the creative person zilch

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The Creative Person page 1

The Creative PersonMichael C. Zilch

Introduction

Who would you consider to be a creative person? Take a moment to think about this question. Are these people you know personally or have heard about? Could the person you thought about be atalented artist similar to Georgia O'Keefe, Vincent Van Gogh, or Robert Maplethorpe? Or recognized

musicians like Beethoven, Mozart, Whitney Houston, Bono or Sting? Could the creative person berepresented by someone such as Albert Einstein, Pythagoras, Maya Angelou or Langston Hughes? Or is the creative person similar to you and me? As you can see there are many questions to be asked, andthese are just a few of the questions creativity researchers have investigated.

Through the recognition of talents, gifts or discoveries, early research sought to identify thosepeople society and peers deemed creative. Historically researchers examined aspects of the creativeperson by studying people who produced creative products. These individuals were then identified ascreative because of the products they developed. This research focused on individuals who were widelyrecognized for their creativity. Then once a person was identified as creative, the next step was toexamine those qualities that predisposed those individuals to produce highly creative products. This isvery similar to what you and I do today, as we watch a movie, see a concert or read about a newinvention or discovery in the newspaper, we personally identify who we believe to be creative, whether it

is Michael Jackson, Madonna, Cher or Robin Williams. As we think about these highly creative people anatural question is, are they born creative or does it develop as they mature?

The purpose of this chapter is to describe some of the historical research concerning the creativepersonality and then provide a thorough review of the characteristics, traits and life experiencesassociated with the creative person. As you read through this paper, think about those qualities as theyrelate to you. As I describe the creative personality, ask yourself if I am describing some of your characteristics or those of people you know.

Historical Perspective: Creative Inspiration Perceived as Separate from the PersonThe Gi f t o f the Muse

Imagine if you will, a little fairy coming down from the Gods of Grecian Mythology and whisperingcreative thoughts in your ear. Seems quite strange, and yet, this is how ancient Greek civilizationdescribed the creative act. During the ancient Grecian era, creativity was described as one of the Muses-- the nine sister Goddesses in Greek mythology that presided over the arts and sciences. They wereconsidered the source of inspiration or the guides toward creative genius. Any aspect of creation focusedon whether the Muse was present to guide the creative person; or if the act of creativity was blocked, whydid the Muse not adorn that individual? In theory then, the Muse of a specific art or science must light upon us to have the act of creation occur. Plato (1976) stated;

She [( sic ), the Muse] first makes men inspired, and then through these inspired ones othersshare in the enthusiasm, and a chain is formed, for the epic poets, all the good ones, have their excellence, not from art, but are inspired, possessed, and thus utter all these admirable poems. . . .Hereinlies the reason why the deity has bereft them of their senses, and uses them as ministers, along withsoothsayers and godly seers; it is in order that we listeners may know that it is not they who utter theseprecious revelations while their mind is not within them, but that it is God himself who speaks, andthrough them articulates to us. (p. 32)

This view did not lend itself to the examination of what made a person creative, because it was believedthat creativity came from outside sources. The question you should ask yourself is, do you have a muse?When you have a difficult time trying to come up with a creative solution to an idea, is it because your muse-friend has left or is angry with you? While questions like this seem ridiculous because of where weare in our development, some people who have artistic, musical and/or writing abilities often say that themuse has left. As a writer, I have made similar comments. The muse however, is the beginningrealization of the creative act.

While others during this realm of philosophical thinking may have roundly agreed with Plato, Aristotle did not. He argued that creativity and the act of creativity, "obey fully natural laws" (Aristotle,


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1976; p. 33). Through his viewpoint, society had the beginning concepts of creativity as a part of thenatural order of human-kind . As you can identify, it seemed that human-kind had finally begun to movetowards the view that creativity exists within all of us. However, society moved toward a differentviewpoint with the birth of Christianity, and another realm of belief soon became apparent.

The Gi f t f rom God In historic times relevant to the development of Christian religion and religious beliefs, creativity in

individuals was viewed as gifts from God. This belief stems from the theoretical perspective defined as

creationism . Creationism refers to the action that everything within our environment has been orderedand created by a supreme being . When a person creates, s/he is doing this action under the guidance of a spiritual entity; that the power or essence of the supreme being touched the creative person anddictated the idea(s) that needed to be expressed. The creative act was still seen as outside the persongiving credit to that secular power many label as God. It is through this realm of belief that many withinthe art community were inspired.

Michelangelo in his creation of David and the magnificent paintings of the Sistine Chapel wereheralded as divine inspiration from God. Leonardo da Vinci and his interpretation of the Last Supper wasalso viewed as an inspiration from a secular source. Many artists and scientists were divinely inspired, itwas only those recognized by the church, at that time, who were able to produce their prestigious creativetalents and again have them recognized as such (Trachtman, 1975).

After the Renaissance movement of high creative output, individuals began to move away fromthe religiously inspired viewpoint to a more person centered belief of creative productivity.

A Modern Study of the Creative Person As a current reader in the field of creativity, you may think that we have been researching the

creative person for generations. However, because of a lack of systematic research, all we wereconcerned about was if you were creative or if you were not. Galton (1869) was one of the firstresearchers to seriously study the creative person empirically.

In Galton's early research of men who contributed to society through their achievements, he setout to determine if genius was passed along family lines. In other words, he predicted that parents whowere geniuses produced offspring that were also geniuses. His work revealed that there were stronglinkages between genetics and high intelligence. Much of what Galton examined was concerned withsocial or biographical criteria that was used to help judge whether or not a person was creative. His early

research helped pave the way for researchers who were interested in eminence, intelligence andcreativity, and Lewis Terman of Stanford University was one of those researchers interested inintelligence and giftedness.

Terman (1925) spent much of his life researching intelligence testing. He observed and studiedchildren who were not only intelligent but were considered gifted (talented) as well. Through his work, hewas able to determine that many highly intelligent children would grow up to be highly intelligent adultsand these children would be more creatively productive in their adult lives. Furthermore, Terman foundthat despite some of our misconceptions, highly gifted children did not behave differently than other children. Generally gifted children did not exhibit anti-social behavior or become overly mischievous thanthe rest of the population.

Yet many of these studies did not explain creative behavior in a thorough manner. For its time,

those studies brought creativity researchers closer towards what truly reflected the creative personality. At least we were beyond the belief that creative productivity stemmed from some mysterious externalbeing which by the way would have been difficult to study (Could you imagine trying to give aquestionnaire to a muse?). However these studies did not do much to illuminate the specific qualities thatenable certain individuals to utilize more of their creative potential than others. Other researchers suchas J. P. Guilford helped to incite the interest for creativity research to move forward. In his 1950presidential address to the American Psychological Association, Guilford expressed a need for researchin the area of creativity. He reviewed the index of psychological abstracts from 1927 to 1950 anddiscovered only 186 of the 121,000 articles discussed, researched or explained issues concerningcreativity (Guilford, 1950).


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Much has happened since Guilford's historic Presidential address concerning the lack of researchin the field of creativity. Guilford (1975, 1977, 1986, 1987), devoted the remainder of his life to theexploration of cognitive development, and through his research, Guilford developed the Structure of Intellect model (SOI). Yet Guilford was not the only scholar making significant contributions to thecreativity field. Barron (1969), Getzels (1964, 1975,1987), Getzels and Csikszentmihalyi (1975, 1976),MacKinnon (1962, 1971, 1975, 1978, 1987), Torrance (1962, 1979, 1984, 1987), Treffinger (1980), andWallach (1971) are just a few of the scholars who also researched and studied abilities associated withcreative behavior. Perhaps the most intensive investigation of the creative personality was undertaken by

the Institute for Personality Assessment and Research (IPAR) of the University of California at Berkeleyunder the direction of Donald MacKinnon.

