionoftheAtlanticForest

Inhisbook,BroadaxandFirebrand:TheDestructionoftheAtlanticForest,

environmentalhistorianWarrenDeandescribesSouthAmericaas“theforest

historian’sfreshestbattleground,whereallthefallenstillliesprawledandunburied

andwherethevictorsstillwanderabout,lootingandburningthetrain.”8And,from

thestandpointoftheforest,itisataleofwoe.TheAtlanticForest,whichusedto

spantheentiresoutheasterncoastofBrazil,coveringonemillionsquarekilometers,

rivaledtheAmazoninitslushbeauty.Actuallymorebio‐diversethanitsfamous

neighbor,thevirginforestoncecontainedsuchalargeamountofwildlife,immense

tropicaltrees,andmedicinalandornamentalplantsthatthePortuguesesettlers

whofirstarrivedonitsshoresgapedinawe.

Thoughtheindigenousinhabitantslivedonthelandforover10,000years,

theirhunting‐and‐gatheringandswiddenagriculturemadealightimpactonthe

foresthealth,astheirpopulationwassmallenoughtoallowlandtogofallowasthey

migratedthroughouttheregion.But,inlessthan500years,Europeanmercantilism

(andlatercapitalism)incentivizedrapiddeforestation,throughlogging,intensified

agriculture,andmining.Evenafteritsindependencefromcolonialrule,Brazil

developedintoatreasuretroveforrawmaterials,minerals,andcommoditycrops

likecoffee,sugarcane,andrice.Supportedbythesurplusofslavelabor(andlater

cheapEuropeanlabor),theselarge‐scaleendeavorsfacilitatedtheswiftexpansion

8WarrenDean,BroadaxandFirebrand:TheDestructionoftheBrazilianAtlanticForest,(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1997)5.

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inlandtoreapthegreatestrewardsfordomesticandglobalmarkets.Today,no

significantpatchesofvirginAtlanticForestremain,andonly7%oftheoriginalarea

remainsunderforest.Thatwhichisleftisheavilyfragmentedandunsuitablehabitat

formanymigratoryanimals.9Brazilianbotanist,AugustedeSaint‐Hilaire,predicted

theforest’sfateintheearly19thcentury,saying,“Inafewyears,asmallnumberof

menwillhaveravagedanimmenseprovince,andtheywillbeabletosay,‘Itisaland

that’sfinished.’”10

Manyenvironmentalists,includingDean,seetheAtlanticForestasalost

cause,awarningcrytotheAmazonbasin:“ThelastservicethattheAtlanticForest

mightserve,tragicallyandforlornly,istodemonstratealltheterribleconsequence

ofdestroyingitsimmensewesternneighbor.”11Yet,whileIagreethatBrazil,andall

nations,shouldlookstotheAtlanticForestforhumilityandforeboding,Ithinkthat

itwouldbeamistaketotreattheconservationofremainingpatchesoftheAtlantic

Forestasafruitlesstask.Indeed,thefactthattheAtlanticForestisnowaheavily

humanizedlandscapecanbeitsgreatestasset.UnlessBrazilintendstobuildwalls

aroundthepreciousAmazon,habitationofthatgreatforestisinevitable;the

AtlanticForesthasthepotentialtoserveasatestinggroundforsustainable

resourceusethatmightbeappliedtofuturebehaviorintheAmazon.Fordespite

Dean’searliermetaphor,thebattleisnotoverandtheAtlanticForeststilllives,

thoughheavilywounded.Andtherearemanypeopleinitsbordersfightingtokeep

italive.

9Dean,17.10Dean,117.11Dean,364.

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MinasGerais:AHistoryofMining

MinasGeraishasatellingroleinthehistoryoftheAtlanticForest.

EncompassinganarealargerthanthestateofTexas,MinasGeraiswasonceentirely

forestedandnowcontainsonlyafewlargepatchesofsecondgrowthforest,suchas

thehabitatintheSerradoBrigadeiro.Thoughitisnowknownasahuboffamily

agriculture,famousforitsgoodfoodandEuropeaninfluences,thestate’soriginis

rootedinminingandmuchofitsdevelopmentanddeforestationcanbeattributed

tocenturiesofmininginfluence.MinasGerais,or“GeneralMines”inPortuguese,

wasthecenterofthegoldminingthatfulfilledthePortugueseroyalty’sdreamsand

fueledsettlementrushesinland.

ThoughthecrownhadlustedaftergoldsinceitsarrivalinBrazil,itwasnot

untilthelate17thcenturiesthatprospectorsfoundrichalluvialdepositsinMinas

Gerais.AccordingtoMachadoandFigueiroa,“Anewphasewastheninauguratedfor

theBrazilianeconomy,labeledbyhistoriansastheGoldCycle.”12Soondiamonds,

silver,andpreciousgemstoneswerealsoappearingintheearthbeneaththeforest.

Someestimatethatduringthe17thand18thcenturies,Brazilprovided50%ofthe

world’ssuppliesofgoldanddiamonds.13AsMachadoandFigueiroacontinue,

“Settlementswerespringingupovernightaroundtheminesites,transforming

remoteandwildplacesintolivelytownsinjust10yearsorso.”Diggers,masters,

merchantmen,andcrownrepresentativefollowedthegoldfeverwhereverit

traveled,settingupwealthycolonialtownssuchasOuroPreto(BlackGold),thegold

12IranF.Machado,SilviaF.deM.Figueiroa,“500YearsofMininginBrazil:ABriefReview.”ResourcesPolicy27(2001)9–24,12.13Machado&Figueiroa,10.

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capitalofMinasGerais,aplaceresplendentwithbaroqueartandcolonial

grandiosity.ImmigrantsinsearchofgoldpouredintothestatefromPortugal,

Europe,andAfricaandthegoldpouredbacktheotherway.ThomasE.Skidmore

arguesthattheminingwealthwentdirectlytoBritishhands,asthePortugueseused

muchofittopaydebts,andthat“Brazilianminingrichescanbesaidtohavehelped

capitalizethefirstindustrialrevolution.”14

Unfortunately,themineralboomdidnotestablishafirmfoundationfor

MinasGerais,asworkerswereenslavedorpaidmeagerwages,andthewealthwas

concentratedinthehandsofthecrownandafewopportunisticminingoverlords.

Duringtheearly18thcentury,thegoldinspiredwhateconomistscall“Dutchdisease,”

assettlerswouldabandonsteadyindustryandfarmingforthechaseforgold,and

theculturesurroundingthefeverwasfullofavarice.15Andafterthedepositsbegan

todwindleafterthe1750’s,MinasGeraisbecameaplaceofeconomicandsocietal

stagnation.Evenasearlyas1711,thenotedItalianJesuitchroniclerAntilquipped

that“noprudentpersoncanfailtoadmitthatGodpermittedthediscoveryofso

muchgoldintheminessothathecouldpunishBrazilwithit.”16

Additionally,theminingleftanuglyscaronthecountrysideofMinasGerais.

Bythe19thcentury,thegoldmining“replacedforestwithpockmarkedmoors,”says

Dean,andthehillswerestrippedofallbutpatchygrassanddenudedbysheet

14ThomasE.Skidmore,Brazil:FiveCenturiesofChange,(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2010)22.15MachadoandFigueiroa,15.16Skidmore,22.

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erosion,giantgullies,andstreambedweresilted.Onebotanistatthetimecalledita

“baldanddesertedregion,whoseterrainisentirelyoverturnedbyexcavations.”17

Cattleranchersandcoffeefarmersfollowedtheminingandpreventedthelandfrom

returningtoforest,andallthatremainedoftheoriginalmatawastuftsonthetops

ofhillstoprotectstreamheadwaters.

Consequently,althoughthebauxiteminingisnewtothearea,thecitizensof

theSerradoBrigadeiroTerritoryarenotunfamiliarwiththeconceptofminingin

theirhomeland,asitisentrenchedintheirland’spast.Evenafterthegoldmining

andthePortugueserulesubsided,theBritishheavilyfundedotherironminingin

MinasGeraisinthe19thcentury,andtheBrazilianandAmericaninvestorsthen

fundedadiversityofminingendeavorsinthe20th.18Today,Brazilisoneofthe

world’stopmineralproducers,accountingfor83differentmineralsandsales

exceedingUS$14billion.BecauseofitancientPrecambrianandPhanerozoic

terrains,Braziliscurrentlyendowedwithsurplusreservesofasbestos,bauxite,

beryl,chromium,fluorspar,gold,quartz,graphite,ironore,kaolin,lithium,

magnesite,manganese,niobium,rare‐earths,talc,tantalum,andtin.19In1995,the

mining(extraction)sector,processingsector,andmineralexportsaccountedfor2%,

26%and27%ofBrazil’sGDP.20AndMinasGeraishousesmuchofthecountry’s

potentialmineralwealththatBrazilianpoliticianshopewillcontinuetofuelBrazil’s

risetoamajoreconomicplayerinthe21stcentury.

17Dean,97.18MachadoandFigueiroa,17‐20.19MachadoandFigueiroa,21.20T.J.Toy&J.J.Griffith,“ChangingSurface‐MineReclamationPracticesinMinasGerais,Brazil.”InternationalJournalofSurfaceMining,ReclamationandEnvironment.15(2001),33‐51,34.

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BauxiteMiningonaGlobalScale

Bauxiteistheprincipalorefortheproductionofaluminummetalviaatwo‐

stageprocessthatinvolves,therefiningofbauxitetoaluminabyawetchemical

causticleachprocess(theBayerprocess)andtheelectrolyticreductionofalumina

toaluminummetal(theHall‐Heroultprocess).21Fromageologicpointofview,

bauxiteisaresidualrockthatformsduringperiodsofintenseweathering,makingit

ubiquitousintropical,rainforestenvironments.22Australiaiscurrentlythelargest

producer,followedbyGuinea,Brazil,andJamaica..23Astheworlddevelops,demand

foraluminumfortransportation,construction,andtechnologicalpurposessoars.

(seeAppendixB,Fig.3)Drivenbythisdemand,bauxiteproductionincreasedan

average5.7%yearlyfrom1900‐2000,andprojectedratesfor2000‐2025suggesta

greaterincrease.(seeAppendixB,Fig.2)EconomistF.M.Meyerpredictsthat,even

ata5%growthrate,“thecurrentlyknownreserveswillbeexhaustedwithinthe

next20yearsandthereservebasewillbeadequatefornotmorethan25years.”He

statesthatitisunlikelythatmorereserveswillnotbediscovered,butmuchofthe

addedreservebaseneededtosupplythe21stcenturywithaluminummightbein

areaswithexternalizedenvironmentalandsocialcosts.24

Brazil’sbauxitecapacityexceedsitscurrentproduction,asithassomeofthe

world’slargestreserves(seeAppendixB,Fig.1).But,toillustrateMeyer’spoint,if

Brazilexpandsitsbauxiteproduction,mostoftheminingwillhavetobedoneinthe

AtlanticandAmazonForestregions,wherereservesarethemostplentiful.Brazilian

21F.M.Meyer,“AvailabilityofBauxiteReserves,”NaturalResourcesResearch13(2004).1.22Meyer,1.23Meyer,2.24Meyer,1.

18

aluminumcompanieshaveincreasedproductioninbothregions,duetothehigh

profitincentiveandrelativelylowproductioncosts,andhaveproceededwithfull

governmentsupport,despitetheenvironmentalconsequences.Inastudydoneby

theUSDAForestryServiceonbauxitemininginvirginforestsintheAmazon,in

PortoTrombetasinwesternPará,authorsJ.A.ParrottaandO.H.Knowlesstatethat:

Surfacemininginmosttropicalcountriesdirectlyaffectsrelatively

smallareasofforestcomparedwithforestclearedforagriculture,

logging,hydroelectricandtransportationprojectsandotherchanges

inlanduse.However,theoff‐siteenvironmentalimpactsofsurface

miningcanbeveryextensive,duetoerosionandrunoffresultingin

siltationanddeteriorationofwaterqualityinnearbyrivers,lakesand

reservoirs.Toavoidtheseadverseenvironmentalimpacts,effective

forestrestorationonminedsitesisrequired.Thisrequirescareful

planningandtheintegrationofminingandrehabilitationoperations

basedonsoundsilviculturalandecologicalknowledge.25

Becauseofthisconcern,Brazil’sfederalandstategovernmentshavebeenmuch

morerigorousaboutenvironmentallegislationsurroundingminingandthemining

companieshavegreatlyimprovedtheirreclamationprocesses.

However,inasecondstudyonthesamereclamationsites,Parrotta,Knowles,

andWunderlestate:

Naturalregenerationofsecondaryforestsondegradedtropicallands

25JohnA.ParrottaandOliverH.Knowles,“Restoringtropicalforests onlandsminedforbauxite.”EcologicalEngineering17(2001)219–239,220.

19

isoftenaslowanduncertainprocess,impededbyacombinationof

factorsincludinghumanandlivestockpressures,recurrentfires,

persistenceofdominantgrassesandothernon‐woodyspecies,

unfavorablemicroclimaticconditions,soilinfertility,exhaustionof

soilseedbanksandroot‐stocksandlowratesofseedinputsfrom

nearbysurroundingforests.Onsurface‐minedsites,theseobstaclesto

naturalregenerationaregenerallymoreacutethanonotherdegraded

landscapesduetotheremovaloftopsoil(resultingintheelimination

ofsoilseedbankandrootstocks)andsoilprofiledisturbances

(includingcompaction)thatinevitablyaccompanythemining

process.26

Theauthorssuggestthatcompaniesamelioratetheeffectsofminingonforested

areabyapplyingpropersitepreparation,especiallytopsoilhandling,andinvesting

inproperresearchtocollectseedsfromawidevarietyofforestplantsand

propagatingandplantingthemwithpropercare.Theyalsostatethatseveral

companieshaveimprovedinthesepractices,andnowtaketimetoestablishnative

ecosystems,insteadofplantinglargeplantationsofeucalyptusandotherprofitable

loggingtrees.27

Unfortunately,littleinvestigationhasbeendoneonsuchequivalent

reclamationintheAtlanticForestregion,wheresoilsaremoredegraded,wildlife

maintenanceismoreprecarious,naturalregenerationismoredifficultdueto

26John A. Parrotta, Oliver Henry Knowle, Joseph M. Wunderle Jr., “Developmentoffloristicdiversityin10‐year‐oldrestorationforestsonabauxiteminedsiteinAmazonia.”ForestryEcologyandManagement99(1997)21–42,22.27ParrottaandKnowle,238.

20

habitatfragmentation,andstreamsarehighlysusceptibletosedimentation.

Additionally,thereislimitedresearchonreclamationoffarminglandinthefragile

tropicalsoilsofbothregions,thoughafewsoilscientistsatUniversityofViçosain

MinasGeraisareintheprocessofstudyingcoffeefieldreclamationpost‐bauxite

mining.

