the comprehensive guidance curriculum program and …

1

THE COMPREHENSIVE GUIDANCE CURRICULUM PROGRAM AND ITS EFFECTS ON STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

by

Jesse Kentala

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR

THE DEGREE OF MASTER IN SCHOOL AND GUIDANCE COUNSELING AT

NORTHERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY

April 23, 2009

APPROVED BY: ______________

Date: ______________

2

ABSTRACT

Today, schools are under increasing pressure to provide students with a quality

education while providing a safe, nurturing environment. The role of the school guidance

counselor has begun to change from emotional and career counseling to being actively

involved with student achievement rates, all while still being required to deal with the

emotional and psychological problems of students. More states have begun to implement

Comprehensive Guidance and Curriculum model to help counselors become more active in

student and school achievement. Although much study is currently taking place, there is no

conclusive evidence that supports that the Comprehensive Guidance Curriculum increases

student achievement and lowers critical incident rates in schools, but studies do show that

school counselors working in the context of a comprehensive school counseling program can

contribute to academic achievement.

3

Table of Contents

Chapter Page I. Introduction and Statement Problem …………………………………..4 Introduction …………………………………………………………….4 Statement of Problem …………………………………………………..8 Purpose of Review………………………………………………………9 Definition of Key Terms ……………………………………………… 10 Research Question...…………………………………………………… 11 II. Review of Literature…………………………………………………… 12 Academic Benefits of Comprehensive School Counseling Programs…...13 Lowering Critical Incident Rates ..……………………………………....20 Environmental and Behavioral Benefits ………………………………...21 Research Opposing CSCPs Link to Student Achievement ……………...23 III. Analysis of Data ………………………………………………………...26 Discussion ……………………………………………………………….26 IV. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………....30 Bibliography (References)…………………………………………………...34

4

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction and Statement Problem

Introduction School guidance counselors have had national standards implemented, which

provide a comprehensive framework for the way guidance programs should run. These

standards are intended to provide consistency throughout guidance programs in all

public high schools, as well as help the role of the guidance counselor in all facets of

their school. This comprehensive program was created because school guidance

counselors were having difficulties defining their roles. Along with this confusion,

administrators also feel that counselors could be better benefiting their school. The

Comprehensive Guidance Counseling Program was created, based on the national

standards, to answer these problems. So, does the Comprehensive Guidance Counseling

Program provide better results in public high schools, and are the standards effective?

The Comprehensive model outlines the main components to give guidance to

school administrators and counselors about what expectations should be met in the

district. Every activity of a school counseling program should fit into one of four main

categories, as they emphasize the core educational need for students in public educational

systems. A new national model has been created as a standard for guidance programs

throughout the country, and it sees guidance as an intellectually coherent, organized

program with both preventative and remedial components that is structured to serve all

children through a mix of intervention approaches (Lapan, Gysbers, and Sun, 1997). It is

through the national and adopted state comprehensive models that the true role of the

guidance counselor is defined. These models state that 1) a greater emphasis is placed on

the goal of enhancing academic achievement and the connection to the mission of

5

schools, 2) uses the ASCA national standards in the development of the program’s

curriculum, 3) emphasizes the use of quantitative data to describe problems, plan

interventions, and measure student change, and 4) present specific mechanisms for

managing the program and ensuring program accountability (Lapan, Gysbers, & Sun,

1997).

The Comprehensive Guidance Model can be broken down even further into three

steps:

• Learn to Learn • Learn to Work • Learn to Live

The role of the school guidance counselor is changing with the implementation of the

new comprehensive models. But the fundamental goal of the counselor is still to educate

and inform students about the necessary skills that they will need to succeed in the

workforce and in life. The Comprehensive model meshes with the greater emphasis for

student achievement brought forth in No Child Left Behind.

The ASCA National Model builds on the solid foundations of the Comprehensive

Developmental Guidance Model (Gysbers & Henderson, 2001), the Results-Based Model

(Johnson & Johnson, 1997, 2001), and the National Standards (Campbell & Dahir, 1997;

Dahir, Sheldon, & Valiga, 1998). It was specifically developed to address the growing

need for standardization and accountability in school counseling programs. While there

are tremendous variations in schools and student populations, school counseling

programs can share many elements. This article uses the ASCA National Model as a

structure to suggest the program components that school counselors can put into practice

in order to create successful transitions for all students (Dimmitt & Carey, 2007). It is

6

through the combination of previous models and the use of data that has made the ASCA

national model and other similar state models successful in tracking success rates,

although the program is still relatively new.

Though the role of the guidance counselor is changing, ASCA has worked to

ensure that counselors are contributing to the success of students and school districts.

ASCA engaged in several initiatives to improve both the effectiveness of school

counselors and the status of school counselors within the education community (Hatch,

2002; Perusse et al., 2004). For example, ASCA initially established role and function

statements for school counselors, and then established recommended guidelines for

student-to-counselor ratios (ASCA, 2003), developed the ASCA National Standards for

School Counseling Programs (Campbell & Dahir, 1997), and revised the ASCA code of

ethics (ASCA, 2004). Through these initiatives, state departments of education have

modeled their own programs after the national model, as school districts try and achieve

higher rates of student success and lower critical incident rates.

The State of Michigan has developed its own comprehensive counseling model

based on the national model and the Missouri model. In 2002, a comprehensive guidance

counseling curriculum became available. The model is based off of ASCA’s national

model and demonstrates a renewed emphasis on school counseling programs. The

comprehensive guidance model for Michigan has three components: Individual Planning,

Responsive Services, and Systems Support. According to the Michigan Department of

Education (MDE) website, the guidance curriculum consists of structured developmental

experiences presented through classroom and group activities kindergarten through

twelfth grade. Variations of the comprehensive guidance and counseling program model

7

(CGCP) have been adopted throughout the United States (Sink & MacDonald, 1998).

Most schools have accepted this model as the basis of their counseling program, and it

looks to be the model that is will be used for years to come.

The role of the guidance counselor, the ASCA national comprehensive guidance

counseling model, and the state models have attempted to improve school districts across

the country. Schools are under strain to create developmentally appropriate practices for

all students. Recent changes in the American society accompanied by social and

economic needs have increased, so too has the role of the counselor. Many families

consist of dual or single working parents with extremely busy schedules, so counselors

are required to help students in a number of facets, including career preparation, college

application/searches, emotional guidance, and education.

