the decisive factors in the un forces’ defense of the pusan perimeter in 1950 korean war
TRANSCRIPT
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TheDecisiveFactorsintheUNForcesDefense
ofthePusanPerimeterinthe1950KoreanWar
GOV-451
KyleGaines
11/19/12
1
1Battle of Pusan Perimeter, Wikipedia Series on the Korean War, (Wikipedia, 4 September2012).
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1.Introduction
HistoricalContextandOverviewoftheKoreanWar
TheKoreanWarisalsoknownastheforgottenwarbecauseoftherelative
dearthofscholarshipandwritingonthesubject.2Despitethisscarcityhowever,the
KoreanWarwasatremendouslysignificantconflictwithAsiansecurityimplications
lastinguntilthepresentday.TheKoreanWarwasthefirstproxywarthatwasa
partoftheoverarchingstrugglebetweentheUnitedStatesandtheUSSR.Although
theUSSRcontributedadvisersandmilitaryresourcestotheconflict,noSoviet
soldiersphysicallyengagedincombatoperations.Conversely,Americansoldiers
formedacriticalcomponentoftheUNcoalitionthatreactedinresponsetoNorthKoreanaggression.
Thisconflictbeganon25June1950,whenNorthKoreanPeoplesArmy
(NKPA)forcescrossedthe38thparallelwiththesupportofamassiveartillery
barrageandRussianadviserswithoutwarning.3Afterthisaction,theU.N.
respondedwithacalltoarms,andacoalitionofnationsincludingtheRepublicof
Korea(ROK),TheUnitedStates,Britain,AustraliaandJapancommittedtroopsand
resourcestothedefenseofSouthKorea.4TheUNcommitmentoftroopsand
AmericaneffortstostemtheNorthKoreanadvanceledtothecreationofthe
defensiveperimetercalledPusanbyAugust1stunderUSEighthArmyGeneral
WaltonWalker5(SeeFigure2).Thewarhadchangedcharacter,andnolongerwas
theprimarilyAmericanandSouthKoreanforcerelyingonineffectiveweaponsand
alackofarmortostemthetideofarelativelywell-organizedandequippedenemy.6
Miraculously,theunderequippedandillpreparedUNforcewasabletoholdthe
2
Harry G Summers, Jr., Korean War Almanac, (New York, NY: Facts on File Inc., 1990). Xiii3
Ibid. xiii4
Ibid. xiv5
Edwin P. Hoyt, The Pusan Perimeter, Korea, 1950, (Briarcliff Manor, NY: Stein and DayPublishers, 1984). 1396Ibid. 139
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NKPAatthePusanPerimeter,whichboughttimeforGen.DouglasMacArthurs
famousInchoninvasionon15September1950. 7
8
AftertheinvasionatInchon,UNforcesnotonlysuccessfullydroveNKPA
forcesbacktothe38thparallel,butalsocontinuedtheiradvanceupthepeninsulato
theYaluRiver.9Atthisstageinthewar,ChineseCommunistForces(CCF)entered
thefrayandbetweenDecember1950andJune1951,launchedanoffensivethat
droveUNforcesbackdowntothe38thparallel.10FromJuly1951untilthe
armisticeinJuly1953,thewarresembledthestatictrenchwarfarethatcomprised
7
Summers, Korean War Almanac, xiv8J. McCracken, A Brief Timeline of the Korean War (15 November 2012).
9
Ibid.10
Ibid.
Figure8
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WorldWarI,andresultedinaceasefirebetweentheNorthandtheSouththathas
lasteduntilthepresentday.11
NorthKoreanGoals
ThegoalsoftheNKPAwereprettyclearlyevidentfromthestartofthewar.
Inamanifestopublishedon8June1950,newspapersinPyongyangprinteda
pamphletreleasedbytheCentralCommitteeoftheUnitedDemocraticFrontof
NorthKoreaoutliningitsaimsforthenextfewmonths.12Themanifestosought
electionstobeheldinthenorthandthesouthandthenewparliamenttositno
laterthan15August.13OfcoursetherewasnomentionoftheRepublicofSouth
Korea,sobyimplicationitseemsasthoughNorthKoreawasannouncingits
intentiontoinvadetheSouthasearlyas8June1950.14Politically,theNorth
KoreanssoughttocollapsethegovernmentofDr.SyngmanRheeandmilitarilythey
soughttocausethedisintegrationoftheROKsarmy.15Inbothoftheseendeavors
theNorthKoreansfailed,andthesuccessfuldefenseatPusanwasamajorreason
why.Thispaperwillinvestigatethefactorscontributingtothatdefense.
UNCoalitionGoals
OneofthefascinatingaspectsoftheKoreanWaristhatthegoalsofthe
UnitedStateschangedmultipletimesduringthecourseoftheconflicteventhough
theUNhadapprovedonlyonesetofobjectives.DespitethedecisionbyMacArthur
todrivepastthe38thparallelinpursuitoftheNKPAaftertheinvasionofInchon,
thispaperislimitedtoadiscussionoftheUNgoalsupuntiltheNKPAwasdriven
backtothe38thparallel.TheinitialgoaloftheUNcoalitionwasarticulatedinaU.N.
