the dictionary and its uses

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The Dictionary and Its Uses

Thompson Olusegun EWATA

Whatever your level or course of study/aspect of human undertaking, the dictionary is a useful

resource we all need. Not only does it tell us how a word is spelt, it tells us how it is used,

pronounced, what word(s) it collocates with and so on. Since the dictionary is second to none inthe lives of students and language learners particularly and people generally, it is important we

know, not only how to use it but to use it well. Knowing how to use it well necessitates the need to

teach ourselves how to use the dictionary effectively.

There are several reasons why we should teach dictionary skills.

o It will give students greater control over their own learning, and shift the responsibility of

learning to the student.o We are not born knowing how to use dictionaries well, thus students need to gain the

knowledge and skills to get what they can from the dictionary effectively.o It helps students to disentangle information in the dictionary by making things explicit to

them.o Dictionaries naturally generate a great deal of thinking about meaning and language.

o If they can use dictionaries well, there will be minimal classroom disruption because

teachers can rely on students to get the correct meaning.o Dictionaries can provide useful support not simply when teachers are in doubt about

something but when they want students to confirm their own suppositions about somethingin English.

o Dictionaries can serve as a focus for communication and classroom interaction.

o Dictionary training can help students explore personal preferences and learning styles and

may also lead students to new modes of study.

Dictionaries are not only a tool for private or individual learning problems, but they can alsobecome a springboard to all sorts of other communicative and interactive activities. Byexploiting dictionaries as a source of interaction, we can help students develop theirconfidence as dictionary users and as language learners. An important benefit of this is thatstudents will be exposed to a great deal of language that will help them experience and exploreit(How to get your students to use their dictionaries effectively, n.d.).

A dictionary is a book in which the words and phrases of a language are listed alphabetically,together with their meanings or their translations in another language (Collins COBUILD

Advanced Learners English Dictionary, 2006). This definition looks at the dictionary from the

perspective of language.

From another perspective, it is seen as:

a reference source in print or electronic form containing words usually alphabeticallyarranged along with information about their forms, pronunciations, functions,etymologies, meanings, and syntactical and idiomatic uses 2 : a reference book listingalphabetically terms or names important to a particular subject or activity along withdiscussion of their meanings and applications (Merriam-Webster's 11th CollegiateDictionary, 2003).

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This definition takes it higher than the first one by Collins (2006) as it tells us the characteristic of

it being in a book or electronic form. They both agree on a point, that the items in the dictionary

are listed alphabetically. Merriam-Webster's (2003) goes on to talk about what the dictionarycontains or tells the user: the forms, pronunciations, functions, etymologies, meanings, andsyntactical and idiomatic uses among others.

The Wikipedia (2011) further throws more light on the definition as it explains:

A dictionary, also referred to as a lexicon, wordbook, or vocabulary, is a collection ofwords in one or more specific languages, often listed alphabetically, with usageinformation, definitions, etymologies, phonetics, pronunciations, and other information;[1] or a book of words in one language with their equivalents in another, also known as alexicon. ... a dictionary may be regarded as a lexicographical product that ischaracterised by three significant features: (1) it has been prepared for one or morefunctions; (2) it contains data that have been selected for the purpose of fulfilling thosefunctions; and (3) its lexicographic structures link and establish relationships between thedata so that they can meet the needs of users and fulfil the functions of the dictionary.

The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2006) puts the definition of the dictionary as:

a book that gives a list of the words of a language in alphabetical order and explains whatthey mean, or give a word for them in a foreign language: a Spanish English dictionary 2a book that explains the words that are used in a particular subject: a dictionary ofmathematics 3 a list of words in electronic form stored in a computers SPELLCHECKER.

This definition combines the qualities of the first two earlier ones (Collins (2006) and Merriam-

Websters (2003) as it adds to them that it could be from one language to another (a Spanish

English dictionary) or it could be on a different subject not necessarily English. Our focus here ison the English so we shall dwell on the dictionary in relation to English language.

We shall look at how the English dictionary came about. The history of the English dictionary

cannot be complete without giving credit to Dominican monk, Galfridus Grammaticus, also knownas Geoffrey the Grammarians workStorehouse for Children or Clerics printed in 1449. The workhas a good claim to be the first English dictionary. It contains Latin equivalents for 10,000

English words and remained a leading wordbook for several generations and Samuel Johnson

(1709-1784), English writer and lexicographer. Johnson was commissioned by a group ofbooksellers in 1747 to compile a dictionary as there was a dictionary in French and Spanish before

then. After more than eight years in preparation, theDictionary of the English Language appearedin 1755. This remarkable work contains about 40,000 entries elucidated by vivid, idiosyncratic,still-quoted definitions and by an extraordinary range of illustrative examples (Microsoft Encarta,

2009). These efforts have however been improved upon since then as advancements in technology

has greatly aided the compilation and publication of different types of dictionaries in English since

then.