TheAnthropologyofMining

Onaglobalscale,thediscourseonthesocialeffectsofmininghasaltered

dramaticallysincetheminingindustry’sboominthe1970’sand1980’s.As

anthropologistChrisBallardrecounts,asminingcompaniesbegantodevelopinthe

“greenfield”or“frontier”territories,among“relativelyremoteormarginalized

indigenouscommunities”thathavelongbeentheclassicfocusofethnographic

research,anthropologistsbecamesweptupinthecontentious(andoften

dangerous)debatesurroundingmininginthedevelopingworld.Thepositioningof

anthropologistsinthese“resourcewars”isfarfromsimple,butbecausetheyhave

traditionallygivenpreferencetothe“exotic”orunrepresented,anthropologists

oftenchoosetoactasadvocatesonbehalfoflocalcommunitiesandcriticizemining

atallcostsasexploitation.Asheexplains,“Oneconsequenceofthisfocusisthatthe

figureof‘theminingcompany’lurksmonolithicallyandoftenmenacinglyinthe

backgroundofmanyanthropologicalaccountsofcommunitiesaffectedbymining

operations.”Hecontinuesthatthissimplisticcharacterizationiscounterproductive

because“thedynamicsofthecorporationsinvolvedinminingareoftenatleastas

complex,revealing,andchallengingasthoseofgovernmentsorlocal

21

communities.”28Consequently,therehasbeenamovetoreformthetoneof

anthropologicalresearchsothatcommunitiescanbesupportedwithoutthe

demonizationofotherstakeholders,agoalthatIupholdinthisreport(explained

laterinmymethodologysection).

Ontheotherhand,thebenefitoftheanthropologicaladvocacyonbehalfof

indigenouscommunitiesatprojectssuchastheCoronationHillgoldprospectin

NorthernAustraliaisthatcommunitiesaregettingalargersayindecisionsabout

mining.29Whereastheoldmodelofminingnegotiationwasabinaryonebetween

thestateandthecorporation,thereisnowawidespreadadoptionbyindustryofa

three‐leggedstakeholdermodel,withthelocalcommunityincludedasavital

participant.Granted,whetherthemodelhasbeenadequatelyappliedtorealityisa

matterofdebate,butBallardarguesthatitisastepintherightdirection.30The

internationalmediaattentiononminingpracticesandhumanrightshasledmany

companiestosubscribetointernationalenvironmentalandsocialrightscodes,such

asthe1SO‐1401regulationcodethatCBAvoluntarilyundergoes,andthe

controversialMiningMineralsandSustainableDevelopmentproject(MMSD),which

outlinessustainabledevelopmentprinciplesformining,thoughcriticscallit

“corporategreenwash.”31

Inessence,thereismuchfodderforanthropologicalresearchoncorporate,

state,andNGObehaviorinrelationtominingonaworldwidescaleandintheSerra

28ChrisBallard,“ResourceWars:TheAnthropologyofMining.”AnnualReviewforAnthropology32(2003)287–313,290.29Ballard,306.30Ballard,289.31Ballard,291.

22

doBrigadeiroTerritoryandIwilltouchuponittogiveweighttothecomplexityof

theissue.Butthisreportwillprimarilyfocusonthelocalcommunity,whichIfeel

hasnothadanequalvoiceinthediscussion,partiallybecausetheyarenot

“indigenous”or“marginalized”bydefinitionandinhabitanecosystemthatdoesnot

getasmuchattentionfrominternationalacademicsandmedia.

Ballardstatesthatmembershipinthe“miningcommunity”oftenposes

significantproblemsforlocalcommunities,inwaysthatitdoesnotforgovernments

andcorporations,andisthesourceofmuch“internalandexternalcompetitionand

conflict.”32Preciselybecausetheminingisrarelythelocalcommunity’sidea,it

causeschangesthatthecommunitydoesnotanticipateandisforcedtoreconcile.He

states:

Theidentityoflocalcommunitiesappearsinmostinstancestobe

constitutedlargelythroughdiscoursesofrightsclaimed(toland,to

membership,tocompensation,etc.)orrightsabused(humanrights,

landrights,environmentalrights,exclusionfrommembership,etc.)33

TanyaM.Li,inherstudyonidentityandmininginIndonesia,describesthatself‐

identificationbyagrouportribeisoftentimesalteredbythediscussion

surroundingmining.Forexample,thegroupshestudieddidnotconsider

themselves“indigenous”untiltheminingconflictintroducedthemtotheconstruct

(orimposedituponthem)andtheterminologywasthenadoptedasaneffect.34As

32Ballard,298.33Ballard,298.34MurrayLi,Tania,"ArticulatingIndigenousIdentityinIndonesia:ResourcePoliticsandtheTribalSlot".ComparativeStudiesinSocietyandHistory,42(2001),149.

23

Ballardremarks,thischangeinpositioning“drawsuponhistoricallysedimented

practices,landscapes,andrepertoiresofmeaningandemergesthroughparticular

patternsofengagementandstruggle.”

Ballardcontinuesthat,“Intheprocessofself‐definitioninordertorepresent

theirintereststogovernmentandcorporateagencies,ortootherlocalcommunities,

communitiesinthevicinityofaminingprojectemploybothtraditionalandnovel

strategiesofinclusionandexclusion”suchasusingrhetoricofland,kinship,myth

andcosmology.”35AccordingtoConnellandHowitt,“muchofthefiercestopposition

tominingfromlocalcommunitieshasbeengeneratedasaconsequenceof

dispossessionofland,degradationofacommunity’sresources,andphysical

relocationofresidentcommunities.”36Kinshipandsocialorganizationisusedasa

meansofexpressingidentityanddescribingacommunity’sflexibilitytothechange

thatminingbrings.Manystudieshavebeendoneonhowmythandcosmologyhave

informedthewayindigenouspeopleinAustraliaandPapuaNewGuineaapproach

thequestionsofsovereigntyandrightsinherentinquestionsofmining,aswellas

howcosmologycanhelpcommunitiesaccountfordisparitiesinpowerand

circumstantialchange.37Additionally,manyanthropologistsarguethatminingis

inherentlymarginalizingtocertaingroupsonthebasisofgenderandrace,dueto

accessibilitytotheeconomicbenefitsofminingandtheselectionoflandto

35Ballard,298.36ConnellJ,HowittR,MiningandIndigenousPeoplesinAustralasia,(Sydney:SydneyUniversityPress,1991),ascitedbyBallard,299.37A.RumseyandJ.Weiner.,MiningandIndigenousLifeworldsinAustraliaandPapuaNewGuinea,(Adelaide:CrawfordHouse,2001),31‐673.

24

appropriate,andthereforethecommunityoftenemployssuchlanguageintheir

argumentation.38

Lastly,thereissomecontentionbetweenanthropologistsaboutthe

motivationsforcommunityprotestovertheenvironmentaldamagecausedby

mining.Someupholdthatcommunitiesprotestforthesakeoftheenvironmentitself,

foritsinherentvalue,39whileothertheoristsstatethatcommunitiesprotestthe

degradationbecauseitisasymbolofthecommunity’slackofcontrolovertheirown

destiniesandanaffronttotheirlivelihoods.40

S.D.Handelsmanarguesthat,throughouttheworld,indigenouscommunities

havebornethebruntofmining‐relatedgrievancessincethe1970s,aconclusion

thatissupportedbyalongrecordofabusestobasichumanrights,including

dispossessionoflandandlivelihood,individualmurderandmasskillingsinthese

communities.41Brazilianindigenousactivist,AiltonKrenak,statesthatin1986,“77

indigenousareasoutof302[inAmazonia]areaffectedin34%oftheirextentby

mineralclaims.”42Consequently,muchoftheidentity‐basedresearchonmining

communitieshasbeeninindigenousareas.However,Iwouldarguethatmanyof

principlesappliedinindigenouscommunitiespertaintonon‐indigenous

communitiesaswell.Furthermore,suchinquiryisimportantinordertotellthe

storyofhowminingaffectsallhumancommunities.

38Ballard,301.39D.Hyndman,AncestralRainForestsandtheMountainofGold:IndigenousPeoplesandMininginNewGuinea.(Boulder,CO:WestviewPress,1994),18,ascitedinBallard,298‐299. 40T.Wesley‐Smith,“Thepoliticsofaccess:miningcompanies,thestate,andlandownersinPapuaNewGuinea.”PoliticalScience,42(1990),1–19,ascitedinBallard,299. 41S.D.Handelsman.“Humanrightsinthemineralsindustry.”MMSDWork.2002.PaperNo.9.<http://www.iied.org/mmsd/mmsdpdfs/009handelsman.pdf>.42AiltonKrenak,“MiningCompaniesonIndigenousLandsinBrazil,”CulturalSurvivalQuarterly,10(1986)46‐47,46.

25

IV. Methodology

Whenplanningthisresearchproject,Iwrestledwithchoosingthemost

effectivemethodologyforapproachingthequestionofmining.Iknewfromthe

beginningthatIwantedtomakethesummerapracticeinanthropologicalfieldwork,

andchosemysupervisor,anthropologistJenniferPerry,accordingly.ChrisBallard

states,“despitethepotentialofethnographicstudiesofminingtoaddressquestions

ofconsiderablecontemporaryinterestinanthropology,suchasglobalization,

indigenousrights,andnewsocialmovements,theanthropologyofminingremains

largelyunder‐researchedandunder‐theorized.”43Althoughthereexistsawealthof

economicandenvironmentaldataonmining,itismyopinionthatthese

methodologiesgiveincompletepicturesbyunderemphasizingthehumanelement

intheanalysis.Asanenvironmentalresearcher,Iaminterestedintheecological

impactsofanactivitysuchasmining,andelementsofthatanalysiswerekeytomy

researchthissummer.ButIalsobelievethattherearerichinsightstobegained

regardinghowhumansrelatetotheirenvironmentinthecontextofminingthatcan

onlycomefromemployingananthropologicalperspective.

SinceIknewthatIwouldbelivingataresearchcenterthatexcelledat

scientificinquiryandgeo‐spatialanalysis,Iaddedthesedimensionstomyresearch,

nottodetractfrommyparticipantobservation,buttoenhanceit.AsBallardargues,

becausemininginvolvesahostofstakeholders,includingthetraditionalcategories

ofcorporation,state,andcommunity,aswellastherecentadditionsofinternational

anddomesticNGOs,legalagencies,andaglobalizingmedia,“mininghasthe

43Ballard,287.

26

potentialtoextendconventionallinesofanthropologicalenquiry.”RicardoGodoy,

ananthropologistwhotransformedanthropologicaltheoryonthisissueduringthe

1980’smineralboom,callsforan“integrative”approachtotheanthropological

studyofmining,whichcombinesanunderstandingofthegeological,biological,and

economicaswellasculturalandsocialdimensionsofmining.44

Additionally,Iwantedtousethissummerresearchtoenhancemyabilitiesin

participantobservation,inordertomaximizethequalityofmydatacollectionand

thesubsequentanalysis.AsKathleenandBillieDewaltsayabouttheadvantageof

suchresearch:

“Living,working,laughingandcryingwithpeoplewhomoneistrying

tounderstandprovidesasenseoftheselfandtheotherthatisnot

easilyputintowords.Itisatacitunderstandingthatinformstheform

ofresearch,thespecifictechniqueofadatacollection,therecordingof

information,andthesubsequentinterpretationofmaterials

collected.”45

However,IrecognizedthatasaresearcheratIracambi,anorganizationwitha

positive,butpotent,identityinthecommunityasaconservationNGO,itwouldbe

impossibleformetobeseenasanimpartialobserverbythecommunity.And,

thoughcompleteparticipationinthecultureoftheterritorywouldbeideal,my

livingsituationattheresearchcenterandmylackoffluencyinPortuguesewould

hampersuchamethod.Sensitivetotheseconcerns,Iadaptedmyfieldwork

strategiesaccordingly.44Ballard,307.45KathleenM.DewaltandBillieR.Dewalt,ParticipantObservation(Oxford:AltaMiraPress,2002),8.

27

Therefore,myresearchlifeatIracambitookavariedform.Throughoutthe

twomonths,Ilivedinarusticcabinwith16otherAmericanandBritishstudents

(thoughtherewasrarelymorethan8presentatonetime),whoresearched

everythingfromtropicalsoilvariationtosustainablecoffeeproduction.Wewoke

everymorningtotheraucouscriesofCaracarabirdsandthesmelloffreshguava

cake,madebyourlovingBraziliancook,Carminha.Awomanwithasweetsmile,

quicktolaugh,shetendedtouswithhersteamingsoupsandkindlymannerand

introducedustothegentlelifestyleoftheruralMineiros(thenameforthosewho

hailfromthestateofMinasGerais).RobinandBinka,thedirectors,werealways

availabletogiveusdirectionandaidonourprojects,butforthemostpart,wewere

freetoconductourresearchaswesawfit.Ispentmanyofmydaysgetting

acquaintedwiththemissionoftheorganizationitself,participatinginwaterand

forestmonitoring,reforestation,environmentaleducation,andGISefforts.Weall

becamefamiliarwiththelocallandscapes,takinglonghikesthroughthepastured

valleys,seedcollectinginthenativeforestforIracambi’snursery,climbingnearby

mountains,andtakingatriptothestatepark,wherewewereblessedwithan

encounterwithseveralMuriqui(WoollySpider)andSaquimonkeys.

Andwestrivedtoremainequallyasimmersedintheculturallandscapesof

thearea,tobecomefamiliarwithcommunityvaluesandlifestylechoices.We

visitedneighboringfarms,attendedlocalfestivalsandrodeos,madefriendslocals

ourage,pickedandprocessedcoffeeduringharvestseason,initiatedconversations

wheneverpossible,andspentmuchtimewiththeschoolchildrenofthearea

becauseofourenvironmentaleducationprograms.WetraveledtoRosarioda

28

Limeira,Muriaé,andViçosaoftentowitnessandexperience“citylife”inruralBrazil,

andaskedasmanyquestionsaspossibleaboutlocalcustoms,foods,interests,

humor,etc.Naturally,themorewespoke,thestrongerourPortuguesebecameand

themorecomfortableinthecommunitywewere.Iconsideredeverydayfieldwork,

whetheritwasmining‐relatedornot,asIfeltthatlearningtherhythmsandnuances

oftheplacewasvitaltomystudy.Itookextensivefieldnotesandphotographsdaily,

recordingmyexperiencesindetailandmakingnotesofmyperceptionsandtheir

evolution.

Becauseofmyownspiritualfaithandmyinterestinthereligiouscustomsof

theregion,Ibecameparticularlyattachedtothelocalbasecommunitiesandthe

Franciscanorderofmonksthatstewardedthem.Eachweek,Iwouldtakethelong,

amblingwalkwithCarminhatohersmallbluechurchintheGraminhahills,orto

theneighboringchurchinthevalley,totakepartinthemassandwitnessthe

baptisms,celebrations,andcommunitymeetings.AndonTuesdayevenings,Iwould

takepartinthecommunitybiblestudyandsocialhour,agatheringofneighboring

farmersforreflectionandprayerledbyasweet‐temperedmannamedEveraldo.I

becamewellacquaintedwiththeheadPadre,FreiGilberto,andspenttimewithhe

andhisfellowFranciscansattheirecologicalretreatsandontheirspiritual

pilgrimageupMountItajuru.BecausereligiouslifeissocentraltolifeintheSerrado

Brigadeiro,therelationshipsIformedduringthisactiveparticipationwere

importantformypersonalintegrationwiththeculture.

