the differences between barriers to …worldconferences.net/proceedings/gems2015/fullpaper/ge 064...
TRANSCRIPT
e-Proceeding of the Global Conference on Economics and Management Science 2015 (GEMS 2015). (e-ISBN 978-967-0792-05-7). 12 -13 October 2015 at Bayview Beach Resort Penang Hotel, Malaysia. Organized by http://worldconferences.net/home/
GLOBAL CONFERENCE ON ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2015 (GEMS 2015) OCTOBER 2015
141
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BARRIERS TO PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PARTICIPATION AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY LEVELS AMONG MALAYSIAN WOMEN CIVIL SERVANTS
Roayaah Binti Zambri1, Dr. Nadiah Diyana Tan Abdullah2, Dr. Rezian-na Mohammed Kassim3
1 Faculty of Sport Science and Recreation Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia
2 Faculty of Sport Science and Recreation Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia
3 Faculty of Sport Science and Recreation Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia
ABSTRACT
This present study aimed to investigate the difference in barriers for physical activity participation
among Malaysian women civil servants within their physical activity levels. A sample of 447 women civil
servant aged from 18 to 59 years old completed a set of physical activity questionnaire and their current
levels of physical activity. The results showed that sixty-eight percent of the women were classified as
inactive women that indicated that majority were not physically active enough to achieve positive health
outcomes. Besides, the results also revealed that there are significant differences between barriers to
physical activity and physical activity levels (F (4, 436) = 4.86, p = .00; Wilks’ Lambda = .74; partial eta
squared = .07). Hence, women in later stages exhibited that they had also perceived higher in resources
and skills, personal well-being, and cultures and religiosity barriers than women in earlier stages.
However, there were significant differences in mean barriers among those women according to their
physical activity levels. Through the identification of barriers between each physical activity levels, better
intervention programs may be implemented to enhance the participation to physical activity among
these women civil servant. This finding also provides a future insight to better understand the physical
activity behaviour among Malaysian women civil servants.
Field of research: barriers to physical activity participation, physical activity levels, women civil servant.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
e-Proceeding of the Global Conference on Economics and Management Science 2015 (GEMS 2015). (e-ISBN 978-967-0792-05-7). 12 -13 October 2015 at Bayview Beach Resort Penang Hotel, Malaysia. Organized by http://worldconferences.net/home/
GLOBAL CONFERENCE ON ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2015 (GEMS 2015) OCTOBER 2015
142
1. Introduction
Malaysia as developing country has recorded a high occurrence of chronic diseases as reported by
Mohamud et al., (2011) and Department of Statistics of Malaysia (2010). These diseases are expected to
cause over three quarters of all deaths in 2030 (Wan Rabiah, Patterson, & Pegg, 2011). Malaysians are
also represented by 60% of adults that can be classified as a non-active group with major health
problems (Mohd Zaid & Wilson., 2009), as evidence by the increased percentage in obese women in this
category (Tan & Yim, 2010; Wan Rabiah, et al., 2011). In light of that, physical activity has been regarded
as the main medium for preventing chronic disease (Phongsavan, McLean, & Bauman, 2007). The
benefits from engaging in physical activity regularly were recognized not only in health but also in terms
of physical, psychological, physiological and social benefits. Practising moderate and vigorous physical
activities frequently brings about various health benefits (Biddle & Fuchs, 2009; Tracey, Dawson, &
Berry, 2008) such as reduced feelings of depression and anxiety, reduced risks of obesity (Morris,
Bourne, Eldemire-Shearer, & McGrowder, 2010) and improved quality of life in individuals (Gomez-
Lopez, Gallegos, & Extremera, 2010). Even moderate or vigorous exercise such as brisk walk, climbing
stairs and cycling may enhance health because of the energy consumption involved.
However, the rate of participation in physical activity was increased in alarming rate. Adults particularly
women were found to be not being physically active to achieve positive health outcomes. It was also
proven that compared to men, women was found to lead sedentary lifestyle and were not physically
active enough to achieve positive health outcomes as reported by previous studies (Hanlon, Morris, &
Nabbs, 2010; Heather & Roberts, 2010). The common reasons identified for women not participating in
physical activity were lack of time due to work and family commitment; lack of resources or skills, and
not enough support from family or friend (Dixon, 2009; Sit, Kerr, & Wong, 2008) and other behavioural,
environmental, and psychological factors (Biddle & Mutrie, 2008; Dixon, 2009).
