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Gandhāran Studies, vol. 7 115

The Early Arrival of Muslims in Ancient Gandhāra Study Based on Numismatic Evidence from Kashmir Smast

M. Nasim Khan

Abstract

The ancient history of Gandhāra, particularly after the Great Kushan upto the arrival of Islam, has always remained a shrouded part of Gandhāran history and a matter of great dispute. This is due to lack of sufficient archaeological, numismatic or other relevant source materials that could help us in the reconstruction of that particular period of history. But thanks to the mass of information so far retrieved from older and recent archaeological discoveries or other similar sources found in the region, the ancient history of Gandhāra could now be fairly reconstructed. The case for the early arrival of Muslims in the northern region of Pakistan is similar, where the early Muslim conquest can be traced back to the 10th/11th century AD. This is generally based on historical sources and the few fragmentary inscriptions recovered from the different parts of Gandhāra and its surrounding regions. The discovery of some recent but previously unknown Islamic coins in the area, particularly found at the site known as Kashmir Smast, may push the history of the presence of Muslims further back in Gandhāra. The objective of the present paper is, therefore, to supplement these numismatic evidences to the already recorded epigraphical and other records and try to trace the arrival of Muslims in the region of Gandhāra, maybe in the 7 th/8th centuries AD.

The Muslims had a high degree of trade and invasions outside the Islamic world starting from the Persian Gulf ports to Aden and the Red Sea ports. Muslim merchants and traders travelled to India, Ceylon and China, bringing silks, spices, aromatics, woods, tin and other commodities, both for home consumption and for re-export. Besides the see routes, alternative itineraries to India and China ran overland through Central Asia (Lewis 1962: 87-88) and probably Iran. Historical sources suggest that the first wave of Arab expansion on the Pakistani-Afghan frontier belt was made in the reign of Caliph Umar during 633-644 AD (Mitchiner 1977: 55). During the reign of Mu’awiya, the Islamic Empire grew steadily and in Central Asia the Arabs took Herat, Kabul and Bokhara before 670 AD (Lewis 1962: 66). But the first firm Arab hold in the land beyond the Oxus was established by the Arab general Qutayba b. Muslim al-Bahili, a governor of Khurasan from 705 to 715 (Bosworth 1999: 24). On the other hand, to the east of

Hindu Kush and in the land of Gandhāra and its surrounding regions, historical sources suggest, and on this the scholars agree, that it was only in the 11th century AD that Sultan Mahmud bin Sabuktigin (AD 998-1030), the first Muslim ruler, who extended Muslim power towards the east of the Hindu Kush and occupied Peshawar Valley and its neighbouring territories. Both historical and archaeological sources are reduced for the early history of Muslims in the north-west region of Pakistan, before Mahmud’s invasion of Gandhāra. The only historical reference that confirms the presence of Muslims in the north of Pakistan is the description of an invasion by a Muslim general - Al Muhallab bin Abi Suffrah - who served under the caliph Muʿāwiyah, campaigning in South Asia and raiding the country between Kābul and Multān in 44 AH (664

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muawiyah_I

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81bul

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mult%C4%81n


AD)1. In Futuh al-Buldan of Aḥmad Ibn Yaḥyā al-Balādhurī, the raids of Bannu and Lahore, said to be located between Kabul and Multan, are explained in the following words:

ثم غزا ذلك الثغر املهلب بن أبي صفرة يف أايم معاوية سنة أربع وأربعني فأتى بنة

امللتان وكابل فلقيه العدو فقاتله ومن معه، ولقي املهلب ببالد واألهواز ومها ب ني القيقان مثانية عشر فارسا من الرتك على خيل حمذوفة فقاتلوه فقتلوا مجيعا، فقال املهلب: ما جعل هؤالء األعاجم أوىل ابلتمشري منا فحذف اخليل فكان أول من

حذفها من املسلمني ويف بنة يقول األزدي: .Baladhuri, vol)أن األزد ليلة بيتوا ... ببنة كانوا خري جيش املهلبأمل تر

1, P. 417)