Under MacKinnon's leadership, the institute was set up to examine the qualities that madesocially recognized people creative. He and his colleagues investigated architects, scientists,mathematicians and writers who were:

1) recognized by their peers as being highly creative, and 2) nominated by their peers to be invited tocome to the institute and stay for a period of three days. During their time there, these creativeindividuals were constantly observed (even during their meals) to try and discover what types of traitsthey possessed. They were asked to fill out numerous questionnaires, participate in observed activitiesand be interviewed. Much of the information on the creative person described in this paper is due to thework carried out at IPAR.

Aspects of the Creative PersonMost likely you have realized that the creative person is very complex as is almost all of

humankind. We are multidimensional, which means that we have many sides and facets. Mostresearchers tend to agree with this belief and currently, the study of the creative personality can bedivided into three categories. The first category, personality and motivational characteristics refers to thetraits and personal qualities that contribute to their creative potential. The second category is cognitiveabilities and these are the thinking skills associated with creative individuals. Finally, developmental events refers to the life experiences and events that influence creative potential. As you read through thefollowing descriptions, you may want to think about how these areas apply to you and your creativepotential.

Persona l i ty and Mot iva t ion Charac te r i s t ics MacKinnon and his colleagues work at IPAR provided much important data about the creative

personality. Through the tests and measurements done at IPAR, the following table of traits of creativepersons were " The most salient characteristics of all the creative groups" (MacKinnon, 1978, p. 123).

Table 1 : Traits of Creative People

1. Intelligent2. Independent in thought and action3. Intuitive4. Have a strong sense of destiny5. Original6. Open to experience, both the inner self and the outer world7. Have strong theoretical and aesthetic interests

Based on MacKinnon's (1978) work we can say that "creative people are intelligent," but thereverse may not be true. Think about some of the intelligent people you know, do you remember ever meeting one who is not very creative? Or cannot use her/his imagination very well? Personally, I havemet a number of highly intelligent people with little creative ability. Intelligence does not necessarily meancreative, yet most creative people have to have a fair amount of intelligence.

"Creative people are original," MacKinnon (1978) further states that you must take into accounttwo very important variables about the creative person and they are: the number of the ideas the personproduces, and the quality of those ideas. It is important to be able to generate many ideas as a creativeindividual and yet it is equally important to come up with ideas that have value and merit.


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The following statement can also be representative of the creative person, "creative persons areindependent in thought and action." Many individuals who are creative tend to be very independent andat times, strong willed. This independence for some creative individuals may be personally morerewarding. Independence tends to act as a motivator, and in some instances, it acts upon that inner drivewithin us. Are you a person who is independent or a person who is reliant upon others? Whatever your answer is, it is important to remember that sometimes, the issue of independence can have a meaningfulimpact on how you view your world. We most likely have been dependent upon others in our lives atsome point, and this is also true of the creative person.

"Creative persons are especially open to experience, both of the inner self and of the outer world"(MacKinnon, 1978). Many times we may feel that some of our actions are too risky or may be toodangerous to pursue. Yet many creative people are risk takers. They try new ways to do different tasks,and are open to whatever experience they encounter.

MacKinnon (1978) in his work said that "Creative people are intuitive." He also stated that this isa form of intuitive perception . As creative individuals, we may look beyond the meaning of something tofurther understand or find its symbolic representation. Intuitive people tend to look beyond what isimmediately observable to find deeper meaning. Is this reflective of you or your friends?

Another trait discussed by MacKinnon (1978) of the creative personality is the need for strongtheoretical and aesthetic interests. Do you often see beauty in things that others do not necessarily see?Or do you have friends who do this? Think about it when you look at an abstract drawing. Do you seeshapes and colors or can you find a way to relate those images to more personal feelings or beliefs. Aesthetics are usually very important to the creative person, it is that need for beauty in ones' life and itsrelationship to that person. Therefore creative persons can usually see the meaning of the aesthetics thatexists within her/his life. The same belief holds true with theory and theoretical conceptualization. Ascreative persons many are enthralled with theoretical concepts. Theory can have a strong emphasis intheir lives and beliefs. While creative personalities may tend to be strongly influenced by concreterealities, many are influenced by those middle grounds that have no clear end.

Finally, MacKinnon (1976) stated that "the creative person has a strong sense of destiny." As wego through our lives, there are times in which we examine the issue of destiny. In many instances whencreative people look back upon their lives, there are aspects of it that were meant to happen, and destinyhas played a significant role in their decision making. Yet, logic must also play a role, and to a certainextent, both have significant contributions to how creative individuals work, play and live. Is there a sense

of certainty to your actions? Are you destined to complete something? What role does destiny play inyour life? MacKinnon's work could be described as that destiny for many other researchers in the area of creative personality. Therefore as you continue to read the lists of characteristics that follow, try to pickout those that you can identify with.

Torrance (1962) was another researcher interested in the creative personality. In his researchand working with children, Torrance reviewed different studies that used characteristics to differentiatebetween, "highly creative persons from less creative ones." These characteristics were based on much of the work he did with a number of personality inventories. Throughout our learning experience, we havebeen asked to participate in different standardized testing. These tests not only tried to measureintelligence, but in some instances, they measured personality traits that typified gifted, talented andhighly creative individuals. Listed below in table two are descriptors of the creative personality.

See how many of the characteristics listed below relate to you. Check off as many as you wish.Of the terms that do not relate, what is it about that characteristic that does not seem to fit your personality? Torrance's list is quite complex, yet it lists many of the qualities, both positive and negative,that seem to makeup the creative person.

Table 2: Characteristics of the creative personality

1. Accepts disarray 43. Not always popular 2. Adventurous 44. Odd habit

3. Strong affection 45. Persistent4. Altruistic 46. Become preoccupied with a problem

5. Awareness of others, likes solitude 47. Preference for complex ideas/concepts


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6. Always baffled by something 48. Questioning7. Attracted to disorder 49. Radical

8. Attracted to mysterious 50. Receptive to external stimuli9. Attempts arduous jobs 51. Receptive to others' ideas

10. Bashful outwardly 52. Regresses occasionally11. Constructive criticism employed 53. Use rejection or suppression to control

impulses12. Courageous 54. Refuse to repress

13. Deep conscientious convictions intuitive 55. Reserved14. Defies conventions of courtesy 56. Resolute

15. Defies conventions of health 57. Self assertive16. Desires to excel 58. Self starter

17. Steadfast 59. Self aware18. Differentiated value hierarchy 60. Self confident

19. Discontented 61. Self sufficient20. Disturbs organization 62. Sense of beauty

21. Dominant (not in power sense 63. Sense of humor 22. Emotional 64. Shuns power

23. Emotionally sensitive 65. Sincere24. Believes in destiny 66. Uninterested in small details

25. A fault-finder 67. Speculative26. Doesn't fear being thought "different" 68. Spirited in disagreement27. Feels whole parade is out of step 69. Strives for distant goals

28. Full of curiosity 70. Stubborn29. Appears haughty/self satisfied at times 71. Temperamental

30. Likes solitude 72. Tenacious31. Independence in judgment 73. Tender emotions

32. Independent thinker 74. Timid33. Individualistic 75. Tireless

34. Intuitive 76. Thorough35. Industrious 77. Unconcerned about power 36. Introversion 78. may seem uncultured, primitive

37. Keeps unusual hours 79. Unsophisticated, naive38. Lacks business ability 80. Unwilling to accept on mere say so

39. Makes mistakes 81. Visionary40. Never bored 82. Versatile

41. Non conformist 83. Risk-taker 42. Not hostile or negative 84. To some extent withdrawn and quiescent

(Adapted from Torrance, 1962, pp. 66 - 67)

Remember, what indeed makes one person creative, may in fact not be what makes you creative. And yet we know through research that there are consistent characteristics that are a part of the creativepersonality. Most of the above listed definitions are self explanatory. Finally, Amabile (1989) stated thatthere exist a number of personality traits that are inherent within the creative personality. Althoughprimarily known for her research on intrinsic motivation, Amabile has also described traits of the creativeperson. They are listed in table three.