Types of Dictionaries

There are different types of dictionaries as they perform different ranges of functions.

Dictionaries can be classified into different types on the basis of several criteria, varying fromthe nature of the lexical entry to the prospective user of the dictionary. Below are presentedsome main criteria for the classification of dictionaries.

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1) Density of entries: whether the word list is general or restricted and special? Does italso cover regional and social dialects, jargons and slangs and archaisms?

2) The number of languages involved: monolingual, bilingual, multilingual etc.3) The nature of entries: whether lexical only or also encyclopaedic, the degree of

concentration on strictly lexical data.

4) Axis of time: whether diachronic (dynamic) or synchronic (static).5) Arrangement of entries: alphabetical or semantic or causal.6) Purpose: whether normative or referential.7) The prospective user: whether meant for the general reader to find out general

linguistic information or for special users to know some special aspects of the lexicalunit say etymology etc.? Is it meant for the general language or only for the languageof literature, there too, the language of some author, here again the language of someof his works? (il-ebooks.net/html/lexico/link5.htm).

The types of dictionary include:

Monolingual (English-English) dictionaries: these types of dictionaries are written in two

languages to enable users (learners) understand the meaning of the words they want toknow in both languages. For example, English Yoruba dictionary or Yoruba Ilajedictionary!

Learner Dictionaries: Learner Dictionaries are English-English dictionaries that havebeen written for foreign language learners. There are dictionaries at different difficultylevels, from Elementary dictionaries with simple definitions and a small word list, such asthe Oxford Wordpower dictionary, to near native-speaker level dictionaries such as TheOxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (OALD). Learner Dictionaries differ from native-speaker dictionaries because they are written by language specialists for languagestudents who are in the process of learning the language. However, there are several typesof Learner Dictionary

Good Learner Dictionaries have many features beyond the spelling, pronunciation andmeaning. They will also have information such as style notes regarding culturalconnotations, and whether the word is formal or dated. These dictionaries also often try todisambiguate similar words such as borrow, and lend. Most Learner Dictionaries alsohave vocabulary building advice and some study notes on how to use the dictionary well.All this is in addition to the grammar and dialectal notes one usually finds in dictionaries.

Picture Dictionaries: are part of the learner dictionary the difference been the items in thehere are in pictures this is done to make the learners see and understand better before the

grasp the words in the language. They would at least se the pictures of what they want toknow and this gives them a rest of mind as they have not mastered the new language well

for them to do without the pictures.

Multimedia dictionaries: these are the normal dictionaries but they are not only presented

in book form but come in the form of CD that are used or installed to the computer. Most

dictionaries now come with the CD-ROM if installed and the user is connected to theinternet gives the user (most time with an access code supplied with the book) chance to

visit the site of the publishers of the dictionary and see additions or modifications that have

been made to the dictionary since publication.

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Production dictionaries: Most teachers and students are not aware of this type ofdictionary because they work differently from other dictionaries. Production dictionariesput words of the same topic, or words with nearly the same meaning, in the same place sothat they can be compared. An advantage of this type of dictionary is that the student canfind new words easily. In a normal mono-lingual dictionary, students look up the meanings

of words they already know. Look at the example from Wordfinder . In this example wecan see that several words with a similar meaning to borrow are listed together(http://www1.harenet.ne.jp/~waring/vocab/dictionary/dictionary.htm ).

The function(s) of a dictionary

The functions or uses of the dictionary include that:

it shows or teaches you how a word is spelt. Since it is listed in alphabetical order, it iseasier for you to pick up one and go through the list till you get to the word in particular

you want. You see words as they are listed in alphabetical other and this helps in getting

the particular one you want. If for example you dont know the spelling of the word

coup. All you need do is to go through the words listed under "C and take them one

after the other till you arrive at coup.

it is used to learn the meaning of a word. Having got the spelling of the word, the

dictionary tells you how the meaning of the word. This is the basic function of thedictionary that most people know. You can get the meaning of any word at all in the

dictionary.

The dictionary indicates the shades of meaning that a word or expression in a language has.

