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Muslim Education Quarterly, Vol. 12,No.4, 1995The Islamic Academy, Cambridge, U.K.

THE CONCEPT OF ISLAMIC SCIENCE AND THETHOUGHT PATTERNS OF A MUSLIM SCIENTIST

Michael Robert Negus

IntroductionSeveral modern authors have considered whether there is a science that isdistinctively Islamic. By that, one means a science that can exist quite naturallywithin Islam. Butt (1991), Ariees (1985) and Sardar (1984), have all attemptedto formulate an operative definit ion of Islamic science that they propose shouldbe regulated by an Islamic value-system. Such a value-system would becouched wi thi n the Shart'oh and be harmonious with it. Science wouldt herefore exhi bit soci al responsi bi lit y and promot e the i deals of Islami ccivi li sa tion. This would presumably be achieved through the applica tion ofIslamic jurisprudence (al-fiqh) and when appropriate, by the use of analogicalmethodology (qiyas). The effec tiveness of thi s approach is guaranteed byverses ofthe Qur 'an such as:

We have neglected nothing in the Book (of Our decrees). (6:39,Pickthall). We have sent down to thee a Book explaining a llthings (al-kitab t ibyan likull shay'). (16:89, Pickthall).

By contrast there are other modern authors who have dismissed the i dea of anIslamic science. Hoodbhoy (1991, p. 77ff) argues tha t no agreed definit ion ofIslamic science exis ts. Hence he wri tes: "no, there cannot be an IslamicScience of the physical world and attempts to create one represent wastedeffort". Hoodbhoy states tha t there i s no example of Islamic science anywherei n t he worl d. Moreover a "set of words and theological princ iples does notlead to a science" and tha t those who use the term "Islamic science" disagreeabout its meaning. Indirect support for Hoodbhoy's conclusion comes from thedistinguished 1979 Nobel Prize Winner for Physics, Abdus Salam, who statedthat science is simply a universal way of knowing and that one cannotdist inguish a science tha t i s dis tinct ively Islamic (cf. Jaswan 1987, p. 335-337). To some extent the disagreement between these two opposed schools ofthought can be explained by the fact that science is not only an academicdiscipline but also a social phenomenon. On one hand science is theintellectual pursuit of individuals or groups, on the other it exists within

The Concept of Islamic Science 31society and t herefore affects society and is effected by society. Science as asignificant influence exists because of social policies, which either promote orconstrain it. I t cannot exi st s igni ficantly except as part of a social andeconomic system and so it canno t escape from the appli cati on of any value-system that exists within the particular society. Society engages the intellect ofindividuals and so generates an in terpretat ion of the physical universe. Suchknowledge, projected into society, thereby influences the world-v iew of acivilisation. In addition, through its technological applica tion i t also affects theexistence of individuals and the quality of thei r l ives within society. Given thecomplexity and range of these interac tions it is no surprise that differentauthors, focusing on different con tex ts, seem to come to cont radi ct oryopinions. This paper at tempts to avoid the diffi culty by first ly a ttempt ing tocharacterise and define the Muslim scientist, rather than Islamic science. Sucha definit ion is of particular importance for Muslims who have chosen scienceas a discipline for study within education systems which may not besupportive of t heir faith. Secondly, the constructive nature of scientific theoryis emphasised. This pre-supposit ional context may be enti rely Islamic and sodeepen, rather than conflict with faith.

Role Models: Suggested Perspect ives for Muslims who Practise ScienceThe word for sci ence i n Arabic is 'ilm, t he verbal noun of t he verb 'alima,which is the equivalent o f t he Latin scire, "to know". The various branches ofnatural science are together called 'uliim, A natural scientist is called 'iilimtabt't (Wehr 1974, p. 637). The role of the 'alim i s to obtain knowledge ofthenatures (rabi'ah) of the knowable universe ( 'alam'; It would however be amistake to think of a classical Muslim scienti st such as Ibn a l-Haytham (354-430/965-1039), as an 'alim tabt't i n the modem, narrow sense, since it istypical nowadays for a scient ist not on ly to specialise in science but in oneparticular field of science. Ibn al-Haytham could be more appropriatelydescribed as a hakim, whi ch is t he t it le of one who seeks wisdom (hikman).This involves a multi-disciplinary, inter-discipl inary and hol is ti c approach toknowledge. The a im is the search for the t ruth that may be gathered throughvarious possible branches of knowledge, both objective and subjective, alwayswith reference to the most important and absolutely reliable source, namely,the revealed text of the Holy Qur' a n .