Asformymoreformalfieldwork,Ichosetoconductbothinformalandsemi‐

structuredinterviews.IadoptedwhatJamesP.Spradley,inhisspectrumof

29

participantobservation,wouldcategorizeas“moderateparticipation”orIhadwhat

PeterandPatriciaAdlerwouldcalla“peripheralrole”inthecommunity.46As

DewaltandDewaltstate,“Moderateparticipationoccurswhentheethnographeris

presentatthesceneoftheaction,isidentifiableasaresearcher,butdoesnot

activelyparticipateoronlyoccasionallyinteracts,withpeopleinit…inasemi‐

structuredmanner.”47ThoughmyPortuguesewascompetentenoughforcasual

conversation,mymoreinvolvedinterviewsrequiredatranslator,andtherefore

“activeparticipation”wasdifficult.Yet,inmanyinstances,Ifeltthatthisdistance

workedtomyadvantageindatacollection,becausethepeopleIinterviewedoften

weredrawntodiscussinterculturalcomparisonsandputtheirthoughtsinaglobal

contextbecausetheywereawareofmynationality.

Inmysampleselection,Itriedtoselectabroadrangeofstakeholders,andto

accountforprofession,class,leadershiprole,gender,age,andfamiliaritywiththe

miningissue.Granted,myshorttimeperiodandlackofperfectaccessibilityto

peopleinthecommunitylimitedmyabilityinthisendeavor.Ingeneral,Ifocusedon

farmers,towndwellers,students,governmentalofficials,NGOleaders,church

leadersandminingcompanyrepresentatives,evenlydistributedbetweenthethree

municipalitiesofMuriaé,RosariodaLimeiraandMiradouro.Idrewfromthese

particularcountiesbecausetheycontainthelion’sshareofthebauxitedeposits,are

allincloseproximitytoIracambi,andarethecenterofthepoliticalmobilizationfor

andagainstmining.

46Dewalt&Dewalt,21.47Dewalt&Dewalt,20.

30

Mysamplingtechniquevaried.Often,becauseofmylackofPortugueseskills

andfamiliaritywiththecommunity,IrelieduponRobinandBinkaLeBreton’s

suggestions,anadmittedlypotentialmethodologicalweaknessduetotheirdefined

roleintheminingcontroversy.However,Ifeelthattheytemperedtheirownbiasby

arranginginterviewsformefromawidespectrumofideologies.Additionally,I

supplementedtheirsuggestionswithchoicesofmyown,fromcontactsImetinmy

communitywork,usingasnowballsamplingtechnique.Overall,Ifeelconfidentthat

whilemysamplewasnotperfect,itwasadequateforthescaleofmyresearchand,

bytheendofthetwomonths,myfamiliaritywiththecomplexitiesandopinions

involvedintheissuewassufficientlythoroughandfulfilling.

MostinterviewswereconductedwithBinkaactingasapaidinterpreter,

thoughafewIconductedbymyselfinPortugueseandtranslatedafterward.I

initiatedtheinterviewsonlyafterreceivingverbalinformedconsentandended

eachinterviewwitharequestforpermissiontousetheperson’snameand

statementsinanyfuturepublicationorreport.Ichosethismethodoverwritten

informedconsentbecausemanyfarmersintheareaareilliterate,apotentialsource

ofembarrassmentforthem.Ineverymanner,IstrivedtoabidebytheCodeof

EthicsoftheAmericanAnthropologicalAssociation,48tominimizeharm,toaskopen

andaffirmingquestions,andtorespectthehumanandnon‐humansthatIworked

withthroughoutthesummer.

48“CodeofEthicsoftheAmericanAnthropologicalAssociation,”AmericanAnthropologicalAssociation,ApprovedJune1998,<http://www.aaanet.org/committees/ethics/ethicscode.pdf>.

31

Iconductedextendedinterviewswith15people,whichIrecordedwith

digitalvoicerecorderandlatertranscribedandcoded(seeAppendixD).The

interviewsnormallylastedforonetothreehours,andoccasionallywereingroup

format.Additionally,Iconductedmanyunscheduled,shorterinterviewsin

PortugueseduringfieldworkthatIdidnotrecord,buttooknotesonandincludedin

myfieldnotes.Ihadarubricofpreparedquestions,butIonlyusedtheseas

guidelinesandlettheconversationsflownaturally,inordertosettheinterviewees

ateaseandletthemleadtheconversation.Ifoundthatthisyieldedricherandmore

informativeresponses.

Whilemyinterviewsallowedmetohaveconversationswithopinionated

membersofthecommunityonthemining,IfeltthatIalsoneededtovisitthe

farmingcommunitiesthatIknewwouldbedirectlyaffectedbythemining.Iworked

withIracambi’sGIStechnicianstostudytothemapsofthebauxiteconcessionsand

maphowthedepositsalignedwithlocalcommunities.IfocusedonSantaLucia,

PedraAlta,andSantaCatarina,thethreesistervillagesthatoccupyadjacentvalleys

betweenRosariodaLimeiraandBelasario,thetwolargesttownsinthearea.All

threerepresentthestereotypicalfarmingcommunitiesendemictothearea,

comprisedof20‐30farminghouseholds,interrelatedfamilies,aprimaryschool,a

milktank,andasinglebasecommunitychurch(afterwhichthevillageisnamed).

AspartofIracambi’sexistingcommunitymappingproject,Itraveledaround

thecommunities,alongwithfellowresearchers,andusedaGPSdevicetomapthe

homesteads,churches,schools,andotherlandmarksthatvariouscommunity

memberssuggestedwereimportanttothem.Wewouldwalkfromhousetohouse,

32

carryingalargepapermapdrawnbycommunitymemberssevenyearsprior,and

wouldexplainourprojectandaskthefarmerstolocatetheirhouseandtellustheir

names.Wewouldoftenbeinvitedinforcoffeeandcakeorledontouroftheirfarm

andwewouldaskquestionsabouttheirfarming,theirfamily,theirlifestyleandI

wouldslipinquestionsabouttheirthoughtsonmining.Inthesectionofthisreport

whereIpresentthedata,Icouldnotquotesuchconversationsverbatim,duetolack

ofinformedconsent,andthereforeIusemyformalinterviewsasasortoffocus

group,supplementingtheirquoteswithopinionsIgatheredinmyinformal

fieldwork.

Theexercisewasoneofthemostrewardingelementsofmyresearch,

becauseIcouldputfacestothemountainfarmersIknewwouldbe

disproportionatelyaffectedbythemining,duetotheirplacementonslopedland.I

usedthecommunitymappingdatatoconstructsatellitemapswithbauxitedeposit

overlaysforeachcommunity,whichIracambileadersplantouseinthefuturefor

communityeducationpurposes(seeAppendixA,Map2‐Map5).

Finally,togetasenseoftherealimpactsofminingandtolearnofCBA’s

processesandplans,IvisitedtheexistingminingsitesinSãoSebastiãodaVargem

Alegre,acommunityinthesouthernpartoftheregion,andtookphotosandGPS

pointsoftheminedslops,adjacentstreams,deforestation,dustcontrol,andtruck

traffic.

Onanotherday,RobinalsoarrangedameetingformewithCBA

representativesatthecompany’slocalwashingfacilityandheadquarters,inMiraí,

outsideofMuriaé.Thecompanygaveusaveryprofessionaltwo‐hourpresentation

33

oftheirminingprocesses,environmentalandsocialethics,andasummaryofGaia’s

socialprojectsintheregion.Theythentookus(myselfandsomeotherIracambi

researchers)onanhour‐longguidedbustourofthefacilityandnearbyminingand

reclamationsitesandansweredanyquestionsthatweraised.Throughoutmy

project,IstrivedtohaveanopenmindaboutCBAanditsmotives,andnotimbuemy

researchwiththestereotypicalprejudicesagainstcorporateentitiesmentioned

previouslyinthisreport.

34

V. PresentationofData

Returningtothefirsttwosub‐questionsinthisreport:

• Whatareasandwhichcommunitieswillbeaffectedbytheproposedmining?

• Whatarethetangibleexistingandpotentialeconomic,environmental,andsociologicaleffectsofbauxitemining?

Toanswerthefirst,myGISprojectandfieldworkwereessential(seemapsand

picturesinAppendicesAandD).And,toanswerthesecond,mydiscussionswith

expertsinthecommunityandatIracambiwereanecessity.TheknowledgeIgained

throughthesepursuitswascrucialtomyunderstandingofthetopic.However,

becausethetwotopicscouldcompriseapaperoftheirown,Iwillleavethemaside

fornow,andusethissectionofmyreporttofocusoncommunityperceptions,which

iscentraltomyprimaryresearchquestion:

HowhasthecontroversysurroundingthebauxitemininginformedhowthecitizensoftheSerradoBrigadeiroterritoryseetheircommunalandindividualidentityinrelationshipwiththedevelopmentoftheircommunity?Section1:Tobegin,Iwilladdressmythirdsub‐question:

Howdothecitizensperceivetheeffectsofthebauxiteminingrelativetotheirpersonalandcommunalidentity?Whatcomponentsoftheiridentitydocitizensfeelarebeingthreatenedorreinforcedbythemining’sexistence?

MiningandtheEnvironment:

Oneofthemostpredominantthemesthataroseinmyinterviewswasthe

effectofminingonthenaturalenvironment;itwasthesubjectthatpeopletendedto

mentionfirstintheirlistofconcerns.TomostofthefarmersIspokewith,the

resourcestheyworriedaboutmostacutelyweretheforestsandfreshwater.I

quicklylearnedthatmostfarmershavetheecologicalknowledge,passeddownfrom

35

generationsoffarming,toseethetwoentitiesaslinkedtooneanother,andlinked

tothehealthoftheirfarms.Asonemiddle‐aged,femalefarmernamedMarinha,

fromPedraAlta,said:

[Ithinkthatmining]ishorrible.Becauseitwilldestroyeverythingwespentsuchalongtimebuilding.Ourlittlefarmissmall,butitisourdream.Ourforestsandourwater.Ourwaterwhichispure.Andbecausewe’realsopartoftheruraltourismgroup.Andiftheydestroyeverything,whatwillwehaveforourtourists?Whatarewegoingtolivefrom?Whatarewegoingtoliveoff?BecauseIthinkwe’llhavetoadapttoanotherlife.Becauseifpeopledocomebackhere,there’llbenothingtocomebackfor.Therewon’tbeanyoftheanimalsleft,anyoftheforest.We’llhavetomakeanewlife.

Farmersspokeoftheecologyoftheareaasintegraltotheirsurvival,buttheirscale

ofreferencewasoftenwiderthantheirownhomesteads.Carlos,afarmerinhis

thirtiesfromBelasario,statedthat:

I’mnotgoingtosaythatIagreewithitifmysurvivalisthreatened.ButIdon’twanttothinkjustofme.Iwanttothinkabouttheenvironmentaswell.…SowhentheminingcomesandIstopfarming,I’llbeproducinglessoxygen,lesswater.Sotherearetwowaterbasinsinthisregion.RiodoSoleRioDoce.Thisamountofwaterwilldiminish.SoI’mnotjustproducingagriculturalproducts.I’mnotworriedaboutmybeans,becausethosearejustformyfamily.WhatIworryaboutiswhatIwon’tbeproducing:thewater,theoxygen.

Thistypeofaltruismwasfrequentlypresentinmyinteractionwithfarmers.

Manystressedtheestablishedtheboundariesofenvironmentaldestruction

thatweresociallyacceptable,andresentedtheminingcompanyforoverstepping

thoseboundaries.Also,theybegrudgedthegovernmentalimposingexternal

boundariesuponfarmers,withoutholdingtheminingcompanytoequalstandards.

AsCarlosdescribed:

Sothebauxitecomes.Shepaystogetalicensetostartworking.…Ifyoupay,yougetalicensetodegrade.Sothere’samanwhohasalittleforestandheaskstheengineersifhecouldtakealittlesectionoftheforestfor

36

anorchard,theysay,‘Absolutelynot,becauseitisforest.’Butiftheminingcompanycomesandtheywanttotakethewholeforest,nowthattheycandobecausetheyhavethelicense.Sotheinterestofthefederationissuperiortotheinterestoftheindividual.

TounderscoreWesley‐Smith’spoint,someoftheprotestagainstecological

destructionwasduetothisindignationattheminingcompany.Thefarmersfeel

thatthecompanyisanexternalforceenactingunfairclaimsonthecommunity’s

land.Theyalsoexpressedgrievancesagainstthegovernmentalofficials,whothey

feelarenotrepresentingtheaveragefarmer’sinterest.

Thoughthelanguageusedtodescribeenvironmentalissuesdiffered,the

messageoftheenvironment’svalueinthecommunitywassimilar.Zezino,afeisty,

intelligentmalefarmerfromBelasariotalkedtomeabouthowtheforestwasfullof

preciousbiology,medicinalplants,andasourceofcleanair.Hecontinued:

Sothereislotsofstuffthatispricelessinthisforest.Themostvaluablesubstanceintheworldnowisnottobemined.Itisnotinyourearring.[Grabbingmygoldearring.]Itiswater.Brazilhassomeofthelargestwaterresourcesintheworldandwe’remakingholesinourwatercup.Wehaveenoughwaterfortheworld.ThemeteorologicalhealthofBrazilisinthehandsoftheseforests.…Thevalueofthealuminumwillneverbeabletoequalthevalueofthewater.

Logically,NGOandgovernmentalrepresentativesweremorelikelytotalkaboutthe

forestandwaterresourcesintermsof“sensitivehydrology”and“ecosystem

services”andspokeaboutthefailingsoftheEnvironmentalImpactAssessmentto

fullyaccountfortheeffectsofthemining.TheyoungpeopleandstudentsIspoke

withalsousedrhetoricaboutenvironmentalismthatwasquitefamiliartomeasan

Americanstudent,astheytendedtoputthingsinaglobalcontext.Forexample,

MariaCarolina,ahighschoolstudentfromMuriaé,remarked:

37

[Youngpeople]considerminingasscary,sincetheconversionofbauxiteintoaluminumisaprocessthatconsumesmuchenergy,contributingtoglobalwarming.Besidesthat,extractionremovesthevegetationandtopsoil,producingharmfuleffectsonfaunaandflora.Thesoil,aftermining,itlosesitsabilitytoretainwaterandbecomesunsuitableforcultivation,preventingtherestorationofforestbiodiversity,afactwhichworsenstheimpactonnature.Itisabsurd.Sometypesofdevelopmentaresynonymouswithdestruction.

Inotedthatthenon‐farmingprofessionalsweremorelikelytospeakof

environmentasanaestheticentity,tobeprotectedforthesakeofpreservingbeauty

andpromotingtourismandrecreation.AsMiriam,aretiredpsychologistwho

retiredinBelasariofromalargecityexpressed:

I’mafraidofthedegradation.I’malsoafraidthatitwillinterferewithtourism.Ilovethesebeautifulmountains.They’rewhatbroughtmebackhere,backhome.SoI’mreallyconcerned.