The reduction in energy among civil servants such as increased occupational sedentariness,
development of labour-saving devices, motorizes transportation, and sedentary entertainment in
workplace (Yancey et al., 2007) have contributed to the absenteeism, sick leave, disability, injuries and
health care claims (Anderson et al., 2009). As the present study focused on Malaysian civil servant, the
existed barriers to physical activity participation should be tackled since these groups of women are
considered as the backbone of the country’s development. Thus, healthy and active women civil servant
is important in order to work effectively and efficiently and also to venture any changes on their
responsibilities toward a better future. This is crucial as the evident from the previous study has been
reported that the active workers had a lower rate of absenteeism compared to non-active workers
(Heather & Roberts, 2010).
Effective physical activity interventions may enhance the physical activity participation among these
women civil servants. The identification of barriers towards physical activity participation is capable to
tackle the number of women who are not being physically active enough. In relation, numerous
researches have been conducted in physical activity psychology especially in determining the physical
e-Proceeding of the Global Conference on Economics and Management Science 2015 (GEMS 2015). (e-ISBN 978-967-0792-05-7). 12 -13 October 2015 at Bayview Beach Resort Penang Hotel, Malaysia. Organized by http://worldconferences.net/home/
GLOBAL CONFERENCE ON ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2015 (GEMS 2015) OCTOBER 2015
143
activity participation among the people involved in several research setting (Asztalos et al., 2012; Biddle
& Fuchs, 2009). Despite all researches, there has been a small number of data from Asian samples which
can be considered as not been adequate to describe the reasons to physical activity participation (Han,
Kim, Park, Kang, & Ryu, 2009) especially among civil servants.
Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the differences between barriers to physical activity
participation and physical activity levels among these group of respondents.
2. Barriers to Physical Activity Participation
When discussing the reasons on why people are not participating in physical activity, researchers have
identified the barriers existed which affected them. Inactive lifestyles and inconsistencies negative
influences of physical activity may enhance the emergence of overweight and obesity phenomenon
(Trost, Owen, Bauman, Sallis, & Brown, 2002). Barriers to physical activity participation also have been
continuously reported to have negative relationships between an individual’s perception and
individual’s actual involvement in physical activity (Carron, Hausenblas, & Estabrooks, 2003). Besides
that, barriers to physical activity varied among demographic variables and psychological factors such as
differences in age, gender, socioeconomic profile and level of education.
Carron, et al., (2003) stated that the major barriers reported by people who were trying to engage in
physical activity were lack of time, lack of access to convenient facilities, and lack of safe environment.
Furthermore, lack of time, being too tired, parenthood, role overload, being too lazy or unmotivated,
not being the sporty type, being too fat to exercise, and being too shy or embarrassed to exercise were
found to be barrier among women with normal weight (Jewson, Spittle, & Casey, 2008). Previous
researchers also stated that common key barriers to physical activity participation in women are lack of
time due to work and/or family commitment; resources and skills; and family and friend support (Biddle
& Mutrie, 2008; Dixon, 2009; Hanlon, et al., 2010; Segar, Eccles, Peck, & Richardson, 2007; Sit, et al.,
2008; Sodergen, Hylander, Tornkvist, Sundquist, & Sundquist, 2008; Stanis, Schneider, Chavez, &
Shinew, 2009). However, it was suggested that the lack of time was not a barrier but an excuse to not
engaging in physical activity.
People were found to perceive barrier significantly differences according to their physical activity levels.
This is supported by Jewson, et al., (2008) where they stated that there were significant different
between inactive and active women in terms of their perceived behavioural which influence them to do
or do not engage in physical activity.
3. Physical Activity Levels
In the present study, the stages of change from The Transtheoretical Model were utilized to describe the
physical activity levels of Malaysian women civil servants. The TTM was developed by Prochaska and
e-Proceeding of the Global Conference on Economics and Management Science 2015 (GEMS 2015). (e-ISBN 978-967-0792-05-7). 12 -13 October 2015 at Bayview Beach Resort Penang Hotel, Malaysia. Organized by http://worldconferences.net/home/
GLOBAL CONFERENCE ON ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2015 (GEMS 2015) OCTOBER 2015
144
DiClemente (1983) to facilitates the intervention strategies that are both individually tailored and can be
easily modified to fit the selected population (Buckworth & Dishman, 2002; Fallon, Hausenblas, & Nigg,
2005). The Transtheoretical Model is appropriate to examine the behavioural changes involved when
individual are making a decision either to move into the next stage, relapse back to previous stage and
either to stay in their current stage. Hence, Fallon, et al., (2005), Jordan, Nigg, Norman, Rossi &
Benisovich (2002), Kennett, Worth, & Forbes (2009), and Tracey, et al., (2008) has stated that the TTM
was developed as a comprehensive model of behaviour change, incorporating cognitive, behavioural,
and temporal aspects into one unified approach for behaviour change.