Comprehensive guidance models have an advantage over previous or non-existent

school counseling models because they help to assure that all students will acquire and

demonstrate competencies in the areas of academic, personal-social, and career

development. Students are required to know more about the world and new technologies

than any generation before, so the components of the comprehensive guidance curriculum

help students to achieve academic success, future planning, and lower rates of critical

incidents. According to Granello & Sears, various reasons may contribute to counselors’

lack of involvement in increasing student achievement: the pressure of dealing with

students’ mental health problems; principals’ tendency to involve counselors in

administrativia; lack of knowledge and skills to do so; or a belief that such activities do

not fall within the counselor’s role (1999). Regardless of the reasoning behind the lack of

intervention, school guidance counselors must be aware that they are in the best position

8

to assess the school for barriers to academic success for all students (Granello & Sears,

1999). By defining a counselor’s role, students and school districts benefit and achieve

more. Though research is still new and debatable, the Comprehensive Guidance

Curriculum Model continues to be implemented and used by schools all over the nation.

Statement of Problem

In today’s changing public educational system, it is becoming increasingly difficult

for public school districts to incorporate the necessary pieces of fundamental education,

instruction, and curriculum necessary to meet the changing standards and benchmarks

that are being forced upon them. With the emergence of No Child Left Behind and more

rigorous standardized testing guidelines, public school districts must provide more

resources to students with less funding. As these strains are being placed upon them,

public schools are feeling the greatest crunch, as they struggle to find a balance between

providing the best possible education and keeping their doors open. Because of budget

and funding issues, often times some of the most important aspects of public education

are cut down or eliminated completely. School guidance is an area where many

administrators feel they can downsize, yet the National Standards for School Counseling

and presidential administrative trends indicate that career planning and testing are at the

forefront of public education. The preceding leads to the following question: How

effective is the Comprehensive Guidance Curriculum in producing 1) higher academic

achievement, and 2) lower rates of critical incidents?

Purpose of Review

9

This review of literature examines the role of the Comprehensive Guidance

Curriculum Program in public schools, if the program helps to affect student

achievement, what the actual intended outcomes of the program are, what the role of the

guidance counselor is according to this model, and if student achievement is increasing

because of the Comprehensive Guidance Curriculum Program. Research indicates a

positive correlation between schools that have implemented the Comprehensive

Guidance Curriculum and higher student achievement rates, although the research is still

relatively new. The review will conclude with some recommendations for future research

and study that will help to examine this important topic more in-depth.

To narrow the focus of this literature review, I am focusing on literature that has

been currently published, paying particular attention to literature that has been published

since 2003, the year in which ASCA created the Comprehensive Guidance Curriculum

Program. Using the PsychInfo database as my primary basis for obtaining research

articles, I searched the keywords “counseling,” “national standards,” and “comprehensive

guidance” that resulted in 154 citations. A similar search of the key terms “counseling,”

“comprehensive guidance,” and “achievement” resulted in 44 citations. From these

various combinations and a Google search, I then was able to narrow my references to

31, using these articles and websites as my primary focus for evaluating the effectiveness

of the Comprehensive Guidance Curriculum Program and how it relates to student

achievement. Research indicates that schools who use the Comprehensive Guidance

Curriculum displayed the following: 1) increased academic achievement, and 2) lower

critical incident rates within the school district compared to schools who have not

implemented the guidance curriculum and its framework.

10

Definition of Key Terms

Throughout this review of literature will be key terms that help to define and

narrow the studies focus. The Comprehensive Guidance Counseling Program, according

to this study, is a program for all school guidance counselors, which provides a method

for school counselors within their school districts to organize their efforts to proactively

address the needs of students. Its purpose is to help districts plan, develop, implement,

and evaluate comprehensive and systematic guidance and counseling programs, which

accomplish this goal. Lapan (2001) stressed the importance of comprehensive programs

of guidance and counseling as a results-based system. The Comprehensive Guidance and

Counseling Program has four program components:

- Guidance Curriculum,

- Individual Planning

- Responsive Services

- Systems Support

(http://www.michigan.gov, 2006)

Student academic achievement, according to this study, encompasses standardized

test scores, student grade point averages, and graduation percentages of schools that have

and schools that have not implemented the Comprehensive Guidance Counseling

Program. According to the International Observatory on Academic Achievement, Student

Academic Achievement is defined as the achievement by individuals of objectives related

to various types of knowledge and skills. These objectives are socially established based

on the age, prior learning and capacity of individuals with regard to education,

socialization and qualification (CRIRES, 2005). Standardized Testing is defined as norm-

11

referenced tests that compare individual scores to others at the same grade level, also

known as the norm, and usually only a small sample of content is tested (Ballard & Bates,

2008). Graduation Rates refers to the number of students who have completed the proper

amount of course credits as determined by the school district and its board of education.

A Course Credit is the basic unit of coursework measurement is the course credit, which

refers to standardized Carnegie units. A Carnegie unit is a standard of measurement used

for secondary education that is equivalent to the completion of a course that meets one

period per day for one school year, where a period is typically at least 40 minutes

(Thompson, Warkentien, & Daniel, 2009).

The term Critical Incidents are defined as the amount of suicides, suicide

attempts, high level violence, and low level violence that occurs per year in schools that

have and schools that have not implemented the Comprehensive Guidance Counseling

Program. High Level Violence refers to possession and use of weapons, severe physical

attacks. Low Level Violence focuses to include the chronic victimization of students by

other students (Myer-Adams & Conner, 2007).

Research Question

Do public schools that have implemented the Comprehensive Guidance Counseling

Program have higher student achievement and lower percentages of critical incidents than

schools that have not implemented the Comprehensive Guidance Counseling Program?

12

CHAPTER TWO

Review of Literature

Introduction

The Comprehensive School Guidance Program is still a relatively new concept.