The same event is described by Ibn al-Athir in his book al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh (Vol. 3, p. 48):

ذكر غزو المهلب الس ند ا ب ني المملتاني وفييها غزا الممهلبم بنم أبي صمفرة ث غر الس يندي فأتى ب نة واألهواز، ومهم

ت ركي وكابمل، ف لقييهم العدمو وقات لهم، ولقيي الممهلب بيبيالدي القييقاني مثانيية عشر فاريسا مين ال:ف قات لموهم ف قمتيلموا مجييعا، ف قال الممهلبم

لتشميريي مينا! فحذف اخليل، وكان أول من حذف ها مم أوىل ابي ما جمعيل هؤمالءي األعاجي مين الممسليميني، ويفي ي ومي ب نة ي قمولم األزديي:

لة ب مي يتموا ... بيب ن ر جيشي الممهلبي أمل ت ر أن األزد لي ة كانموا خي

Another historical reference about the Muslim invasions of Kabul and its surrounding regions in 44 AH (664 AD) comes from Tarikh Khalifa ibn Khayyat of Abū 'Amr Khalifa ibn Khayyat al Laythī al 'Usfurī (c. 777 - c.854), in which the Arab historian who wrote:

اتريخ خليفة بن خياطفتح كابل فييها افتتح ابن عامر كابل وقتل بكابل أبمو ق تادة العدوي وي مقال الذيي قتل

أبمو ريفاعة العدوي ومن سىب كابل مكحمول الشامي وسامل بن عجالن األفطس همم نفيع موىل ابن عممر ومهران أبمو وكيسان أ بمو أيوب بن أبي تييمة الس ختيياني ومين

محيد الطوييل وفيها غزا الممهلب بن أبي صفرة أرض اليند فسار إيىل قندابيل ث أخذ م الل ومأل الممسلممون إيىل بتة وأال هور ومها يفي سفح جبل كابل ف لقيي همم عدو هزمهم

أيديهم وانصرفموا ساليمني

1 The author is extremely thankful to Prof. Dr. Mirajul Islam Zia, Director Islamic and Arabic Studies, University of Peshawar, for making him available the historical references mentioned in this article.

The archaeological sources regarding the presence of Muslims or their occupations of the region are twofold: Numismatic evidence and epigraphical records. The confirmed numismatic evidences are the Ghaznavid coins mostly found by chance. History says that the Hindu Shahis were overthrown by this Muslim dynasty in the north and laid the foundation of the Islamic empire in the region. As far as inscriptions are concerned, they are very few in numbers and are mostly found in the south at Bambhore site in Sind or recorded in the different parts of ancient Gandhāra and its surrounding regions. The inscriptions from the north push back the history of Muslims not before the first half of the 9th century AD. But on the other hand the recent discovery of coins at Kashmir Smast may suggest that the Muslims were probably present in the region since 7th/8th century AD, when they first came to the area either as traders, pilgrims or invaders. The presence of Arabs in the Indo-Pakistani subcontinent was first attested in the first half of the 7th century AD (Chachnama: 72-73; Panhwar 1977: 431; Panhwar 1983: 124) before the Muhammad bin Qasim invasion of Sind in 711 AD (Baladuri, p. 432; Elliot 1956, Vol. 1: 156), who is regarded as the first Muslim ruler who entered the subcontinent and laid the foundation of an Islamic empire in the region. Al Baladuri, said to be the most reliable Arab historian, states that the Abbasid Caliph Mustisim Billah (218-228 AH = 833-842 AD) appointed Anbisa ibn Ishaq al Dhabbi governor of Sind (Khan, I 2002: 3) and it is said that during Muhammad bin Qasims time (711 AD) a portion of the Hindu temple at Bambhore was demolished and also during his time the upper and the lower parts were converted into a prison2. While Muslim occupation of the northern