Nasr (1964, p. 173) attempts to convey the a tt itude of Abu Rayhan al-Blrtlni (362-c.442/973-c.l051), who is considered to be one of t he greatestMuslim scientists. He says that fo r al -Bl runl t here was no such thing as theseparat ion between sacred and profane learning. For him every study ofexistence was an extension of religious experience and understanding, simplybecause any such study deals with "the visi ble world as the 'signs' (ayiit) andcreation of the Invisible". In the context of such a study that involvesinterpretation at the mental level, al-Bl nmi was prepared to recognise his ownfallibility with regard to bot h factual truths and hypotheses, and so he "askedGod for pardon i f his statements were not true" (op. cit., p . 174). We recognise

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32 Muslim Education Quarterlyin al-Birunl the virtue of humi li ty; the refusal to place a prov isional truthconstructed by the human mind, at the level of the absolute truth known onlyto the Creator. AI-BIriinI had wide interests and was open t o all forms ofknowledge and understanding, including those that were beyond the limits ofIslamic c ivitisat ion, fo r example in ancient Persia and India. Nasr (1964 and1987) includes special sect ions on al -Bi run i in hi s two major works and thereare two, large commemorative volumes (Iran Society 1951 and Said 1979) thatgive details of his life, transl at ions of some of his works and the opinions ofmany modern scholars. Said (1979, p. 129 and p. 21) describes al-Biruni as amany splendoured personality-theologian, historian, geographer, physician,astronomer, mathematician and poet. "Above all he had an open, universalmind and keen desire to drink deep from the Fountain of Truth, whatever i tssource". Al-Biruru's perspective appears to us to be a sort of mosaic of theancient and the modern worlds. This is because he, like Ibn al-Haytham,accepted empirical investigation as well as depending upon the traditional,deductive approach to knowledge. This can be illustrated by some aspect s ofhis work. He described the Earth as a sphere and through the use of preciseobservations and trigonometric calculations was able to calculate withconsiderable accuracy the Earth's radius and circumference. He also calculatedwith great accuracy the periods of the Earth/Sun, of the Moon and the fi vevisible planets. As a result of direct observations of local geology heconcluded that rock and soil formations occurred over immense periods oftime and he suggested as a result of observing sea shells in the soil, that theArabian steppe had once been sea. Whilst in India, he concluded that the plainof the Ganges had once been covered by sea and that it had filled up withalluvial deposits brought down over a long period by streams.

Such observations and conclusions easily fit in with the inductivethought of a modern empiri cal scientist. Al-Blruni accepted the traditionalgeocentric model of the universe although he seriously considered that theapparent rotation of the fixed star s could be due to the rot at ion of the Earthrather than to the rotation of the celestial sphere. He revealed this way ofthinking as a result of encountering an astrolabe designed to work on the basisof the Earth's rotation rather than the heavens (cf. Nasr 1964, p. 135). Al-Blruni appears to have accepted astrology but to have rejected alchemy.However, he wrote against the use of astrology for divinatory purposes. For al-Birlini, astrology represented the contemporary and most appropriatetheoretical system to express the unity of the universe, in particular therelationship between macrocosm and microcosm. He appears to have had avery detailed and comprehensive knowledge of the subject (cf. Nasr 1964, p.163-5, and Namus 1979, p. 552f). Al-Birunl's thoughts appear to haveoperated in two complementary ways, each of which he accepted as equallyvalid: he was interested in the indefini te diversi ty of thematerial universe andits physical details; he was also concerned to systematise knowledge about theuniverse into a comprehensible, mathematical system, so as to emphasise itsregularity, rationality and ult imate unity. To achieve this he makes critical useof traditional and contemporary models of the univer se. His world-view is

The Concept of Islamic Science 33entirely religious. Nashabi (1979, p. 395) concludes that al-Birunl believedthat the main purpose of science was to be of service t o religion; hi s motiveswere to learn more about the Creator's work and also to benefit people throughmedicine and technology. Al-Birunl was especially inspired by the followingverse from the Qur'an :

And consider the creation of the heavens and the earth (andsay): Our Lord! Thou createst this not in vain. (3: 191,Pickthall).