ASCA presented its first comprehensive curriculum in 2003, and many states and schools

have modified the program to fit the needs of their demographics. Guidance counseling

curriculum has been around since the 1930s, although the job responsibilities of the

counselor have not been adequately defined until recently. Many school districts across

the United States still do not provide the appropriate state recommended mandated hours

that each counselor should have per pupil. For example, schools cut costs in the guidance

department, when studies have shown that counselors impact student achievement and

graduation rates. In an early study, the implementation of guidance in the schools of the

United States during the first two decades of the 20th century was accomplished by

appointing teachers to the position of vocational counselor, often with no relief from their

teaching duties and with no additional pay (Ginn, 1924).

Progression of the counseling position became apparent into the 1970s as

vocational/career counseling, developmental counseling, and a greater emphasis on

accountability in schools came to light. During this period the call came to reorient

guidance from what had become an ancillary set of services delivered by a person in a

position (school counselor), to a comprehensive, developmental program (Gysbers &

Lapan, 2001). Early studies conducted on the 1) academic, and 2) behavioral and social

benefits of the comprehensive guidance program yielded favorable results. According to

Gysbers & Lapan, initial research evaluating relationships between guidance

13

interventions and student development support the positive impact of implementing a

comprehensive guidance program (2001). Counselors are reporting that as

implementation of the comprehensive program proceeds they: (a) spend more time with

students, parents, and teachers; (b) spend more time in classrooms; (c) promote greater

public understanding of the aims and objectives of the program; and (d) spend less time

on clerical tasks and fill-in roles (Gysbers et al., 1999).

Academic Benefits in using the Comprehensive School Counseling Programs

Gysbers (2003) suggests that school counselors working in the context of a

Comprehensive School Counseling Program can contribute to academic achievement.

Upon conducting an analysis on the effectiveness of CSCPs in public high schools,

school guidance interventions have been positively linked to academic persistence and

achievement, school attendance, and classroom behavior (Borders & Drury, 1992). These

findings have been replicated across special population groups, e.g., low-achieving

students, disruptive students, learning-disabled students, gifted students, and students

from divorced families (Borders & Drury, 1992). Academic achievement is at the

forefront of almost all school districts agendas, and the emergence of CSCPs have helped

counselors to redefine their roles and engage in helping student learning, achievement,

and accountability.

Research is being conducted all over the nation regarding the effectiveness of

CSCPs, but there have been a number of studies done to examine accountability and

evaluative practices of schools using CSCPs. Schools must show a willingness to

improve comprehensive guidance programs through systematic evaluation practices

promotes the development of accountable guidance programs (Gysbers et al; 1992).

14

Two independent meta-analyses have both concluded that the integration of career

development (guidance) interventions with academic subjects leads to consistent

increases in student academic achievement across the K-12 years (Baker & Taylor,

1998).

Lapan, Gysbers, & Sun (1997) studied the relationships between the statewide

implementation of comprehensive guidance programs and the school experiences of high

school students. The study analyzed data from 22,964 students attending 236 Missouri

high schools using hierarchical linear modeling. Gerler (1992) called for evaluation

strategies that would allow data detailing the impact of the guidance program on issues of

local concern to inform school boards and school administrations.

The study analyzed Missouri School Improvement Program (MSIP) students and

school counselor survey data collected from 1992 to 1995. For each of these years, a

statewide, stratified random sampling procedure was used by MSIP to select schools to

be accredited. MSIP selected school districts to represent the diversity in geography,

district sizes, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status across the state. For the purposes of the

study, approximately 100 students were randomly selected from every high school

included in the MSIP files during this 4-year period. The final sample included 22,964

students from 236 Missouri high schools. Equal numbers of boys and girls participated in

this study. Approximately 24% of the students were receiving free or reduced lunch.

Approximately 11 % of the sample were minority students. MSIP data were collected

from 434 school counselors who were currently working in these 236 high schools. Most

of these counselors were Caucasian (7% were African American, 0.2% were Hispanic

American) and female (60% female, 40% male). Most of the counselors had master's

15

degrees (86%), and cumulatively 95% of the total sample of counselors had earned a

specialist, master's, or doctoral degree (Lapan, Gysbers, & Sun, 1997).

The study took into account a number of variables, including level of

implementation of the guidance program, school enrollment size, the socioeconomic level

of the school, and the percentage of minority students attending each school. Male

students and nonminority students reported higher grades. Students who felt that there

was more career information available in their school were more likely to report earning

higher grades. Furthermore, students who felt that their school had a more positive school

climate reported earning higher grades (Lapan, Gysbers, & Sun, 1997). On average,

students indicated that they earned mostly Bs. Students enrolled in schools with a more

fully implemented guidance program reported earning higher grades than other students.

The study also examined student perceptions that the school was adequately preparing

them for their future. Students attending schools that had a more fully implemented

guidance program were more likely to indicate that the quality of their education was

adequately preparing them for their future than were students enrolled in schools with

less fully implemented guidance programs (1997).

Overall, the study found that students who attended schools with more fully

implemented guidance programs rated the climate in their school as being more positive.

They reported greater feelings of belonging and safety in their school. They indicated that

their classes were less likely to be interrupted by other students and that their peers

behaved better in school (Lapan, Gysbers, & Sun, 1997). The results reported by this

study fully support the ASCA’s Comprehensive School Counseling Program initiative,

16

and it puts a greater emphasis on counselors and the link between positive school

environment and student achievement.

Along with Missouri, Utah has taken the forefront on incorporating the

Comprehensive School Counseling Program. Due to strong guidance leadership in the

state education department, both states implemented CSCPs as early as 1992. There have

been state-wide efforts to study the effects of the program, specifically on student

achievement and school environment (Gysbers & Lapan, 2001). Students in schools that

had more fully implemented the Missouri Comprehensive Guidance Program (MCGP)

reported: (a) earning higher grades; (b) that their education was better preparing them for

their future; (c) that their school made more career and college information available to

them; and (d) that their school had a more positive school climate (Lapan, Gysbers, &

Sun, 1997).

In 2001, Lapan, et al. examined the impact that the CSCP was having on 7th

In Utah, similar studies with similar results have gotten many other states,

including Michigan, interested in implementing the Comprehensive School Guidance

Program. With a renewed interest in raising standardized test scores and creating a better

school environment, CSCPs have began to make an impact in public high schools all over

grade

students using state-wide school accreditation data. Results indicated that 7th graders

attending schools where counselors were more likely to do these activities reported: (a)

feeling safer at school; (b) having better relationships with teachers; (c) feeling that their

education was relevant and important to their future; (d) being more satisfied with the

quality of education in their school; (e) a better interpersonal climate between students;

and (f) earning higher grades.