11
Ibid.12Fehrenbach, This Kind of War, 313Ibid. 314Ibid. 315Millett,TheKoreanWar,18-19
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resolutionthatwaspassedinarecord4hours.16Passingthisresolutionwasonly
possibleduetoamajortacticalerrorbytheUSSR,whichwastheirdecisionto
boycotttheU.N.forafewmonths.17TheywereprotestingTaiwansretentionof
theirSecurityCouncilseatinthewakeoftheCommunisttakeoverofMainland
China,andasaresulttheyforfeitedtheirvoteandcouldnotvetotheresolution.18
TheUNresolutionhadthreeparts:1)theimmediateendoffighting;2)the
withdrawalofNorthKoreabehindthe38thparallel;and3)andallmembersassist
theU.N.andrefrainfromassistingNorthKorea.19Althoughnotallmembers
assistedandtheendtothefightingwasnotimmediate,theUNcoalitiondidachieve
itsprinciplegoalofdrivingNorthKoreabackbehindthe38thparallelshortlyafter
Inchon.
Argument
ThispaperseekstoinvestigatethereasonswhytheUNcoalitionwasableto
defendthePusanPerimetersuccessfully.TheconventionalwisdomoftheKorean
ConflictsuggeststhatU.S.airpowerinterferedwithNorthKoreanlogisticstosuch
anextentthattheabilityoftheNKPAtobreachandexploittheperimeterwas
dramaticallyundercut.Thispaperhowever,willpartiallychallengethe
conventionalwisdombyexaminingfivepotentialfactorsthatledtothesuccessful
defenseoftheperimeter.1)NKPAlogisticalineffectivenessasaresultofits
inherentincompetenceandU.S.airattacksonsupplylines,2)NorthKoreantactical
andstrategicineptitude,3)U.S.naval,airandtechnologicalsuperiorityandthe
successfulapplicationoftheseadvantagesinsupportingthedefenseofthefront,4)
thesimplefactthattheUNcoalitionhadasmaller,moreconcentratedareato
defendwithinteriorlinesofcommunicationandsuperiorlogisticsandfinally5)
thatthefrictionofwar,asClausewitzscalledit,woreontheNKPAsextendedlines
16T.R. Fehrenbach, The Fight for Korea, (New York, NY: Grosset and Dunlap, 1969). 61-6217
Ibid. 6218Ibid. 6219
Ibid. 62
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andcausedadeteriorationintroopstrengthandequipmentrelativetoincreasing
UNtrooplevels.
Throughanexaminationofthese5factors,thispaperwillarriveatthe
conclusionthatasynthesisofUStechnologicalair,navalandtechnological
superiorityalongthefront,thesmallerandmoreconcentratedlineandeffective
logistics,andthefrictionofwarwerethemostcompellingfactorsthatexplainthe
haltoftheNKPAsadvanceatPusan.
Scope
Thescopeofthispaperisnecessarilylimitedtotheestablishment,defense
andholdingofthePusanPerimeterbyUNcoalitionforces.Althoughtheattackat
Inchonon15Septemberwasamajorturningpointintheconflict,thispaperwill
showthatbySeptember15th,NKPAeffortstobreachthePusanPerimeterhad
stalledandgroundtoahalt.Thus,examiningthesuccessfulPusanPerimeter
defenseisworthyofanalysisonitsownmeritsseparatefromInchon.Reaching
beyondtheselimitswouldleadtoanunsatisfactoryandinsufficienttreatmentofthe
featuresofthedefenseoftheperimeter.
Alsoofnote,theBattleofPusanPerimeterwasactuallyaseriesof
simultaneousassaultsbyNKPAforcesinanattempttobreakthroughtheperimeter
andconquerthewholepeninsula.20Asaresult,thechronologyofthebattlegets
somewhatconvoluted.ThispaperwillpresentaroughtimelineoftheBattleof
PusanandhowitfitintothebroaderKoreanWar.Moreimportantthanthedetails
oftheindividualskirmishesalongthelinearetheoverallfactorsandprevailing
conditionsthatledtothesuccessfuldefenseoftheperimeter.Thispaperwill
investigatethesetrendsratherthanprovideanecdotaldescriptionsofclashesalong
thefront.Notonlywouldsuchdescriptionsobfuscatethecoreargumentofthe
20Roy E. Appleman, South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu, (Washington, DC: Center ofMilitary History, US Army, 1992). P. 289
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paper,butalsothefrequenciesanddistinctionsbetweensuchclashesareextremely
complexanddifficulttodifferentiate.
Structure
Thispaperisbrokeninto3sections.First,itwillexaminethehistorical
contextandoverviewofthedefenseoftheperimeter,startingwiththeNKPA
invasionofthe38thparallelandendingwiththeinvasionofInchon.Second,itwill
analyzethefivepotentialargumentsforwhythedefenseofthePerimeterwas
successfulbyexaminingtheirevidenceandthechallengestoeachargumentand
thensynthesizingtheargumentpreviouslyoutlined.Finally,thispaperwilldiscuss
theconsequencesofthesuccessfuldefenseofPusanfortheKoreanWarandthe
ColdWarmorebroadly.
2.HistoricalContextandTimelineoftheBattleofPusanPerimeter
DelayingAction
TheKoreanWarbeganon25 JulywiththeNKPAspredawnstormingofthe
38thparallelbehindathunderousSoviet-Styleartillerybarrage.21Figures1and2
showtheprogressionoftheinvasionfromdifferentangles,andwhatismost
strikingistherapiditywithwhichtheattackoccurred.