The TTM is completed by the presence of ten processes which reflect cognitive and behavioural
strategies that might be used to help people modify their thoughts, environment and experience (Gorely
& Bruce, 2000). It also called as an attempt to change their behaviour. As stated by Kennett, et al.,
(2009), previous researcher claimed that there is a differential use in the process of behaviour change
and the TTM propose that an individual move towards following stages in the behavioural change. In
addition, the TTM is also beneficial to some health programs because of its applicability to interventions
targeting multiple behaviours to increase public health.
As one of the processes in TTM, stages of change reflect the temporal dimension in which behavioural
changes attempt to occurred (Callaghan, Khalil, & Morres, 2010; DeLong, 2006). The stage of change
construct characterizes the time or readiness dimension into five progressive stages when behaviour
change occur (Nigg et al., 2011). Hence, the stage of change is also thought to be cyclical rather than
linear as many individuals did not succeed in their efforts at starting and sticking with lifestyles changes
(Fallon, et al., 2005; Gorely & Bruce, 2000; Marcus & Forsyth, 2003b). The stages of change consist of
pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action and maintenance stage.
4. Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study was to determine the barriers to physical activity participation among
women civil servant and also to identify the significant differences between barriers to physical activity
participation and physical activity levels of Malaysian women civil servant of the supporting groups.
Based on that, seven of hypotheses were formulated:
HO1 – There is no significant difference between resources and skills barriers with physical activity levels
among women civil servant of the supporting groups.
HO2 – There is no significant difference between psychosocial barriers with physical activity levels
among women civil servant of the supporting groups.
H03 – There is no significant difference between personal well-being barriers with physical activity levels
among women civil servant of the supporting groups.
e-Proceeding of the Global Conference on Economics and Management Science 2015 (GEMS 2015). (e-ISBN 978-967-0792-05-7). 12 -13 October 2015 at Bayview Beach Resort Penang Hotel, Malaysia. Organized by http://worldconferences.net/home/
GLOBAL CONFERENCE ON ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2015 (GEMS 2015) OCTOBER 2015
145
HO4 – There is no significant difference between time barriers with physical activity levels among
women civil servant of the supporting groups.
HO5 – There is no significant difference between weather and inconvenience barriers with physical
activity levels among women civil servant of the supporting groups.
HO6 – There is no significant difference between family and friend support barriers with physical activity
levels among women civil servant of the supporting groups.
HO7 – There is no significant difference between cultures and religiosity barriers with physical activity
levels among women civil servant of the supporting groups.
5. Methodology
5.1 Sample
The respondents in this study were women civil servants specifically in the supporting groups of the
selected ministries as the target population. Multistage cluster sample has been carried out to
determine the sample size for this study. 447 of respondents’ age range of 18 to 58 years from six
ministries in Wilayah Persekutuan Putrajaya who volunteered to answer a set of questionnaire
provided by the researcher.
5.2 Instrumentation
Self-administered questionnaire were distributed to the targeted respondents. Every set of
questionnaires consisted of close-ended questions and also contained several sections with each
section measured the barriers to physical activity participation and physical activity levels of the
respondents. The questionnaire was adopted and adapted from previous researchers and this
questionnaire was back to back translated by four language expert before the distribution process.