17

the nation. Since 1993, more than 2,000 school counselors, administrators, and teachers

have received intensive in-service training in this model. Currently, nearly every middle,

junior high, and high school in Utah has participated in this school reform initiative

(Gysbers & Lapan, 2001). Even with Utah’s unique geographic and demographic

conditions, the state government and educational board has provided funding for the

Comprehensive School Counseling Program, and results have mirrored that of Missouri.

According to studies done in Utah, CSCP positively affects student achievement and

helps to support a positive school environment. Students attending Utah public schools

where CSCPs are more fully implemented were found to: a) be taking more advanced

mathematics and science courses; b) be taking more technical classes; and c) have higher

ACT scores in nearly every area of the test (Gysbers & Lapan, 2001).

Although there are many studies and research done that supports the notion that

Comprehensive School Counseling Programs help to increase student achievement, not

all researchers support this assertion, but they do support the fact that counselors can

have an effect on student achievement under certain conditions. When school counselors

carefully design and deliver strategic interventions aimed at increasing academic

achievement, the likelihood that they will produce the hoped-for outcomes is substantial

(Brown & Trusty, 2005). Peer-led groups, counseling, and tutoring are all strategic

interventions that can have a positive impact on student achievement.

Edmondson and White (1998) found that an intervention composed of tutoring

plus counseling, compared to tutoring alone or no treatment was an effective means for

increasing the academic achievement of middle school students. Tutoring, whether

conducted by peers or others, appears to be an effective method for increasing academic

18

achievement, and the organization and delivery of these programs are well within the

scope of school counselors' roles as set forth in the ASCA National Model (2003). The

former evidence suggests that these strategic interventions help facilitate student

achievement, but according to Brown and Trusty, more studies need to be done to

ascertain that this is indeed the case (2005). For school counselors to make the

connection between student achievement and CSCPs, they must first be able to identify

the factors that are involved with academic success or failure, and then target those

individuals and skill levels to help meet their needs. Concrete information about which

students are failing which classes gives counselors valuable knowledge to advocate for

programs and policies which will be effective (Hayes, et al, 2002).

There are multiple factors involved with student achievement, like tardiness,

absenteeism, low self-esteem/self-concept, student beliefs about abilities, etc. To

determine student achievement and success as a group is difficult because in each

individual case, the parameters are different. The counselor’s role is to help students

individually through these problems to benefit the whole, including the school district.

According to House, it is possible that students who are doing well academically are less

likely to engage in conflict and are more attractive to both their peers and their teachers.

Students who are more involved in extra-curricular activities and social events are more

likely to feel connected to others in the school, are more motivated to do well

academically, and are more successful (1999).

School guidance counselors work on a number of levels and age groups ranging

from kindergarten through twelfth grade. Career planning and emotional guidance are

strong areas in elementary and secondary schools, but where do the middle school

19

counselor’s role lie? According to a study done by Sink (2005), middle school

counselors can influence academic development and performance, but their impact is

largely secondary or tertiary to other educational activities occurring in the schools.

Middle school counselors must make the bridge between student achievement and the

other host of activities going through students’ lives. The counselors must know that

"intermediate outcomes have a more immediate impact on student learning" (Brown et

al., 2004, p. 432).

As such, counselors need to realize that conducting ongoing guidance lessons--for

example, on educational planning--will not directly produce measurable gains on a

particular classroom mathematics test; nonetheless, these instructional activities should

immediately enhance the learning skills needed to master the subject matter explored in

different classrooms. The study makes the assertion that CSCPs and school counselors

may not change standardized test scores or individual grade point averages, but they have

the power to help aid in the different subject areas, and help to foster the positive school

environment that helps make students successful in all content areas (Sink, 2005).

Brigman and Campbell (2003) conducted a well-controlled experimental study on

low achieving fifth, sixth, and eighth graders. The study examined the impact that school

counselors had on student achievement and school success using an approach called

Student Success Skills. These researchers demonstrated that about 70% of the students in

the experimental group improved on average 22 percentile points, as measured by the

School Social Behavior Scale. According to the study, not only were there significant

group differences found between the experimental and control students' overall test

scores, favoring the former group, but in mathematics and reading scores, 82% and 61%,

20

respectively, of the students receiving the guidance intervention improved (Rowley,

Stroh, & Sink, 2005).

Lowering Critical Incident Rates

With research being new to the field, researchers are still debating whether or not

Comprehensive School Counseling Programs do indeed lower critical incident rates.

What cannot be debated is the fact that suicide and school violence is at the forefront of

public school concerns. Suicide and violence topped the list of recommended high-

priority topics for school counselor education programs to address (Allen, et al, 2002).

Based on the unique characteristics of the individual, family, and community, those who

intervene must tailor their support to align with what is needed and what will work. In

particular, a needs assessment of crisis intervention could be utilized to evaluate concerns

and propose strategies and possible solutions to improve services for students from

diverse

In a study done by Lapan, Gysbers, & Petroski (2001), the researchers examined

the relationships between statewide implementation of comprehensive guidance and

counseling programs and indicators of safety and success for seventh graders. The study

was done to show the effects that CSCPs are having on improving school safety. The

study analyzed 7

backgrounds (Canada et al., 2006).

th grade students and middle school teachers between the years of 1992

and 1996. For each of these years, MSIP collected stratified random samples

representative of all schools in Missouri. The data set analyzed in the study included

22,601 seventh graders and 4,868 teachers from 184 schools. Results indicated that

schools with a more complete implementation of a comprehensive counseling program

21

were positively linked with school-level indicators of student safety and success ((Lapan,

Gysbers, & Petroski, 2001).

Environmental and Behavioral Benefits

Research also supports effectiveness of Comprehensive School Counseling

Programs on improving environmental and behavioral development in public high

schools. Lapan, Gysbers, & Sun (1997) found that problems relating to academic

learning, personal identity issues, drugs, and peer and family relationships are

increasingly a part of the educational scene. Individual counseling, small group

counseling, consultation, and referral are included as ongoing services of the responsive

services component of the comprehensive guidance program. The responsive services

component organizes guidance techniques and methods to respond to individual concerns

and needs; it is also supportive of the guidance curriculum and individual planning

components. Although school counselors have special training and possess skills to

respond to students’ current needs and concerns, the co-operation and support of parents

and the entire faculty are necessary for this component’s successful implementation.