Theyspokeofbufferzoneboundariesandtheimportanceofkeepingtheminingout

of“wildernessareas,”whilethefarmersmentionedtheseplacesrarely.Tome,

trendsillustratethedifferentnatureoftheupper‐classrelationshiptonature,one

closertoAmerica’sconservationmentality.

Buttheprofessionalclassalsohadmoretrustthattheminingcompanycould

effectivelyreclaimthelandthatitdidmine.Miriamcontinued:

Thereareverysimplethingsthattheycoulddotorecuperatetheriverswherepeoplegoswimmingandthewaterfalls.

Herhusband,Cleber,anattorneyandengineer,stressedhowpleasedhewaswith

theenhancedenvironmentalregulationsputonminingcompaniesandcited

examplesofbauxiteminingthathadbeendonewellinotherpartsofBrazilandhad

aminimaleffectofwaterqualityandforestcover.Hestressedthatthecommunity

38

couldnotjudgethecompanybeforeCBAhadachancetoshowthemhow

environmentallyresponsibleitcouldbe.

MiningandSociety

Anotherpredominantconcerntocommunitystakeholderswasthedirect

effectthebauxiteminingwouldhaveonthesocialwellbeingofindividualsand

communities.Becauseproductivefarmingisessentialtomanycommunitymembers’

flourishing,aprimaryconcernwaswithfertilityoflandpost‐mining.Carlos,who

hadparticularinterestinthemining,spokeofthetripheand80otherlocalfarmers

hadtakentoItamarati,tovisitanareawhereCBAhasbeenminingfor20years.He

describedseeingruinedlandandspeakingtofarmerswhohadabandonedtheir

farmsbecauseofdeep,gullyerosionanddustproblems.Whenhereturned,Carlos

begantodohisownresearchonhowtheminingwouldimpacthisland:

TheotherdayIwastalkingtoanagronomist.AndIaskedhim,“Howdoyourecuperatethesoilsothatyoucanuseitagain[aftermining].”Heanswered,“Well,Idon’twanttoshockyou,butIthinkitwilltakeabout100yearsforthesoiltofullyrecover.”Andheexplainedhowsoilwasstructured.Becausewewhoaresmallfarmers.Ouragriculturewillbeunviable.Seventypercentofthefoodonthetable[inBrazil]comesfromfamilyagriculture.

Sebastian,anoldermalefarmerfromPedraAlta,alsoexpresseddoubtsabout

reclamation:

Andtheyspokeandtheysaythatthey’llrenewtheland.Andtheysaythattheywillputfertilizeronit,etc.Butitissodifficult.Itwouldtakealongtime,maybenever,togetthelandback.Youcan’tdowhatGoddoes.Youcan’t.Youcan’t!Youcantry.

Similarly,Sergio,a20‐year‐oldchemistrystudentandsonofalocalfarmerin

RosariodaLimeira,stated:

39

Miningdestroyseverything.Theearth,thechemicalprocesses,itneedsalongtimetorepairitself.

OthersweremorereassuredbyCBA’scommunitypresentationsabout

reclamation,andexpressedtheirgratitudethatthecompanyhadbeen“professional”

enoughtoexplaintheirplansandshowthempicturesofrefurbishedland.Thistype

ofopencorporatebehaviorisnewinBrazilandIcouldtellitsoftenedmany

people’sopinionsofthecompany.Cleber,theattorney,emphasizedagainhow

importantitwasforthecommunitytoresistthetemptationto“pre‐judge”the

company’sabilitytorefurbishtheagriculturalland.

Arelatedanxietyamongstfarmerswashowtocopewithdisplacement

causedbythemining.Farmersdoubtedthattheaveragesmallfarmerwouldbeable

tostayonhislandwhileasectionit(orthewholeofit)wasbeingmined,though

CBAsaystheopposite.Manyciteddustproblemsduetotrucktrafficandthe

difficultyofsupportingafamilyonasmallpieceofland.JoãoPaulo,thepresidentof

theRuralWorkersUnioninRosariodaLimeira,echoedtheseworries.Carlostold

thestoryofafarmerinItamaratiwhosecowswerepoisonedbyaminingretention

damthatwasleakingintohisfarm.

Consequently,manyquestionedwhetherfarmerscouldsurvivewithout

incomefortwoorthreeyears,eveniftheycouldcomebacktothelandanditwasin

goodcondition.JoãoPauloexplained:

40

Themoney,thenumbersthey’vegivenusatthemoment,forwhattheminingcompanywouldgivethefarmers,wouldn’tgivethemenoughtoliveon.They,thefarmers,getapercentageofbauxiterevenueandyougetrentfromthefield.Andafamilycouldn’tliveonit,no.

Heexplainedthatover50%ofthefarmersintheareaweresharecroppers,and

thereforetheywouldnotreceiveanyofthiscompensation.Furthermore,the

“weekendfarmers”orland‐lordswholivedinthecitywouldbemorelikelytogive

thecompanypermissiontousetheirlandbecausetheywouldnotbedirectly

disruptedbythemining.Juliana,ayoung,newlywedfarmerinSãoPedro,expressed

herfears:

Wewentaboutayearago,wewentdowntothemininginMuriaé.Allthefarmshavebeenabandoned.Eventheweekendfarmerssometimesdidn’tgobacktheytookthemoneyandleft…Itisdifficult,becauseifpeopleleaveforayearortwo,theyaren’tlikelytocomeback.They’llstartlivesinthecity.

MyinterviewwithSebastianwasparticularlymoving.Now60,heworkedfor

CBAforfiveyearswhentheywereinitiallyprospectingthearea,andspokeofthe

oppressiveworkconditionsandtheilltreatmentoffarmersbythecompanybackin

the1970s.(Thecompany’ssocialresponsibilityhasimprovedgreatlysincethis

time).Hesaidhewishedhecouldimparthisreasoningforoppositiontothe

youngergeneration,asamanwhohadseenitseffects.Hespokewithtearsinhis

eyes:

There’sgoingtobemuchdestruction.Everything.Theyoungpeoplearen’treallythinkingaboutit.ButifIwasyoung,Iwouldbethesame.Ithinkmygrandchildrenwillhavetocopewiththis.Theywillhavetoleavetheland.…Ihaveasmallpieceofland.Mostofmychildrenandtheirfamilyliveonthatland.ButifIdie,itwillbealldividedup.Noneofthemhavealotofmoney.Sotheyhavealittlepieceofland.Andtheminingcompanycomes.Andtheyneedthemoney.They’llprobablyacceptitwithoutunderstanding.Thisiswhatwillhappenwithmyneighborsaswell.Because,fromfathertoson,thingschange.

41

Hisdespairemphasizedthefeelingsofmanyoldermembersofthecommunity,who

expressedthefearthatfamilyagriculturewouldbeabandonedinthefuture,by

choiceorconsequence.Hecontinued:

Thelittleguyswillhavetolivewithit.Ifhesells,hecan’tgotothecity,becausehedoesn’thaveaprofession.What’shegoingtodo?Hisplaceisinthecountry.Sohe’sjustgoingtohavetofaceit.Ifminingcomes,Iwon’tletthemin.Butifthejudgemakesme,andthelawsaysit,thenwhatcanIdo?

Hisfeelingsofpowerlessnessunderlinehowsomefarmersfeelthatthey

havelittlechoiceinthematterofmining.Somewomenvoicedapprehensionabout

theeffectofminingonsocialandfamilialstructures.Julianastated:

Itwillcreateconflictbetweenfamilies,thosewhoaremakingmoneyandthosewhoarenot.Andalsowithinfamilies,betweenbrothersandsisters,dependingonwhoreceivesthepaymentfromthecompany...

AndMarinharevealed:

I’mworriedmyfamilywillsplitupbecausewe’llhavetoleaveandfindwork.Ihaveaverylargefamily.

ButthosefortheminingemphasizedthatthesocialprojectsthatGaiawas

bringing,particularlytheprojectoncommunitycoordinationandeducationcould

enhancequalityoflifeandnourishtherelationshipswithincommunities,as

advertised.Miriamspokeofherhopesthattheminingcompanycouldhelpdevelop

educationandprovidejobssothattheyoungpeoplecouldstayinthecommunity,

andnotfleetothecity.Marcia,alocalrepresentativefromGaia,spokeofhowmuch

shehaslovedworkingontheprojects,thatitis“veryhumanwork,”andthatshehas

hopesthattheywilleffectpositivechangeinaplaceshecaresverymuchabout.

MiningandReligion

42

IntheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritory,oneofthemostinfluentialsourcesof

identityandvaluesarethelocalCatholicbasecommunities,whicharerunbya

groupofecologically‐mindedFranciscanmonkswhotravelaroundthecountryto

30churchesinthediocesetoholdmasses,leadreligiousfestivals,andspeaktotheir

churchmembersaboutsocial,political,andenvironmentalissues.Descendedfroma

longtraditionofleftistliberationtheology,theCatholicchurchleadersaredecidedly

anti‐mining.Asheadpriest,FreiGilberto,explains:

Youhavetounderstand,intheFranciscanvision,everythingiscreatedbyGod,andeverythingiscreatedequally.Wehavearelationshipwitheverything.…ThereasonI’magainstminingisbecauseitisaggressivetotheworld.Itattackingthewholesystem.WhenI’mattackingmotherNature,I’mattackingallofherchildren.…Whenwetalkaboutmining,myviewisthatweneedtopreservetheearth.Butalso,weneedtopreserveeconomicintegrityforthepeoplewholiveontheearth,andthequalityoflifehere,etc.[Mining]affectsthewholeecosystem,andittendstohavethegreatesteffectonthesimplerpeople.ThereisaFranciscan[missionstatement]=Justice,Peace,andEcology,alsoknownastheIntegrationofCreation.WeactuallyhaverepresentationattheUN.Wesetupgroups[withthismission]allovertheworld.ThereisonethatisveryactiveagainstthemininginBeloHorizonte.

Althoughtheyarenotasovertlypoliticalastheirpredecessorswereintheregion

duringthemilitarydictatorship,andcertainlynotasmilitant(quitetheopposite,in

fact),theFranciscansplayapivotalroleinthediscourseonmining.InlateJuly,the

diocesehostedaRomaria,aprocessionwithseveralhundredpeoplethroughthe

townofBelasario,withthethemeof“PreservingNatureandLife:CreationCriesOut

ForHelp”(seeAppendixD,Sec.3,Image2).Theeventhadsixsmallstations,each

withshortmasses.Atonestop,thecrowdaskedGodforforgivenessof

environmentalsins,includingmining,deforestation,andfertilizerandpesticideuse.

43

Atotherstops,theycelebratedtheruralworkers,familyagriculture,andtherights

ofwomenandchildren.

Becauseofmyfascinationwiththemonksandtheirmission,Ipaidspecial

attentioninmyinterviewstohowtheirstanceontheminingaffectedtheviewsof

theirparishioners.Somechurchmembers,likeJuliana,explicitlystatedthe

connection:

FreiGilbertofelllikeapresentfromheaven,becauseheactuallyhasthepowerofspeaking.…(D)uringthemass...hetalksabouttheenvironment,hetalksaboutthemining.He’sgoodatexplainingthingstopeople,atinspiringthem.He’sverygood.

Others,likeMiriam,didnotmentionwhetherthechurchleadersinfluencedtheir

thoughtsonthemining,butdidusetheirreligiousconvictiontosupporttheir

opinions:

Religionteachesustopreservethings.ThingsthatMotherNaturehasgivenus.So,myheadisalreadyagainstmining.Myreligionhelpstoreinforceit.Myreligionhelpsmetobemoreopposedtoit.That’swhatIthink.

Tellingly,Sebastianusedreligiontojustifythecredibilityofhisviews:

Buttheydon’tlistentome.TheythinkI’mstupid.AstheBiblesays,manythingsarenotrevealedtothesmart.They’rerevealedtothehumble.Therearemanythingsthatyoucan’tpasson.‘Aw,’theysay,‘He’sjustasillyoldfool.’

Hisfaithallowshimtobelievethat,evenas'lowlyfarmer,'hehastheauthorityto

standuptothemorepowerfulpro‐miningvoicesinthecommunity.

SeparatefromtheFranciscanorder,butstillanintegralpartoftheCatholic

societyinthearea,theChurchLandsPastoral(CPT‐CommissãoPastoraldaTerra),

isahighlypoliticallyactivebranchofthechurchthatisconnectedtoBrazil’s

LandlessWorkers’Movement(MST‐MovimentodosTrabalhadoresRuraisSem

44

Terra)that,fordecades,haslobbiedforlandreformandAfro‐Brazilianrights,and

againstcapitalist,foreigninterestsinBrazil.Winnerofthe“RightLivelihoodAward,”

theCPTisfamouslyactiveinsomeareasofBrazilforforciblytakinglandfrom

wealthylandownersandestablishingsquattercoloniesoflandlessfarmersfromcity

favelas.49However,becausesmall‐scaleagricultureisalreadywellestablishedinthe

SerradoBrigadeiroTerritory,thelocalCPTismostlyinvolvedinruralworkers’

rightsandtheprotectionoffamilyagriculture.AsCarloscommented:

…ThereistheLandPastoral.…Itlooksafter…peopleinthecountryside.…Whenoneofthe[mining]damsburst[in2006inMuriaé],anditaffectedpeoplenotonlyinthecountrysidebutalsointhecity,itwastheLandPastoralthatwashelpingpeopleout.…Inthismoment,IseetheCatholicChurchastheonethatreallywenttobatfortheruralworkers.TheProtestantchurchesdidnot.

AsCarlosmentions,thereexistsawaveofevangelical,Protestantchurchesin

theareathatarenotvocallyopposedtomining.Morefocusedonadoctrineof

salvationthanpoliticalaction,ora“theologyofprosperity”asFreiGilbertocallsit,

theyaremoreconservativeandareinfavorofcapitalism.Cleber,amemberofthe

localMethodistchurch,toldmewhilehewasinterestedinmakingtheMethodist

dominationmoresociallyactive,hedidnotbelieveananti‐miningstancewas

necessarilyinsociety’sbestinterest.

MiningandtheEconomy

Cleber,andotherswithpro‐miningstances,definedtheeconomichealthofa

communityaskeycomponentofitsidentityandstresseditsimportancein

evaluatingthebauxitemining:49WendyWolford,“Families,Fields,andFightingforLand:TheSpatialContentionofFightingforLandinRuralBrazil,”Mobilization:AnInternationalJournal:8(2):201‐215.

45

InMinasGerais,weliveonmining.Thisstatewasfoundedonmineralwealth.Thiscountryhasitsownpotential.Forexample,theUnitedStates,itproducesarms.Ican’timaginebeingopposedtomining.ItbringseconomicpotentialtoBrazil…Itisaquestionofthenationaleconomy.

AndMiriamagreed,stating:

We’reconcernedaboutthelackofwork.Ouryoungpeopledon’tstayontheland.Theyleaveforthecities.Buttheyaren’thappyoncetheyarethere.Dreamingofcominghome.Ifyouhaven’tgotsomesortofeconomicsource,itisdifficulttokeepthemathome.Soitisinterestingthattheminingcompanyhasthepossibilitytokeeptheboysandgirlshere.