2 On the Hindu temple and Bambhore excavation see Khan, F.A 1958.


region of Pakistan, as mentioned earlier, is related to Mahmud’s invasion of the Peshawar region in the 11th century AD, on the other hand the presence of Muslims in the north is attested in some historical accounts dated to the 7th century AD. However, due to lack of archaeological sources this has not been taken into account seriously. After the discovery of Islamic period coins recorded at Kashmir Smast it is time to revisit the history of Gandhāra and try to understand the early presence of Muslims in the area using both historical and archaeological evidence related to the region. Before going on to discuss and analyse the Islamic period coins found at Kashmir Smast and placing them in a certain historical and chronological context it is essential to have a brief overview of the early Muslim period inscriptions found in the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and other parts of Pakistan. It is important to note that except for few of these early period inscriptions the majority of them are recorded in the northern part of Pakistan, the area known in its broader context as ancient Gandhāra and its surrounding regions. These epigraphical records were either found by chance or recorded in situ, some of which are presently preserved in the different museums in Pakistan. These epigraphical records trace back the history of Muslims in the Indo-Pakistani subcontinent to about the 8th century AD. Inscriptions from Bambhore The earliest among the epigraphical records, found in Pakistan, are those recovered from the archaeological site of Bambhore, Sind. These are the most significant and the only epigraphic evidence related to the early Islamization of the Indo-Pakistani subcontinent. They are written in Kufic style and are carved into the dressed surfaces of limestone slabs (Khan, I 2002:2). The total number

of these inscriptions is fourteen but the majority of them are fragmentary and thus less informative, while some of them are very useful in terms of dates, names or narrating some historical events. All these inscriptions fall into two categories. The first group, which is composed of two inscriptions, bears historical data mentioning dates and names of governors and their agents. The second group includes twelve specimen and records only verses from the Holy Quran. The earliest among the first group is a Kufic inscription in which the construction of a mosque has been ordered and it is to be dated to 239 AH (AD 854). Here the name of the ruler is mentioned as Amir Harun ibn Muhammad while his agent in the inscription is known as Ali ibn Isa. The second specimen of the first group is a foliated Kufic inscription which can be dated to 294 AH (AD 906). The inscription bears Quranic verses exhorting Muslims to build mosques and offer prayers (Khan, I 2002:4).The inscription records the construction of a mosque executed by the order of Amir Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Umar ibn Abdul Aziz Habbari. According to F.A. Khan (Khan, F.A. 1958) the earliest one mentions Amir Marwan ibn Muhammad as the ruler who ordered the construction of the mosque and Ali ibn Musa as his agent to accomplish the work in 109 AH (AD 727-728), the date of execution. According to Ghafoor (Ghafoor 1966), the inscription mentions the name of the ruler as Amir Hassan ibn Muhammad, the name of his agent as Ali ibn Isa and the date as 239 AH (854AD). Tochi Valley Bilingual Inscriptions (Dani et al 1964)


Beside those inscriptions found in the province of Sind, which confirm the arrival of Muslims in the area at least in the second half of the 9th century AD, a number of Islamic period inscriptions were found in the northern region of Pakistan that equally attest that the Muslims had been in the region somewhere at the beginning of the 2nd half of the 9th century AD. These inscriptions were found in Waziristan, Malakand, Swat and Peshawar Valleys. The three Tochi Valley bilingual inscriptions, one of which mentions the construction of a tank, are dated to: A: Arabic-Skt: date 7th September 857 AD ( Arabic). In Skt. 32 B: Bactrian-Skt: date 632 = 862 (Bactrian). Skt 38 Samvat. C: Bactrian (in two pieces) 635 = 865. This inscription mentions the construction of a Tank and is dated to Bactrian era 230. Zalamkot Bilingual Inscription (Rahman 1998) Another important epigraph recently recorded by Abdur Rehman (Rehman 1998)3 in the northern region of Pakistan is a bilingual inscription of the time of Mahmud of Ghazna found in Zalamkot, in the lower Swat area of Malakand Division. It is, so far, the earliest Persian inscription found in the region and mentions the construction of a tomb (marqad) the foundation stone of which was laid by Arsalan Jadhib, the grand Amir and governor of Tus and which was completed in the month of Dhu al Qaad in the Hijri

3 The inscription needs to be revisited, first because the Sanskrit version has not yet been deciphered and secondly, since the translation of the Arabic/Persian version is not totally certain. Here the word “Marqad” may mean “resting place” or “caravanserai” rather than “a tomb” as translated by Rahman. The Sanskrit word for it is “upasthāna” meaning “abode”, “resting place”, “sanctuary”, “abiding place”, etc.

year of 401, that is June AD 1011, by a junior officer called Sipahba (junior commander) Khalilbak, son of Kotwal, Ahmad al Bagh. All these names have Turkish origin.