22
21
Allen R. Millett, The Korean War, (Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books, Inc., 2007). 1822Ebb and Flow, BBC News.http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/pop_ups/03/uk_korean_war/html/3.stm
Figure1
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Figure1showshowdrasticallythefrontlinechangedfromthewarsstartto
itsconclusion.ThemassiveinequalitybetweentheROKandtheNKPAinboth
quantityandqualityofforcesbecameevidentveryearlyintheconflict.NKPAforces
were17milesnorthofSeoulby25-26JunewhentheU.S.governmentfirstbeganto
actontheinvasion.24U.S.troopswereengagedincombatactionsby5Julyand
betweenJuly5and1August,ROKandAmericansoldierswereengagedina
delayingactioninordertorushasmanymenandequipmentintotheremaining
ROKheldterritoryaspossible.25Asof1August,thePusanPerimeterwas
established,andROKandAmericanforceswerenolongertryingtostemthetideof
23Donald Pittenger, An Anniversary, (25 June 2008).24
Hoyt, Pusan Perimeter, 2425
Ibid. 40-139
Figure2
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theNKPAadvancewithinferiorweaponsandorganization. 26Figure2showsthe
contoursoftheperimeterduringthedefenseoftheperimeterbeginningon1
August1950.
TheBattleofthePusanPerimeter
BetweenAugust1standSeptember1st,TheNPKAforceslaunchedaseriesof
attacksthatwererepeatedlybeatenbackbyUNforces.KoreanWarscholarRoy
ApplemaneffectivelyexplainsthenatureoftheBattleofPusanPerimeter:
TheNorthKoreans,inpreparingtoattackthePusanPerimeterandits
communicationsystem,hadavailablefourlinesofadvancetowardPusan:(1)through
orpastMasansouthoftheconfluenceoftheNamandNaktongRivers,(2)throughthe
NaktongBulgetotherailandroadlinesatMiryang,(3)throughTaegu,and(4)
throughKyongjuanddowntheeastcoastcorridor.Theytriedthemallsimultaneously
inAugust,apparentlybelievingthatiftheydidnotsucceedatoneplacetheywouldat
another.27
Althoughalloftheseengagementshaveuniquefeatures,thecentralunifying
tenetofeachencounterwasthatUNforcessuccessfullyheldtheline.Althoughin
somecasesNKPAforceswereabletobreakthroughtheperimeter,theywerenever
abletoexploitthisadvantageandwerealwayseventuallydrivenback. 28
AsAugustworeon,NKPAadvanceswerecontinuallyunsuccessful.29AsT.R
Fehrenbachwrites,asAugustwaned,theNorthKoreansbegantorealizethatthe
onlywaytheycouldnowhopetogainadecisionwasbyafrontalattackagainstthe
perimeter30FehrenbachdescribestheGreatNaktongOffensiveastheheavest
26
Ibid. 13927Appleman, North to the Yalu, p. 289.28
Appleman, South to the Naktong, P. 46629T.R. Fehrenbach, This Kind of War, The Classic Korean War History, (Washington DC:Brasseys inc., 1963). 13830Fehrenbach,ThisKindofWar,138
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fightingoftheKoreanWarwhereeveryAmericanDivisionimmediatelycame
underheavypressure.31
IntheearlydaysofSeptemberthefightingwasfierceandindecisive,butby
15SeptembertheUNforceshadheldtheirgroundandthefightingalongthe
Perimeterbecamequiet.32TheGreatNaktongOffensivehadfailedtobreakthrough
andtakeTaeguorPusan,andUNforceswerenowinthepositiontotakethe
offensive.33On15Septemberthatisexactlywhathappened,andtheresulting
invasionofInchonandasubsequentbreakoutfrompositionsinPusanon18
SeptemberendedthefightingaroundPusanfortherestofthewar.34
3.AnalysisoftheFactorsLeadingtotheSuccessfulDefenseofthe
PerimeterandtheNKPAFailuretoPenetrate
Thepossibleexplanationsforthedefenseoftheperimetercanbedivided
into5broadfactorsincluding1)NKPAlogisticalineffectivenessbothdueto
inherentproblemsandU.S.airattacks,2)NKPAtacticalandstrategicmistakes,3)
U.S.firepowersuperiorityalongtheline,4)thesmaller,easiertodefendperimeter
withsuperiorUNlogisticsand5)thefrictionofwarargument.