Theproponentsofminingarguethatitisdifficultitistomakealivingfromfamily

agriculturenowthatglobalmarketshavedecreasedcoffeepricesandlarge‐scale

agriculturalenterprisesinBrazilmakesmallfarmerslesscompetitive.Theyassert

thattheterritorycannotgetstuckinthepast,butmustlookforopportunitiesfor

industrializedeconomicemploymentintheregion.

Eventhoseopposedtothemining,suchasSergio,the20‐year‐oldstudent,

admititsappeal:

Themajorityofyoungpeopleareagainst…themining.Butiftheyneedwork,itismoney.Peopleneedmoneytolive.…Idon’twantthisareatobedestroyedbymining…butcapitalismisstrong.Forexample,thishere,[pointsatrecorder],isaluminum.[Laughs].Thewholeworldusesit.Forcars,formotorcycles,[pointsatfork],itallisaluminum.Andpeople…Andbecauseofcapitalism,peoplewilluseit,haveit.Itisinteresting…ButIdon’tknow[howtoreconcileit.]

Julianaexplainedtomethatwhilesheandherhusbandhadleftthecitytocome

homeandstartafarm,forabetterqualityoflife,theywereararity.Shestatedthat

manypeopleheragewantthecapitaltomovetooneofBrazil’slargecities,togeta

jobandstartalifenottiedtotheland:

46

I’mnotsurehowmanyfamiliesthereareinthiscommunity,wedidcountthemonce,butI’mguessingabout80%ofthemwouldbemoreinterestedinthemoneythantheland.Mostpeoplewillallow[themining]tohappen.Infact,youcan’tpreventit.Wecanputasmanystones[obstacles]inthewayaswe’dlike.

ZeMaria,theSecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironmentforthecountyof

RosariodaLimeira,saidthatwhileheispersonallyopposedtomining,he

recognizesitsinevitabilityandthereforewantsthecommunitytoadjustitsmindset

tomakethebestofthesituation:

Ithinkthatwiththeminingcompany,wemustgooftentomakesuretheycontributetotheeconomichealthoftheregion.Itcouldbeinagricultureoritcouldbeinsomeothertypeofprofessionaltraining,butthat’stheonlywaythatIthinkwecanworkeffectivelywiththem.I’mnotsureifthey’reinterestedinthis,butweneedtomobilizethecommunitytogetthecommunitytogoafterthemandaskforthesethings.

Hecriticizedthosewhowerenaivelyblindedbythecompany’seconomicpromises

butalsothosewhoadoptedananti‐miningpositionthatwassostrongthatit

crippledtheirabilitytoactivelyengagewiththecompany.

Thosestaunchlyopposedarguethattheywillcontinuetospeakoutagainst

themining,astheycannotabandontheirdeep‐seatedprinciplesaboutwhat’struly

bestforthecommunityinthelongterm.JulioMonnerat,aprofessorofAgro‐Ecology

attheFederalInstituteofMuriaéandamemberoftheMiningCommission,stated:

Ilookitasaterritorialaspect.Aterritory,inthesenseofaplacewherepeoplelive,wheretheybelong.Wherepeoplehaveasensethatthisistheirland.Buttheirterritory,theirhomelandbecomesthreatenedbytheinvasionoflarge­scalecapitalistinterests.Mining,whichrepresentsthecapitalistmodel,versusfamilyagriculture,whichrepresentsmoreaccuratelypeople’sfeelingsfortheirownland,theirownlivelihoods.Thefeelingsofeverypersonastheirownlordandmaster,notbeholdentooutsideinfluences…Andthisisnotjustalocalthing.Itisrelatedtoothersimilarmovementsgoingoninotherpartsoftheworldthatarecomingtothesameconclusions.

47

ToJulioandthoseofsimilarideologyintheregion,manyofwhomareofthe

prominentNationalWorker’sParty(PT–PartidodosTrabalhadores),itisessential

thatopponentsofneoliberaleconomicpoliciesstandstrong,especiallyasthe

politicalleftinBrazilweakens.AsReinaldo,thelocalCPTrepresentative,states,

Inthe1980s,wehadalotgoingforus,becausethereweremanypeoplethinkingalongthesamelines.Butnow,withglobalization,andcapitalistinterests,itismuchmoredifficult.Theseinfluencesco­optlocalinterestsandthisisthewayinwhichtheygainpower.AndthisisexactlywhattheCPTistryingtoworkagainst.Thisgovernmentalpolicyaboutmining,theygivetheimpressionthattheyarecreatingsomethingforthecommunity,butthentheycomeandtakeitawaywiththeotherhand.

OtheropponentsIinteractedwith,whodidnotspeakwithsuchpoliticalcharge,

usedsimplerargumentativeframeworks.DearSebastian,withapuckishgrinand

eyesstillglisteningwithemotion,saidsimply:

Andlotsofpeoplethink[mining]willbethething.Becausethey’llgetmoney.Butthere’snotpointeatingalottoday,ifyoucan’teattomorrow.So,whenitcomes,therewillbesomeinstantgratification,butnoneinthefuture.

Section2Totiethesevariedthoughtstogether,wemustmovetomyfourthsub‐question:Howdoesthecommunitydefinesustainabledevelopmentandhowdotheyseemininginthiscontext?

Itamazedmehowquickmanystakeholdersinthecommunity,fromcoffee

farmerstoCBArepresentatives,weretobringupthetermsustainabledevelopment

oratleastdescribeadevelopmentparadigmthatstruckmeasthetextbook

definitionofsustainability.Partofmebelievesitisatestamenttotheworkof

groupslikeIracambiandothersustainabilityorganizationsintheSerrado

48

BrigadeiroTerritory.Butafterlivingfortwomonthsamongthesepeople,another

sideofmethinksthatitisalsoinherenttotheirperceptionsoftheworld,atleastto

agreaterextentthanitisinmyhomecommunityintheUnitedStates.

Firstandforemost,manystakeholdersfromthecommunitydescribed

sustainabledevelopmentaslong‐termprosperity(asimpliedintheterm).Juliana

spokeininter‐generationaltermsaboutthemining:

Well,I’mverymuchagainstit.[People]don’tthinkabouthowmuchthisisgoingtoaffectusinourfuture.Notonlyus,butourchildrenandourgrandchildren.Itisreallygoingtodamageourfamilies.Andwe’reafraid,notonlyforenvironmentalreasons.

Inaccord,FreiGilbertoexplainedoneofhiskeyreasonsforopposingthemining:

…(A)notherfactisthatmininghasjustexpandedveryrapidly,duetoglobalmarketfactorsandtheprominenceofcompanieshere.Yousee,intheearlierhistoryofMinas,themining(forgold,silver,etc.)tooksolongthattowns[sprungup]aroundthemining.Thetownswereveryconnectedtotheminingindustry,forhundredsofyears.Butnow,theminingcanhappensorapidly[andwithlittlelabor],thatshe[mining]arrivesandexploitsandthenleaves.

ThoseinagreementwithFreiGilbertoworrythattheminingcompanywillnotbe

aroundlongenoughtoestablishatrueindustrially‐basedcommunity,andwill

insteadleaveaneconomicvoidwhenitleavesandthelandislefttoodamagedfor

oldfarmingpractices,orthefarmersarenolongerpresenttofarmit.

JoãoPaulo,theRuralWorkers’Unionpresident,explainedhisreasoning:

Iknow[miningis]goingtodegradetheenvironment;itisgoingtoconcentratemoney.AndIbelieveinsustainabledevelopmentandstrengtheningfamilyagriculture.AndIdon’tthinkitspossibletoreconcilethesegoalswithmining.

Hisemphasisthatsustainabledevelopmentmustbetiedtofamilyagriculturewasa

dominantthemeamongstthemembersoftheMiningCommissionandotheranti‐

49

miningadvocates.ZeMaria,theSecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironmentspoke

passionatelyonthesubject:

So,mostofthefoodthat’seateninBrazilisproducedbyfamilyfarmers,butourgreatchallengeistomakesurethatthesesmallfarmersgettoliveadecentlife.I’vebeentoEurope,toGermany,toItaly,andseenthatviablesmallfarmingwithdecentstandardsoflivingispossible.Whycan’twedoitinBrazil?Becauseourlegislationdoesn’tallowit.Soyes,Iwon’tstandforitwhenpeoplesaythatthistechnologydoesn’texist,becauseIsay:makeitexist!

Hetoldmeaboutprogramshisofficewassponsoringtokeepfamilyagriculture

profitableforfarmers,includingtechnologicalinnovationprograms,bankfinancing

forruralworkers,freeagricultureeducationprograms,etc.

Iwascaptivatedbythiscommitmenttofamilyagriculture,especiallyinlight

oftheso‐called“ruralexodus”andindustrializationofBrazilandurged

stakeholderstoexplaintomewhyfamilyagriculturewassuchalargepartoftheir

identity.OnecoffeefarmernamedValdeliexplainedthathislifeonthelandwas

hardwork,butmorefulfillingthananylifeinthecity.Iwitnessedasquabble

betweentwobrothersinSantaCatarina,wherethefarmerbrotherdefendedthe

farminglifestyleas“fullofharmony”andthebrotherfromRiodeJaneiroscoffedat

hisbrother’sold‐fashionedways.

Carlosexplainedtome,instunninglyricalform,howhecametofarmin

Belasario.Hisfatherhadworkedthelandasasharecropperinthetimewherethere

waslittleruraldevelopmentandeducationinthecountryside,sohemovedtoRio

deJaneiro,hopingtogivehischildrenabetterlife,thoughtheslumsandfavelashad

littletooffertheirfamily.Carlospausedinthemiddleofhisstoryandlookedmein

theeyeandsaid:

50

MyfatheriscalledAdam.Myfatherusedtoliveinparadiseandheatetheappleandwasthrownout.AndIsaid,‘I’lltrytogobacktothelandandlivelikeyouusedtolive.’

Earlierinthestory,heexplained:

WhenIcamebacktoMinasGerais,whenIfoundanopportunity,Icouldn’timaginelivinganywhereelse.Iboughtthefarm,andmyfathercametolivehere,livingwithmeandmakingbaskets.SoIknowabouttheruralexodusbecauseI’maresultofthatexodus.Soweknowwhatwillhappentothosewhochoosetoleaveandgotothecity.They’llgoandliveintheslumsandthefavelas.Itmighttaketwohourstogettowork,twohourstocomehome.So,itisthegreatillusionofdevelopment.Weknowthereareveryfewpeoplelivinginthecountrysideinyourcountry,intheUnitedStates.

HisstorystruckmewithsuchforcethatIwasatalossforwords,realizinghow

importantthesymbolismoftheruralexodus,farming,miningandindustrial

developmentwastohispersonalnarrative,howmetaphoricalitwastohis

perceptionsofwhatwasevilandwhatwasblessedintheworld.

Othercommunitystakeholderswhoopposedtheminingnevertheless

accepteditasaninevitablepartofthefutureoftheterritory,andemphasizedthe

importanceofincorporatingtheminingintotheregion’ssustainabilityplatform.In

disagreementwithJoãoPaulo,ZeMariacontendedthatfamilyagricultureand

miningdidnothavetobeincompatible:

Ibelieveinworkingwiththecommunitytogetthecommunityreadyforthetransformationsthatwilltakeplace,andwillresist[themining]tothepointofpossibility.Inthisresistance,whatIfeelisthatweneedtohelpfamiliespreparethemselvesforwhattheyaregoingtoface.Aswellashelpingthemincreasetheirpossibilities…toraisethestandardofliving[asfarmers].…Idon’tfeelwehaveanyalternativestothis[method].We’rethrownintoanewworld[withthemining]andwehavetofigureouthowtomakedo.Andweneedinformation.

Hestatedthatwhilehewouldalwaysbeagainstmininginprinciple,asa

governmentalofficialworkingforthelong‐termgoodofthecommunity,working

51

withtheminingwasanecessityforsustainabledevelopmentafterthemininghad

departed:

Someplaces,familyagriculturehasmanagedtoseizethehour,evenwiththemining.Idon’tthinkthatthemininghastofinisheverythingoff.Theydon’tneedtoeliminateeverything.Theyjustneedtocomein,maketheirmining,andmoveon.

ThosefortheminingconveyedtheirconfidenceinGaiaandCBA’sabilitytohelpthe

regionwithsustainabledevelopment,toprovideresourcesforeconomicvisionand

educationalreformthatthecommunitycouldneveraccessitself.Additionally,many

areadoptingtheideaofeco‐tourismasoneofthebesthopesforthearea’sfuture

Theyhopetoseethepicturesquecountrysidestarttoattractwildernessrecreation

andagro‐tourismbusiness(oftheTuscanvariety)thatwouldbringlifetothelittle

towns.Andsinceeco‐tourismisoneofGaia’spilotprojects,manythinkCBAcould

aidthecountiesinachievingthisambition.AsMiriamstated:

There’slotsofthingsthatwecanthinkaboutthattheminingcompanycoulddoforus.Tohelpdevelopourtourism.

Eliab,theyoungecotourismcoordinatorfortheregion,explainedhowGaiawas

workingwiththelocaltourismleadersintheterritory:

So,[Gaiais]helpingusevaluateourstrengthsandweaknessesinnotonlyinfrastructure,butalsointermsofidentifyingourplacesofvalue,ournaturalhighpoints.

Buthealsospokewithreservationatpoints,acknowledgingthecomplexityof

development:

Soiftheminingcompanyisgoingtocomeandtrainpeoplehowtowork,thesamepeoplewhoiftheydon’tgetajobwillbeinthecitytomorrow,thenI’minfavorofit.Itisverymuchmorecomplex,though.Itisnotjustthatthey’llcomehereandpaysomeonetotraintheseyoungkidshowtobecomeguidesandworkintourism.Itisnotaseasyasthat.

52

Cleber’ssummaryofthespectrumofopinionondevelopmentisrevealing:

So,therearetwotypesofpeople,onetypethat’swillingtosacrificeeverythingforminingandanother,likeme,wholiveinthecountryside,whoaretryingtoconciliatethearrivalofprogresswithpreservation.Andwealsohavetohavepeoplewhosay,“No,no,no.Wedon’twantprogress.Let’spreserve.”

Inanerawhenindustrialandthecommercialdevelopmentinthe“first‐world”style

isidentifiedasprogress,itishardnotfindthiscategorizationaccuratebyglobal

standards.

Section3

Thisideologicalquagmirebringsustomyfinalsub‐question:

Whatarethecommunity’sperceptionsoftheanti­miningandpro­miningadvocacyandthecontentionbetweenthem?Howwouldthecommunityliketomoveforwardinreconcilingtheminingwiththeirregionalidentity? Bothsidesoftheeight‐yearbattleaboutthemeritsandpitfallsofminingare

nowinanintriguingposition.Stakeholdersinthecommunity,theminingcompany,

andthegovernmentrealizethattheminingwillproceedregardlessoftheprotestor

supportofthecommunity.ForCBA,thismeansthattheycanproceedwiththeir

miningsiteexpansion,atleastoutsidethebufferzone,withfewlegalboundaries.