Udigram Inscriptions (Khan, N.A. 1985) Two other inscriptions of the time of Mahmud of Ghazna were found in Swat at a place called Udigram. One of these is carved with a Mehrab and engraved with the names of soldier companions of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna. It mentions the construction of a mosque and is dated to 440 AH (AD 1048-1049) (Khan, N.A. 1985).

Translation: 1) In the great and merciful name of God 2) Has ordered the prince (al-amlr) the chamberlain (al-hagtb) Abu Mans?xxxr


3) Nxxx?stegin the charitable (al-hairl), may God make his satisfaction (his prosperity) last, 4) the construction of this mosque and doors (xxx? al-b? xxxwab [sic]) in the months 5) of the year 440 (1048-1049); may God accept (them) 6) from him and appreciate his efforts. Hund inscription (Shakur 1946) The inscription, written in Kufic on to the dressed surface of a stone, is dated in 482 AH (AD 1090) and was built into the wall of an irrigation well (Shakur 1946: 9)4.

Translation:

In the name of the most Merciful and Compassionate God. Abu Jafar Muhammad, son of Abdul Jabbar, son of Muhammad, native of Jurja (a Persian city named Gurgan), in the month of Zil-Qadah, in the year 482, from the Migration of the Holy Prophet (AH) may peace and blessings of God be upon him. The above epigraphs, although fragmentary, are the few contemporary evidences which, somehow, shed light on the early Muslim history of the region. In the presence of these inscriptions, one can

4 Both transliteration and translation are taken from Shahkur 1946: 9-11, No.7.

conclude that the earliest date to be given to the presence of Muslims in Pakistan hardly goes back to the second half of the 9th century AD5 while the mentioned historical sources suggest a much earlier date which should to be somewhere in the first half of the 7th century AD. The new archaeological data, in form of numismatic evidence recently recovered from Kashmir Smast, may give an earlier date for the presence of Muslims in the area, particularly in the Peshawar valley and its surrounding regions.

Coins from Kashmir Smast Apart from the above epigraphic evidence recovered from different parts of Pakistan, the recent discovery of Islamic period coins from Kashmir Smast is another important body of evidence which may suggest the early presence of Muslims in the region of Gandhāra somewhere in the first part of the 7th century AD. Before reaching any conclusion, it is more appropriate to analyse the coins from Kashmir Smast in their archaeological and numismatic context. The archaeological site of Kashmir Smast is situated in the heartland of ancient Gandhāra about 50 kilometres North-East of Mardan, Northern Pakistan. The cave and the other important establishments lie in the mountain range of Sakra at an altitude of 1100m and 1960m from sea level. These remains mainly consist of the Great Cave (Mahāguhā), small rock cut shelters, the water reservoirs and the main monastic area which comprises the Shiva temple, lingaṃ shrines, soak area, double story structures, etc.6 Thousands of

5 Khan, F.A. gave a much too early date and claim that Ali ibn Musa, agent of Amir Marwan ibn Muhammad, accomplished the construction of Bambhore mosque in 109 AH (AD 727-728). 6 For more detail see Nasim Khan 2002, 2006, 2008.