From our description of these two classical Muslim scientists it seemsclear that it is possible to ident ify a kind of scientific learning that is widelyopen to ideas and knowledge, in addition to the single experimental methodthat now characterises western science, and which is open to a high level ofpolymathy and internal criticism (cf. But t 1991, p. 84).

I t could be argued that one could fmd similar individuals during the earlyMiddle Ages who had similar beliefs but were not Muslims. There is howeversomething quite unique about the perspective of a Muslim scientist that isdirectly related to the essence of Islamic faith: this is acceptance of thedoctrine of tawhid. Manzcor (1984, p. 155), describes tawhid as the"metaphysical and theological doctrine par excellence which gives the religionof Islam its unique profi le and i ts dist inctive morphology". Tawhid literallymeans Oneness of God or 'making one', i.e. the process of conceptual orspiritual unification. Tawhid is def ined by Ayatullah Mutahhari (1985, p. 74),as meaning that "the universe has for i ts essence 'from Him-ness' (inna lillah)and 'to Him-ness' ( inna i layhi raj i'un]', [taken from Qur'an 2: 156]. This isthe principal axiom of Islamic science. He argues that science that is foundedupon tawhid has "an unshakeable foundation, a foundation characterised byeternity" (p. 69). Tawhid means that the universe is "unipolar and uniaxial" (p.74). Hence everything draws the intelligence to one focus, that is the Creator.

It is interesting to note that there are traces of some aspects of thedoctrine of tawhid i n t he interpretations by Western science, even though theyare more or less unconscious and ignored. Poole (1990) concludes thatWestern science presupposes that the universe i s rational, intelligible, orderlyand uniform. None of these cardinal features are ever explained or confronted.He argues tha t without these accepted 'beli efs' t he process of science wouldnot be possible. Wit h regard to the manifestation of unity in existence Capra(1983, p. 70), a particle physicis t, makes the interesting point that "modernphysics reveals the basic oneness of the universe . As we penetrate into matter,nature does not show us isolated building blocks, but rather a complicated webof relations between the various parts of a unified whole". Davies and Gribbin(1992, p. 217), referring to the results of sophisticated quantum experimentstells us that "we think of the Universe as a vast network of interactingparticles, and each linkage binds the participating particles into a singlequantum system. In some sense the entire Universe can be regarded as a singlequantum system". The direction of modern theoretical physics is in fact

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34 Muslim Education Quarterlytowards greater unification, especially wi th regard to the fundamental forces, afield in which Abdus Salam was so successful.

In essence tawhid is the posit ive assertion of the Oneness of God fromwhich is derived the oneness of the creation. The opposite of tawhid is the sinof shirk (,association'), which is the supposi tion tha t there are 'partners' withGod. Originally shirk was synonymous with polytheism, but in a scientificcontext it means that the scientist attributes to a created object an existencethat is independent from God. Shirk therefore describes any statement orasserti on that the uni ver se, eit her in part or i n its totality, does not dependentirely upon its Creator. It is an interesting fact that it is often easier to saywhat i s not t rue rather than what i s t rue. No doubt an awareness of the dangerof shirk would be a strong t901 to ensure that tawhid was maint ai ned inscientific theory. From an Islamic point of view, following the assertion of theQur'an , it i s possib le for every phenomenon that is studied by science to beintegrated into a world-view that preserves tawhid and prevents shirk.

The Constructive Nature of Scientific KnowledgeIslamic scientists openly reject the impartial ity that is commonly claimed bymost Western scienti st s. In cont rast to Western science, Islamic science i sdeclared to be manifestly partial to the truth revealed in the Qur' an anddirected by cri teria that arises from the essential nature of Islam. Thus Butt(1991, p. 42f) writes: "the Islamic world-view provides the intellectual matrixwithin which scientific ideas, thoughts and theories are conceived, developedand elaborated". Muslim scientists are explicitly teleological, thus Manzoor(1984, p. 161), a geologist , writes: "Nature, l ike the Book of Revelation, is fullof signs (ayiit). To know and decipher these portents constitutes Divine service('ibiidah). In fact, Muslim theologians claimed, nature has no meaning withoutreference to God: without Divine purpose i t simply does not exist". This pointof view is similar to that in the West before the Enlightenment and wascertainly the interpretation that Isaac Newton gave to the laws of motion thathediscovered. Newton believed that the laws of motion were an expression ofthe governing free will of God.