Section A of questionnaire consisted of questions on demographic background of the respondents
such as age, marital status, race, religion, educational level and monthly salary. In section B,
questionnaire from Physical Activity Risk Reduction (PARR) which addressed all of the factors of
barriers aroused among the respondents in this study. This scale was adapted from Guan & Zhu
(1999) which consisted of 23-items rated by the 5-point Likert Scales ranging from (5) “Very Often”
to (1) “Never”. This scale also consisted of six barriers dimensions which are (1) resources and skills;
(2) psychosocial; (3) personal well-being; (4) time; (5) weather and inconvenience; and (6) family or
friend support. However, five new items which related to cultural and religiosity have been added in
this scale to better understanding within the cultures aspect among Malaysian civil servant.
e-Proceeding of the Global Conference on Economics and Management Science 2015 (GEMS 2015). (e-ISBN 978-967-0792-05-7). 12 -13 October 2015 at Bayview Beach Resort Penang Hotel, Malaysia. Organized by http://worldconferences.net/home/
GLOBAL CONFERENCE ON ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2015 (GEMS 2015) OCTOBER 2015
146
Physical activity levels adopted from Stages of Change Measure (SCM) by Marcus, Selby, Niaura &
Rossi (1992a) was included in Section C of the questionnaire. This section was used to measure the
respondent current levels of physical activity which represents the five statements of physical
activity behaviours.
5.3 Data Collection Procedure
An ethic approval from the university institutional ethical committee was obtained before the actual
research conducted. Once approval acquired, the pilot study was conducted among respondents
with similar criteria. After the data from pilot study was validated, the next process of data
collection was carried out.
To gather the targeted respondents, several phone calls have been made to the six ministries
regarding the procedure involved. After required information had been obtained, official letters
were sent to all respective officers at the Corporate and Communication Department in each of the
six ministries. Once approvals from these ministries had been obtained, the researcher approached
these respective officers to seek their help to organize a meeting with all potential respondents who
meet the criteria required to be the subjects in this study.
The respondents were gathered and a briefing session was conducted before the distribution of
questionnaires took place. During the briefing session the researcher explained the purpose of the
study and ethical issues involved in this study. The data collection was conducted during working
hours to get a higher returning rate. The period of collecting data took about four to five weeks to
administer the questionnaires from one ministry to other ministries.
6. Findings and Discussions
6.1 Reliability Analysis
The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients for the whole dimensions of PARR scales revealed ranged value
from .65 to .91. Hence, PARR showed the satisfactory alpha value which was .65 for Family and
Friends dimension, Cultures and Religiosity (.91), Resources and Skills (.85), Personal Well-being
(.83), Weather and Inconvenience (.77), Psychosocial (.74) and Time (.73).
6.2 Descriptive Analysis
From the 447 of the respondents, 68% respondents selected pre-contemplation, contemplation, and
preparation stages, while 32% of respondents selected action and maintenance stages which is best
describe their current physical activity levels. Thus, it can be concluded that most of the women civil
servants of the supporting group were not being physically active enough for them to achieve a
positive health outcomes. Besides, in this study, it was found the three most important barriers to
e-Proceeding of the Global Conference on Economics and Management Science 2015 (GEMS 2015). (e-ISBN 978-967-0792-05-7). 12 -13 October 2015 at Bayview Beach Resort Penang Hotel, Malaysia. Organized by http://worldconferences.net/home/
GLOBAL CONFERENCE ON ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2015 (GEMS 2015) OCTOBER 2015
147
physical activity participation that hindered these women civil servant were resources and skills
barriers followed by personal well-being barriers and cultures and religiosity barriers as indicated in
Table 1.
Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviation for Barriers to PA Participation
Variables Mean Std. Deviation
Resources and skills 19.80 4.58 Personal Well-being 17.55 3.73 Cultural and Religiosity 17.46 4.55 Psychosocial 17.08 3.52 Weather and Inconvenience 9.75 2.51 Family and Friends 6.76 1.80 Time 5.99 1.94
Therefore, the researcher assumed that the lack of resources and skills, personal well-being and
cultures and religiosity most affected them to be physically inactive. Since lack of resources and
skills were the most barriers that they have to participate in physical activity, this is might be due to
the lack of facilities to do physical activity as well as less of knowledge in doing physical activity
provided to them. Respondents also indicated that they were afraid of pain and intensity in order to
engage in physical activity. Other than that, the respondent also felt the lack of physical activity
facilities and programs that stressed on culturally and religion sensitivity; and they also felt a
disconnection and isolation with the society when they were doing physical activity.