Through the responsive services component of CSCPs, a major aspect of the

counselor’s role still extends to crisis counseling, diagnostic and remediation activities,

and consultation and referral (Lapan & Henderson, 1997). As seen in the chart below,

responsive services and individual counseling should take up anywhere between 25% to

40% of a school counselor’s activities during the day. Though everyone wants to address

the issue of student achievement, counseling students and responding to individual issues

is still a largely important part of a counselor’s job.

22

SUGGESTED DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL COUNSELOR TIME

Elementary School Middle School High School

Guidance Curriculum 35-45% 25-35% 15-25%

Individual Planning 5-10% 15-25% 25-35%

Responsive Services 30-40% 30-40% 25-35%

Systems Support 10-15% 10-15% 15-20%

(Lapan, Gysbers, & Sun, 1997)

In the previously mentioned study of 7th

1. Are student indicators of safety and success positively related to student characteristics (i.e., sex, minority status, objective assessment of the quality of life in one's school, and amount of time spent on homework)?

graders in Missouri, Gysbers, Lapan, &

Petroski examined how safe these students felt within their schools. By using these five

indicators (a) perceptions of safety in school, (b) satisfaction with their education, (c)

grades, (d) perceptions of their relationships with teachers, and (e) perceptions of the

importance and relevance of education to their future, the following questions were

examined:

2. After controlling for differences between schools due to enrollment size and socioeconomic size and socioeconomic level, are more fully implemented comprehensive guidance and counseling programs related to each of the five indicators of student safety and success?

23

3. Do school enrollment size, socioeconomic level, and level of implementation of the school counseling program significantly affect the regression slopes between student characteristics and student indicators of safety and success?

The results were conclusive favoring more implemented CSCPs and their

positive affects on the school environment. After controlling for between-school

differences in SES and enrollment size, more fully implemented school counseling

programs significantly predicted (a) student perceptions of being safer in their schools (T

= 3.23, p < .01), (b) better relationships between students and teachers (T = 2.61, p < .05),

(c) greater satisfaction of students with the education they were receiving in their schools

(T = 5.14, p < .001), (d) perceptions that one's education was more relevant and important

to one's future (T = 2.63, p < .05), and (e) earning higher grades (T = 3.27, p < .01) (

2003). According to the study, students who went to schools with CSCPs that were fully

or near fully implemented, reported having a better school and learning environment –

one of ASCA’s initial goals in developing the comprehensive guidance programs

(Gysbers, Lapan, & Petroski, 2001).

In another study done by the Ferguson-Florissant School District, a middle school

implemented a conflict resolution program as part of its overall guidance program. The

climate of the middle school was changed because the program helped to reduce the

number of referrals sent to the office that addressed student problems and conflicts

(Gysbers; et al, 1992).

Research Opposing CSCPs Link to Student Achievement

Lapan and Gysbers are the current leading proponents in the field of CSCPs and

their link to student achievement, lower critical incident rates, and a better school

environment, but Brown, Trusty, and Sink have all published findings that question the

24

link between CSCPs and student achievement that the former proclaim. A recent study by

Brown and Trusty (2005) asserts that there is little support for the proposition that CSCPs

increase student achievement.

In a response to the Brown and Trusty (2005) findings, Sink asks the bigger

question: did the framers of the ASCA model really intend that their guidance model

would result in higher test scores and grade point averages (Sink, 2005, p 3)? As studies

continue to analyze the data from Comprehensive Guidance Curriculum programs,

student achievement continues to be a major concern for the guidance counselors in

today’s schools.

According to Sink & McDonald, ASCA has in no way erred in its efforts to

reorient school counseling programs to focus on academic achievement. But CSCPs must

have goals other than improving academic achievement such as enhancing personal

growth and promoting career development (1998). For schools to create tasks and

programs for counselors to help aid in student achievement makes sens, but according to

Sink & McDonald, to link student achievement with no empirical evidence is naïve

(1998). In addition, a major component of the ASCA National Model involves responsive

services, that is, those services designed to deal with crises, personal issues, and

consultation with parents or teachers. Some of these activities may make students feel

more secure at school and better about themselves, but the link between the school

counselors' activities associated in the responsive services component of CSCPs and

academic achievement has not been established. The development of CSCPs throughout

the country is well underway and should continue with deliberate haste (Brown & Trusty,

2005).

25

Critics are skeptical about using standardized tests scores and school graduation

rates to make generalized statements about counselors affect on student achievement.

Directly speaking, no matter what research design is deployed in school counseling

studies, it is virtually impossible to make airtight causal statements about the direct

effects of any small-scale (proximal) educational innovation let alone systemic programs

such as CSCPs (Spirtes, Glymour, & Scheines, 2001; Sink, 2005). According to Sink,

other multivariate statistical approaches (e.g., discriminant analysis, hierarchical linear

modeling) also can be used effectively to explain a significant proportion of variance in

student achievement outcomes (2005). Inferences can still be made using the findings

from studies, but these inferences require researchers to make generalizations from large

sample sizes without any airtight positive correlations (Sink, 2005).

26

CHAPTER THREE

Analysis of Data

Discussion

Comprehensive School Counseling Programs have begun to be implemented in

schools across the nation since the early 1990s. The mission of the ASCA national model

(2003) asserts that schools who implement a CSCP can: 1) Establish the school

counseling program as an integral component of the academic mission of the school. 2)

Ensure every student has equitable access to the school counseling program. 3) Identify

and deliver the knowledge and skills all students should acquire. 4) Ensure that the school

counseling program is Comprehensive in design and is delivered systematically to all

students. School counselors, working within the framework of Comprehensive Guidance

and Counseling Programs, increasingly are being asked to demonstrate that their work

contributes to student success, particularly student academic achievement. Not only are

school counselors being asked to tell what they do, they also are being asked to

demonstrate how what they do makes a difference in the lives of students (Gysbers,

2004).