antiquities have so far been recovered from the site mainly through looting activities. The antiquities, so far recorded are detached from their archaeological context, and the excavation conducted by the author at the site have already confirmed that the site is of great historical and religious significance. Besides the discovery of much epigraphical data, seals and sealings, sculptures and other objects of historical significance, thousands of coins have been recovered from the site which all confirms an un-interrupted and successive occupation of the site starting from at least the second century AD untill the period of the Sultans of Delhi. The most significant group of these coins belongs to the Hunnic period and the previously unknown coins to be associated with the Islamic period. A sure chronological table for all these is presently rather difficult to establish. The previously unknown Islamic period coins in copper, mostly in small denomination, occur in large number. Some of them are already known coins while one group of them is totally new to the numismatists and historians of the region. Although it is not easy to establish an exact chronological table for these coins yet, on the basis of their types and designs depicted on the coins, a certain sequence can be sketched. The coins included in the present paper can be classified into four main groups. Group A: In this group, the obverse bears a human bust in ¾ to right and the reverse is marked probably with a circle having a dot in its centre (Cat., No. 1). Group B: In the second group, the obverse shows a facing bust in outline shown with a round face having fleshy nose and eyes in round. The reverse design is similar to that of Group A (Cat., No. 2). Group C: The third group consists of coins where the obverse probably shows a

schematic representation of a crowned facing bust. The reverse here shows two concentric circles; there is a dot, as we have in the previous examples, in the centre (Cat., No. 3). Group D: This group comprises of coins where the obverse shows almost the same type of human head as in Group C but the reverse design is similar to a crescent with a star in form of a circle or the reverse may represents double parallel bold lines but in this case they should be considered broken (Cat., no. 4). Group E: In this Group, the obverse probably shows the same type of crowned bust as in the previous examples but the outer circle on the reverse gives the form of a crescent in outline while the star is marked with a small circle with a dot in the middle (Cat, no. 5). Group F: Here, the bust on the reverse is replaced with a leaf shaped design while the design on the reverse stays the same as in Group E (Cat., nos. 6-9). Group G: In the next variety the obverse of the coin is shown with a lion in contour as to be observed on the Hindu Shahi period coins while the reverse bears the same crescent and star symbols as noticed on the previous examples (Cat., no. 10). Group H: Here, the obverse is depicted with a lion in contour and facing to the left. The reverse of the coin bears Arabic inscription written in early style and could be partially read either Bismillah or Rasulullah (Cat., nos. 11, 12). Group I: In this case, the lion on the obverse is represented in contour and is standing to the right. On the reverse there is probably the same type of Arabic inscription as noticed in the previous group (Cat., no. 13).


Group J: The obverse design in this group is unclear; it could be figure of a lion in contour standing to the right as we have in Group H. The inscription on the reverse may be read as that on Group H but the style of calligraphy is very similar to Group K (Cat., no. 14). Group K: The last group of the series is distinct from the others because of the Śāradā inscription on the obverse. The obverse in this group shows a lion standing to the right as we have in Group I. The curly tail of the lion is turned back towards his head. In the angel of the body and the tail there is a Śāradā letter “ma’ or “da”; may be the rest of the inscription is missing. On the reverse of the coins the Arabic inscription is similar to the one appears on Group J (Cat., no. 15). To summarise the above typology of the coins, the obverse designs on this group of coins moves in two different directions. On the one hand, we have a human bust and floral or similar designs, while on the other hand the obverse shows a lion changing his direction from right to left or left to right. The reverse designs equally show two variations. In the first case, development of the crescent and star from the circle can be seen while in the second case an Arabic inscription was introduced probably showing an early phase of Kufic writing style. In a later period both Arabic and Śāradā scripts have been used on the coins. The Kashmir Smast coins are previously unknown types of an Islamic group of numismatic evidence and it is not easy to place them in a certain chronological order because they are not coming from proper archaeological context. However, one thing that seems certain, as the table below shows (fig. 2), is that these numismatic evidences date after the Hunnic period, and may have been used just after the Huns occupation of Gandhāra or could have been in use after the Hindu Shahi’s,