To test the seven formulated hypotheses in this study, a one-way between-groups multivariate
analysis of variance (MANOVA) were computed in order to identify the significant difference in all
barriers variables with physical activity levels. Table 2 revealed the differences between barriers and
physical activity levels among women civil servant of the supporting groups. It was showed that all
of barriers have a significantly difference with the physical activity levels F (4, 436) = 4.86, p =.00;
Wilks’ Lambda = .74; partial eta squared = .07 since p level was less than .05. Other than that, all
barriers variables also showed the significant difference with physical activity levels. All of the
hypotheses were rejected. The findings are presented in Table 2.
e-Proceeding of the Global Conference on Economics and Management Science 2015 (GEMS 2015). (e-ISBN 978-967-0792-05-7). 12 -13 October 2015 at Bayview Beach Resort Penang Hotel, Malaysia. Organized by http://worldconferences.net/home/
GLOBAL CONFERENCE ON ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2015 (GEMS 2015) OCTOBER 2015
148
Table 2: Means (standard deviation) one-way ANOVA: barriers to physical activity participation
and physical activity levels.
PA Participation
Stages
Sig. Pre-contemplation
(PC)
Contemplation (C)
Preparation (P)
Action (A)
Maintenance (M)
Resources/Skills 16.35 (4.52) 18.21 (4.55) 20.46 (4.31) 20.57 (4.29) 22.28 (3.56) .000 Psychosocial 15.5 (3.82) 15.77 (3.73) 17.24 (3.16) 17.86 (3.11) 19.21 (2.94) .000 Personal Well-being
14.79 (4.06) 16.62 (3.68) 17.53 (3.51) 18.62 (3.58) 19.64 (2.72) .000
Time 4.82 (2.07) 5.62 (2.06) 5.96 (1.77) 6.44 (2.31) 6.92 (1.73) .000
Weather /Inconvenience
8.68 (3.16) 9.04 (2.74) 9.88 (2.31) 9.89 (2.19) 11.39 (1.55) .000
Family/Friends 5.62 (1.84) 6.09 (1.79) 6.82 (1.65) 7.36 (1.62) 6.76 (1.52) .000 Cultures/ Religiosity
13.73 (5.44) 16.33 (4.46) 18.13 (4.15) 18.29 (3.73) 19.02 (4.83) .000
As can be seen in Table 2, respondents in all of stages perceived barriers significantly different.
However, respondents in maintenance stage were found to perceive higher in all barriers in terms of
resources and skills, psychosocial, personal well-being, time, weather and inconvenience, family and
friends, and cultures and religiosity compared to respondents in earlier stages. Therefore, this
finding of the current study has been supported by previous study where barriers to physical activity
participation were found to be significantly different with stages of change (Sit, et al., 2008). This is
due to the inner feelings and difficulty that stimulated differently between individuals, even though
these individuals might seem to have a few similar motives to participate in physical activity. For
example, women at the later stages and women at the earlier stages found that weight loss as a
common facilitator, while time was found as a common barrier for later stages women and laziness
was found as a common barrier to earlier stages women in order to participate in physical activity.
This is supported by the Jewson, et al., (Jewson, et al., 2008) where they stated that there were
significant different between inactive and active women in terms of their perceived behavioural
which influence them to do or do not engage in physical activity.
7. Conclusions and Future Recommendations
It was found that more than half as 68% of these women civil servants were not engaged in sufficient
physical activity to achieve the desirable positive health outcomes. The high percentage of civil servants
who were not physically active may caused some concerns towards the development and administration
of the country and may also affect the credibility of women civil servants in carrying out their duties.
Hence, by the identification of this non-active prevalence, an immediate yet effective prevention
measure could be taken by the relevant ministries in order to develop and enhance an extensive
physical activity intervention among civil servants so that they will participate in physical activity
regularly for a long-term. Besides, it also shown that these women possessed difference barriers
(resources and skills, personal well-being, psychosocial, weather and inconvenience, family and friends,
e-Proceeding of the Global Conference on Economics and Management Science 2015 (GEMS 2015). (e-ISBN 978-967-0792-05-7). 12 -13 October 2015 at Bayview Beach Resort Penang Hotel, Malaysia. Organized by http://worldconferences.net/home/
GLOBAL CONFERENCE ON ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2015 (GEMS 2015) OCTOBER 2015
149
time, and cultures and religiosity) among women in different stages of change.