Table 3: Traits of the Creative Personality1. self discipline about work2. perseverance even when frustrated3. independence4. tolerance for unclear situations5. nonconformity to society's stereotypes6. ability to wait for rewards7. self - motivation to do excellent work8. a willingness to take risks


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It is important to realize that while each of the above traits are necessary for creative individuals to utilize,if they are not present within your life at this point, the traits necessary for creative production can bedeveloped throughout your lifetime. How many of the above listed traits by MacKinnon (1978), Torrance(1962), and Amabile (1989) apply to you? How many characteristics do you need to be creative? All of them, half of them, not any? Whatever you decide, the creative person is definitely complex and creativepeople have many different characteristics, traits, motivations and distinct personalities.

Cognit ive Abil i t ies

As stated earlier, cognitive abilities are those thinking skills that are associated with the creativeperson. Thus, there are myriad cognitive abilities that are a part of the make up of the creativepersonality. Guilford (1987) has defined many of these cognitive traits through the Structure of Intellect(SOI) model of creative production. This model is "a collection of abilities or functions for processinginformation" (Guilford, 1987, p. 47). The representation of SOI allowed for the organization of traits into asystematic working model. This particular cube like model allowed Guilford to identify 98 of the 150different processes called cognitive abilities . (See diagram one). As you can imagine, this model ishighly complex, but a pictorial representation will help you to better understand Guilford's conceptualdesign of the structures that makeup our intellect.

http://tip.psychology.org/guilford.html

Diagram 1 : The Structure of Intellect Model

Guilford (1986) found that there were many cognitive abilities that seem necessary for creativity but four seem to be inherently dominant. Torrance (1962, 1972, 1979) and Guilford (1967, 1968, 1986) have bothextensively discussed the creative person's propensity for fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration .

So let's take a look at your ability to be fluent, flexible, original and elaborative. I would like you to thinkabout a tire. The question you may be thinking is why a tire? This is a common object we have contactwith almost every day. Now try to describe the various uses of a tire. Give yourself a couple of minutesto think about it. So how many ideas did you come up with? This is what is termed fluency. Fluency isthe ability or "capability to produce a large number of ideas per unit in time, other things being equal, hasa greater chance of having significant ideas" (Guilford, 1986, pp. 14-15). If an individual is fluent inher/his thinking ability, s/he should be able to generate many ideas or in other words, be able to utilizedivergent thinking.

When you generated ideas for the use of a tire, were you able to go from one topic to a differentone? This is called flexibility. Flexibility is the ease by which individuals can change from one subjectarea to another. A flexible person should be able to progress from ideas that are similar to ideas that arecompletely different. The more practice you have incorporating flexibility into your life, the better you willbecome at it. Ideas such as: using an old tire to plant flowers in, then following with the idea using tiresas protective bumpers in your garage show that when generating ideas you can go from on topic toanother easily. Look over your list of ideas can you see where you were flexible?

Do you believe that some of your ideas for the tire were original? Originality is the ability to thinkand develop tangible and intangible products incorporating novelty, creativity and usefulness. Anindividual who has the ability to think in original ways can formulate unique solutions to a concern.
http://tip.psychology.org/guilford.htmlhttp://tip.psychology.org/guilford.html


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Were you able to build off an idea or combine ideas together, look at your list now and see if youcan see a relationship between your ideas. Elaboration is the ability to further refine and define theidea(s). A person who can utilize elaboration is one who can build upon the idea to refine it, and thenapply the idea to a concern.

If you believe that you did not do as well as you wanted, it's typical when you are starting toincorporate problem solving behavior. You are just beginning to understand the creative person within

you. The good news here is that you can use this at any time, or any place to develop ideas that canaddress a problem, challenge or opportunity.

There are many other abilities identified as creative abilities such as your ability to evaluate your ideas, synthesize their meaning and analyze their appropriateness. These are all common cognitiveabilities that we incorporate into our lives on a daily basis. Other cognitive abilities include, using your imagination, being able to visualize images, the use of metaphors and analogy, and being aware or sensitive to problems. This list is only a few of the cognitive abilities that we use throughout our lives.

We often use our imagination and thus take it for granted. However, imagination is a strong toolmany people use to develop and express their creativity. Think about a tree, imagine that tree swaying inthe wind as the wind becomes stronger and stronger. Using your imagination is that simple.

Building on your imaginative strengths is your ability to visualize images within your mind's eye . Again, think about that tree, create a picture of it in your mind. Is it tall, full of leaves, old and gnarly? Theimage you have created is now within your mind and you can recreate it, alter it, and change it because of your ability to visualize. Visualization can go further because it can be used as a process to solveproblems, create new products and has virtually unlimited uses.

The ability to use metaphor and analogy tend to be a complex, cognitive skill. However, most of us use these skills without realizing it. If I use the phrase, "The evening of our lives," most of you shouldrecognize that this phrase refers to old age. There are other phrases, thoughts and ideas we have reador heard that are metaphors. If you read song lyrics, you will see metaphors and analogies usedrepeatedly throughout. Think of a song you know, what are the lyrics, can you find words or phraseswithin it that may have an alternative meaning? This is how influential metaphors can be.

The last cognitive ability to be discussed is being aware or sensitive to concerns. Many of us can

see problems, find them and sort them out. We can see if information may be missing or out of order,and this allows us to develop an ability to ask appropriate questions for problem solving. Counselors,psychologists and psychiatrists are in tune to asking probing questions to try and address a personalconcern or challenge, Yet most of us do this daily when a problem comes up or we need to sort out thedata and apply appropriate strategies to solve the concern. As creative people, we need to have adeveloped sensitivity to the concerns or challenges we face within our lives.

Developmental Events Developmental events refers to the life experiences and events that influence creative potential.

There are some developmental events that occur within our lives that we have little control over such asaging, and birth order, chronic illness and death. Yet other developmental events serve as influencesupon us. Think back to your past, can you think of any events or circumstances that have had aninfluence on who you are today and how you behave? For many of us, developmental events are those

that effect the outcomes of our lives. These events effect our productivity, our accomplishments, our mistakes and our perspective on how we view the world. Therefore it is an important part of the creativeperson.

AgeThe role of age has been a highly debated topic in creativity research and writing. Foy (1988)

and Simonton (1987) discussed the research of Harvey Lehman in his (1953) book entitled Age and Achievement . According to Simonton, the works of Lehman are fairly accurate in account of creativeexpectations at specific ages. Simonton (1988) reiterated:


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In broad terms, creative output in most fields tends to rise fairly rapidly to a peak in the late 30'sor early 40's, and thereafter decline somewhat gradually. Recent investigations have establishedLehman's chief results.

. . . For the most part, the 40th year appears to be the highwater mark of creative achievement.(p. 75).This does not indicate that once creative people reached their 40th year that the creative act declines.Could you imagine being a highly creative person and on the day of your fortieth birthday, it stops or lessens dramatically. Therefore, there may exist some f laws in Lehman's work.