CertainmembersoftheMiningCommissionexpressremorsethatthe

resistancemovementfailedandthatthecommunityissoill‐equippedtoapproach

negotiationwiththeminingcompany,thelogicalnextstep.AsJoãoPauloexpressed:

We’renotverywellpreparedyet.Weknowthedayisgoingtocome.We’renotsurewhatwe’regoingtodo.We’renotgoingtobeabletostopit.Andwe’velostalotourstrengthinthisresistance.Idon’tknowhowto…We’velearnedhowtoresist,butwehaven’tlearnedhowtonegotiate.

ZeMaria,alsoontheMiningCommission,remarked:

53

Thosepeoplewhosay,“No,no,nowecan’tnegotiate,wehavetoresist,”Icomparethemtothefatheroftheadolescentchildwhokeepssayingnoandthechildgetsmorerebellious.Youhavetokeepthebalancebetweenknowingwhentoloosenthereinsandknowingwhentotightenthem.

HeusedtheexampleofthosewhohaveresistedvariousdamsinBrazilfor30years,

tonoavail.Hecommentedthattheminingcompanyhasalotofmoneytobeputto

gooduse,ifthecommunityhadthewisdomtodemanditandthefortitudetotake

controloverhowitwouldbeused.

ThisopinionisbecomingmoreprominentwithintheMiningCommission

andinthecommunity,asanti‐miningactivistsprepareforhowtobestnegotiate

withCBAtoensurethebestpossibletreatmentofruralworkers,theirlands,andthe

foreststhatprovideforthem.Cleber,notontheMiningCommissionbuta

prominentleaderinthecommunity,stated:

Sincemininghastobedone,let’smakesurethatthelawisobeyed.Weneedabigmobilizationforthis.Itisarigorouslaw,butmanytimesitisnotrespected.Peoplearebribed,etc.andthelegislationdoesn’twork.Butwecan’tsay“Well,thisacorruptcountry,sothisisnormal…”Butwealsocannotsay,“Youcan’tcomeinhere,youcan’ttouchit.”Soitisimportantthatthecommunityismobilized.

RobinLeBreton,ResearchDirectoratIracambiandveryactiveontheMining

Commissionhadhopesthatthecommissioncouldmoveforward,withsuchgoalsin

mind:

Hopefully,soonwecangettoapointwherewecanagreetodisagree[aboutresistancevs.negotiationwithinthecommission]andwecanmoveforwardfromtherewiththecompany.[Iracambi]propose(s)thattherebeestablishedacommissionofthreeparties,theminingcompany,thegovernment,andtheaffectedpeople.Wesuggestthateachofthoseinterestgroupsshouldappointonepersonandthereshouldbeacommissionofthosethreepeoplewhowouldmeetregularly.

54

Iracambihopesthattheproposednegotiationstrategy,areflectionofthethree‐

leggedmodelofminingnegotiation,willbeaneffectivecompromisethatwillsoon

beacceptedbyallparties.

WhenIaskedLilian,aheadrepresentativefromCBA,whetherCBAwouldbe

opentosuchanarrangement,shestatedthatsuchcollaborationwasexactlywhat

CBAhasbeenhopingtoachievewithitsworkwithGaia.Sheexplainedtomethat

manyoftheemployeesofCBA’slocalminingbranchwereyoungandprogressive,

andwantedtomakesurethattheminingwasdoneinanoptimallysustainableway.

Additionally,shementionedthatCBApridesitselfonitsinternationalreputationas

asociallyandenvironmentallyethicalcompanyandwouldneverriskharmingitis

reputationbyovertlyostracizingacommunityitwasworkingwith.MarciadoVale,

anotherfemalerepresentativefromGaiaexplainedthatherorganizationstrivesto

aligntheirmethodologywithrigorousstandardsaboutsocialprojectsandlisten

intentlytowhatacommunitywantsbeforeacting.

WhenIaskedfarmerswhattheythoughtaboutnegotiationwiththe

company,somegavemeblankstaresandvagueanswers,asifunusedtotherhetoric

whendealingwithsubjectslikemininginBrazil.ProfessorJulioMonneratexplained

thephenomenon:

Itisashamereally.There’satraditioninthisareaofthelittleguysgettingpushedaroundbythebiginterests.Theyoftengettakenadvantageof.Sowe’retryingtogetpeopletounderstandthattheycanstanduptothesecompanies,to[demandthattheyactinthecommunity’s]interests.

Thosefarmerswhohadcommentsusuallyupheldnegotiationasasoundidea.

Julianaspokeforcefullyonthesubject:

55

Wecan’tbecompletelyidioticaboutthis.Wehavetoknowwhat’sgoingon. …[Otherwise],thetruthis,whentheminingcompanycomes,[thefarmers]won’tknowhowtoreact.Theyhaven’tbeenpreparing.Eventhoughwe’vehadwarning,itwillcomesuddenly.

ProfessorMonneratcontinuedthathehopesthatduringtheprocessofnegotiation,

thecommunitycanlearntoarticulatewhataboutitssocietyitvaluespreserving

andwhatpartsofthelandscapeitwishestoprotect:

Wearebringingthispessimismtotheruralareas.[Wehaveto]movetoadifferentrhetoric.Wehavetogetpeopletodevelopanappreciationfortheirownlands,toretainanappreciation,tohaveprideintheirlifestyle,tohavefaithintheirownabilitiesandbuildupself­esteem.That’sthethingthatthiscommissionshouldbegindoing.Weshouldbeworkingongettingpeopletoappreciatethevalueoftheirowntraditionsandlandsandnotgoingaroundsaying“Ohwell,thecountryside’shaditandeveryoneisgoingtomovetothecities.”Andthat’sreallygoingtobethemeasureofoursuccess,whetherwecansucceedindoingthat.

56

VI. Conclusions

RevisitingtheResearchQuestions Itisnotaneasytasktoweavethesemanythemesandopinionstogetherto

answermyresearchquestionwithoneconcisethesisabouthowthemining

discoursehasinfluencedidentityintheterritorywritlarge.Formininghasbrought

amyriadofissuestothetable.Andithashighlightedthedifferingopinionswithin

thecommunitystakeholders.However,inmyreflectionsonmydata,sixmain

themesemerged.

1)Themininghasaccelerateddialogueonthefutureoffamilyagriculturein

theregionasBrazil(andtheSerradoBrigadeiroterritorywithit)becomesmore

engagedinacapitalistmodel.Forsome,thisinstillsfearofanunknowndestinyand

griefoverachangingculture,whileforothersthisincentivizesapragmaticoutlook

onminingandindustrialismastheeconomicdriversofthefuture.Othersseizethe

chancetofighttosavefamilyagricultureandmakeitcompatibleinamodern

Brazilianeconomy.

2)Thethreatofminingonnaturalentitieslikeforestsandwaterhasenabled

peopletoarticulatewhytheseresourcesareimportanttotheirlivelihoodsandwhy

theymustbeprotected.Moreover,becauseanexternalforceisthreateningthese

ecologicalforces,itpropelsmanymembersofthecommunitytotakeprideand

ownershipinthem.

3)Aspeopleworktoarticulatewhytheydoordonotvaluefamily

agricultureandthenaturalenvironmentinlightofthemining,religionisidentified

57

asakeywayofexpressingtheseopinions.Forthoseagainstthemining,theCatholic

Churchisanorganizationaltoolforexpressingopinionsasagroup.Andthe

languageofChristianityisusedtoconveyemotionabouttheminingandplaceitina

larger,philosophicalframework.Forthosewhosupportthemining,different

Christiantheologiesareusedtojustifytheacceptanceofeconomicforceslike

mining.

4)Themining,andtheswifteconomicchangethatitrepresents,unearths

insecuritiesaboutculturalchangeinthecommunity,particularlyintermsofthe

shiftfromtheoldertoyoungergenerations.Somemembersoftheoldergeneration

seetheyoungerpeopleasnotvaluingthelandasmuchastheyshouldandunwisely

fleeingto“thecity,”ametaphoricalplaceimbuedwithsymbolismofbothdanger

andopportunity.Theyoungergenerationseemstobeofmixedopinion,dislikingthe

practicalramificationsofmining,butcompelledbythetypeofdevelopment(and

lifestyle)itrepresents.

5)Theminingdemonstratestothepeopleoftheterritorythat,whilethe

outsideworldmayseemfarawayinthecozyvalleysofthemountains,globalization

alreadyhasastrongpresenceinthesecommunities.Manyseethisglobalizationas

positive,asasourceofinformationandprogress,whileothersseeitasahostile

forcethatisthreateningtheirwayoflife.Someseebothsides.

6)Aftereightyearsofgrapplingwiththeissue,manystakeholdersstatea

needforadifferenttypeoflanguageinresistingand/ornegotiationwithexternal

forceslikemining.Regardlessoftheiropiniononthevalueofmining,stakeholders

seemtothinkthatthecurrent,polarizedapproachtothemining(bitterresistance

58

versusblindacceptance)isineffectualinthelongterm.Manyspeakofaneedto

learnhowtoarticulatetheirvisionofidealdevelopmentinawaythateffects

positivechangeandcooperation.

Limitations

Frankly,mytwomonthsatIracambidemonstratedthatIwouldneedmany

moretosatiatemydesireforafullcomprehensionofdevelopmentintheterritory.

Ideally,Iwouldliketohavemanymoreformalinterviewstopulldatafrom,aswell

asmonthsoffieldworkspeakingtolocalsinPortugueseandlivingwiththemasan

activeparticipantforalongerperiodoftime.IdohopetoreturntoIracambitodo

thesisworkonthissubject,orarelatedone,andbecomefluentenoughin

PortuguesethatIcouldunderstandmorenuances.Ideally,Iwouldliketoreturnto

lookfurtherintotheroleofthebasecommunitiesinthedialogueaboutminingand

developmentandtolivewiththemonksintheChristianecologicalcommunethey

hopetostart.

FinalThoughts:

Asastudentmuchmoreaccustomedtopoliticalpositionpapersthan

ethnographicstudies,Ioftenfoundmyselfsearchingforconcreteanswerstothe

dilemmasfacingtheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritory,wantingtoadoptastancetofight

for.Atthebeginning,whenmyknowledgeoftheminingsituationwasfrom

secondarysources,amentalconglomerationofacademicresearchanddramatic

picturesofbarrenhilltopsandemptyhouses,itwasfartooeasytoslipinto

simplisticcategorization.WhenIsteppedontheplaneinMiamitoheadoffonmy

adventure,apartofmehadvisionsofasummerspentromanticallybattling

59

industrialgiantswithapenasmysword,waxingpoeticaboutgreatextortionand

injustice.

Fortunately,mytimespentintheZonaDaMatacooledmyrighteous

indignationandforcedmetodelvedeeperintothequestionsIwastryingtoanswer.

Infact,themoretimeIspentexploringtheissue,thefewerconclusionsIhadand

themorequestions.ItwouldhavebeenamorestraightforwardprojectifCBAhad

beenanunethicalmonstrosityofacompany(whichitisnot),butIdoubtIwould

havelearnedhalfasmuchaboutthecomplexityofmining’seffectonasociety.The

processtaughtmetoplaceasidemyneedtobeawarriorandembracetheroleofa

listener.

ThisisnottosaythatIresistedanypositionality,becausethatwouldhave

beenanimpossibilityforme.AsIgrewtolovethepeopleofthemountains,tolove

theirgroundedlifestyleandtendermannerofspeaking,Icouldnothelpbutmourn

forthem,forthechangestheywillhavetoundergointheupcomingyears.Thereis

nodenyingthatthealreadyfragilenaturalenvironmentwillhavetoundergoalarge

amountofstress,thattreeswillberippedfromtheirrootsandfieldswillbe

strippednaked.Evenwiththebestreclamationpossible,itwilltakemanyseasons

tofullyrepairthedamage.Ifretforthefarmerswhowillhavetoleavetheirhomes;

whowillwatchtheirchildrenleaveforfar‐offopportunities;whomightwatchtheir

grandchildrenhavelittlefamiliaritywithfamilyagriculture,asmygrandparents

experiencemygenerationintheUnitedStates.

Duringmyinterviews,Icouldnothelpbeingdrawntothesentimentofthose

opposedtothemining.WhenCarlosspokeofhisloveofthelandandhisbeliefthat

60

familyagriculturewasthebedrockofanyfirmsociety,Iwasmesmerized.Andwhen

helookedmeintheeyeandspokeaboutthelackofrurallifeintheUnitedStates,I

squirmedinmychair,withvisionsoffactoryanimalfarms,obesity,andother

symbolsofourbrokenfoodsystem.Andsoonafterarrivingbackfrommytrip,ona

triphometoIowa,theendlessmilesofcornandsoybeanfieldsengulfingabandoned

farmhousesremindedmethatonceIowahadteemedwithsmallfarmersandhada

richculturesimilartotheSerradoBrigadeiro.Nowtheemptinessofitechoes,a

landofhighyields,notpeople.

ButduringmytimeinBrazil,Ifounditdifficulttobecomeangryatthe

miningcompanyastheagentofthechangeinthecommunity.Inmyestimation,the

company,thoughnotperfect,isdoinganadmirablejoboftryingtomitigatethe

effectsofthemining,thoughIbelievetheircompensationforfarmersshouldbe

higherandtheyshouldnotbeallowedtoenterthebufferzone.Intheeconomic

developmentmodelthatisdrivingBrazilatthemoment,oneitsurelydidnotinvent,

theminingcompanyseesitselfasrevolutionizingthearea,ofbringinginnovation

andfinancialopportunity,ofhelpingtoraiseGRIindexesandtoincreasethe

standardofliving,sothateveryresidentoftheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritorymight

onedayhopetohaveAmericanconveniences.Sothattheymighthavehouseswith

multipletelevisions,refrigerators,cars,runningwater,I‐pads,andlaptops:The

essentialstoahappylife,orsowedemonstratetothem.Allofwhich,bytheway,

requireasteadysupplyofaluminum.

SoIrealizedthehypocrisyofmebecomingirateatCBAforitsendeavorsto

pullmetaloutoftheground.UntilIhavethestrengthtoabandonalloftheabove‐

61

mentioneditems,togoandbuyahouseonahillsomewhereandgrowmyownfood

andsubsistwithoutelectricity,kitchenmixers,ortinfoil(asIracambi’snursery

manager,Tony,doesinhiscabininthewoods)Ihavenoauthoritytoobjectto

bauxiteminingonprinciple.Ihavenorighttoharborhatredforacompanythatis

simplyfulfillingitsdutytoaworldorderIstilllivein.

SowhenZezino,amanwiththewisdomofages,chargedmetogobackand

spreadthewordabouttheinjustice,Ibalked.Inadramaticgesture,heraisedhis

handstowardme,gesturedtothemountainsideaheadofus,andexclaimed:

Andwe’recountingonpeoplelikeyou.Soyouhavetogoandtellpeoplewhat’shappeninghere.Tellthemaboutthemining.What’shappeninghereisgoingtohappentothewholeworld!

WhoamItospeakforthesepeople,Ithought,whenmyownhandsarebloody?In

myopinion,itisthesefarmersthemselveswhosevoicesneedtobeheard.Itisthese

humblepeoplewhoselivesarebeingattacked,notbyasinglecompanyorindustry,

butbyaglobalhungerforresources.Itistheywhohavetheentitlementtocryout

totheworld,totheircountry,anddemandadifferentvisionfortheplanetandits

peoples.