Qualitative research methods such as in-depth interview about motives and barriers to physical activity
participation among respondents in future can be taken into a consideration. Lastly, more research is
also needed to shed more light to some of the issues to better understanding the relation of
psychological construct that might be or not be important to explain on physical activity behaviour and
also to provide more empirical evidence on industries values.
e-Proceeding of the Global Conference on Economics and Management Science 2015 (GEMS 2015). (e-ISBN 978-967-0792-05-7). 12 -13 October 2015 at Bayview Beach Resort Penang Hotel, Malaysia. Organized by http://worldconferences.net/home/
GLOBAL CONFERENCE ON ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2015 (GEMS 2015) OCTOBER 2015
150
References
Anderson, L. M., Quinn, T. A., Glanz, K., Ramirez, G., Kahwati, L. C., Johnson, D. B., . . . Services, T. F. o. C. P. (2009). The Effectiveness of Worksite Nutrition and Physical Activity Interventions for Controlling Employee Overweight and Obesity: A systematic Review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 37(4), 18. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2009.07.003
Asztalos, M., Wijndaele, K., De Bourdeaudhuij, I., Philippaerts, R., Matton, L., Duvigneaud, N., . . .
Cardon, G. (2012). Sport participation and stress among women and men. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13(4), 466-483. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.01.003
Biddle, S. J. H., & Fuchs, R. (2009). Exercise Psychology: A View from Europe. Psychology of Sport and
Exercise, 10(4), 410-419. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.02.011 Biddle, S. J. H., & Mutrie, N. (2008). Psychology of Physical Activity: Determinants, Well-being, and
Interventions. Great Britain: GreenGate Publishing Services. Buckworth, J., & Dishman, R. K. (2002). Exersice Psychology. United State: Human Kinetics. Callaghan, P., Khalil, E., & Morres, I. (2010). A prospective evaluation of the Transtheoretical Model of
Change applied to exercise in young people. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 47(1), 3-12. doi: 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2009.06.013
Carron, A. V., Hausenblas, H. A., & Estabrooks, P. A. (2003). The Psychology of Physical Activity. United
States: McGraw Hill. DeLong, L. L. (2006). College Students's Motivation for Physical Activity. Dpctor of Philosophy, University
of Louisiana, Monroe. Dixon, M. A. (2009). From Their Perspective: A Qualitative Examination of Physical Activity and Sport
Programming for Working Mothers. Sport Management Review, 12(1), 34-48. doi: 10.1016/j.smr.2008.09.002
Fallon, E. A., Hausenblas, H. A., & Nigg, C. R. (2005). The transtheoretical model and exercise adherence:
examining construct associations in later stages of change. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6(6), 629-641. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2005.01.003
Gomez-Lopez, M., Gallegos, A. G., & Extremera, A. B. (2010). Perceived barriers by university students in
the practice of physical activities. Sports Science and Medicine, 9(3), 8. Gorely, T., & Bruce, D. (2000). A 6-month investigation of exercise adoption from the contemplation
stage of the transtheoretical model. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 1(2), 89-101. doi: 10.1016/s1469-0292(00)00012-1
Han, M. A., Kim, K. S., Park, J., Kang, M. G., & Ryu, S. Y. (2009). Association between levels of physical
activity and poor self-rated health in Korean adults: The Third Korea National Health and
e-Proceeding of the Global Conference on Economics and Management Science 2015 (GEMS 2015). (e-ISBN 978-967-0792-05-7). 12 -13 October 2015 at Bayview Beach Resort Penang Hotel, Malaysia. Organized by http://worldconferences.net/home/
GLOBAL CONFERENCE ON ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2015 (GEMS 2015) OCTOBER 2015
151
Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES), 2005. [Article]. Public Health (Elsevier), 123(10), 665-669. doi: 10.1016/j.puhe.2009.08.005
Hanlon, C., Morris, T., & Nabbs, S. (2010). Establishing a successful physical activity program to recruit
and retain women. Sport Management Review, 13(3), 269-282. doi: 10.1016/j.smr.2009.10.003 Heather, B., & Roberts, J. (2010). Exercising Choice: The Economic Determinants of Physical Activity
Behaviour. 25. Jewson, E., Spittle, M., & Casey, M. (2008). A preliminary analysis of barriers, intentions, and attitudes
towards moderate physical activity in women who are overweight. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 11(6), 558-561. doi: 10.1016/j.jsams.2007.08.002
Jordan, P. J., Nigg, C. R., Norman, G. J., Rossi, J. S., & Benisovich, S. V. (2002). Does the transtheoretical
model need an attitude adjustment?: Integrating attitude with decisional balance as predictors of stage of change for exercise. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 3(1), 65-83. doi: 10.1016/s1469-0292(01)00005-x
Kennett, D. J., Worth, N. C., & Forbes, C. A. (2009). The contributions of Rosenbaum's model of self-
control and the transtheoretical model to the understanding of exercise behavior. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10(6), 602-608. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.03.012
Marcus, B. H., & Forsyth, L. H. (2003b). Motivating People to Be Physically Active: Human Kinetics. Marcus, B. H., Selby, V. C., Niaura, R. S., & Rossi, J. S. (1992a). Self-efficacy and the stages of exercise
behavior change. Res Q Exerc Sport, 63(1), 60-66. Mohamud, W. N., Musa, K. I., Khir, A. S., Ismail, A. A., Ismail, I. S., Kadir, K. A., . . . Bebakar, W. M. (2011).