for which the author has a little doubt. An attempt has, therefore, been made here to put them, up to some extent, in a certain chronological context. The bulk of coins found at Kashmir Smast mostly consist of the Kushan period coins, imitation of Menander coins issued during the Kushan period, the Hunnic period coins with a large number of new varieties and the presently published lot of coins having close similarity with the Kidāra period coins on the one hand and the Hindu Shahi’s on the other. Following is the table of comparison based mostly on their obverse designs (fig. 2). Looking at the different types of coins included in our diagram (fig. 2) and the designs depicted on them, one can get the impression that these Islamic period coins are to be associated with a period following the Hindu Shahi era. This can be presumed because of the lion drawing marked in outline which is comparable to the drawing which appears on the Hindu Shahi coins as well as the Arabic inscriptions. But on the other hand, if we compare the supposed Hindu Shahi type lion and other drawings appearing on our coins, except for the Arabic inscription, with the Hunnic group of coins and considering the denominations of both the types, this may show another side of the picture, because the designs on the present group of coins are mostly associated to the drawings of the Hunnic period coins rather than to the Hindu Shahi group of coins. Moreover, the denomination and materials of both the Hunnic group of coins from Kashmir Smast and those under discussion have closer similarity compared to the Hindu Shahi period coins. The new types of Hunnic period coins recovered from Kashmir Smast have been thoroughly studied by the author (Nasim Khan 2006, Nasim Khan et al 2008). One group of these mentioned coins carries a Kidāra bust on the obverse and a lion in


solid on the reverse which could be compared to the lion of the other Kidāra group of coins where on the obverse is mentioned “Shahi” in Brahmi. Similarly the same “Shahi” inscription appears on the obverse of the same group of coins where the reverse design is an elephant, commonly found on Hindu Shahis coins. Such Hindu Shahi type elephants appear in combination with a lion drawing on the reverse of the coin; the drawing of the lion could be compared with the lion to be seen on the Kidāra coins which itself is comparable to the one appearing on our group of Islamic coins. To resume the above discussion it could be said for sure that the lion in contour is not a feature typical to the Hindu Shahi period coins only, but at the same is already attested on the coins of the Kidārites, a dynasty that ruled before the Hindu Shahi’s invasion of the area. It is possible that the Hindu Shahis themselves borrowed the idea from the Kidārites and used the lion drawing on their coins. As far as the other drawings on the present Islamic group of coins are concerned, such as the profile bust in a contour and the crescent with a star, both are not known on Hindu Shahi period coins. Therefore, these symbols could not have been adopted or copied by the Muslims for their coins from the Hindu Shahi but they show close association with the Hunnic group of coins. It is, therefore, suggested that the present group of Islamic coins may have been issued before the occupation of Gandhāra by the Hindu Shahis and certainly after the Hunnic invasion of the region. If this was the case, then it would mean that the Islamic period coins from Kashmir Smast are the earliest evidences of Islamic coinage in the Indo-Pakistani subcontinent and the date could be placed somewhere in the course of the 7th-8th century AD. When exactly and by whom they were issued is a question which still remains uncertain and will remain an enigma until other archaeological,

epigraphical or literary evidence comes to light helping us not only to understand more about the early period of Islamic coinage in the region but also to know about their issuers. However, as mentioned by Mitchiner (Mitchiner 1977: 55), before the currency reform of AH 77-9 (AD 697-699), coinage was struck in continuance of the pre-existing currencies of the conquered province by the Muslims; it would be, therefore, possible that the Kashmir Smast coins may have also gone through the same process and they could be the result of a similar situation in Gandhāra. The existing currency of the Hunnic period or pre-Hindu Shahi period was most probably continued with gradual change in designs, the addition of Arabic inscriptions and crescent symbols both representing Islamic ethos. Due to limitation of these coins to Kashmir Smast, it can also be suggested that these coins might not have been used as currency but most probably were taken there to make offerings, as might be the case for the previous unknown Hunnic group of coins to be found in large number at the same site (Nasim Khan, et al 2008: 25). To conclude the above and to combine both historical and archaeological sources, it might be suggested that Muslims started their penetration, if not invasion, in the north-western part of the Indo-Pakistani subcontinent as early as the second half of the 7th century AD while the invasion of Gandhāra may have taken place with the arrival of the Ghaznavids in the 10th/11th century AD or even earlier (?)7.