1)NKPALogisticalIneffectiveness
TheconventionalwisdomoftheKoreanWaremphasizespoor,disorganized
andineffectiveNorthKoreanlogisticscausedbyinnateproblemswithintheNKPA
andanaggressiveAmericanbombingcampaignaimedatdisruptingNKPAsupply
lines.ThelogicofthisargumentisthatUNforcesinterferedwithNKPAlogisticsto
suchanextentthatitsabilitytosupplythefrontlinewasgreatlyhindered.James
31Fehrenbach,ThisKindofWar,14132
Fehrenbach, This Kind of War, 148-15933
Hoyt, Pusan Perimeter, 27334
William T. Bowers, William M. Hammong, George L. MacGarrigle, Black Soldier, White Army:The 24th Infantry Regiment in Korea, (Honolulu, Hawaii: University Press of the Pacific 2005). p.175
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StokesburyarguesthattheAmericanbombingcampaigndestroyedlogistics,
transportandinfrastructureandforcedtheNKPAresupplytohideduringtheday
andtravelbynight.35AccordingtoStokesbury,theseactionspreventedtheNKPA
frombeingsuppliedinthesouth.36Indeed,ThesupremacyoftheFifthAirForcein
theskiesoverKoreaforcedtheNorthKoreansinthefirstmonthofthewartoresort
tonightmovementofsuppliestothebattlearea.37Whileitistruethatsupplyand
communicationsproblemsinhibitedtheNorthKoreansfromexploiting
breakthroughstotheirfullpotential,thisfactorastheprincipalreasonforthe
failuretopenetratethePerimeterisflawedforatworeasons.
Firstofall,eveninspiteofthepressureputonsupplylines,itisactually
quiteremarkablehowwellNKPAforceswerestillabletosupplythefront.38
Applemanwrites:
TheUnitedNationsaireffortfailedtohaltmilitaryrailtransport.Ammunition
andmotorfuel,whichtookprecedenceoverallothertypesofsupply,continuedto
arriveatthefront,thoughindiminishedquantity.Therewasstillaconsiderable
resupplyofheavyweapons,suchastanks,artillery,andmortars,atthefrontinearly
September...39
Secondly,T.R.Fehrenbacharguesthatairpoweralonewascertainlynot
decisiveintheKoreanconflictbecauseofthefragmentationofthecountry,andthe
abilityoftheNKPAtotransportsuppliestothefrontbywhatevermeanspossible,
includingfoottransport.40Heassertsthatagooddealofsuppliesstillarrivedatthe
frontandWesternperspectivesofmassesofmilitarymaterielsimplydidnotexistin
NorthKoreainthefirstplace.41Figure3showstheinitialNorthKoreanaxisof
35James L .Stokesbury,A Short History of the Korean War, (New York, NY: Harper Perennial1990.) 47-48, 66.36Ibid.47-48,6637Appleman, North to the Yalu, p. 37738
Ibid. 39439Ibid. 39440Fehrenbach, This Kind of War, 11441Ibid. 114
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advanceandtherelativelyconnectedalbeitdamagednetworkofroadsthatstill
allowedfortransportofsuppliestothefront.Consideringthesechallengestothe
conventionalwisdom,theremustbeotherexplanationsforthefailureoftheNKPA
andthesuccessoftheUN.
42
42Hoyt, Pusan Perimeter, 99
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2)NKPAMilitaryIncompetence
Onepotentialreasonforamilitaryfailurethatmustalwaysbeconsideredin
warfareismilitaryincompetence,whethertacticallyorstrategically,onthepartof
thelosingside.Althoughpoordecision-makingisoftentheculpritinmilitary
failures,thisargumentdoesnotholdmuchwaterinthecaseoftheassaultonthe
PusanPerimeterbytheNKPA.
Theonlyrealdefenseofthisargumentisthesuggestionthatattackingat
multiplepointsalongtheperimetercausedadiffusionofmilitaryresourcesand
ineffectivelyemployedtheprincipleofmasstobreakthroughtheUNline.North
Koreancommanderswereapparentlyoperatingundertheassumptionthatifthey
didnotsucceedinoneplacethattheywouldinanother.43Itisacompelling
argumentthatgiventhenatureofthelimitationsonNorthKoreanresources,the
NKPAshouldhavepursuedamoreconcentratedmaineffort,butthisisasignificant
tacticalquestionthatwouldrequiremuchmilitaryknow-howtodebateinthefirst
place.ItispossiblethattheoverextendedNorthKoreansupplylinesandattrition
preventedthesuccessfulconcentrationandexploitationofbreakthroughsintheline,
butthisreasonismoreconnectedtofactor#5,thefrictionofwar,ratherthan
militaryincompetence.
Contrarytothisargument,NorthKoreanmilitarycommandersseemtohave
beenhighlyadepttacticiansintheearlystagesofthewar.Theirrapidpushto
PusaninthefirstplaceandthefactthattheytacticallyoutmaneuveredUNforceson
anumberofoccasionsandbrokethroughthePerimeteratvariouspointsinthe
month-and-a-halflongbattlesuggeststhatfactorsotherthanmilitaryincompetence
wereattherootofthefailuretopenetratethePerimeter.NorthKorean
commanderssuccessfullyflankedandinfiltratedtroopstotheenemysrearallthe
waydowntheKoreanPeninsulatoPusan.44OncethePerimeterwasestablished,
NKPAcommandersalsorealizedthatwithasmaller,harder-to-flankfront,that
43Appleman, North to the Yalu, p. 28944Fehrenbach, This Kind of War, 138
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othertacticswouldhavetobeadopted,namelythefrontalassaultthatthey
pursued.45ItseemshardtocontendthatNKPAcommanderswereincompetentin
lightofthesewellthought-outdecisionsandrealizationscombinedwiththeirinitial
successes.