So,inmyopinion,thebestthingIcandofortheSerradoBrigadeiroisto

provideamediumforthesecommunitymemberstospeakout,totelltheirstory.

Fortheytellitwell.AllIcanemphasizeishowmuchthesocietyofthissmallpocket

ofBraziltaughtme.RobinandBinkashowedmewhatitlooksliketogoforthinlife

withoutfear,tostubbornlypursuetherealityyouwishexisted.Carminhaand

Everaldodemonstratedtomehowgentlenessandwarmthknittogetherstrong

familiesandcommunities.Tonypreachedthegospelofsimplicity,whileCarlos,

62

Zezino,ZeMariaandalltheleadersoftheterritorysignifiedtomethepowerof

activeconvictions.

Andfinally,FreiGilbertotaughtmetoalwaysinformmyecologicalethicwith

agreatdealofloveandcompassion.Inthewordsofoneofhisheroes,liberation

theologian,LeonardoBoff:

Caringimpliesaloving,respectfulandnon­aggressive,andthereforenon­destructive,relationshipwithreality.Itassumesthathumansarepartofnatureandmembersofthebioticandcosmiccommunity,withtheresponsibilitytoprotect,regenerateandcareforit.Morethanatechnique,caringisanart,anewparadigmofrelationshipwithnature,Earthandhumanbeings.

IhavesomuchfaithinthecharacterofthepeopleoftheSerradoBrigadeiro

Territory,intheirabilitytowithstandanychallengesthatminingmightbringand

findopportunitiesforrealgrowthinthesituation.Ipraythattheyareblessedin

theirdevelopmentandthatwhenIreturn,whichIknowIwill,Iwillfindthemstill

prospering.AsCarlosproclaimed:

Wedamagetheearth,evenasfarmers.Butshestilllooksafterus.Wemakemistakesandshestillgivesusanotherchance.“Theearthiscryingoutinpainsofchildbirth.”50Butaftershegivesbirth,thereissomethingbeautiful.

50AnallusiontotheRomariathemeandtoRomans8:22:"Forweknowthatthewholecreationgroansandsuffersthepainsofchildbirthtogether…”

63

VII. BibliographyDugdale,Nicola&Connor,Lena,“MiningBriefingDocument,”IracambiConservation

andResearchCenter(2011).Baer,Werner,TheBrazilianEconomy:GrowthandDevelopment,(Boulder:Lynne

Rienner,2008).Ballard,Chris.“ResourceWars:TheAnthropologyofMining.”AnnualReviewfor

Anthropology32(2003)287–313.“CodeofEthicsoftheAmericanAnthropologicalAssociation,”American

AnthropologicalAssociation,ApprovedJune1998,<http://www.aaanet.org/committees/ethics/ethicscode.pdf>.

Dean,Warren,BroadaxandFirebrand:TheDestructionoftheBrazilian

AtlanticForest,(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1997),5.Dewalt,KathleenM.,&Dewalt,BillieR.,ParticipantObservation,(Oxford:AltaMira

Press,2002).Figueiroa,SilviaF.deM.&Machado,IranF.&“500YearsofMininginBrazil:ABrief

Review.”ResourcesPolicy27(2001)9–24.Handelsman.S.D.,“Humanrightsinthemineralsindustry.”MMSDWork.2002.

PaperNo.9.<http://www.iied.org/mmsd/mmsdpdfs/009handelsman.pdf>. Harper,Jessica,“ConfrontingCorporateDevelopment:Anti‐MiningAdvocacyinthe

BrazilianAtlanticRainforest,”CapstonePaperforMastersDegree,(SchoolforInternationalTraining,2007).

Howitt, Connell J.R., Mining and Indigenous Peoples in Australasia. (Sydney: Sydney

University Press, 1991). Hyndman,D.AncestralRainForestsandtheMountainofGold:IndigenousPeoplesand

MininginNewGuinea.(Boulder,CO:WestviewPress,1994).Krenak,Ailton.“MiningCompaniesonIndigenousLandsinBrazil,”CulturalSurvival

Quarterly,10(1986)46‐47,

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Meyer,F.M.,“AvailabilityofBauxiteReserves,”NaturalResourcesResearch13(2004).

MurrayLi,Tania."ArticulatingIndigenousIdentityinIndonesia:ResourcePolitics andtheTribalSlot".ComparativeStudiesinSocietyandHistory,42(2001),149. Parrotta,JohnA.&Knowles,OliverH.,“Restoringtropicalforests onlandsminedfor

bauxite.”EcologicalEngineering17(2001)219–239.Parrotta,John,Knowles,OliverH., Wunderle, Joseph M., “Developmentoffloristic diversityin10‐year‐oldrestorationforestsonabauxiteminedsitein Amazonia.”ForestryEcologyandManagement99(1997)21–42.22. Rumsey, A. & Weiner, J. Mining and Indigenous Lifeworlds in Australia and Papua New Guinea. (Adelaide: Crawford House, 2001). Skidmore,ThomasE.,Brazil:FiveCenturiesofChange,(NewYork:OxfordUniversity

Press,2010),22. “Território da Serra do Brigadeiro – MG: Sistemização e análise dos dados secundarios.” CTA-ZM: Centro de Tecnologias Alternativas da Zona da Mata de Minas Gerais. (Viçosa: 2004). Toy, T. J. & Griffith, J.J. “Changing Surface-Mine Reclamation Practices in Minas Gerais, Brazil.” International Journal of Surface Mining, Reclamation and Environment. 15 (2001), 33-51. Wesley‐Smith,T.,“Thepoliticsofaccess:miningcompanies,thestate,and

landownersinPapuaNewGuinea.”PoliticalScience,42(1990),1–19.Witthaus,Lindsey,“ConflitoAmbiental:MineraçãoeAgriculturaFamiliar,”Fulbright

GrantPaper(FederalUniversityofVicosa,2008).Wolford,Wendy.“Families,Fields,andFightingforLand:TheSpatialContentionof

FightingforLandinRuralBrazil,”Mobilization:AnInternationalJournal:8(2):201.

65

VII.Appendices

AppendixA:MapsoftheSerraDoBrigadeiroTerritory

Map1.ChangestotheAtlanticForest,Brazil

Source:S.O.S.MataAtlânticaFoundation

66

AppendixA.,(continued):

Map2.BauxiteConcessionsintheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritory,MG,Brazil

Source:LenaConnorandDevinDworkin,IracambiGISLab

67

AppendixA.,(continued):

Map3.IracambiinBauxiteConcessions,MG,Brazil

Source:LenaConnorandJoshuaPlisinski,IracambiGISLab

68

AppendixA.,(continued):

Map4.CommunityofSantaLuciainBauxiteConcessions,MG,Brazil

Source:LenaConnorandYelenaFinegold,IracambiGISLab

69

AppendixA.,(continued):

Map5.CommunityofPedraAltainBauxiteConcessions,MG,Brazil

Source:LenaConnorandJoshuaPlisinski,IracambiGISLab

70

AppendixA.,(continued):

Map6.CommunityofSantaCatarinainBauxiteConcessions,(ExampleofPortugueseversionforcommunity).

Source:LenaConnorandDaniEwert,IracambiGISLab

71

AppendixA.,(continued):

Map6.ExistingMiningExpeditionMapandImages,SãoSebastiãoda

VargemAlegre,MG,Brazil

Source:LenaConnorandYelenaFinegold,IracambiGISLab

ImagefromGoogleEarth,GeoEyesatellite­24/08/2010ExistingMining;GPSLocation21º02’24.79”S,42º36’12.62”W

PicturestakenbyLenaConnoronMiningInvestigationon6/9/11nearSaoSebastianatGPSLocation21º02’24.79”S,42º36’12.62”W

72

AppendixB.

Figure1.Worlddistributionofbauxitereservesaccordingtotonnagesofrecoverablealumina(rec.Al2O3).DatafromCRC525database.

Source:F.M.Meyer,2004.

Figure2.Timetrendsinbauxiteproductionfrom1900to2001andprojectedforperiod2002to2025assuminganannualincreaseof1.7%forfuturebauxiteproduction.

Source:F.M.Meyer,2004.

73

AppendixB.,(continued):

Figure3.Worldbauxitepercapitaconsumption,1990to2001. Source:F.M.Meyer,2004.

Figure4.TerritoryMunicipalitiesEmploymentCategorization

Source:CenterofAlternativeTechnology­ZonadaMata,2004

74

AppendixB.(continued): Figure5.Populationvariancebetween1970and2000inTerritory Source:CenterofAlternativeTechnology­ZonadaMata,2004 Figure6.RuralPopulationGraphofTerritoryfrom1970­2000

Source:CenterofAlternativeTechnology­ZonadaMata,2004

75

AppendixC:

Section1:FormalInterviews:Note:FormanyofthestakeholdersIinterviewed,onlyfirstnameswererecorded,forprivacypurposesandbecauselastnamesarenotcommonlyusedinthecultureoftheSerradoBrigadeiroTerritory.Interview#1:FreiGilberto,Male,HeadFranciscanPriestfortheDioceseintheTerritory,RosariodaLimeiraandsurroundingcountiesDate:6/16/11,2:30p.m.‐5:30p.m.Location:BinkaandRobin’sdiningroomInterview#2:RobinLeBreton,Male,ResearchDirector,Iracambi,RosariodaLimeiraDate:6/18/11,2:30p.m.‐5:00p.m.Location:GarageatIracambiCenterInterview#3:JoãoPaulo,Male,PresidentofRuralWorkersUnion,RosariodaLimeiraDate:6/27/11,9:00a.m.‐9:45a.m.Location:RuralWorkersUnionOfficeInterview#4:ZeMaria,Male,SecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironment,RosariodaLimeiraDate:6/29/11,8:00a.m.‐9:15a.m.Location:SecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironmentOffice,RosariodaLimeiraInterview#5:Marinha,Female,Farmer,PedraAltaDate:7/1/11,9:00p.m.‐9:25p.m.Location:FarmerFestival,StableRoomofCommunityCenter,PedraAltaInterview#6:Sebastian,Male,Farmer,PedraAltaDate:7/1/11:9:30‐10:15p.m.Location:FarmerFestival,StableRoomofCommunityCenter,PedraAltaInterview#7:(GroupInterview)JulioMonnerat,Male,ProfessorofAgro‐Ecology,FederalInstituteofMuriaé,MuriaéReinaldo,CPTrepresentative,MuriaéDate:7/6/11:10a.m.‐11:45a.m.Location:FederalInstituteofMuriaéOffice

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Interview#8:(GroupInterview)Cleber,Male,AttorneyandEngineer,BelasarioMiriam,Female,RetiredPsycologist,BelasarioEliab,Male,Eco‐TourismCoordination,BelasarioCarlos,Male,Farmer,BelasarioDate:7/12/11,9:30a.m.‐11:45a.m.Location:CleberandMiriam’sHome,BelasarioInterview#9:Zezino,MaleFarmer,BelasarioDate:7/12/11,12:00p.m.‐12:45p.m.Location:HillsideoutsideofBelasario,parkedonthesideofamainroad,facingthemountainrange.Interview#10:Sergio,MaleCollegeStudentandFarmerDate:7/13/11,9:00a.m.‐10:00a.m.,Location:IracambiCenterInterview#11:Juliana,FemaleFarmer,SãoPedroDate:7/28/11,4:30p.m.‐6:30p.m.Location:HerhouseinSãoPedro,4:30p.m.‐6:30p.m.Interview#12:MariaCarolina,Female,HighSchoolStudent,MuriaéDate:7/29/11,9:00a.m.‐10:00a.m.Location:IracambiCenter

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Section2:AdditionalInterviewQuotesThereasonI’magainstminingisbecauseit’saggressivetotheworld.Itisattackingthewholesystem.WhenI’mattackingMotherNature,I’mattackingallofherchildren.‐FreiGilberto,HeadPriestforCatholicDioceseWell,we’vebeensufferingforthelast500yearsfromminingofallsorts.MostofMinashaslostitsforest.Brazilhasalwayssufferedfromtherichesleavingthecountry.‐FreiGilberto,HeadPriestforCatholicDioceseOfcourse,theminingisanimportantpartofprogress,economicandtechnological.Ithasaveryimmediatereturn,butoftenwedon’ttakeintoaccountthedamageminingcausestonatureandtolifeitself.It’saveryaggressivepursuit,mining.‐FreiGilberto,HeadPriestforCatholicDioceseThesedays,theminingcompanyparticipatesinalotofgreen‐wash,butthatdoesn’treallymakeitanylessaggressive.It’sstilldegradingandexploitative.‐FreiGilberto,HeadPriestforCatholicDioceseThishydrologyisverysensitiveandcomplexandtheywouldhavetobeverycarefulnottodisruptanyofthesewatersourceswithsedimentation.It’sprobablyimpossible,tonotaffectthen.YettheEISdoesn’tevenmentionthesewaterresources.Theyhaven’tevaluatedthehydrologyinthisregion.Itneedstobedone.Andthesespringsarethesolesourceofwaterforpeopleinthisarea.Theyuseitforwashing,drinking,wateringtheircows,etc.Wecan’taffordtoblockthesesprings.‐RobinLeBreton,ResearchDirector,IracambiAsyouknow,therehavebeenalotofpeopleinRosariodaLimeirawhohavebeencapturedbytheminingcompany.Tostartwith,inRosariodaLimeira,wewereallunitedagainstit.Butsincethen,whenwehavemeeting,somepeoplearealittlenervous,becausemaybetheyoweafavortotheminingcompany,ortheyworkfortheminingcompany,ortheyhopetoworkfortheminingcompany.It’sweakenedourstance.‐JoãoPaulo,RosariodaLimeiraRuralWorkersUnionWhatIseeisthattheminingcompanyhasveryclearoptionsofofferofbenefitsforthem,andwehavebeenremissinnotcreatingareallystrongalternativeinfavoroffamilyagriculture.‐JoãoPaulo,RosariodaLimeiraRuralWorkersUnionInthenextcounty,ofMiraí,alotofpeoplehavebeenaffectedbythemining,thedust,andhaveleftthecountryside.‐JoãoPaulo,RosariodaLimeiraRuralWorkersUnionNow,whatIdon’tsupportistheminingcompanybringingintothecity,sotheybuildasoccerfieldortheydosomethingtothechurch.That’sbringingpeopleintothecityandtakingthemoutofthecountryside.‐JoãoPaulo,RosariodaLimeiraRuralWorkersUnionTheoldergenerationwasraisedwiththelandandthelandtothemismorethanjusttheeconomicbenefitsofit.It’sawholedifferentrelationship.Whereastheyoungergenerationtendstoseeitasonlyintermsofeconomicbenefits,andthosearetheoneswhoareinfavorofminingandtendtoleavetheareaaswell.‐JoãoPaulo,RosariodaLimeiraRuralWorkersUnionInthisstate,minersandthoseconnectedtomininghaveenormouspoliticalpower.Particularlyinthisstate.Andsowiththis,theycaneasilyachievetheirobjectives.‐ZeMaria,SecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironment,RosariodaLimeira