By shade of meaning we mean the senses in which a word may be used and how it couldbe used. For example a look at the word table from the Merriam-Webster's 11th collegiate

dictionary (2003), shows the following:

2 a plural : BACKGAMMON b : one of the two leaves of a backgammon board oreither half of a leaf3 a : a piece of furniture consisting of a smooth flat slab fixed on legs b (1) : a supplyor source of food (2) : an act or instance of assembling to eat : MEAL c (1) : a group of people assembled at or as if at a table (2) : a legislative ornegotiating session 4 : STRINGCOURSE 5 a : a systematic arrangement of data usually in rows andcolumns for ready reference b : a condensed enumeration : LIST 6 : something that resembles a table especially in having a plane surface: asa : the upper flat surface of a cut precious stone see BRILLIANT illustration b (1) :TABLELAND (2) : a horizontal stratum on the table : up for consideration ornegotiation under the table1 : into a stupor 2 : in a covert manner (Collins COBUILD AdvancedLearners English Dictionary, 2006).

Different meanings that the word has, as well as synonyms (same meaning) and antonyms(opposite meaning) (The University of Alabama Center for Teaching and Learning (n.d.).).

For example the word come turns out with the following:

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The form come is used in the present tense and is the past participle. Come is used in a largenumber of expressions which are explained under other words in this dictionary. For example,the expression `to come to terms with something' is explained at `term'.1 VERB V prep/adv, V prep/adv, V prep/adv, V, V, V -ing prep/adv

When a person or thingcomes to a particular place, especially to a place where you are,

they move there.Two police officers came into the hall...Come here, Tom...You'll have to come with us...We heard the train coming...Can I come too?...The impact blew out some of the windows and the sea came rushing in.

2 VERB V to-inf, V and v, V infWhen someone comesto do something, they move to the place where someone else is inorder to do it, and they do it. In British English, someone can also come anddo somethingand in American English, someone can come do something. However, you always say that

someone came anddid something.Eleanor had come to visit her...Come and meet Roger...I want you to come visit me.

3 VERB V to nWhen you come to a place, you reach it.He came to a door that led into a passageway.

4 VERB V up/down prep, V up/down prepIf somethingcomes upto a particular point ordownto it, it is tall enough, deep enough,or long enough to reach that point.

The water came up to my chest...I wore a large shirt of Jamie's which came down over my hips.

5 VERB V adv/prep, V adv/prepIf somethingcomes apartorcomes to pieces, it breaks into pieces. If somethingcomes offorcomes away, it becomes detached from something else.

The pistol came to pieces, easily and quickly...The door knobs came off in our hands.

6 V-LINK V to n, V into n, V adjYou use come in expressions such as come to an endorcome into operation to indicatethat someone or something enters or reaches a particular state or situation.

The Communists came to power in 1944...I came into contact with very bright Harvard and Yale students...Their worst fears may be coming true.

7 VERB V to-infIf someone comesto do something, they do it at the end of a long process or period oftime.

She said it so many times that she came to believe it...8 VERB V to-inf

You can ask how somethingcameto happen when you want to know what caused it tohappen or made it possible.

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How did you come to meet him?9 VERB V prep/adv, V, there V n

When a particular event or time comes, it arrives or happens.The announcement came after a meeting at the Home Office...The time has come for us to move on...

There will come a time when the crisis will occur. com|ing N-SING usu the N of n

Most of my patients welcome the coming of summer.10 PREP

You can use come before a date, time, or event to mean when that date, time, or eventarrives. For example, you can say come the springto mean `when the spring arrives'.

Come the election on the 20th of May, we will have to decide...11 VERB V to n, it V to n that

If a thought, idea, or memory comes to you, you suddenly think of it or remember it.He was about to shut the door when an idea came to him...Then it came to me that perhaps he did understand. = occur

12 VERB V to nIf money or property is going to come to you, you are going to inherit or receive it.He did have pension money coming to him when the factory shut down.

13 VERB V before n, V to nIf a case comes before a court or tribunal orcomes to court, it is presented there so thatthe court or tribunal can examine it.The membership application came before the Council of Ministers in September...

President Cristiani expected the case to come to court within ninety days.14 VERB V to amount

If somethingcomes to a particular number or amount, it adds up to it.Lunch came to $80.

15 VERB V from n, V from n, V from nIf someone or somethingcomes from a particular place or thing, that place or thing istheir origin, source, or starting point.

Nearly half the students come from abroad...Chocolate comes from the cacao tree...

The term `claret', used to describe Bordeaux wines, may come from the French word`clairet'.

16 VERB V from n/-ing, V of n/-ingSomething thatcomes from something else orcomes ofit is the result of it.

There is a feeling of power that comes from driving fast...He asked to be transferred there some years ago, but nothing came of it.

17 VERB V ord, V ordIf someone or somethingcomes first, next, or last, they are first, next, or last in a series,list, or competition.

The two countries have been unable to agree which step should come next...The horse had already won at Lincolnshire and come second at Lowesby.

18 VERB V in n, V in nIf a type of thingcomesin a particular range of colours, forms, styles, or sizes, it can haveany of those colours, forms, styles, or sizes.

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Bikes come in all shapes and sizes...The wallpaper comes in black and white only.

19 VERB V as n to n, V as nYou use come in expressions such as it came as a surprise when indicating a person'sreaction to something that happens.

Major's reply came as a complete surprise to the House of Commons...The arrest has come as a terrible shock.20 VERB V to n, V to n

The next subject in a discussion that you come to is the one that you talk about next.Finally in the programme, we come to the news that the American composer andconductor, Leonard Bernstein, has died...

That is another matter altogether. And we shall come to that next.21 VERB V

To come means to have an orgasm. (INFORMAL)22 see also coming, comings and goings23 PHRASE emphasis

If you say that someone is, for example, as goodas they come, oras stupidas they come,you are emphasizing that they are extremely good or extremely stupid.The new finance minister was educated at Oxford and is as traditional as they come.

24 PHRASE PHR with cl emphasisYou can use the expression when it comes down to itorwhen you come down to itforemphasis, when you are giving a general statement or conclusion.When you come down to it, however, the basic problems of life have not changed...

25 PHRASE V inflectsIf you say that someone has it coming to them, you mean that they deserve everything badthat is going to happen to them, because they have done something wrong or are a badperson. If you say that someonegot what was coming to them, you mean that theydeserved the punishment or bad experience that they have had. (INFORMAL)

He was pleased that Brady was dead because he probably had it coming to him.26 PHRASE PHR with cl

You use the expression come to think of itto indicate that you have suddenly realizedsomething, often something obvious.You know, when you come to think of it, this is very odd.

27 PHRASE usu n PHR, also v-link PHRWhen you refer to a time or an eventto come or one that is stillto come, you are referringto a future time or event.

I hope in years to come he will reflect on his decision...The worst of the storm is yet to come.

28 PHRASE PHR n/-ingYou can use the expression when it comes to orwhen it comes down to in order tointroduce a new topic or a new aspect of a topic that you are talking about.Most of us know we should cut down on fat. But knowing such things isn't much help whenit comes to shopping and eating...However, when it comes down to somebody that they know, they have a different feeling.

29 PHRASE V inflects

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You can use expressions likeI know where you're coming from oryou can see whereshe's coming from to say that you understand someone's attitude or point of view.

To understand why they are doing it, it is necessary to know where they are comingfrom... (Collins COBUILD Advanced Learners English Dictionary, 2006).

The dictionary helps you check the part of speech of a word. In most dictionaries the partsof speech are abbreviated but the meanings of the abbreviations are explained in the

dictionaries. For example, the noun is abbreviated as (n) to know the sub classification ofcountable and uncountable they are indicated as (c for countable or count nouns u for

uncountable or non count nouns) d, the verb is indicated as (v) while further sub

classification of whether transitive or intransitive will be (vn orvt for transitive verbs and

vti for intransitive verbs etc), adjectives are indicated as adj, adverbs as adv, pronouns as

pron, determiners as det,prepositions as prep and so on.

It helps you identify the classifications of words (classification into groups). The dictionary

tells you the divisions associated words in the sense that it sub-classifies the types and how

to use them. Most dictionaries have entries in them to identify words and the grammatical

categories they belong to and they state this at the beginning of the dictionaries withspecial notations to indicate this. These notations are explained to users at the beginning.

For example, Collins (2006) makes this explanation for the user (s):

For each use of each word in this dictionary, there is grammatical information inthe Extra Column. For a very few words, such as abbreviations, contractions andsome words of foreign origin, no grammar is given, because the words do notbelong to any word class, or are used so freely that every example could be given adifferent word class, e.g. AD, ditto, mpg, mustve.

The grammar information that is given is of three types:

1. the word class of the word: e.g. VERB, N-COUNT, ADJ, QUANT

2. restrictions or extensions to its behavior, compared to other words of thatword class: e.g. usu passive, usu sing, also no det

3. the patterns that the word most frequently occurs in e.g. V n, N of n, ADJthat, ADV with v

For all word class except verbs, the patterns are given immediately after the wordclass and any restriction or extension. For verbs, the patterns are given next to theexamples and in the same order as the examples, so that they are easier to see andunderstand.

Different meanings that the word has, as well as synonyms (same meaning) and antonyms(opposite meaning) (The University of Alabama Center for Teaching and Learning (n.d.).).

For example, the word boy is entered as:

o boy/b /noun, exclamation

1. [c] a male child or a young male person: a little/small/young boy. (Oxford Advanced learners Dictionary, 2006).

On the other hand, Collins (2006) states it as:

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o A boy is a child who will grow up to be a man.

I knew him when he was a little boy... He was still just a boy.

2. N-COUNTYou can refer to a young man as a boy, especially when talking about relationships

between boys and girls. ...the age when girls get interested in boys.3. N-COUNT usu poss NSomeone's boy is their son. (INFORMAL)

Eric was my cousin Edward's boy... I have two boys.

4. N-COUNT with supp feelingsYou can refer to a man as a boy, especially when you are talking about him in an

affectionate way. (INFORMAL) ...the local boy who made President... `Come on boys', he shouted to the sailors. = lad

5. see alsobackroom boy, blue-eyed boy, bully-boy, head boy, messenger boy, office boy,

old boy, stable boy, Teddy boy

6. EXCLAM feelingsSome people say `boy' or `oh boy' in order to express feelings of excitement or admiration.

(mainly AM INFORMAL) Oh Boy! Just think what I could tell him.

It tells you the pronunciation of words through the transcription. For example drive is given

as /draIv/ in the Oxford (2006). There is always a problem with this particular for ESL studentsas they are not too familiar with the transcription rule.

Electronic dictionaries are the best choice for ESL students. Most of them containnative-language equivalents and explanations, as well as definitions and examplesentences in English. They can speak the English word to you, and they are easy tocarry around. However, they are expensive and easy to lose, (Shoebottom, 2011)

Other uses of the dictionary include:

How to spell the word and its special plural form

Whether or not the word is capitalized or abbreviated

How to break the word into syllables

A sentence or expression with the word used correctly

The meanings of important prefixes and suffixes

The special uses of the word

The history of the word

Other words derived from the main word (The University of Alabama Center for Teaching

and Learning (n.d.).

Most dictionaries are divided into sections and the sections talk about different things the user need

to know. The University of Alabama Center for Teaching and Learning (n.d.). lists some of the

sections as:

o Foreign words and phrases

o Abbreviations

o Addresses of colleges or government offices

o The population of cities and countries

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How NOT to Use the Dictionary

Though the dictionary is meant to help language learners with learning and mastering the language

they are learning, it is important to state if you keep checking every new word you encounter youare not likely to make progress with learning the language as you are expected.

Try to follow the advice below and you will become a much more efficient language learner:o When you find a new word while reading, finish the sentence (better: the paragraph).

If you havent guessed the meaning and it still seems important, then you can look it

up. To avoid interrupting your reading for too long, you should find its meaning in

your own language using a bilingual dictionary.

o When you hear a new word in class (or the teacher has written it on the board), wait

and continue listening. What the teacher says next may help you to understand theword. If you look in your dictionary, you will not hear what comes next, and this will

make understanding the lesson more and more difficult.

If you think the word is very important, you could copy it from the board or write how you think it

is spelled. Then later you could ask the teacher or another student what it means(http://www1.harenet.ne.jp/~waring/vocab/dictionary/dictionary.htm.).

Dictionary References

Collins COBUILD Advanced Learners English Dictionary (5th ed.) (2006). Glasgow:

HarperCollins Publishers.

Dictionary: The Wikipedia (2011). Retrieved 24 May, 2011 from:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary.

How to get your students to use their dictionaries effectively (n.d.). Retrieved 24 May, 2011 from:

http://www1.harenet.ne.jp/~waring/vocab/dictionary/dictionary.htm .

Introduction to lexicography: Types of Dictionaries (n.d.). Retrieved 24 May, 2011 from: il-ebooks.net/html/lexico/link5.htm.

Mahoney, J. L. (2009). "Samuel Johnson." Microsoft Encarta 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA:Microsoft Corporation.

Malkiel (1967). In Introduction to Lexicography: Types of Dictionaries (n.d.). Retrieved 24 May,

2011 from: il-ebooks.net/html/lexico/link5.htm.

Merriam-Webster's 11th Collegiate Dictionary (2003). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster

Incorporated.

Oxford advanced learners dictionary (2006). New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Shoebottom, P. (2011). How to use a dictionary effectively. Retrieved 24 May, 2011 from:http://esl.fis.edu/learners/advice/dic.htm

The University of Alabama Center for Teaching and Learning (n.d.). How to use a dictionary.Retrieved 24 May, 2011 from:http://www.ctl.ua.edu/CTLStudyAids/StudySkillsFlyers/VocabularyDevelopment/how2use

adictionary.htm.

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