Foy (1988) indicated that Lehman failed to separate individuals based on their individuallongevity. Dennis (1956, 1966) attempted to correct this concern. Foy summarized the work carried outby Dennis:

The results of this study do support some of Lehman's conclusion, at least in respect to scholarsand scientists who peaked in their 40's. Some exceptions were historians, philosophers, and inventors,who showed their greatest productivity in their 60's and only a bit less in their 70's. (p. 341)

It becomes evident then, that creative productivity does continue throughout a lifetime regardless of thelength of that lifetime.

Mozart was a significant contributor to the musical world with over 370 musical contributionsranging from arias and solos to operas and symphonies. Yet, imagine if Mozart lived beyond his thirty-five years. According to Lehman's theory, he would have reached his peak composing within the next tenyears of his life. Yet research has indicated that musical composers continue to produce a significantnumber of musical compositions well into late adulthood (Foy, 1988). Therefore, while age seems tohave a level of importance in the contribution of creative endeavor, what really should be important to thecreator in all of us is our ability to utilize creativity throughout our respective lives.

Birth Order In regard to birth order, researchers suggest that the first born child tends to be recognized as

being highly creative or assume important leadership roles (Simonton, 1987). Ludwig Van Beethoven,Charles Dickens and Madame Marie Curie were first born children whose creative talents, literaryexpressions and scientific explorations are well documented. Theoretical hypotheses that support thisbelief include that the first born child tends to have "individualized behavior" or more adult interaction thansubsequent children. Yet we can find many examples of the "last born child" that have shown a high

degree of creativity and/or leadership success within society. Last born children include Thomas AlvaEdison, Johann Sebastian Bach and Doctor Pierre Curie. Inferences that support this creativecontribution may indicate that first born and last born children are pampered more than other children.This may promote the theory that individualized attention plays an important and significant role increative development.

Simonton (1987) indicated, "the middle child" tends to act in the role of negotiator, compromiser or reconciler. This may lead the middle child more towards "administrative roles." So, "birth order mayexert an influence on the aspects of personality development which is responsible for achievement,whether as a leader or as a creator" (p. 67). However as in any theory, birth order can also be disputed.Igor Stravinsky, considered to be one of the greatest classical composers of the twentieth century was thethird child of four. Michael Jackson is another creative talent who falls somewhere near the middle in thebirth order of his family. He may be closer to the younger end of his family similar to Stravinsky, yet he

does fall somewhere in the middle. Can you think of other creative individuals who may be the middlechild?

Throughout history we may still be able to pull instances where birth order may not be viewed asthe significant contributor to creativity or leadership. Other variables such as education, or social supportcan contribute significantly to the development of the creative person.Education

Formal education can and does require increased levels of intellectual thought and contribution.Yet formal education can also lead to conformity and therefore cause a lack of creative contribution. E.Paul Torrance's (1962) work with gifted and talented children clearly reflected this concern.


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Torrance (1962), described the creativity slump that occurs when a child enters kindergarten .Many highly creative children have an enthusiasm for the beginning segments of the social environmenttermed kindergarten in the elementary school. By mid-term though, the creative child begins to conformmore to other schoolmates' behaviors. Conformity seemed to be the most significant cause of decline increativity. The first decline, as indicated, usually occurs when we begin to attend formal, educationalsurroundings with other children. Moreover, levels of creativity decline in other grade levels as well.

Do social norms within peer groups effect the decline in creativity? Do the pressures of

acceptance and validation cause conformity? According to Torrance these specific issues involvingcreativity often occur at grades four and seven. These declines are more clearly explained by Sullivan(1953; In Torrance, 1962). Sullivan stated that:

The skills being acquired . . .which usually occurs between third and fourth grade for mostchildren include; social subordination and accommodation, ostracism, segregation into groups,disparagement, stereotyping, competition and compromise. . . Strong dependence upon consensualvalidation develops, and unusual ideas are laughed at, ridiculed, and condemned. . . . as this transition ismade in early adolescence at about seventh grade still other social pressures to conformity appears.These new demands typically produce feelings of inadequacy and insecurity as new roles are imposed.The resultant anxiety restricts awareness and produces uncertainty, making productive thinking difficult.(pp. 94 - 95)

This concern concerning productive thinking has had an impact on how the creativity levels in childrencan be dissipated or lessened. There are however, other influences that can assist the creative child toremain highly creative. The two following individual histories are examples of family, social support thatmay have an influence on the creative abilities of a child.

Einstein, one of the most significant intellectuals of our time, was considered highly creative. Hisgiftedness as a scientist and as an accomplished musician were developmentally nurtured by his mother.It was Einstein's mother who taught him how to compensate for his dyslexic like learning, and earlyfailures in his education did not deter his need to find answers to the universal perplexities of theoreticalscience. He doggedly pursued his educational needs and received his Ph.D. from the University of Zurich, Switzerland. Because of his early physics theories, Einstein became renowned as anaccomplished scholar and theorist. It can be said that Dr. Einstein rose through the ranks of educationwith much difficulty and yet, became one of the most significant contributors to physical science andespecially humanism. However, Thomas Edison education was significantly different.

Edison did not receive a formal education and his perceived developmental disability labeled asretardation by a school master greatly hindered his ability to become educated. It was Edison's mother however, who saw a gift for learning within her son and provided at-home schooling to assist andaugment his unique learning style. Because of his great curiosity and interest in the sciences, he becamean inventive risk- taker. Through these creative risks, Edison discovered how electrical, mechanical andscientific theories could be applied to existing life circumstances. He also used trial and error and adetailed system of journal writing to help enable his creativity. Edison on average produced over 400patents for new products a year during his peak inventing years. Through his tireless work, his collectionof over 4300 journals, and dedication to the inventive spirit, Edison became the United States' greatestand most productive inventor of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

For both individuals, the role of family support provided by their mothers led to educational

development through formal schooling (Einstein) and educational development through home schooling(Edison). Both methods of education were successful for these particular creative individuals. How doyou think your educational experiences have influenced your creative potential?

Role Models/MentorsRole models can serve as the motivating personality towards the development of personal

creativity. The contributions these mentors have had can make a significant impact upon the creativepersonality. Mentoring that has occurred in our lives is very important to our development. Take amoment now and think about to those individuals who have influenced you. How did s/he interact withyou? Was your experience a positive one? How did this interaction help to form who you are? What didyou learn from them? Mentors serve as great influences on the development of creative talent. Noller (1982) has said that mentoring is like "A VOICED SCARF." The acronym is listed in table four.


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Table 4 : A VOICED SCARF

Attitude of PositivenessValuingOpen MindednessInterrelationsCreative Problem Solving

Effective CommunicationDiscoveryS trengths and UniquenessConfidenceAwarenessRisk-takingFlexibility (p. 23)

An attitude of positiveness is a necessary part of the mentor-mentee relationship. We need to havepositive beliefs in ourselves and our abilities as well as with our peers. Having a humorous dispositionand enthusiasm help to not only maintain positiveness, it acts as a reinforcer for your positive outlook.Negativity about yourself such as putting yourself down or others in your group only act as a defeatingmechanism which hinders creativity and your personal growth and development.