The Comprehensive Guidance Curriculum Program and the link to student-

achievement and lower critical incident rates are still being identified and debated, due to

the newness of the model and the number of schools implementing the model into their

school systems, but data supports the notion that schools with more fully implemented

CSCPs achieve higher rates of student achievement and help promote a better school

atmosphere. The ASCA model aimed to stimulate school counselors to develop school

counseling programs (CSCPs) and align the goals of their program with the goals of

today’s schools, which would increase academic achievement of all students (Brown &

27

Trusty, 2005, ¶1).

Initial research supports the positive impact of Comprehensive School Counseling

Programs (Gysbers & Lapan, 2001). Based on studies done, students report that they are

meeting with their counselors more and their meetings are more meaningful and

important to them (Hughey et al., 1993). Counselors are reporting that as implementation

of the Comprehensive Program proceeds they: (a) spend more time with students,

parents, and teachers; (b) spend more time in classrooms; (c) promote greater public

understanding of the aims and objectives of the program; and (d) spend less time on

clerical tasks and fill-in roles (Gysbers et al., 1999). These findings have been found to be

true amongst many different spectrums, including learning disability students, gifted

students, disruptive students, and at-risk students (Gysbers & Lapan, 2001).

The Comprehensive Model for Guidance Curriculum is proving to have a positive

affect on student achievement, although research in this area is still relatively new.

Program evaluation studies conducted in Missouri (see Gysbers, 2001; Lapan, 2001, for

summaries), and to a lesser extent in Utah (Nelson & Gardner, 1998), indicate that

CSCPs can have a positive influence on various noncognitive and cognitive student

outcomes, including achievement (Sink & Stroh, 2003).

In a study done by Lapan, Gysbers, & Sun, (1997) students who attended schools

that had more fully implemented comprehensive guidance programs reported earning

higher grades. It appeared that schools that were spending time with students to more

fully implement comprehensive guidance programs did not detract from student academic

progress but may, in fact, have played a positive role in enhancing student academic

achievement. This research indicates the correlation between CSCPs and higher academic

28

achievement in public school districts.

Research indicates that schools with fully implemented counseling programs also

have lower incident rates. Today, counselors have the daunting task of dealing with

challenges that stem from academic, environmental, socioeconomic, and multicultural. At

a point in American history when schools are searching for effective ways to respond to

issues of violence, drugs, dropouts, teenage pregnancy, adolescent suicide and

depression, the quality of life (QOL) available to students in schools has become a

critical educational issue (Lapan, Gysbers, & Petroski, 2001). Evaluation is becoming a

more essential part to determining the effectiveness of CSCPs, as concluded a study in

Missouri schools which linked the responsive services aspect of the Comprehensive

Counseling Program to lower referral rates in middle schools and lower amounts of

student conflicts (Gysbers; et al, 1992).

Comprehensive Guidance Curriculum Programs seem to have the greatest

measurable affect on improving school learning environments and students’ perceptions

about their schools. In a case study done by Lapan, Gysbers, & Sun, students attending

high schools in Missouri reported feeling better about their schools with more fully

implemented counseling programs (1997). These students reported earning higher grades,

spending more time with their counselors, feeling that their schools is better preparing

them for the future, and indicating that classes were less likely to be interrupted by other

students and misbehaving peers (Lapan, Gysbers, & Sun, 1997). Similar studies were

replicated in Utah public schools concerning CSCPs and the affects that guidance

counselors can have on school environments.

Lapan et al. (2001) used teacher accreditation data to examine the impact of CSCPs

29

on 7th

graders. These results stated that students felt safer at school, had better

relationships with teachers, noticed a better school climate, and achieved higher grades.

These findings, mixed with the fact that counselors are now becoming actively involved

with increasing academic achievement has led to a better school environment, as reported

by students. Studies from Utah and Missouri report that schools with fully implemented

Comprehensive Counseling Programs see an improvement across the board, including

student achievement, critical incident rates, and a safer learning environment.

30

CHAPTER FOUR

Conclusion

Conclusion

School counselors and counseling programs have a great impact on students and

school districts. Counselors aide in career planning, individual and group counseling,

responsive services, student achievement, and much more. There are very few areas

within schools where counselors don’t have an impact. Counselors are not merely

teachers who sit behind a desk and drink coffee, so the image of the school guidance

counselor is having a face-lift with the implementation of Comprehensive School

Counseling Programs. CSCPs provide counselors and students with a clearer definition of

the school counselor role, which helps lead to higher student achievement, lower incident

rates, and a better school environment. Professionals are asking school counselors to see

themselves as educational leaders, student advocates, and social change agents (ASCA,

2003).

A continuing question surrounding CSCPs is do they work? The Comprehensive

Guidance Curriculum Program and the link to student-achievement and lower critical

incident rates are still being identified and debated, due to the newness of the model and

the number of schools implementing the model into their school systems. Research

supports the notion that schools with more fully implemented programs do indeed have

the capabilities of improving school environments, student’s performance, student’s

perceptions, and possibly standardized test scores. The ASCA model aimed to stimulate

school counselors to develop school counseling programs (CSCPs) and align the goals of

31

their program with the goals of today’s schools, which would increase academic

achievement of all students (Brown & Trusty, 2005, ¶1).

With the emergence of No Child Left Behind and now the current educational

reform plans of the Obama Administration, schools are under increasing pressure to

improve student achievement. For this reason, there is even a greater need for evidence-

based programs. Federal and state education dollars are being earmarked specifically for

programs and practices meeting these types of guidelines (Webb, Brigman, & Campbell,

2005). The concern lies in accountability. Though accountability isn’t new to school

counselors, there is now a greater push to prove the impact that school counselors have

on schools and students. Being accountable is simply a part of the guidance and

counseling work that is done day to day in schools. It is a way that this work can be

improved and its effectiveness demonstrated (Lapan, 2003).

So why is it so important for schools and school counseling programs to be held

accountable? A student’s education is extremely important today compared with the past

because of the demand for high technology, high thinking positions. Students today are

required to know more, be more adaptive, and more technological savvy than ever before.

Through career guidance, exploration of educational development plans, and career

pathways, counselors help formulate a student’s long term life goals, as well as help

he/she deal with the present. It is recognized that school counselors work within a system

and are impacted by a variety of influences, such as stakeholders, policies, and climate

(Brott & Myers; Paisley & McMahon, 2001). However, the individual school counselor

must work within the system, manage the influences, struggle with priorities, and make

decisions about what to do and how to intervene (Scarborough & Luke, 2001).