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Idon’tfeelwehaveanyalternativestothis[method].We’rethrownintoanewworld[withthemining]andwehavetofigureouthowtomakedo.Andweneedinformation.Oneofthethings,thisisaregionwithverystrongculture,averystrongtraditionalculture,andthat’sverybeautifulinsomeways,butinothersitmakesitdifficultforthemtounderstandthatpeopleneedtimeforeducation.It’sdifficultforthemtofacethesechanges[miningincluded].‐ZeMaria,SecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironment,RosariodaLimeiraIfyousaytothecommunity:“Ifyougoaftertheminingcompany,youcanhelpgetaneducationforyourchildoryoucanget,youknow,differenttypesofprofessionaldevelopment,”they’lllisten.Whereas,ifyougotothecommunityandsay,“Youhavetoresisttothelastdropofyourblood,”they’llabandonyouandgowiththeminingcompanyblindly.‐ZeMaria,SecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironment,RosariodaLimeiraI’vebeentosomeplacesinSteelValley,ontheRioDoce,inthenorth.Theyhadanagriculturalreform,andsomeofthesefamilies,inthefaceofmining,havetakenholdofnewtechnology,andgoneahead,managedtosurvive,thoughmanydidn’t.It’sverydifferentindifferentpartsofthestate.Someplaces,familyagriculturehasmanagedtoseizethehour,evenwiththemining.‐ZeMaria,SecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironment,RosariodaLimeiraNo,they’vegottheiragenda.Itdoesn’thavealottodowithours.So,what’spossible..Ithinkwhatwecando,isthatwecanmakesuretheyabidebythelawandensuringtheydon’tthrowtoomanypeopleofftheland.Andtheretributionwillbeinteachingpeople,ingeneratinginformationandmoney.‐ZeMaria,SecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironment,RosariodaLimeiraWell,Idon’thaveillusions.Ican’tpretendit’snotgoingtohappen.It’sgoingtolastformanydecades.Andit’sgoingtohaveabigimpactonthelandscape.First,wehavetorecognizethat.Sohowarewegoingtocopewithit?It’sgoingtobeachallenge.I’mgoingtoinsistthatwehaveknowledge.There’snootherwayexceptforthem[thecommunity]tounderstandwhat’sgoingon,andthentheyhavetodecidewhichareasoftheenvironmenttheywanttoprotect,andthey’llhavetoworktowardspreservingthese.‐ZeMaria,SecretaryofAgricultureandtheEnvironment,RosariodaLimeiraAboutmining:Iworkedfor5yearsand1dayfortheminingcompany.AndIwasthelastpersontobefired.SoIreallyknowaboutminingbecauseIworkedfor5years.Ithinkitsgoingtobereallyhardtostopthemining.So,wewerebiggroupsofusworking.Therewereabout60ofusandwe’dgofromonepropertytoanother,lookingforthemineral.Sotheminerswouldcomeinandtheyaskedthefarmers,“Isitallrightifwelookedatyourland.”Andifthepeoplesaidno,thenthejudgewouldcomeafterthem.Soifpeopledidn’twantit,thejudgesentamessage,theydidn’tevenhavetosendthepolice,andthey’dhavetolettheminersin.AndtherewasanorderfromtheministryofminesandthisgavepermissionforAntonioEmiliodoMoraistocarryoutanyresearchonyourproperty.SowefoundmineralsonGraminha,Ermanha,whichisbehindthetelephonetower.Wewereonlyworkers,sotheydidn’t,ofcourse,tellusthewholeinsidestory,butwhatIdoknowisthatfromtheSerrasdasAranas,thereweregoingtobe500truckloadseverydayfor15years.Therewasenoughmineralinthere.‐Sebastian,MaleFarmer,PedraAltaI’vealwaysbeenafarmer.Butatthattime,Ididn’thaveanyland.Itwasmyfather’sland.IlivedhereandIwasverysmall.Itookajob[withtheminingcompany]becauseIhaddebts.Iearnedonesalary.Somyfatherallowedthemtoresearchonhisproperty.Somyfatherauthorizedthisonwhatisnowmyland,becausemyfatherisdead.So,Iboughtpartoftheland.Ifitwastoday,Iprobablywouldn’tgoandworkfortheminingcompany.Becauseitwasverybadformyhealth.WhenIwas46,Icouldn’tworkanymore.Ihadhighbloodpressure,Ihadheartproblems.Iworkedverydeep.I

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sweatedalot.Allsweaty,anditrained,anditwasverybadforyou.So,whenIwas47,Ihadtoretireforhealth.I’mnowjustcomingupon60.‐Sebastian,MaleFarmer,PedraAltaIwon’tbearound.There’sgoingtobemuchdestruction.Everything.Theyyoungpeoplearen’treallythinkingaboutit.ButifIwasyoung,Iwouldbethesame.Maybemygrandchildren.Ithinkmygrandchildrenwillhavetocopewiththis.Theywillhavetoleavetheland.Ifeelthis.Theymakelotsofpromises,butI’mprettysureourwaterwillnevercomeback.Don’tyouthinkit’strue?‐Sebastian,MaleFarmer,PedraAltaWewanttoencouragesolidaritybetweenthosewhowillbeaffectedandothersinthecommunitywhowillnotbedirectlyimpactedbutwhostilltakeinterestintheissue.Realsolidarity,notjustthatwarm,fuzzyfeeling,buteffectivesolidaritythatwillenablethemtotakeastandagainstthemining.‐JulioMonnerat,FederalInstituteofMuriaéWehavethisprogramthatinsiststhatlocalschoolsbuyfoodlocally,butthenyouhaveopeningsforactivitiesfortheminingandsoon,whichwillcomeandtakeallthatlocalismawayagain.So,ononehand,youhavethisgovernmentalprojecttosupportsustainableagriculture,butthen,ontheother,yousupportminingwhichhastheexactoppositeeffect.‐Reinaldo,CPTRepresentative,MuriaéSo,whereminingshouldbedone,Ihaveseenexampleswheremininghasbeendonequitewell.Wherecountiesarepleasedwiththeresults.AndI’vealsoseendisasters;wheretheyhavedegradedtheland.Sowecan’tsay,welllet’sjustletthemdegrade.Soit’sariskwejusthavetotake.Now,inthebufferzone,that’saprotectedarea,sotheminingshouldnottakeplacethere.Peopleneedtomobilizearoundthispoint.Butifthere’smineraltobetakenoutofareasthatarelesscritical,thenletitbedone.‐Cleber,AttorneyandEngineer,BelasarioI’vebeentalkingtoGaiaanditseemsthatintheareasthatthey’vehadmining,peoplearesatisfiedafterwards.Now,I’mnotnaïveenoughtobelievethatthisisnecessarilytrue.It’spossiblesomepeoplearemakinglotsofmoney,andprejudicingothers.SothisiswhatIhearfromthecounties:thatthecompensationfromthecompanyhasbeenquitegood.Sowe’rejustgoingtohavetosee.We’retryingtofigureoutwhatistrue.‐Cleber,AttorneyandEngineer,BelasarioItseemsthattheywon’tbehereforanother5‐10years.Sowe’reintheprocessofunderstandingwheretheyaregoingtomine.Idon’tthinkit’sintelligenttojudgebeforewereallyknow.‐Cleber,AttorneyandEngineer,BelasarioSo,miningisaquestionthatwon’tgoaway.Thequestiondoesn’tgoaway:Howcanwepossiblydevelopourtourismwiththesemachineseverywhere?Sowe’retryingtofigureouthowwecanbalancethetwo.‐Eliab,Eco‐TourismDirector,BelasarioSoIcan’treallyagree,becauseI’mafarmer,thatiftheminingcameandeveniftourismincreased,thateverythingwouldbefine.Untiltheminingcompanycanprovetomethattheycanfullyrecooperatemyland,becauseI’mafarmer.Eliabisatourismdirector,sohe’sworkingwiththenaturalbeauties,butIneedtoworkwiththeland.Theyhavenotmanagedtoconvinceme.‐Carlos,MaleFarmer,BelasarioI’mnotgoingtosaythatIagreewithitifmysurvivalisthreatened.ButIdon’twanttothinkjustofme.Iwanttothinkabouttheenvironmentaswell.Iftheyreallydocome,becausewereallyaren’tsureyet…Sothismountain,forexamplehas6,7,8familiesonit.Thereisonespringthatfurnishesallthesesixfarms.

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‐Carlos,MaleFarmer,BelasarioPeopleherehaven’twokenup.Torealizewhatthisplaceis.Soitsreallytheruralpeoplewhohaven’twokenupandrealizedthattheminingcompanywillcomein,willusehisland,thathe’llloosehiscrops,hislittlecorral…Butthisisaplacethathasthepotentialtobecomeatourist‐opolis,abigcenter.Butpeopleheredon’treallyvaluewhatthey’vegot.ThereasonthatI’mresistingisthatIwanttoensurethatweleavesomethingworthhaving.‐Carlos,MaleFarmer,BelasarioOneoftheproblemsisthatitishardforustogoseewhereminingisbeingdoneatthemoment.Andweonlynoticewhenthereisbigdamage.AndIdon’ttrusttheenvironmentalagencies.Becausetheyareeasilybought.Sothere’sriskofthis.‐Carlos,MaleFarmer,BelasarioWell,theyhopetofindwaystoreducetheimpactsoffarmers.Ifittakes100yearsforthecoffeetocomeback,canwefindsomealternative?Wecanworkwithmushrooms.Wecanusehydroponics.Sothismoneytheyaregoingtogiveus…He’llhavetothinkwhathe’sgoingtodoitwhenhecomesbacktothefarm.‐Miriam,RetiredPsychologist,BelasarioThereisalotofbauxitehere.Butit’sdeep.Thebauxiteisunderthesoilwhichisthefruitoftheforeststhathavebeenhereforcenturies,allofthedetritusthathasbeenbuildingupandrecyclingandstoringnutrients.Understand?It’sthespongewhichabsorbshumidity.Thishelpstoregulatewater.Ifthere’swaterintheriver,it’sbecausethereiswaterintheforests,inthegapsintherocks,inthedecomposedforestsoil.IfItakeoffthistoplayer,everythingwillfalldownandsilttherivers.Thevalleyswilldryup.Bauxite,whichisalongthesidesofthemountains,itdoesn’tdissolveinwater.Itholdstheorganiclayeraboveitself.Sothattheorganicmatterdoesn’tpassthroughtothewater.Itactsasanimpermeablelayer.Ifyoutakethebauxiteout,allthesoilwilljustslideaway.‐Zezino,MaleFarmer,BelasarioThereare200,000peopleinthecountyofMuriaé.Theyallrelyonthiswater.Sothewatercomesfromhere,sotherewillbenowatertheretoflushtheirdrains,towashtheirdishes.‐Zezino,MaleFarmer,BelasarioIseethat[mining]isdestroyingeverythingweknow.Itisverysad.‐Sergio,YoungMaleStudent(20yearsold),RosariodaLimeira(grewuponfarm)Peoplearelookingatthemoneytheyaregoingtomakebuttheyaren’tlookingatactuallymakingmoneyinthelongterm,whentheyhavetoreturntofarming.It’ssuchashamethatmostpeoplearejustlookingatthefinancialbenefits.…Ithinkifwehadsomereallygoodmeetingstoexplain[tothefarmers],Ithinkthattheywouldbelesslikelytogiveinsoeasilytothemoney.‐Juliana,FemaleFarmer,SãoPedroIworkedasasocialworkerforseveralyears.WehadanelectionandIwasre‐elected.Theywantedmetoworkinhealth.Andthisiswhenwedecidednottogointown.Wetalkedalot.BecauseIhadanicesalary.Butthenweboughtthelandandstartedworkingwithmilkandcoffee,andwecouldmakethesameamountofmoney.Andwe’remuchhappier.Becausewe’refree.‐Juliana,FemaleFarmer,SãoPedroYes,it’ssadreally.Likewhenthedamburstin2006,peopleweresoupsetaboutitandwerereallyemotionalaboutthemining.Butitfadedandpeoplewentbacktotheirdaytodaylivesanddon’tliketothinkaboutit.Ithasn’thithomethatit’sreallygoingtohappenhere.‐Juliana,FemaleFarmer,SãoPedro

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AppendixD: Section1:MiningPicture,Source:LenaConnor Image1.BauxiteinEarth,SãoSebastiãodaVargemAlegre

Image2.Miningnearforestedridge,Miraí Image3.Abandonedhouse,SãoSebastiãodaVargemAlegre

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AppendixD.,(continued): Section1:MiningPictures,(continued): Image4.MiningbyHomesteads,SãoSebastiãodaVargemAlegre

Image4.TourofMiningwithCBARepresentatives,Miraí

Image5.MeetingandTourwithCBA,Miraí

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AppendixD.,(continued): Section1:MiningPictures,(continued): Image7.TailingsDam,Miraí Image8.WashingPlantFacility,Miraí

Image9.MeetingwithCBA,Miraí

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AppendixD.,(continued): Section2:CommunityMappingPictures Image1.TypicalFarmHouse,GraminhaValley Image2.BaseCommunityChurch,GraminhaValley Image3.CoffeeFarmerandSon,SantaLucia

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AppendixD.,(continued): Section2:CommunityMappingPictures

Image4.DairyFarmerandDaughter,SantaLucia Image5.Farmer,brotherfromRio,andfamily,SantaCatarina

Image6.Farmerpointstoimportantnaturallandmark,SantaCatarina

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AppendixD.,(continued): Section2:CommunityMappingPicture

Image7.Farmingcoupleinfrontoftheirforestpatch,SantaCatarina

Image8:Youngfarmingfamily,SantaCatarina

Image9:Farmerandfathermakepresssugarcane,SantaCatarina

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AppendixD.,(continued): Section3:IracambiPictures Image1.LenaandAlison,CommunityMapping,SantaCatarina Image2.CharlotteandLenaplantinginthenursery,Iracambi Image3.IracambiCenter

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AppendixD.,(continued): Section3:IracambiPictures Image4.LenaandLauratouringValdeli’scoffeefarm,SaoPedro Image5.Lena,Yelena,Laura,andCurtishiking,Mt.Itajuru Image6.IracambiResearchersonJuniorScientistDay,Iracambi

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AppendixD.,(continued): Section3:EventPictures Image1.Square­dancingatFestivalofSãoJoão,PedraAlta Image2.PosterforRomaria,Belasario

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AppendixD.,(continued): Section3:EventPictures Image3.Romariaprocessionthroughthecountryside,Belasario

Image4.FreiGilbertoatRomariastation,askingGodforforgivenessforenvironmentalsinandmining,Belasario

Image5.Romariafamilyagriculturestation,Belasario.Thesignreads“FamilyAgriculture:Thosewhodon’tpracticeitdependonit.”

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AppendixD.,(continued): Section3:InterviewPictures Image1.Carlos,Farmer,Belasario

Image2.Zezino,farmerandCPTrepresentative,Belasario

Image3:Cleber,Eliab,Binka,Zezino,andLena,InterviewatCleber’sHouse,Belasario