Noller (1982) described valuing as a need to examine your beliefs and ideals. The examinationof values helps us to develop and establish personal goals and values that we believe in (p. 25). Openmindedness allows us to look at many possibilities and concerns. It allows for the development of trustand therefore serves as a motivator in the mentor - mentee relationship. It is important to be able to listento your mentor, learn from that person and provide feedback. A mentor not only offers assistance, adviseand guidance, but s/he receives much of that from you as well. We learn from each other and this isreliant on the interrelations we develop. A mentor is only effective if s/he interacts with you, sharesthoughts, ideas and experiences . This interrelations allows for empathy and support therefore it is oneof the most important aspects of that relationship (Noller, 1982, p. 27).

The process of creative problem solving (CPS) for the mentor and the mentee is what Noller (1982) said should, "become a way of life" (p. 28). The CPS process is a tool by which a mentor can askquestions to elicit ideas of thoughts and needs to be used by the mentee as a method for creativity and

for overcoming challenges or concerns. Tied to creative problem solving and especially the mentor-mentee relationship is the need for effective communication . Communication that is approachedeffectively is reliant not only upon responding to questions and concerns, it is also important to be aneffective listener. But communication has other variables that are important. Noller (1982) stated that thementee needs to learn to "consider the positions of others as well as self . . . to be an assertivequestioner . . . to keep the lines of communication open" (p.29). All these aspects of communicationallows for intellectual and educational growth and overall personal development.

Learning to communicate effectively can provide many opportunities for discovery . As a mentor and a mentee, independent thinking is an important and integral part of my relationships with others. Itallows us to be curious about different aspects of our lives whether it involves other "persons, places,things or processes . . . To learn through inquiry, to be innovative by translating original, imaginative ideasinto action," we allow for the creative persons to develop within the mentor-mentee relationships (Noller,

1982, p. 30).

Mentoring involves a thorough understanding of our strengths and uniqueness. Each one of us isseparate and unique; even identical twins with the same genetic makeup have different personalities.Therefore it is important to celebrate our uniqueness and learn from each other. Having differingstrengths in a mentoring relationship allows for the development of respect for the mentee as well as, abetter overall understanding on how to utilize those strengths to be a creative person. Along with strengthand uniqueness is the need to have confidence in your abilities.

One of important aspects of a mentor/mentee relationship is watching the person developconfidence in her/his abilities. I strongly believe that during the course of this type of relationship, thedevelopment of confidence from the mentee naturally occurs. Yet, confidence is a two way street. Not


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only does the mentee develop confidence but in many instances the mentor develops her/his own newlevels of confidence. Confidence in the mentee is something that is welcomed and accepted, and ahigher level of confidence in her/his own ability to provide the needed support and nurturance for thatmentee is a true, positive learning experience.

The need to fully understand and comprehend your own personal awareness will develop over the course of the relationship with your mentor. Awareness is a general term that reflects your awareness of your strengths, and abilities. It also refers to that developing awareness that occurs

through the incorporation of creative problem solving techniques into your life. You become aware of thechallenges and opportunities that are available to you, and you will experience favorable outcomes asyour awareness grows and develops.

Previously in this paper, we have discussed the need to take risks as a creative person. Yet inmentoring relationships, risk-taking is also necessary. In order to stretch yourself to your maximumability, develop and learn about trust, risk taking in a mentor/mentee relationship is important. Whether your risk taking is successful or not, your mentor will provide feedback that will help you in your growthand development. As your relationship to your mentor grows the need to take risks grows with your confidence, strength and your own unique way in which you look at your world.

Flexibility as discussed earlier in this paper is one of the four necessary aspects of developingyour creativity. Yet, it is a significant part of the mentor/ mentee relationship. Being flexible allows for self exploration into your creative potential. It also allows for greater depth and intellectual development inyourself as well as your mentor. For further examination of the utilization of creative problem solving andmentoring, A VOICED SCARF by Noller (1982), is a superb, easy to read source for information aboutmentoring.

As a creative person, you may be able to look back upon those influences in your life. Some of your mentors had mentors themselves and some day (if you do not serve in a mentoring role already),you will probably be a mentor to someone else. One of my mentors had Anne Morrow Lindbergh as amentor. Another has E. Paul Torrance as a mentor. These role models play an important and significantpart in the overall creative development of the individual's personality and creative talents.

Finally mentors are not limited to the formal role of teacher or professor. Mentors can be friends,family members or neighbors. Two of my mentors are dear friends who have walked side by side with methroughout my college career and have served as important role models for creative thinking. Finally a

mentor that played a significant role in my overall development was my Grandfather. Take a look atthose individuals who have acted as mentors to you, and think about what you have learned. While mostmentoring experiences are positive, some mentoring relationships are not.

Simonton (1987) stated that, "a developing creator may never rise above the temptation of mereimitation and thus become entrapped by models who must be surpassed" (p. 68). This clearly hashappened with many rising talents, Beethoven has served as a mentor to other pianists who never published musical compositions and there are others who never surpass their mentor. Finally, mentor roles can have disastrous outcomes such as what occurred between Sigmund Freud and Carl GustaveJung.

Freud served in the role of mentor to many students. And at times, his mentor relationshipswould have traumatic, and often permanent breaks with a particular mentee. This type of separation

occurred in his relationship with his protg, Carl Jung. So traumatic was this separation, that during theremainder of his life, Freud would not recognize or discuss any of Jung's work (Gay, 1988).The crucial concern then is how do individuals surpass their mentors without risking the end to

the relationship? The answer is not very clear because there are many inter-relationships between thesetwo roles. Regardless of the viewpoint, growth beyond the role model can be rewarding or traumatizing.Yet mentor/mentee relationships are again just one aspect of influence on the creative personality.

Illness, Disability, Special Interests, and DeathFor many creative individuals traumatizing events within their lives have served to foster creative

production. You would think that being a sickly child would further impede your creative development.Yet there are highly creative people who had sickly childhood's. This aloneness or lack of social contact


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would seem to be a barrier to creativity, but for those who had only their imagination to work with duringtimes of bed rest, many were able to promote and develop their personal creativity.

In the book, The Secret Garden, a sickly child becomes well through his friends' insistence onthe exploration of the secret garden. The child's allowance for his personal happiness to come to thesurface seems to act as the motivation necessary for personal healing and the inner exuberance for youthto come through once again. Being able to explore the realms of imagination may in fact come easier tothose who have to remain quiet and in need of rest. Think back to a time when you were sick as a child,

you more than likely slept, and rested. Yet if you think back, you can probably find that you explored your imagination and tried to come up with some ideas for quiet play.

Many disabled people are highly creative. Thomas Edison was deaf, Albert Einstein wasdyslexic, as was Leonardo da Vinci. Stevie Wonder one of the worlds' greatest musicians is obviouslyblind and spent his childhood in a housing project. Jose Feliciano, also sightless, has made a career for himself as a singer and songwriter. As a disabled person myself, my creative production has notdecreased or been severely impeded because I use canes or a wheelchair, but it has caused me to utilizeactive problem solving skills as a daily measure for overcoming blocks and barriers. Many of theobstacles disabled people face could serve as barriers to creativity, yet in many cases they do not.

There are other highly creative people who developed an interest in reading at an early age.There are also those among us who really love to learn and explore new realms of knowledge. This lovefor learning serves as a creative motivator and enhancer for personal creativity to develop. Think aboutthe areas of interest you have. More than likely you have had to use creativity to problem solve or overcome a challenge.

Finally even though death of a loved one can cause severe trauma within a family, creativity canand does emerge out of such tragedy. The author of the famous children's story, Peter Pan, createdimaginative stories about children who never grew up. These stories were created and told to his mother when his brother suddenly died. Madonna's Mother died of cancer during her childhood. Something assignificantly traumatizing as the death of a parent or child should further impede creative development.But for many creative individuals, it does not. Hopefully, there are no severe, traumatizing events thathave occurred in your life, but if there are, try to use the knowledge and personal insight you have gainedas a tool to overcome blocks and barriers in your creative potential.

Models: Putting the Creative Person Together

We have previously talked about different aspects of the creative personality but how do all thesebits and pieces of information fit together? How do they function together to influence a person'screativity? These questions about the creative person remind me of a jigsaw puzzle. Take a momentnow and think about this analogy. All the pieces of jigsaw puzzle when put together form a completepicture (hopefully). This is not unlike the creative person, once the pieces that make up personality areput together, the whole creative individual emerges.

The purpose of this section is to examine three different models. The first model is Maslow'stheory concerning the self-actualized individual. The self-actualized person strives to realize her/hispotentials. Self-actualized creativity refers to the creativity we use in day to day living. The second modelwe will examine is E. Paul Torrance's classic model. This particular model examines the interactionbetween skills, motivation and abilities. Finally we will examine Amabile's (1989) model of creativitywhich examines intrinsic motivation, domain skills and creative thinking and working skills. Remember the models described in this section are intended to apply to everyone, not just people with special talents

or gifts but to people like you and me.

Maslow: The Self-actualized Individual Maslow (1972) believed that the creative person needed to be examined in a holistic manner in which onelooks at all the characteristics or determinants that make up the individual. The individual then may, infact, have hundreds or thousands of characteristics or determinants that contribute to the individual'screativity. Moreover these determinants, in many instances, are similar or the same as those that definethe self-actualized human being. In his research, Maslow described the following table as characteristicsof self-actualized human beings:

Table 5: Characteristics of Self-actualized People1. A competent perception of reality - They do not tend to distort reality about their own wishes, feelings


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or desires.2. Acceptance of self and others - accept themselves for what they are and know their strengths andweaknesses without defensive or guilty feelings.3. Spontaneity - are usually spontaneous in their overall behavior as well as in their inner thoughts andimpulses.4. Problem centering - can direct their energies toward tasks or challenges.5. Detachment - need more solitude and alone time.6. Autonomy - have a strong need for independence.

7. A constant freshness of appreciation - can continue to appreciate all of nature and life.8. The mystic experience - the subjects can be transformed or strengthened by their experiences (i.e.peak experiences).9. Brotherly love - an expression of affection, empathy and nurturance towards others.10. Unique interpersonal relations - have fewer friends than others but have profound relationships withthose friends they do have.11. Democratic character structure - democratic, no true prejudice towards others based uponstereotypical beliefs.12. Discrimination between means and ends - are strongly ethical/moral.13. Philosophical, unhostile sense of humor - do not harbor a hostile sense of humor (such as towardracial groups), nor assume a superior sense of humor laughing at someone else's inferiority, weaknessesor shortcomings.14. Creativeness - a freshness of thought, ideas and actions. Does not have to be specifically talented.

15. Resistance to enculturation - genuinely independent of culture and manage to exhibit tolerantacceptance of behavior expected of their society( Adapted from Turner and Helms, 1983)

As you can clearly recognize, there exists definite similarities between how Maslow defines the self-actualized human being and previous creative definitions and descriptions we have read earlier.Therefore, according to Maslow's model the every day creative person is a self-actualized person. Onewho uses her/his creativity in every day life. Look over Maslow's list of terminology. How many apply toyou? Are there any that you disagree with or need to explore further?

In his writing, Davis revealed two distinct types of creativity, self-actualized creative individualsand special talent creative individuals. Davis (1986) stated that self-actualized creative personalities arethe "mentally healthy ones who live full, productive lives and tend to approach all aspects of their lives in

a flexible, creative fashion" (p. 5). Whereas those individuals who are ascribed as special talent creativestend to have, "obviously outstanding creative talent or gift in art, literature, music, theater, science,business, or other area" (p. 5). These individuals may not be as mentally stable as others but it isimportant to note that mental instability does not define levels of special talent creativity.

Davis further explained that there are many differences between self-actualized creativity andspecial talent creativity. Davis (1986) states:

Few of us can achieve recognition and riches for fantastic, creative achievements. However,everyone can increase his or her self-actualized creativeness by becoming creativity conscious, byunderstanding creativity, by cultivating one's talents, and by working toward a more creative approachtoward living (p. 6).

Therefore there exists a distinct difference between types of creative individuals. Some of us may be fullytalented and gifted in one particular area such as Picasso. Or, we may be able to apply creativity in manydiverse areas throughout our lives. Whatever the circumstance, either type of creative behavior is equallyimportant, and neither is more preferred than the other. Would you agree?

Torrance: Model of Creative Behavior The following model of creative behavior that we will examine was developed by E. Paul Torrance

(1979). Consistently, the reader will find many similarities between models, and the Torrance model isquite similar to others within the creativity literature. His model (diagram two) examined and definedcreative behavior as an interaction of your skills, personal motivation, and intellectual abilities.


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Skills are defined as those abilities necessary for creativity to occur. Treffinger and Huber (1975),believe that a creative individual should be able to distinguish many distinct problems that can beaddressed. In other words, the creative person must have an awareness of the problems, define them,and be able to develop a strategy to solve those problems. We should also be aware of the data thatmay be important to a problem that needs creative thinking. Other skills necessary include being able tosee the essence of a problem or as Torrance (1979) states, "recognize the real problem" (p. 13). To betruly competent, you must be able to broaden the problem, examine all aspects of it and practice your skills to become proficient at incorporating them when necessary. Thus, skills defined by Torrance (1979)

must

Diagram 2: Torrance Model of Creative Behavior

(An adapted model of Torrance, 1979)relate to developing an effective problem solving process for the actualization of creative behavior. Howdo you problem solve? What are your skills that you bring or use for creative behavior to occur?

Personal motivation clearly is as Amabile (1989) indicated; it is an inner motivation that drivessomeone to completion of the task. This type of motivation again, is not one for extrinsic rewards, but amotivation the comes from within, one that pushes an individual towards success just because of thatpersonal need to "just do it". Think about it, has there been a time in your life that you did a task or met agoal because you wanted it? Not for rewards such as money or recognition, but because it is somethingyou always wanted to do?

Intrinsic motivation may be hard to describe but it emulates a "heart felt" need to come to closureon tasks that are personally relevant. As a writer, coming to closure becomes inherently necessary for the success of the written work. Usually it is not based upon extrinsics such as money or recognition (asmentioned above), it has been based upon contributing to the field that I am writing within. Some writerscontribute for monetary rewards, while many others examine the needs of society or a more personalneed from within themselves. Therefore, motivation plays a crucial role in creative production.How are you motivated to complete a task or work on a problem?

Intellectual abilities are defined as those intellectual capabilities that allow for creative productionto occur . Abilities are intellectually based and for original, creative production to occur, having complex,cognitive thinking abilities are usually necessary. Now this does not mean that you have to be a genius,but it means that above average intelligence does have an impact upon creative behavior. As you know,not everyone who is cognitively brilliant is creative or exhibits creative behavior. Take a moment now toidentify some of your abilities, go back through the tables in this paper and see if any of the terminologyapplies.

Amabile: The Creativity Intersection Amabile (1989) has also defined and discussed what are the attributes of the creative

personality. First and foremost in Amabile's research has been the impact of intrinsic motivation upon the


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creative individual. Yet having internally driven motivation is not all that is necessary for the creative actto occur. Also involved are domain skills and creative thinking and working skills . (see diagram three).

Diagram 3: The Creativity Intersection

Motivationally related skills and tasks have been researched by scholars to try and understandthe similarities and differences between those who are intrinsically motivated to those who are not(Amabile, 1979, 1982, 1983, 1985; Calder & Staw 1975; Deci, 1971, 1972, 1975; Ross, 1975; Staw,1976). Intrinsic motivation is defined as a self directed determination that combined with interest andcompetence directs an individual towards creation. This motivational form is not derived from externalrewards or cues, but is directed by the creative personalities' inner drive. Research by Amabile (1979,1982, 1983, 1985, 1989) has found that intrinsic motivation is usually a significant indicator for the trulycreative act to occur. Yet intrinsic motivation is but a part of the Amabile (1988) model.

Domain skills are a necessary component of creative behavior. Amabile (1988) defines these as:the raw materials of talent, education, and experience in a particular area. . . . to some extent,

domain skills are inborn; children are certainly born with different degrees of talent. But education andexperience go a long way toward developing even modest levels of talent. And even high levels of talentneed to be developed. (p. 43)

Domain skills are those skills that we are not only born with, but are developed throughout our education.Most of us possess some types of domain skills whether they be in an artistic endeavor or a scientificendeavor. Therefore, these skills should be considered inherent to the human population in general.

The final component, creative thinking and working skills are comprised of creative thinkingability, but also incorporate a creative working style as well. A creative working style is:

A dedication to doing work well, an ability to concentrate effort and attention for long periods of time, an ability to abandon unproductive ideas and temporarily put aside stubborn problems, apersistence in the face of difficulty, a willingness to work hard (Amabile, 1989, p. 47)

Thus, we can determine that being able to utilize our creative energies as defined as a working style is anecessary part of Amabile's model. Yet working styles is not all that is necessary for creativity. Amabile(1989) suggests the need for creative thinking and defines this in table six.

Table 6: Creative Thinking

1. Breaking set - breaking out of old patterns of thinking about something2. Understanding complexities - appreciating the fact that most things are not simple3. Keeping options open as long as possible4. Suspending judgment - generating as many ideas as possible5. Thinking broadly - trying to see as many relationships as possible between different ideas


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6. Remembering accurately - the more you can remember, the more ingredientsyou have at your disposal

7. Breaking out of well worn habits of doing things8. Perceiving freshly, trying to see things differently from the way you or other people see them9. Using tricks or little rules of thumb that can help you think of new ideas - play with the ideas

and create paradoxes (p. 49).

The definitions of creative thinking are not only applicable for the creative personality, but are actively

utilized by many whether they are creativity researchers or people similar to you and I. Which of thoselisted above are you using? Amabile's (1989) model of creativity provides you with examples of how the interaction between

intrinsic motivation, domain skills and creative thinking and working are necessary and important for thecreative act to occur. Of those models outlined by Maslow (1972), Torrance (1979), and Amabile (1989)think about which of those characteristics, skills, abilities and motivations are appropriate to you? Whichprovides you with a clearer picture of the creative person?

SummaryThis writing has taken you on a whirlwind tour of the creative person. We have examined the

historical perspective, which focused upon the Gift from the Muse and the Gift from God. Historically,creativity was viewed as coming from an outside source. As we approach modern studies of creativity,we learn that this was not appropriate. We have moved beyond that outer source of inspiration for creativity towards an internally found creative ability.

Galton's and Terman's beginning investigations of the creative person should not be approachedlightly. Their research endeavors and investigations were the foundation upon which modern creativityresearch focusing upon the person was built. MacKinnon's work with IPAR provided the bricks necessaryfor a solid structure of research concerning the creative personality. Therefore bricks such as personalityand motivation characteristics, cognitive abilities and developmental events have important and longlasting implications upon where research is today.

When we take all this information and put it together, models start to develop about what makesup the creative person. Maslow, Torrance and Amabile have provided a method by which each of ushave an individual and unique creative personality. Their work adds the support we need to make our structure entitled the creative person sturdy.

Research, study and scholarly interpretation of the creative personality will continue andhopefully, scholarly inquiry will come closer to a universal definition to describe the person labeled ascreative. This paper has attempted to examine the various and distinct definitions that encompass mostof the variables that are a part of the creative person. As the reader, future researcher or scholar, it isnow dependent upon you to determine what are the attributes, characteristics and determinants thatpersonally relate to your creative development. If you need to further your creative pursuits, this readinghas provided you with the data to help you better realize your creative potential.

Hopefully, you can find the creative person within yourself and allow for your fullest, creativepotential to be realized. Creativity is no longer a gift from the "Muse" but an actual and recognized abilityin everyone. It is therefore up to you, to allow your creative personality to come forward and be the finest,self-actualized or special-talent creative person that you can be.

References Amabile, T. M. (1979). Effects of external evaluation on artistic creativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 37 , 221 - 223 Amabile, T. M. (1982). Children's artistic creativity: Detrimental effects of competition in a field setting.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 8 , 573 - 578. Amabile, T. M. (1983). The social psychology of creativity . New York: Springer-Verlag. Amabile, T. M. (1985). Motivation and creativity: Effects of motivational orientation on creative writers.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 48 , 393 - 399. Amabile, T. M. (1989). Growing up creative . New York: Crown Publishers. Amabile, T.M. (1997). Motivating Creativity in Organizations: On Doing What You Love and Loving W hatYou Do, California Management Review, 40, 1, Fall 1997.


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Arieti, S. (1976). Creativity: The magic synthesis . New York: Basic Books Inc. Aristotle, (1976). Creation is making. In A. Rothenberg & C. R. Hausman (Eds.),

The creativity question (pp. 33 - 37). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Barron, F. (1969). Creative person and creative process . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Calder, B., & Staw, B. (1975). Self - perception of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 31 , 599 - 605.Davis, G. A. (1986) Creativity is forever (2nd ed.). Dubuque, IO: Kendall Hunt Publishing Company.Deci, E. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and

Social Psychology , 18, 105 - 115.Deci, E. (1972). Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic reinforcement, and inequity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 22 , 113 - 120.Deci, E. (1975). Intrinsic Motivation . New York: Plenum Books.Dennis, W. (1956). Age and achievement: A critique. Journal of Gerontology, 11, 331 - 333.Dennis, W. (1966). Creative productivity between the ages of 20 and 80 years. Journal of Gerontology ,21 , 1 - 8.Foy, J. L. (1988). Creativity and the aged. In F. Flach (Ed.). The creative mind (pp. 339 - 357). Buffalo,NY: Bearly Limited.Galton, F. (1969). Hereditary genius. London: Macmillan.Gay, P. (1988). Freud: A life for our time . New York: Doubleday.Getzels, J. (1964). Creative thinking, problem solving and instruction, In E. R. Hilgard (Ed.), Theoriesof learning and instruction (pp. 240 - 267). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Getzels, J. (1975). Problem finding and the inventiveness of solutions. Journal of Creative Behavior , 9,12 - 18.Getzels, J. (1987). Creativity, intelligence, and problem solving: Retrospect and prospect. In S. G.Isaksen (Ed.), Frontiers of creativity research: Beyond the basics (pp. 89 - 102). Buffalo, NY:Bearly Limited.Getzels, J., & Csikszentmihalyi M. (1975). From problem solving to problem finding. In I. A. Taylor & J.W. Getzels (Eds.), Perspectives in creativity (pp. 90 - 116). Chicago: Aldine Press.Getzels, J., & Csikszentmihalyi M. (1976). The creative vision: A longitudinal study of problem finding in art. New York: Wiley.Guilford, J. P. (1950). Creativity. American Psychologist , 5 , 444-454.Guilford, J. P. (1967). The nature of human intelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill.Guilford, J. P. (1968). Intelligence, creativity and the educational implications. San Diego, CA: Knapp.Guilford, J. P. (1975). Creativity research: A quarter century of progress. In I. A. Taylor & J. W. Getzels(Eds.), Perspectives in creativity (pp. 37 -59). Chicago: Aldine Press.