32

Do CSCPs actually help students achieve more and digress less both academically

and emotionally? As shown from the studies above, more fully implemented counseling

programs can help, although the newness of the models are still being studied and

debated. Gysbers, Lapan, and others have formulated favorable studies in Utah and

Missouri, while Sink and Brown still need more evidence to be convinced that school

counselors can have a dramatic affect on student achievement.

Whether counselors and school districts implement CSCPs or not, educators have

to be aware of the educational and environmental benefit that counselors can have. Lapan

(2001) recognized this and stated that counselors should always be asking themselves the

following questions:

1) How can the essential work of the school counselor (i.e., counselor roles, duties,

functions, and interventions) be improved to be of greater benefit for all students?

2) How can school counselors’ time on varying tasks be redistributed to improve

benefits for all students?

3) How can each comprehensive program be more effectively tailored to better meet

the needs of each local school?

4) How can the comprehensive program become central to the mission of each

school?

5) How can school counselors establish better partnerships between school

personnel, parents, and business and community leaders?

6) How can school counselors better advocate for effective programs with local,

state, and national policymakers?

33

With these questions in mind, school counselors are redefining their roles and

impact that they have on students. Helping students survive and succeed in a competitive

world is still the goal, as ASCA points out in the three fundamental objectives: Learn,

Work, and Live. But with a new educational era and a greater renewed focus on

accountability, school counselors must jump to the forefront and prove the effectiveness

of their program. Gysbers summed it up best when he said, “Accountability talk is not

enough. It is important to remember that expressing concern about accountability is

necessary but it is not sufficient. It is time for action. It is time for school counselors and

their leaders at all levels to accept the challenge of accountability. The past has much to

offer us concerning this challenge and how to address it. Let us use the wisdom of the

past to address the challenge of accountability today and tomorrow” (Gysbers, 2003, p

11).

34

References

Allen M, Burt K, Bryan E, Carter D, Orsi R, Durkan L. (2002) School counselors'

preparation for and participation in crisis intervention. Professional School

Counseling 6:96–102.

American School Counselor Association. (2003). The ASCA National Model: A

Framework for school counseling programs. Alexandria, VA: Author. Retrieved

July 11, 2006, from ERIC database

Baker, S. B. & Taylor, J. G. (1998). Effects of career education interventions: a meta-

analysis. Career Development Quarterly, 46, 376-385.

Ballard, K., & Bates, A. (2008). Making a connection between student achievement,

teacher accountability, and quality classroom instruction. The Qualitative Report,

13(4), 560-580. Retrieved from http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR13-4/ballard.pdf

Borders, L. D. & Drury, S. M. (1992). Comprehensive school counseling programs: A

review for policymakers and practitioners. Journal of Counseling &

Development, 70, 487-498. Retrieved July 11, 2006, from PsycINFO database.

Brigman, G. & Campbell, C. (2003). Helping students improve academic achievement

and school success behavior. Professional School Counseling, 7, 91–98.

Brown, D., & Trusty, J. (2005). School counselors, comprehensive school counseling

programs, and academic achievement: Are school counselors promising more than

they can deliver? Professional School Counseling, 9(1), 1-8. Retrieved July 11,

2006, from PsycINFO database.

Brown, D., & Trusty, J. (2005). The ASCA national model, accountability, and

Establishing causal links between school counselors' activities and student

35

outcomes: A reply to sink. Professional School Counseling, 9(1), 13-15.

Retrieved July 11, 2006, from PsycINFO database.

Brown, D., Galassi, J. P., & Akos, P. (2004). School counselors' perceptions of the

impact of high-stakes testing. Professional School Counseling, 8(1), 31-39.


Canada, M., Heath, M., Money, K., Annandale, N., Fischer, L., & Young, E.L. (2007).

Crisis intervention for students of diverse backgrounds. Brief Treatment and Crisis

Intervention, 7(1):12-24. Retrieved July 11, 2006, from PsycINFO database.

Carey, J., Harrity, J., & Dimmitt, C. (2005). The development of a self-assessment

instrument to measure a school district's readiness to implement the ASCA national

model. Professional School Counseling, 8(4), 305-312. Retrieved July 11, 2006,

from PsycINFO database.

Dahir, C. A., Sheldon, C. B., & Valiga, M. J. (1998). Vision into action: Implementing

the national standards for school counseling programs. Alexandria, VA: American

School Counselor Association Press.

Dimmitt, C., Carey, J. (2007). Using the ASCA National Model to facilitate school

transitions. Professional School Counseling. FindArticles.com. 2 Apr, 2009.

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0KOC/is_3_10/ai_n19311516/

Edmondson, J. H. & White, J. (1998). A tutorial and counseling program: Helping

students at risk of dropping out. Professional School Counseling, 1, 43-47.

Foster, L. H., Young, J. S., & Hermann, M. (2005). The work activities of professional

School counselors: Are the national standards being addressed? Professional

School Counseling,8(4), 313-321. Retrieved July 11, 2006, from PsycINFO

36

database.

Gerler, E. R. (1992). What we know about school counseling: a reaction to Borders and

Drury. Journal of Counseling & Development, 70, 499-501.

Ginn, S. J. (1924). Vocational guidance in Boston Public Schools. The Vocational

Guidance Magazine, 2, 3-7.

Granello, D. H. & Sears, S. J. (1999). The school to work opportunities act and the role of

the school counselor. Professional School Counseling, 3, 2, 108-115.

Gysbers, N. C. (2003).The center of education (Preface). In The ASCA national model: A

framework for school counseling programs (p. 4). Alexandria,VA: American

school Counselor Association.

Gysbers, N. C. (2004). Comprehensive guidance and counseling programs: The evolution

of accountability. Professional School Counseling, 8(1), 1-14. Retrieved July 11,

2006, from PsycINFO database.

Gysbers, N. C. (2005). Comprehensive school guidance programs in the United States: A

career profile. International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance,

5(2), 203-215. Retrieved July 11, 2006, from PsycINFO database.

Gysbers, N. C., & Henderson, P. (2001). Comprehensive guidance and counseling

programs: A rich history and a bright future. Professional School Counseling, 4(4),

246-256. Retrieved July 11, 2006, from PsycINFO database.