Scientific knowledge, l ike any other knowledge, is a construct of thehuman mind made in a language that already has meaning. Thus"observational statements are always made in a language of some theory andwill be as precise as the theoretical or conceptual framework that they utili se isprecise" (Chalmers 1982, p. 29). This means that impartial inductivism ispractically impossible, since interpretation of data always requires prerequisiteideas as a starting point; moreover, the actual choice of what to observe at t heoutset of an investigation is questionably arbitrary, since theory alsodetermines perception. The Muslim scientist openly proclaims his partialityandreference.

It is an interesting fact that Western scientists, since the beginning of thetwentieth century, have questioned the assumption that it is actually possible toobserve the objective universe, the reality that is apparently 'out there'. The

The Concept of Islamic Science 35reason for this has only become clear as a result of modem, quantum physics.In any system being investigated, one can distinguish an observer, an objectand the process of observation. In reality these three components are notseparable. It is now clear not only that the observation process is affected bythe observer, but even more strangely, t he obj ect i s affected by the observer.Quantum experiments reveal t hat what.is actually observed depends upon thequest ion that is asked about the object. In o ther words, the observer causes theobject (for example, a photon) to manifest in a particular way, havingparticular properties. Thi s l eads one to the conclusion t hat it i s ult imat el yimpossible to observe t he universe per se. All that one can do is to interactwith i t. Davies (1984, p. 103) referring to the t hought of Niels Bohr writes:"the fuzzy and nebulous worl d of the at om only sharpens in to focus when anobservation is made. In the absence of an observat ion t he atom is a ghost. Itonly materialises when you look at it. And you can decide what to look for."The lack of a universe made of a kind of ' solid' matter that one can 'get holdof' and which is always the same when nobody is 'watching', should not beproblematic for Muslims. The apparent reality of the objective universe doesnot res ide in the universe (khalq) itself, but rather in the Reali ty orTruth (al-/:zaqq) ofHe who is i ts Creator (khiiliq). This most interesting fact, that emergesfrom experimental science, confirms the error of shirk which would gi ve anindependent reality to an observed object. At this level of investigat ion there isa merging between science and mysticism. The real object that the scienti sthopes to study is close to the Crea tor Himself . When a question i s asked aboutthat object's reality, by means of a quantum experiment , the very ques tiondraws a 'veil' (/:Zijiib)across the real ity and ac tual ly l imi ts the answer that onegets. Thus the real object remains inaccessible to scientific investigation, sinceit belongs only to the Creator and can never be grasped by experiment.

ConclusionThe formal definition of Islamic science is problematic and there isdisagreement about i ts nature and existence. There i s no doubt however aboutthe compati bil it y between science as a way of knowing and t he impul se toseek truth, which characterises the intellectual endeavour of Islam. I t i s clearfrom the expansion of Islam in the Middle Ages t hat science arises naturallywithin Islam, bot h as a means for understanding the creat ion and as a source ofknowledge for technology and medicine.

Muslims who practise science, even in a western society, can integratetheir daily work and faith without difficulty. There are excel lent role models,both in classical Islam, and also in the modern world, especially in the field ofquantum physics. The very lates t discoveries of quantum physics increaseone's awareness of the Creator and are compatible with spiritual inwardness.

The principal axiom for the Muslim scientist is the doctrine of tawhid,which is the very essence of Islam. Quantum experiments confirm that theapparent independence of created objects is in fact due to the interactionbetween observer and object. The real object subsists ungraspably in t he reality

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36 Muslim Education Quarterlyof the Creator.