Guilford, J. P. (1977). Way beyond the IQ. . Buffalo, NY: Bearly Limited.Guilford, J. P. (1986). Creative talents: Their nature, uses and development. Buffalo, NY: BearlyLimited.Guilford, J. P. (1987). Creativity research: Past, present and future. In S. G. Isaksen (Ed.), Frontiers of creativity research: Beyond the basics (pp. 33 - 65). Buffalo, NY: Bearly Limited.Koestler, A. (1964). The act of creation . New York: Macmillan.Lehman, H. (1953). Age and achievement . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Maslow, A. H. (1972). A holistic approach to creativity. In C. W. Taylor (Ed.), Climate for creativity , (pp.287 - 293). New York: Pergamon Press.MacKinnon, D. W. (1962). The nature and nurture of creative talent. American Psychologist , 17 , 484 -495.MacKinnon, D. W. (1971). Creativity and transliminal experience. Journal of Creative Behavior , 5 ,227 - 241.

MacKinnon, D. W. (1975). IPAR's contribution to the conceptualization and the study of creativity. In I. A. Taylor & J. W. Getzels (Eds.), Perspectives in creativity (pp. 60 - 89). Chicago: Aldine Press.MacKinnon, D. W. (1978). In search of human effectiveness: Identifying and developing creativity.Buffalo, NY: Creative Education Foundation.MacKinnon, D. W. (1987). Some critical issues for future research in creativity. In S. G. Isaksen (Ed.),Frontiers of creativity research: Beyond the basics (pp. 120 - 130). Buffalo, NY: Bearly Limited.McCrae, R. R. (1987). Creativity, divergent thinking, and openness to experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 52 (6), 1258 -1265.Noller, R. B. (1982). A voiced scarf. Buffalo, NY: Bearly Limited.Noller, R. B., & Parnes, S. J. (1972). Applied creativity: The creative studies project: Part III. Journal of Creative Behavior , 6 , 275 - 294.


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Parnes, S. J., & Noller, R. B. (1972a). Applied creativity: The creative studies project: Part I. Journal of Creative Behavior , 6 , 11 - 22.Parnes, S. J., & Noller, R. B. (1972b). Applied creativity: The creative studies project: Part II. Journal of Creative Behavior , 6 , 164 - 186.Plato, (1976). Inspiration. In A. Rothenberg & C. R. Hausman (Eds.), The creativity question (pp. 31-33). Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Rhodes, M. (1961). An analysis of creativity. Phi Delta Kappen , 42 , 305 - 310.Ross, M. (1975). Salience of reward and intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology , 32 , 245 - 254.Shainess, N. (1989). The roots of creativity. The American Journal of Psychoanalysis , 49 (2) 127 -138.Simonton, D. (1987). Genius: The lessons of historiometry. In S. G. Isaksen (Ed.), Frontiers of creativity research: Beyond the basics (pp. 66 - 87). Buffalo, NY: Bearly Limited.Staw, B. M. (1976). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation . Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.Sullivan, H. S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry . New York: W. W.

Norton & Company, Inc.Terman, L. M. (1925). Genetic studies of genius: Mental and physical traits of a thousand gifted children.Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.Torrance, E. P. (1962). Guiding creative talent . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice - Hall.Torrance, E. P. (1966). Torrance tests of creative thinking: Norms - technical manual . Princeton, NJ:Personnel Press.Torrance, E. P. (1972). Can we teach children to think creatively? Journal of Creative Behavior, 6, 114 -143.Torrance, E. P. (1974). Torrance tests for creative thinking: Norms and technical

manual. Lexington, MA: Personnel Press/Ginn - Xerox.Torrance E. P. (1979). The search for satori and creativity . Buffalo, NY: Bearly Limited.Torrance, E. P. (1984). The role of creativity in the identification of the gifted and talented. Gifted Child Quarterly , 28 , 153 - 156.Torrance, E. P. (1987). Teaching for creativity. In S. G. Isaksen (Ed.), Frontiers of creativity research:Beyond the basics (pp. 189 - 215). Buffalo, NY: Bearly Limited.Tractman, L. E. (1975). Creative people, creative times. Journal of Creative Behavior, 9, 35 - 50.Treffinger, D. J. (1980). The progress and peril of identifying creative talent among gifted and talentedstudents. Journal of Creative Behavior , 14 , 20 - 34.Treffinger D. J., & Huber, J. R. (1975). Designing instruction in creative problem solving. Journal of Creative Behavior , 9, 260 - 266.

Turner, J. S., & Helms, D. B. (1983). Lifespan development (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart andWinston.Wallach, M. A. (1971). The intelligence/creativity distinction . Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.Woodman, R. W. (1981). Creativity as a construct in personality theory. Journal of Creative Behavior ,15 (1), 43 - 66.

Michael Zilch is an instructor of psychology at Cayuga Community College, New York.


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To Learn More About the Creative Person

The following books and articles will provide the reader with an opportunity to further explore areas of interest concerning the creative personality.

Books: Amabile, T. M. (1983). The social psychology of creativity . New York: Springer-Verlag.

Amabile, T. M. (1989). Growing up creative . New York: Crown Publishers.Barron, F. (1969). Creative person and creative process . New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Deci, E. (1975). Intrinsic Motivation . New York: Plenum Books.Galton, F. (1869). Hereditary genius. London: Macmillan.Guilford, J. P. (1977). Way beyond the IQ. Buffalo, NY: Bearly Limited.Guilford, J. P. (1986). Creative talents: Their nature, uses and development. Buffalo, NY: BearlyLimited.Koestler, A. (1964). The act of creation . New York: Macmillan.Maslow, A. H. (1972). A holistic approach to creativity. In C. W. Taylor (Ed.), Climate for creativity , (pp.287 - 293). New York: Pergamon Press.MacKinnon, D. W. (1978). In search of human effectiveness: Identifying and developing creativity.Buffalo, NY: Creative Education Foundation.Noller, R. B. (1982). A voiced scarf. Buffalo, NY: Bearly Limited.Staw, B. M. (1976). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation . Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.Torrance, E. P. (1962). Guiding creative talent . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Torrance E. P. (1979). The search for satori and creativity . Buffalo, NY: Bearly Limited.

Articles: Amabile, T. M. (1985). Motivation and creativity: Effects of motivational orientation on creative writers.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 48 , 393 - 399.Deci, E. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 18, 105 - 115.Dennis, W. (1966). Creative productivity between the ages of 20 and 80 years. Journal of Gerontology ,21 , 1 - 8.Guilford, J. P. (1950). Creativity. American Psychologist , 5 , 444-454.MacKinnon, D. W. (1962). The nature and nurture of creative talent. American Psychologist , 17 , 484 -495.

Rhodes, M. (1961). An analysis of creativity. Phi Delta Kappen , 42 , 305 - 310.Shainess, N. (1989). The roots of creativity. The American Journal of Psychoanalysis , 49 (2), 127 -138.Torrance, E. P. (1972). Can we teach children to think creatively? Journal of Creative Behavior, 6,114 - 143.Torrance, E. P. (1984). The role of creativity in the identification of the gifted and talented. Gifted Child Quarterly , 28 , 153 - 156.Tractman, L. E. (1975). Creative people, creative times. Journal of Creative Behavior, 9, 35 - 50.

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