Prevalence of overweight and obesity among adult Malaysians: an update. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr, 20(1), 35-41.
Mohd Zaid, B. M. G., & Wilson., N. C. (2009). Physical Activity Levels of Staff at the National Sports
Institute of Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Retrieved from http://www.isn.gov.my/download/isnbulletinvol2no1_2009/5_MOHD_ZAID_1.pdf.
Morris, C., Bourne, P. A., Eldemire-Shearer, D., & McGrowder, D. A. (2010). Social determinants of
physical exercise in older men in Jamaica. North Am J Med Sci, 2(2), 87-96. Nigg, C. R., Geller, K. S., Motl, R. W., Horwath, C. C., Wertin, K. K., & Dishman, R. K. (2011). A research
agenda to examine the efficacy and relevance of the Transtheoretical Model for physical activity behavior. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 12(1), 7-12. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.04.004
Phongsavan, P., McLean, G., & Bauman, A. (2007). Gender differences in influences of perceived
environmental and psychosocial correlates on recommended level of physical activity among New Zealanders. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8(6), 939-950. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.11.004
e-Proceeding of the Global Conference on Economics and Management Science 2015 (GEMS 2015). (e-ISBN 978-967-0792-05-7). 12 -13 October 2015 at Bayview Beach Resort Penang Hotel, Malaysia. Organized by http://worldconferences.net/home/
GLOBAL CONFERENCE ON ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2015 (GEMS 2015) OCTOBER 2015
152
Segar, M., Eccles, J., Peck, S., & Richardson, C. (2007). Midlife Women’s Physical Activity Goals:
Sociocultural Influences and Effects on Behavioral Regulation. Sex Roles, 57(11-12), 837-849. doi: 10.1007/s11199-007-9322-1
Sit, C. H. P., Kerr, J. H., & Wong, I. T. F. (2008). Motives for and barriers to physical activity participation
in middle-aged Chinese women. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9(3), 266-283. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.04.006
Sodergen, M., Hylander, I., Tornkvist, L., Sundquist, J., & Sundquist, K. (2008). Arranging Appropriate
Activities: Immigrant women's ideas of enabling exercise. Women's Health Issues, 18, 10. doi: 10.1016/j.whi.2008.05.001
Stanis, S. A. W., Schneider, I. E., Chavez, D. J., & Shinew, K. J. (2009). Visitor constraints to physical
activity in park and recreation areas: Differences by race and ethnicity. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 27(3), 78-95.
Statistics, D. o. (2010). Statistics On Causes of Death, from
http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/BPD/perangkaan_sebab_kematian2008.pdf
Tan, Z. Y., & Yim, H. S. (2010). Weight Status, Body Image perception and Physiccal Activity of Malay
Housewives in Kampung Chengkau Ulu, Negeri Sembilan. International Journal for the Advancement of Science & Arts, 1(1), 11.
Tracey, J., Dawson, K., & Berry, T. (2008). Participant Experiences in a Group or Internet-based Physical
Activity Intervention. Malaysian Journal of Sport Science and Recreation, 4(1), 20. Trost, S. G., Owen, N., Bauman, A. E., Sallis, J. F., & Brown, W. (2002). Correlates of adults' participation
in physical activity: review and update. Med. Sci. Sports Exercise, 34(12), 196-2001. Wan Rabiah, W. O., Patterson, I., & Pegg, S. (2011). Healthy Lifestyle: Promoting Walking Behaviour in
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. World Journal of Management, 3(1), 109-123. Yancey, A. K., Fielding, J. E., Flores, G. R., Sallis, J. F., McCarthy, W. J., & Breslow, L. (2007). Creating a
Robust Public Health Infrastructure for Physical Activity Promotion. Preventive Medicine, 32(1), 11. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2006.08.029