Gysbers, N.C., Hughey, K., Starr, M. & Lapan, R. (1992). Improving school guidance

programs: A framework for program, personnel, and results evaluation. Journal of

Counseling & Development, 70, 565-570. Retrieved July 11, 2006, from PsycINFO

database.

37

Gysbers, N. C. & Lapan, R. T. (2001). The implementation and evaluation of

comprehensive school guidance programs in the United States: Progress and

prospects. International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance, 1, 197-

208. Retrieved July 11, 2006, from PsycINFO database

Gysbers, N. C., Lapan, R. T. & Blair, M. (1999). Closing in on the statewide

implementation of a comprehensive guidance program model. Professional School

Counseling, 2, 357-366. Retrieved July 11, 2006, from PsycINFO database

Hatch, P. A. (2002). National standards for school counseling programs: A source of

legitimacy or of reform? Dissertation Abstracts International, 63(08-A), 2798.

Hayes, R., Nelson, J., Jabin, M., Pearson, G. & Worthy, C. (2002). Using school-wide

data to advocate for student success. Professional School Counselor, 6, 86-94.

House, D. (1999). Self-beliefs and background variables as predictors of school

withdrawal of adolescent students. Child Study Journal, 29, 247-268.

Hughey, K. F., Lapan, R. T. & Gysbers, N. C. (1993). Evaluating a high school guidance-

language arts career unit: a qualitative approach. The School Counselor, 41, 96-101.

International Observatory on Academic Achievement. (2004). Documentary Watch, a

CRIRES Project. Retrieved March 13, 2009 from http://www.crires

-oirs.ulaval.ca/sgc/lang/en_CA/pid/5493

Johnson, C. D., & Johnson, S. K. (1997). Results-based student support programs. San

Juan Capistrano, CA: Professional Update.

Johnson, C. D., & Johnson, S. K. (2001). Results-based student support programs:

Leadership academy workbook. San Juan Capistrano, CA: Professional Update.

Lapan, R. T. (2001). Results-based comprehensive guidance and counseling programs: A

38

framework for planning and evaluation. Professional School Counseling, 4(4), 289-


Lapan, R., Gysbers, N. & Petroski, G. (2001). Helping seventh graders to be safe and

successful: A statewide study of the impact of comprehensive guidance and

counseling programs. Journal of Counseling & Development, 79, 320-330.

Lapan, R. T., Gysbers, N. C., & Sun, Y. (1997). The impact of more fully implemented

guidance programs on the school experiences of high school students: A statewide

evaluation study. Journal of Counseling & Development, 75, 292-302. . Retrieved

April 2, 2009, from PsycINFO database.

Michigan Department of Education. (2002). Comprehensive Guidance and Counseling:

Overview. Retrieved March 13, 2009 from ttp://www.michigan.gov/mde/0,1607,7-

140-6530_2629_2722-28015--,00.html

Meyer-Adams N, Conner B. School violence: bullying behaviors and the psychosocial

school environment in middle schools. Children & Schools [serial online].

October 2008;30(4):211-221. Available from: CINAHL Plus with Full Text,

Ipswich, MA. Accessed March 12, 2009.

Nelson, D. E., & Gardner, J. L. (1998). An evaluation of the comprehensive guidance

program in Utah schools. Salt Lake City, UT: Institute for Behavioral Research

in Creativity.

Perusse, R., & Goodnough, G. E. (Eds.). (2004). Leadership, advocacy, and direct service

strategies for professional school counselors. Belmont, CA: Thomson

Learning/Brooks/Cole.

Rowley, W. J., Stroh, H. R., & Sink, C. (2005). Comprehensive guidance and counseling

39

program's use of guidance curricula materials: A survey of national trends.

Professional School Counseling, 8(4), 296-304. Retrieved July 11, 2006, from

PsycINFO database.

Schmidt, J. J. (2003). Counseling in schools: Essential services and comprehensive

programs (4th ed.). Allyn & Bacon, Needham Heights, MA: US. Retrieved July

11, 2006, from PsycINFO database.

Sink, C. (2002). Comprehensive guidance and counseling programs and the development

of multicultural student-citizens. Professional School Counseling, 6(2), 130-137.


Sink, C. A. (2005). Comprehensive school counseling programs and academic

achievement--A rejoinder to brown and trusty. Professional School Counseling,


Sink, C. A. (2005). Fostering academic development and learning: Implications and

recommendations for middle school counselors. Professional School

Counseling.Special Issue: Focus on Middle School Counseling, 9(2), 128-135.


Sink, C. A. & MacDonald, G. (1998). The status of comprehensive guidance and

counseling in the United States. Professional School counseling, 2, 88-94.

Retrieved April 2, 2009, from PsycINFO database.

Sink, C. A., & Stroh, H. R. (2003). Raising achievement test scores of early elementary

School students through comprehensive school counseling programs. Professional

School Counseling, 6(5), 350-364. Retrieved July 11, 2006, from PsycINFO

database.

40

Spirtes, P., Glymour, C., & Scheines, R. (2001). Causation, prediction, and search (2nd

ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Stickel, S. A., Ametrano, I. M., & Callaway, Y. L. (2000). Preventing school violence:

Training for school counselors. In D. S. Sandhu, & C. B. Aspy (Eds.), Violence in

american schools: A practical guide for counselors. (pp. 201-216). American

Counseling Association, Alexandria, VA: US. Retrieved July 11, 2006, from

PsycINFO database.

Stroh, H. R. (2004). An investigation of comprehensive guidance and counseling

programs and academic achievement with sixth-grade Washington state students.

(Doctoral dissertation, //www.il.proquest.com/umi]). Dissertation Abstracts

International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 64 (12-A), 4374. (Print)


Thompson, G., Warkentien, S., Daniel, B. (2009). Course Credit Accrual and Dropping

Out of High School, by Student Characteristics. Washington, DC: U.S.

Government Printing Office.

Webb, L. D., Brigman, G. A., & Campbell, C. (2005). Linking school counselors and

student success: A replication of the student success skills approach targeting the

academic and social competence of students. Professional School Counseling,


http://www.il.proquest.com/umi%5D�

the comprehensive guidance curriculum program and …

Documents