3)USAir,Naval,andTechnologicalQuality
ThethirdpotentialfactorthatexplainstheUNdefenseofthePusan
Perimeterissuperiorairandnavalfirepower,andmoreadvancedtechnologyto
supportthefront.Thisfactorwillbecalledthefirepowerargumentforthe
purposesofthispaper.RatherthanfocusingonUNattacksonsupplylines,whichthispaperalreadychallengedasalegitimatefactor,thisargumentfocusesmoreon
theuniquesuperiorityofUNfirepoweralongthefront.
ThelogicofthefirepowerargumentisthatUNfirepowersuperioritywas
partiallyaresultofamoreeclecticcoalitioncontributingsuppliesandtroopstothe
conflictandpartiallyasaresultoftheextremematerialadvantagesconferredtothe
UNbytheU.S.warmachine.
Thefirepowerargumenthassignificantevidencetosupportitsclaims.T.R
Fehrenbacharticulatesthisargumentwhenhewrites,Withoutcompletecontrolof
theairandseasduringthedarkdaysofmid-summer1950,theUNpresenceonthe
KoreanPeninsulawouldhaveended. 46AccordingtoFehrenbach,UNair
superioritywaslessimportantforattackingNKPAsupplylines,butabsolutely
essentialforsupportalongthefront.47TherelativelackofartilleryinKoreaduring
theBattleofPusanPerimeterelevatedtheimportanceofairpowerbecauseitwas
usedtosupportthefrontlinestogreateffect.48Fehrenbachgoessofarastosay
thatWithoutconstantaircoverovertheperimeter,withoutstrafingthatgreatly
45Ibid. 13846
Ibid. 11447
Ibid 11448
Ibid. 114
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hamperedNKPAattacksitisprobablethatthePerimeterwouldhavebeen
breachedfatally.49ForFehrenbachandotherscholars,airpowerwasessentialto
thewareffort.
Anotheraspectofthefirepowerargumentmorelooselyconstruedisthe
uniquetechnologicaladvantagesoftheUNrelativetotheNKPA.SignalsIntelligence
(SIGINT)specificallywasamajoradvantageheldbytheUNinthedefenseofthe
perimeter.50UNforcesusedasubsetofSIGINT,CommunicationsIntelligence
(COMINT)tolocateairfieldsandaircraftforbombing,locatecentersofartillery
distributionandgiveGeneralWaltonWalkerinformationonNKPAtroop
movements.51Thisadvantageprovidedanewanduniqueformoftechnological
supportthatcertainlyimprovedtheUNdefenseeffortandalthoughnotkinetic
firepower,itcanstillbeconsideredanimportantforceinthedefenseofPusan.
UNforcesalsohadsuperiorfirepowercapabilitiesonthegroundaccording
toAppleman.Hediscussestheseadvantageswhenhewrites,{NorthKorean
Forces}werenotcapableofexploitingabreakthroughinthefaceofmassiveair,
armor,andartillery...52
Theonlyrealchallengetothisargumentisthatalloftheseadvantages
considered,NorthKoreanforceswerestillveryclosetooverrunningthePusan
Perimeter,especiallyintheGreatNaktongOffensive.53Eveninspiteofthesupport
providedbyfirepowersuperiority,therestillmustbeotherfactorsthatatleast
partiallycontributedtothesuccessfuldefenseoftheperimeter.
ItisclearfromtheevidencethatU.S.air,navalandgroundfirepower
superioritycombinedwithtechnologicaladvantageshadasignificantimpactonthe
BattleofPusanPerimeter.TheeffectofUNfirepowercannotbeunderstatedand
49
Ibid. 11450David A. Hatch and Robert Louis Benson, The Korean War: The SIGINT Backround, (FortMeade, MD: NSA 2000) Accessed Electronically. The Pusan Perimeter51Ibid.PusanPerimeter52Appleman, North to the Yalu, p. 46653Fehrenbach, This Kind of War, 141-142
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wascertainlyanecessaryalbeitprobablynotsufficientfactorintheUNdefenseof
thePerimeter.
4)SmallerLine,SuperiorLogistics,ForcestoSpace
OneofthemoreintriguingexplanationsforwhytheUNheldthelineat
PusanisasimplearithmeticargumentandwasfirstpresentedbyB.H.LiddellHart.
Knownastheratioofforcestospace,thisargumentwaspublishedinhis1960
bookDeterrentorDefense.54Theratioofforcetospaceobservesthatforatleasta
centuryandahalf,ithastakenrelativelylesssoldierstoholdafrontofequal
distance.55Hartobservesthatthedefensehasbeengainingagrowingamaterial
ascendancyovertheoffense56Implicitinthistheoryisthatnotonlywasdefense
growingrelativetooffenseduringthistimeinhistory,buttheconcentrationin
densityreducedmaneuverabilityandmoreeasilyallowedfortheholdingofthe
frontbyUNforces.Simultaneously,thepoorroadsandmountainousterrainalong
thePusanPerimeteronlyexaggeratedthesuperiorityofthedefenseandallowedan
initiallysmallerforcetoestablishadefensiveperimeter.Figure4showsthe
mountainousconditionsandbrokenterrainthatfavoredthedefendersofthe
perimeter.
54 B.H. Liddell Hart, Deterrent or Defense, (New York, NY: Frederick A. Praeger, Inc. 1960).55Hart, Deterrent, 9756Ibid. 97
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57
Ifwedeveloptheratioofforcetospacetheorytoitsmorespecificcontextat
Pusan,itgainsevenmoreweight.Accordingtothelogicofwhatthispaperwillcall
thearithmeticargumentwhichincorporatestheratioofforcestospacebutalso
57Hoyt, Pusan Perimeter, 122
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examinesotherfactors,thesimplefactthatUNforceshadamuchsmallerand
concentratedperimetertodefendwithinteriorlinesofcommunicationand
increasingtrooplevelsrelativetotheirNKPAenemies,allowedforthesuccessful
defenseofthePerimeter. 58Thispaperlinkslogisticstothesmallerlinebecausethis
muchmorecompactandmoreeasilycontrolledperimeterenabledUNforcesto
pourtroopsandequipmentintotheportofPusanmoreeasilyandincreased
logisticaleffectivenessmorethanbeforethePerimeterwasestablished.Interior
lines,consideredtobeoftheutmostimportancebyJomini,werealsomoreeasily
maintainedinthesmallerPerimeter.KoreanWarscholarsAllanMillett,Roy
ApplemanandT.E.Fehrenbachallrecognizethesignificanceofthesmallerfrontas
atleastapartialexplanationforthesuccessfuldefenseofthePerimeter.Appleman
writes:
However,withtheestablishmentofthePusanPerimeterinAugust,theUN
troopsheldacontinuouslinewhichtheNorthKoreanscouldnotflank,andtheir
advantagesinnumbersdecreaseddailyasthesuperiorUNlogisticalsystembroughtin
moretroopsandsuppliestotheUNarmy.59
ThispointbyApplemanistwofold,includingboththesmallerlineandthe
increasingtrooplevels.Consideringtrooplevelsfirst,Figure5belowshowsaside-
by-sidecomparisonofUNandNKPAtroopsasof1September1950tofurther
illustratethispoint.60
58Appleman, North to the Yalu, p. 39359Ibid. 39360Appleman, North to the Yalu, p. 382 and 395 (Figure 4)
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UNtroops,1September1950NKPAtroops,1September1950
FromthischartwecanseethenumericaladvantageheldbyUNtroopsasof1
September.
IfwecombinethenumericaladvantageswithApplemanssecondpointabout
acontinuouslinethatcouldnotbeflankedbytheNKPA,thearithmeticargument
beginstogainsteam.Everincreasingtrooplevels,crammedintoamuchsmaller
defensivePerimeterthatcouldnotbeflankedincreasestheconcentrationofforces
alongthePerimeter,andmakesafrontalassaultmuchhardertoaccomplish.
Figure5:Totalsat
topofChart
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FehrenbacheloquentlyarticulatesthischallengetotheNKPAinThisKindof
Waronpage138:InpushingtheAmericansintoacorner,theNKPAprobablymade
itsgreatesttacticalerrorithadpooroddsofsmashingtheAmericanswithdirect
hammerblows.61ThesametacticsthatNKPAcommandershadusedtopushthe
ROKandU.S.forcestoPusannolongerworked,andasaresult,NKPAforceshadto
switchtotheunappealingandultimatelyineffectivedirectfrontalattack.62
Applemanironicallyalsopresentstheonlysubstantivechallengetothe
arithmeticargument.Onpage466ofSouthtotheNaktong,NorthtotheYalu,he
discussesthefatalweaknessoftheNKPAasnotbeingabletoexploit
breakthroughsinthelineratherthananinabilitytobreakthroughatall.63Ifthe
NKPAwasabletobreakthroughatall,thenthisrulesthearithmeticargumentoutas
thesoleexplanatoryfactorinthesuccessfuldefenseofthePerimeterandsuggests
thatthereareotherfactorsthatmustbecombinedwiththearithmeticargumentto
havedecisiveexplanatorypower.
5)TheFrictionofWar
Thefinalpotentialfactorthatexplainsthesuccessfuldefenseofthe
perimeterisoneadvancedbyCarlVonClausewitzinChapterVIIofhisfamous
manuscript,OnWar.64KnownastheFrictionofWarconcept,Clausewitz
describesmilitaryforcesandoperationsasmuchdifferentonpaperthanin
actuality.Theunaccountedandunexpectedphysicalandmentaltollthatanarmy
incursovertimeandthedeterioratingeffectofmovingandfightingonmenand
equipmentledClausewitztoconcludethatthedefensewasdominate,allother
thingsequal.65Inaddition,theNKPAextendedandstraineditssupplylinesasit
continueditsadvancedownthePeninsula.EverymiletheNKPAtraveledwas
61
Fehrenbach, This Kind of War, 13862
Ibid. 13863Appleman, North to the Yalu, p. 46664Patrick M. Cronin, Clausewitz Condensed, Air War College Nonresident Studies,
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anothermilethatexacerbatedthelogisticalchallengeofresupplyandanothermile
offrictionactingagainstNKPAefforts.
Althoughwrittenmorethan100yearsbeforetheKoreanConflict,one
compellinglineofargumentexplainingthefailuretopenetratethePusanPerimeter
isthefrictionconceptappliedtotheKoreanWar.Althoughnoneofthescholarsthat
havebeenreferencedexplicitlymentionClausewitzianfriction,Applemanand
Fehrenbachbothmakepointsthatsupportthisargument.Fehrenbachdescribes
howbylateAugust,NKPAforcescombatefficiencywaslowerthanatanyprevious
timeinthewarandithadlostmuchofitsmilitaryequipmentsuchastanks,artillery
andveteransoldiers.66SimilarlyApplemanwrites,BytheendofAugusttheNorth
Koreantroopshadbeenpushedbeyondtheirlimitsandmanyoftheoriginalunits
wereatfarreducedstrengthandeffectiveness.67
ItispossiblethattheNKPAsimplyjustranoutofsteam,andthedrivefrom
the38thparallelandthesubsequentslowingoftheirmomentumafterthePusan
Perimeterwasestablishedpreventedanylegitimateshotatvictory.Asthebalance
oftroopsswungintheUNsfavorduringtheBattleofPusanPerimeter,their
(NKPA)advantagesinnumbersdecreaseddaily 68anditbecameonlyamatterof
timebeforetheNorthKoreaneffortcollapsed.Thelossofmen,extendedsupply
lines,breakdownofequipmentandthemanyotheruncontrollableimpactsofwar
thatcomprisefrictionwerecombinedwithanincreasinglystubborndefenseby
ROKandAmericansoldiersandstymiedtheNorthKoreanadvance.Accordingto
theargument,bythetimetheNKPAhadbeguntheiroffensivesonthePerimeter
theysimplydidnthaveenoughgasleftinthetaketoreallytakeadvantageofany
minorpuncturesintheline.
Figure6showsared-bluebreakdownoftheperimeter,andeventhough
NKPAforcesappeartohavearoughparityinthenumberofunitsalongthefront,
theactualnumbersofcapablesoldiershaddiminishedgreatly.AccordingtoT.E.
66
Fehrenbach, This Kind of War, 13867
Appleman, North to the Yalu, p. 39368
Ibid. 393
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Fehrenbach,whenthePerimeterwasestablishedaround1AugusttheNKPAhad
alreadysustained60,000casualtiesmostlyatthehandsoftheROK.69By5August,
manyoftheNKPAsunitswereathalfstrengthandits11divisionsprobablydidnot
havemorethan70,000troopsaltogether.70Also,significantly,theNKPAdidnot
havemorethan40tanksby4August. 71Afteramonthoffightingandslowresupply
andreinforcement,theNKPAwasmorethanundermannedcomparedtotherapidly
growingUNforce.
AtthetimeoftheGreatNaktongOffensivewhichbeganaround1September,
theNKPAhad13infantrydivisions(5,000-9,000meneach),1armoreddivision
(1,000men),and2armoredbrigades(500meneach). 72100newT-34tankshad
arrivedandtheNKPAwasabletomuster98,000troopstotal.73Comparethese
figureswiththe500Americantanksand180,000fightingmenontheUNside,and
theeffectsofattritionbecomeclear.74
69Fehrenbach, This Kind of War, 11370Ibid. 11371Ibid, 11372Ibid. 13973Ibid. 13974Ibid 113
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75
Anotherpieceofevidencesupportingthisargumentistherapidityofthe
successoftheInchonInvasion.AlthoughInchonwasastrategicsurprise,onewould
stillexpectmoreofaresistancefromNKPAforces.Instead,theywererapidly
drivenuptotheYaluwithinafewmonths,suggestingbythistimethattheir
75Lynn Montross and Captain Nicholas A. Canzona, The Pusan Perimeter: Volume 1,(Washington, D.C., USMC G-3,1954). Inside Cover
Figure6
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offensiveandthesubsequentstalemateatPusanhadtakensuchatollontheir
combateffectivenessthatastubbornresistancewasnotpossible.76
Again,onesalientchallengetothisargumentishowclosetheNKPAcameto
breachingthePusanPerimeter.Fehrenbachwentsofarastosay,Forthirtydays
theoutcomewouldhangbyaslenderthread77Itwouldseemthatifthefrictionof
warwasthedecisivefactor,theoutcomeofthebattlewouldnothavebeenso
ambiguousthroughoutitsconduct.Inspiteofthischallenge,thelogicandevidence
presentedsuggestsfrictionhadasignificantimpact.
ASynthesisofArguments
Fromtheaboveanalysisitisclearthattherewasnosinglefactorthattipped
thebalanceonewayortheotherandthatthedefenseofthePerimeterwasmoreof
aresultofasynthesisoffactors.Thequestionis,whichfactorswerethemost
importantcontributorstotheUNdefenseofthePerimeterandthefailedNorth
Koreanoffensive?
Simplybasedonthestrengthoftheargumentspresentedandwhetherthe
evidenceexaminedseriouslychallengedthevariousconclusions,therearethree
factorsthatappeartohavethemostexplanatorypowerintheholdingofthe
Perimeter.First,Americanfirepowerwasanessentialcomponentofslowingthe
NKPAsadvanceandsupportingthedefenseofthePerimeterinplaceofthelackof
artillery.ThetechnologicaladvantageofSIGINTalsoprovidedtheUNwithbetter
intelligencetoredistributeitsforcestodangerspots.Second,thearithmetic
componentofasmallerPerimetercombinedwithincreasingtroopnumbersand
easierlogisticaloperationswereproblematicfortheNKPAbecausetheirearlier
tacticsofflankingandexploitingwerenolongereffective.Asresourcesandsoldiers
pouredintoPusan,theNKPAhadmoreofanuphillbattleaseachdaypassed.
Finally,thefrictionofwarargumenthelpsexplainthestalledNKPAadvanceandthe
76Appleman, North to the Yalu, 729-745.77
Fehrenbach, This Kind of War, 114
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failuretoexploitanyminorpuncturesinthePusanPerimeter.Thelongfightthat
ledtothePusanPerimetertookatollontheNKPA,andwhenitcametimetomount
anaggressiveoffensiveandexploitsuccesses,theresourcesandmanpower
requiredweresimplynotthere.
4.TheSignificanceoftheDefenseofthePerimeter
TheSignificancetotheKoreanWar
ThedefenseofPusanisoneofthemostremarkableeventsofthewar
becauseitpreventedthecompletecollapseoftheROKandthedominationofthe
Koreanpeninsulabythenorth.Unquestionably,hadNKPAforcessuccessfully
penetratedtheperimeterandcapturedPusanthewarwouldhaveturnedoutmuch
differently.ItisalmostcertainthattheROKmilitarywouldhavecollapsedinthe
eventofaNKPAvictoryatPusan.WhethertheROKgovernmentcouldhave
survivedinexile,aUNcoalitionwouldstillhaveintervenedandinvadedthe
Peninsula,ortheNKPAwouldeventuallystillbedefeatedinanattacksimilarto
Inchonareallcounterfactualsoutsideofthescopeofthispaper.Whatisclearata
minimumisthattheoutcomeofthewarwouldhavebeenradicallydifferentandin
alllikelihoodwouldhaveturnedoutworseforUNforcesthaniteventuallydid.The
ceasefireof1953,althoughbynomeansdecisiveineitherdirection,preservedthe
statusquoofthewarandinthatsense,theUNcoalitionaccomplisheditsmajorgoal.
TheSignificancetotheColdWar
ThesignificanceofthesuccessfuldefenseofthePusanPerimetertothe
KoreanWarismuchmoreobviousandconcretethanthemoreglobalColdWarimplicationsofthisvictory.IfweconcludethatthedefenseofPusanwascriticalin
thepreservationoftheROKatleastintheshortterm,thenitislogicaltoconclude
thattherewereglobalimplicationstothissuccess.Anyconclusionsdrawnhereare
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largelyspeculative,butnonethelessgroundedinlogicandhistoryasaguidefor
whatmighthavehappened.
HadtheNKPAtakenPusanandineffect,thewholePeninsulaandtheUNhad
notintervened,theUnitedStateswouldhavelostacriticalstrategiclocationinEast
AsiaontheheelsoftheCommunisttakeoverofChinain1949.Ifbothofthese
eventshadoccurred,theUnitedStatesstrategicpositioninAsiaduringtheColdWar
wouldhavebeenincrediblydebilitated.TheUnitedStateshasmaintainedandstill
maintainsastrongmilitarypresenceinSouthKorea,andmilitaryforcesinthis
nationwereacorecomponentoftheU.S.AsianpresencetohedgeagainstSoviet
threatsinAsia.
HadtheNKPAtakenPusanandtheUN hadintervened,thelossoflifewould
havealmostcertainlybeenmuchgreaterthanwasactuallythecase,whichisa
significantimpactinitsownright.Theamountofresources,equipmentand
manpowerthatwouldhavebeenrequiredtoretakethepeninsulawithnoinitial
friendlylandingzonewouldhavealsobeentremendous.
Forthesereasons,thedefenseoftheperimeterwasacrucialeventbothin
thewarandinthebroaderstrategicenvironmentoftheColdWar.
5.Conclusions
Thispaperhaspresentedanargumentfortheprinciplefactorsthat
contributedtothesuccessfuldefenseofthePusanPerimeterduringtheKoreanWar.
AfterdiscussingthecontextandoverviewoftheKoreanWarandtheBattleofPusan
Perimeter,thispaperpresented5possiblefactorsforthesuccessfulUNdefenseand
failedNKPAattackofthePusanPerimeter:1)NKPAlogisticalineffectivenessasa
resultofU.S.airpowerandinherentNKPAlogisticaldeficiencies,2)NKPAmilitaryineptitude,3)superiorUNfirepowerandtechnologyalongthefront,4)asmaller
fronttodefendwithbetterlogisticsandincreasingmanpowerand5)thefrictionof
war.Throughananalysisofeachofthesefactorsbyexaminingthelogicand
evidenceofeachexplanation,thispaperconcludedthatacombinationofsuperior
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firepowerandtechnology,asmallerfrontwithbetterlogistics(andmanpower)and
thefrictionofwararethethreemostexplanatoryfactorsforwhytheUNwas
successfulinitsdefenseofthePusanPerimeter.
ThispaperthenexaminedtheimplicationsoftheUNvictoryatPusanforthe
Koreanwarasawhole,concludingthatataminimumitpreventedthecollapseof
theRKOmilitary,andledtoamoreacceptableconclusionofthewarforUNforces.
ThispaperalsoexaminedtheimplicationsfortheColdWarasawhole,speculating
thathadUNforceslostatPusanandtheentirePeninsulawastakenbythenorth,
therewouldhavebeenanegativeimpactontheUSstrategicpositioninAsiaduring
theColdWarandthepotentialforamuchgreaterlossoflifeiftheUNconductedan
invasiontoretakethePeninsula.
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