7 A preliminary version of this paper has been submitted for publication to the Peshawar Islamicus, a research journal of the Institute of Arabic and Islamic Studies, University of Peshawar


Catalogue of Islamic period coins from Kashmir Smast

Group A No. 1 (Ref. Nasim Khan 2001: Pl. 51, no. 4 ; (Nasim Khan et al 2008: Cat No. 685) Obv: Profile bust (3/4) facing r. Big fleshy nose, large mouth with protruded lips; wrinkles in the throat. Rev: Circle with a dot in its centre. Æ, 0.44gr., 10.3mm

Group B No. 2 (Nasim Khan 2001: Pl. 51, no. 5) Obv: Bust in front (3/4), little inclined to the r. Flat nose, large eyes, protruded lips, wrinkles in fore front. Probably the hair in form of a lock in the l. Rev: Circle with a point in its centre. Æ, 0.79gr., 11.5mm

Group C No. 3 (Nasim Khan 2001: Pl. 51, no. 6) Obv: Two fish tail designs attached to the outer surface of a circle/s; they seem the rest of a crown. If it is the case, this might be a profile bust facing r. See No. 4. Rev: Circle with a dot in its centre. Beaded margin (?). Æ, 0.68g., 14.4mm

Group D No. 4 (Nasim Khan 2001: Pl. 51, no. 7) Obv: Facing bust in contour with broad l. ear. The head dress seems the same as on No. 3. Rev: A large semi-circle with a relatively small one


in its centre probably representing moon and star design. Æ, 0.62gr., 11.5mm

Group E No. 5 (Nasim Khan 2001: Pl. 52, no. 8) Obv: Profile bust (3/4) facing r. Long ear, only the r. one is visible. The ear is pierced with a rode shaped jewellery or having an ear plug; also wearing necklace. The large mouth with protruded lips and the bold wrinkle in the throat suggest it the same type of bust as on No. 1. The supposed ear with jewellery could also be a symbol. Rev: Crescent with a star in shape of a circle centred with a small dot. Æ, 0.43gr., 10mm

Group F No. 6 (Nasim Khan 2001: Pl. 52, no. 9) Obv: A leaf shaped drawing; could be part of a symbol or a crown whereas the rest is missing. Rev: Crescent with a star in form of a circle. Æ, 0.53gr., 10.2mm

No. 7 (Nasim Khan 2001: Pl. 52, no. 10) Ditto Æ

No. 8 (Nasim Khan 2001: Pl. 52, no. 11) Ditto Æ, 0.85mm, 13.8mm


No. 9 (Nasim Khan 2001: Pl. 52, no. 12) Obv: Same design as on No. 6. Rev: A small circle with a dot in its centre. The crescent is missing, only traces are visible. Æ, 0.64gr, 13.4mm

Group G No. 10 Obv: Lion in contour standing r. The figure is hardly recognisable. Rev: Crescent with star as on No. 5 Æ, 0.63gr., 11.3mm

Group H No. 11 Obv: Lion in contour standing l. Rev: Arabic inscription probably ‘Bismillah…’. It could also be ‘Muhammad/ Rasool/Allah ’ Æ, 0.56gr., 13.9mm

No. 12 Ditto Æ, 0.71gr., 14.8mm

Group I No. 13 Obv: Lion in contour standing r. Rev: Ditto Æ, 0.79gr., 14mm

Group J


No. 14 Obv: Lion standing r. Rev: Same inscription as on No. 13. Æ, 0.79gr., 13.1mm

Group K No. 15 Obv: Lion in contour standing r. Above inscription in Deva Nagari, only the letter ‘ma’ is available. Rev: Arabic inscription in three lines; probably ‘Bismillah…’ or ‘Muhammad/ Rasool/Allah ’ written from bottom to top. Æ


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Fig. 1: Location map of Kashmir Smast

Fig. 2: Diagram showing comparison of coins

the early arrival of muslims in ... - cgbs-gandhara.org. nasim khan.pdf · gandhāran studies, vol....

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