NotesAnees, M.A. (1985) "Laying the Foundation ofIslamic Science". Inquiry 2 (11): 36-43.Butt, N. (1991) Science andMuslim Societies. Grey Seal Books, London.Capra, F. (1983) The Turning Point. Flamingo, London.Chalmers, A.F. (1992) What is this Thing cal led Science? Open University Press, Buckingham, U.K.Davies, P. (1984) God and the New Physics. Penguin, London.Davies, P. and J. Gribbin (1992) The Matter Myth. Penguin, London.Hoodbhoy, P. (1991) Islam and Science. Zed Books Ltd, London.Iran Society (1951) Al-Birunt: Commemorative Volume. Iran Society, Calcutta.Jaswan, M.A. (1987) "Honoris Causa" in Lai, C.H. (1987), p. 355-357.Lai, c.H. editor (1987) Ideals and Realities: Selected Es say s o f Abdus Salam. World ScientificPublishing Company, Singapore.Manzoor, S.P. (1984) "Environment and Values: the Islamic Perspective", in Sardar, Z. (1984) p. 150169.Mutahhari, M. (1985) Fundamentals OfIslamic Thought. Mizan Press, Berkeley, California, U.S.A.Namus, M.S. (1979) "AI-BirOni, the Greatest Astrologer of the Times", in Said, H.M. (1979) p. 545-557.Nashabi, H. (1979) "The At titude of al-Blriini towards Science and Religion". In Said H.M. (1979) p.393-399.Nasr, Seyyed H. (1964) An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines Cambridge,Massachusetts.Nasr, Seyyed H. (1976) Islamic Science: an Illustrated Study. World of Islam Publishing CompanyLtd, London.Nasr, Seyyed H. (1987) Science and Civilisation in Islam. 2nd Edition. Islamic Texts Society.Cambridge, England.Pickthall, M.M. The Meaning Of the Glorious Qur'iin. Taj Company, Karachi (undated bilingualedition).Poole, M. (1990) "Beliefs and Values in Science Education: a Christian Perspective". School ScienceReview, March, 199071 (256): 25-32.Said, H.M. (1979) editor Al-Btruni Commemorative Volume. Hamdard academy, Karachi.Sardar, Z. editor (1984) A Touch of Midas: Science, Values and Environment in the West. ManchesterUniversity Press, Manchester, England.Wehr, H. (1976) A Dictionary OfModem Written Arabic. Spoken Language Services, Ithaca, NewYork.

Muslim Education Quarterly, Vol. 12, No.4, 1995The Islamic Academy, Cambridge, U.K.

MUlJAMMAD mN SAHNON: AN EDUCATIONALISTANDAFAQIHSha 'ban Muftah Ismail

Muhammad ibn Shanun's full name was Abu 'Abdillah Muhammad ibn AbiSa'id Shanun ibn Sa'id i bn Habib i bn Hasan i bn Hilal ibn Bakkar ibn Rabi'ahAttanukhi. His grandfather Sa'Id ibn Hablb arrived at Al-Qayrawan 1 by themiddle of the second Hijri century. His son Abdus Salam came to benicknamed, Shanun which is the name of a bird that is famous for its sharpvision. Shanun's acute intelligence and comprehension enabled him to acqui reknowledge early in his l if e at Al-Qayrawan and then further his studies inTunis, the capital, and i n Egyp t where he became known and established closercontact with Maliki School of Thought. Shanun had studied under thesupervision of 'Abdur Rahman Ibn al-Qasim (died in 191 A.H.), one of theclosest companions of Imam Malik. In the year 233 A.H., Shanim wasappointed Qa(li of the Ifriqiah region which then included Tunisia, par ts ofEastAlgeria and Western Libya.

Throughout his life, Shanun promoted and worked for the spread of theMaliki School of Fiqh for it to become the predominant schoo l of jurisprudence(madhhab) in Ifriqiah. He passed away in the year 240 A.H. and in his lifetime,he could not meet with or study under Imam Malik. When he was asked aboutthe reasons for that, he answered that' the reason was "the lack of money,financial resources ...". However, he qualified as a great follower, student andadvocator of Malik's thoughts, opinions and contributions in all fiel ds andbranches of knowledge.

His Early AgeMuhammad, the son of Shanun, the subject of this article, was born in the year202 A.H., in a home of knowledge that became one of the centers in AI-Qayrawan which itself was the center of t he Maliki School of Fiqh and IslamicThought. Muhammad ibn Shanun showed a great aptitude for learning at anearly age, and his father was his first teacher. His fat her sent him to kuitab(Qur'anic school) to learn Al-Qur'an and Arabic writing, and wrote to theteacher requesting him to teach his son in the following manner: