The Cold WarNew Frontiers: Politics and Social Change in the 1960s

Kennedy-Nixon

They were the best of times and they were the worst of times. . .

The New Frontier Election of 1960

Nixon vs. Kennedy

Nixon- “Tricky Dick” As VP- reputation as statesman (travels), man to stand up to NK

(“kitchen debate” over capt’lism vs. comm’ism)

From CA, experience, exposure, tough campaigner (personal attacks)

JFK From MA, Harvard, glamour, wealthy family, NO nat’l prominence, no

political distinction. . .but energy, grace, ambition

“We stand today on the edge of a New Frontier- the frontier of unknown opportunities and perils- a frontier of unfulfilled hopes and threats.”

Campaign Turning Point TV = decisive factor in election

Nixon vs. Kennedy debate (47-43)

4 debates total

Nixon- weak from illness, sweaty, “five-o-clock shadow”, haggard, uneasy, sinister

Kennedy- cool, poised, seemed equal/superior in fitness for office

Kennedy popularity

Issues JFK attack on Ike admin.- Soviets leading arms race (“missile gap”,

Sputnik)

Nixon carried heavy Protestant areas, Kennedy took cities (religion)

Results Kennedy + Johnson

Closest election since 1888 (R-Harrison v. D-Cleveland)

Won by 118k votes, EC 303-219

The New Administration

Domestic Policy JFK youngest elected, Catholic

Cabinet = youthful, “best and the brightest” minds, tough, vigorous outlook into gov. affairs Robert McNamara (Ford)- bring managerial “magic” to DOD

McGeorge Bundy (Harvard)- special asst. for nat’l sec. affairs

Dean Rusk (diplomat, Rhodes scholar)- SOS

Robert Kennedy- attorney-general

Inauguration- tone of youth, elegance = “Kennedy style” “Let every nation know, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden,

meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, to assure the survival and success of liberty. And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you- ask what you can do for your country.”

New Frontier Programs Call for: aid to education, federal support of health care,

urban renewal, civil rights Problem? Congress

Dem. majority, but conservative Southern coalition

Economy- win over steel execs on inflationary price increase, econ. growth from defense spending, space exploration

Other wins Housing Act- $5 bil. For urban renewal/4 years

Raise min. wage

Increase SSA benefits

Peace Corps launched (education, tech. service)

Approval by Congress of foreign aid programs “Alliance for Progress” with Latin America

Tax-reduction bill For economic growth

Not passed until ‘64 (after death)

Trade Expansion Act- 1962 Tariff cuts (35% avg) b/t US and Europe

The Warren Court 1960s SC under Chief Justice Earl Warren

Civil Liberties Mapp v. Ohio (‘61)

Illegally seized evidence can’t be used in court against accused

Gideon v. Wainwright (‘63)

Every felony defendant be provided a lawyer regardless of ability to pay

Escobedo v. Illinois (’64)

Person accused of crime must be allowed to consult lawyer before interrogation

Miranda v. Arizona (‘66)

Any accused person in police custody must be informed of basic rights (remain silent, know anything said can be used against you in court, to a defense attorney during interrogation), rules for police in informing suspects of rights

Freedoms of . . . Extended rights of First Amend. to protect radical actions of

demonstrators, students; freedom of press; ban religious activities from schools; guarantee adults’ rights to use contraceptives Yates v. United States (‘57)

Protects radical/revoluntionary speech (Comm. Included) unless a “clear and present danger” to safety

Engel v. Vitale (‘62)

State laws requiring prayer/Bible in public schools violate separation of church & state (First Amend)

Griswold v. Connecticut (‘65)

State can’t prohibit use of contraceptives (right to privacy)

Much defense of unpopular groups, rights of “accused criminals” call for impeachment of Warren

Civil Rights Expansion

JFK & Civil Rights At first, reluctant to challenge southern Dems, not personally

committed (Robert)

Conscience moved by grassroots movement led by MLK

Sit-ins & Freedom Riders MLK & “militant non-violence” spread to other states to

challenge Jim Crow through direct action

Lawsuits to desegregate schools

Momentum Greensboro/Woolworth, 2/1/60 mass movement in 54 cities, 9 states Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) + SCLC spread sit-

ins

“Kneel-ins” at churches, “wade-ins” at pools

Music- “We Shall Overcome”

1960-1961 3,600 black & white activists in jail, beaten w/ clubs, cattle prods, hit with

rocks, cigarette burns, verbal abuse

1961 Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) sent “freedom riders” to test federal

ruling to ban segregation on buses/trains

AL- mobs attack travelers, burned bus, assault on observers

Demonstrators persist nat’l attention, support for cause

Work to integrate public places, register blacks to vote

Federal Intervention 1962

MS- Gov. Ross Barnett refuse James Meredith enrollment @ Univ. of MS

God made “the Negro different to punish him.”

Robert Kennedy- federal marshals sent to enforce law, met by violent white mob

Federal troops intervene, Meredith registered after 2 deaths, injuries

1963 MLK demonstrations in B’ham met by Police Comm. Eugene “Bull”

Connor

Connor sends police w/ dogs, tear gas, electric cattle prods, fire hoses

Seen by millions on TV

MLK arrest, jailed for “illegal demonstrations”

Letter from a Birmingham Jail Defense of nonviolent strategy

“One who breaks an unjust law must do so openly, lovingly, and with a willingness to accept the penalty.”

Shift in strategy

Before- emphasis on need to educate southern whites about injustices of segregation

Now- gain federal enforcement & new laws by provoking racists to display violent hatred

J. Edgar Hoover outraged- saw MLK as “the most dangerous Negro of the future in this nation.” order agents to follow MLK, wiretaps, rumors circulated to discredit MLK

Much opposition to integration

1963- AL Gov. George Wallace Stands in doorway to Univ. of AL to block enrollment of black students

Federal marshalls step aside

Same night, NAACP official Medgar Evers shot to death in Jackson, MS

August 28, 1963 200k blacks, whites marched down Mall in DC to Lincoln Memorial

“We Shall Overcome”

Largest civil rights dem. in US history

MLK address in front of Lincoln’s statue

“Even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. . .one day. . . The sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave-owners will be able to sit together at the table of brotherhood.”

September, 1963 Bomb in B’ham church kills 4 young black girls

Value of MLK Converts won across nation- whites forced to confront myth of virtue and

innocent vs. brutal reality of racial hatred

JFK persuaded by Robert to seek new legislation on civil rights Robert greater conviction, compassion, vision

1963- racial discrimination “has no place in American life or law” Endorse civil rights bill to end discrimination in public facilities,

desegregate public schools, protect black voters

Bill blocked by southern Dems

Foreign Frontiers

Foreign Progress Peace Corps (‘61)- youth to bring tech. aid to developing

nations Third World=

Alliance for Progress (‘61)- land reform, econ. development in LA

Trade Expansion Act of ‘62- tariff reductions w/ Euro. Econ. Community (W. Euro)

Early Setbacks Bay of Pigs- 4/17/61

Massive failure- invasion force taken down in 2 days, 1000+ men captured

The US “looked like fools to our friends, rascals to our enemies, and incompetents to the rest.” -NYT

June- JFK + NIK in Vienna Threats to limit access to Berlin, but JFK refused to remove troops

Berlin Wall erected by Soviets/GDR Aug. 13, 1961

- 1989

US Reserves mobilized, tanks face off in city, BUT no move to stop wall

‘63- JFK to West Berlin for support

“Freedom has many difficulties and democracy is not perfect, but we have never had to put up a wall to keep our people in. . . As a free man, I take pride in the words, ‘Ich bin ein Berliner’”

Cuban Missile Crisis October 14, ’62- US recon. planes find underground sites for

launching missiles NK grant Castro request for weapons vs. US invasion

Balance of US missiles in Turkey

JFK respond w/ “quarantine” on Oct. 22 Why? Blockade = act of war

End when weapons removed

Fear of Soviet ships challenging blockade nuclear war

Oct. 28- negotiation reached (SOS Dean Rusk) Soviets withdraw missiles for US public statement not to invade Cuba

Also, invitation by NK to “continue the exchange of views on the prohibition of atomic and thermonuclear weapons, general disarmament, and other problems relating to the relaxation of international tension.”

US sell surplus wheat to Soviets

“hot line” between Washington & Moscow

Removal of old US missiles from Turkey

US + USSR + GB + . . . = Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (‘63) Stop pollution of atmosphere by nuclear testing

No restriction to underground testing

“A journey of a thousand miles begins with one step.” –Confucious

Kennedy and Vietnam

Growing Conflict Policy?

Flexible response- NOT massive retaliation/nukes

Increase $$ to conventional arms, mobile military forces, special forces

Laos neutral/independent by ‘54 Geneva Accords Power struggle b/t Communist Pathet Lao insurgents (Soviet backed) vs.

Royal Laotian Army

Options? “You might have to go in there and fight.” = direct intervention

Decision to back formation of neutral coalition gov. – May ‘61 Would include reps from Pathet Lao

no military intervention, no Pathet Law victory = WIN

Meanwhile, back in N. Vietnam. . . HCM Trail open through E. Laos to supply Viet Cong

South Vietnam struggles Ngo Dinh Diem repressive tactics to retain control , no democracy, no

social/political reform, action vs. Buddhists, Communists

1961- US sends emissaries to Saigon Walt Rostow, Gen. Maxwell Taylor

Proposition? Increase in US military presence

JFK refused, sends more advisers

1961- JFK into office, 2k US troops

1963- 16k troops, none committed to battle

Worst enemy? Diem regime by mid-’63 Public discontent w/ regime visible- Buddhist monk demonstrations in

streets vs. “iron-fisted rule” of Diem

Fall ‘63- Diem = “lost cause” SV generals launch coup d’etat on Nov. 1 & seize gov., murder Diem

successive coups by military leaders

Kennedy’s Assassination

1,000 days Shadow of Vietnam situation

Nov. 22, 1963- Dallas, TX = Kennedy Assassination Shots from TX Book Depository 2 shots (throat, head)

Arrest of Lee Harvey Oswald (24, ex-Marine) 2 days later, Oswald shot by Jack Ruby (Dallas nightclub owner)

Blame? Warren- Oswald acted alone

Conspiracy? CIA, FBI, Mafia, Castro, Cuban exiles from Miami

Result- martyred leader shot down in prime of career

250k newly registered black voters

Enter Lyndon Johnson

A New President Less polished, less sophisticated than JFK, no Harvard, from

W. TX The good? EXPERIENCE- 26 yrs in Washington, 10 as Senate Dem.

Leader

A “self-made man” and 1st southerner since Wilson sense of being outsider by JFK admin.

Not a stereotypical southern conservative Devotion to FDR/New Deal, concern for poor, civil rights

End result? Wanted to leave grand legacy- Pres. to do most good for most people

Promised more than could really offer or accomplish false hopes, much resentment

The Great Society Quickly worked w/ Congress to get JFK’s legis. program

passed Forceful leadership, experience, love of political infighting

What passed? Expanded form of civil rights bill, proposal for income tax cut

Tax cuts ($10 b.) job increase, consumer spending, economic expansion of 60s

Johnson’s own priority included (1964) “This Administration today, here and now, declares unconditional war on

poverty in America.”

From Michael Harrington’s expose, “The Other America” (‘62) 40 mi.. live in “culture of poverty”

Modern poor have no upward mobility

JFK started investigation into problems/solutions Continued by LBJ

Economic Opportunity Bill Job Corps for inner-city youth

Head Start program

Work-study jobs for college students

Grants to farmers, rural business

Loans to those who hire chronically unemployed

VISTA (Vol. in Service To America = domestic Peace Corps)

Community Action Program

Involve poor in neighborhood programs

LBJ called for a “Great Society” resting on “abundance and liberty for all. The Great Society demands an end to poverty and racial injustice, to which we are fully committed in our time.”

1964 Election

LBJ is Back! LBJ vs. Sen. Barry Goldwater (AZ)

Issues? Social welfare, international conflict, nuclear weapons

Goldwater’s campaign failures Conserv. Repubs see party in hands of “East Est.” that favored

internationalism, big gov. just like liberal Dems.

Party had been nominating “me too” candidates on efficiency

Was a “fighter”- end TVA, end SSA, nuke ‘Nam

LBJ Appeal to middle of spectrum voters

“We are not about to send American boys nine or ten thousand miles from home to do what Asian boys ought to be doing for themselves.”

Landslide Victory Johnson takes 61% of popular vote, EC 482 – 52

Dems. Increase majority in Senate and House

Dem President + Dem Congress

Great Society Reforms of 1965 End to poverty, renovate central cities, send youth to

college, protect health of elderly, enhance culture, clean air/water, safer highways Medicare- health insurance, 65+

Medicaid- gov.-paid health care for poor, disabled

Elem. & Secon. Education Act- aid to poor school districts ($1.5 bil)

End to quota system from Nat’l Origins Acts, increase opportunities for Asians, LA immigrants

Nat’l Foundation for the Arts & Humanities- fed $ for worthy projects

Dept. of Transportation & Dept. of Housing and Urban Dev. (DOT & HUD)

More $ for higher ed

More $ for public housing, crime prevention

Legacy of Great Society Programs ambitious, but hastily designed, often mismanaged

No incentive to control costs in hospitals Medicaid bills skyrocket

Funds allocated for programs get stuck in bureaucracy

Welfare fraud

Pro- assistance to needy

Con- unrealistic promises, high cost, welfare state established,

By ‘66, middle class resentment to cost/waste of programs

Etc. Laws for safer highways, auto standards: Ralph Nader, Unsafe at Any

Speed (‘65) on regulation in auto industry

Cleaner air, water : Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (‘62) on pesticides

Beautify America campaign- Lady Bird Johnson

From Civil Rights to Black Power

Civil Rights Acts 1964-

Segregation illegal in all public facilities (Hotels, restaurants, etc.)

Gov. has power to enforce integration (via lawsuits)

Equal Opportunity Commission- ban on job discrimination (race, sex, religion)

“. . . The day we gave the South to the Republican party for the rest of our lifetime.” –LBJ

24th Amend brings end to poll tax

1965- Voter-registration drive in the South (3 mil. unregistered)

March 7- 25: protestors march for voting rights (Selma Montgomery) met by state troopers fed. judge Oks march LBJ sends troops

Voting Rights Act of ’65 End of literacy tests, federal registrars in any area blacks kept from

voting

Less than 50% of adults voting in ‘64

= start of four “long hot summers” of race conflict

Chicago, Cleveland, Newark, Detroit (tanks in streets), LA

CR shift to urban blacks

Mid 60’s, 70% of blacks in urban areas, most in central-city slums & ghettos, poverty high

Nonviolent tactics of South not effective in North

N issues from segregated residential patterns (not laws), no similar cultural heritage b/t whites & blacks in N

Riots differ from previous because “. . . Initiated by blacks themselves in an effort to destroy what they could not stomach and what civil rights legislation seemed unable to change.” –Commission on Civil Disorders

Malcolm X & Militant Resistance By ‘66, black nat’lism, separatism, self-improvement taught

by Elijah Muhammad (Black Muslim) Malcolm X (Malcolm X) converts while in prison (‘52)

Critical of MLK as “an Uncle Tom”, advocated self-defense (black violence to counter white violence) , advanced to Org. of Afro-American Unity by ‘64

Assassinated in ‘65, Harlem

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee dominated by “black power” in late 60s separation from nonviolent SCLC No whites involved, violence advocated

‘66- Stokely Carmichael, ‘67- H. Rap Brown

Black Panther Party emerges out of Oakland Urban black revolutionaries led by Huey P. Newton, Eldridge Cleaver

Militant, armed, used terror

“black power” movement only small group (15%) Most align w/ MLK, SCLC, NAACP

MLK sees as “nihilistic” and holds view that “we can’t win violently.”

Effects? Helped blacks take pride in racial heritage (African-American)

Forced MLK & others to start new stage of movement- focus on poor inner-city blacks (jobs, housing along with legal rights)

Assassinations Pressure as peaceful marches in North had little success,

disagreement w/ LBJ on Vietnam issues War in Vietnam vs. War on poverty, $ for social programs

April 4, 1968- Memphis, TN Shot by James Earl Ray while standing on balcony of Memphis hotel

June 6, 1968- Shot by Palestinian Arab nat’list (vs. support of Israel)

The Tragedy of Vietnam

Escalating Issues Not a major issue in ‘60 election- US involvement minimal

Under JFK Adopted Domino Theory, aid to SV (also, advisers), training of troops,

guarding of weapons/facilities, “strategic hamlets” (fortified villages)

‘63 = 16k troops- role was SUPPORT, NOT COMBAT

LBJ & the Tonkin Gulf Resolution Reason for “escalation”

Aug. 7, ‘64- 2 US destroyers attacked by DRV on Aug. 2 & 4 in Gulf of Tonkin

Provoked?

Resolution Pres. authorization “to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression.”

Decision time- Feb. 5, 1965 = “Americanization” of the war Viet Cong guerillas kill 8/wound 126 Americans, more attacks later in

week

Order of Operation Thunder to stop soldiers/supplies from getting to south

August- task force reports bombing unsuccessful, but attacks continue

March, ‘65- Gen. William Westmoreland request/gets first group of combat troops to defend US airfields End of ‘65- 184k troops, ‘66- 385k

Combat operations increase in SV casualties increase Announced on news (“body count”)

“Westy’s War” = helicopters, gunships, chemicals, napalm

war of attrition No declaration of war by Congress, but full-scale use of US forces

Congress gave Pres. Authority to use troops, never recalled

Support through ’68

Policy LBJ decision consistent w/ other US presidents since WWII

Containment- Truman Doctrine endorsed by Ike, Dulles, JFK

US pledged to oppose advance of communism anywhere in world

“Why are we in Vietnam? We are there because we have a promise to keep. . . To leave Vietnam to its fate would shake the confidence of all these people in the value of American commitment.” –LBJ

SOS Rusk promotes domino theory as reason to stay involved

Military intervention logical

LBJ know not to let military involvement get to levels to provoke China or Soviets LBJ control over bombing, restrictive policy of leadership Sign that victory not possible

US goal not victory by capturing territory

Goal to prevent North Vietnamese/Viet Cong from winning, hope to force settlement

Problem? US support faded faster than North Vietnamese toleration of casualties

US fighting limited war for limited objectives

N. Vietnamese fighting total war for survival

Opposition Opposition on college campuses in ’65 (year of escalation)

Investigation into US policy in Vietnam by Senate FR Committee Led by Sen. J. William Fulbright (AR)

Kennan felt policy OK for Europe, NOT for SE Asia

Anti-war demonstrations in NY, @ Pentagon in ‘67

Vietnam 1st war with extended TV coverage = “living room war” “The picture of the world’s greatest superpower killing or injuring 1,000

noncombatants a week while trying to pound a tiny backward nation into submission on an issue whose merits are hotly disputed, is not a pretty one. “ –Robert McNamara

Misinformation Misinformation from military/civilian leaders + LBJ avoiding

true cost/scope of war “credibility gap” Also w/in gov., understanding of enemy or nature of war also slowed

Early ‘68- US forces on verge of gaining upper hand vs. Communists display of cunning/tenacity against US

Tet Offensive

LBJ’s hope? Increase military pressure DRV would come to peace table

Hawks vs. Doves Hawks = war supporters

Soviets influence over NV Communists vs. SV, plan to take over SE Asia

Doves = anti-war Civil War- no place for US

High cost of life, $$

College students- draft issue

The Turning Point Jan. 31, ’68 = start of TET Offensive

Tet – 1st day of New Year

Holiday truce waved, wave of surprise attacks by NV & VC

Attacks in SV occupation of US embassy in Saigon for several days

Counterattack by US/SV massive casualties of NV/VC

200k more troops

Effect? Psychological Contradiction to upbeat claims by US commanders about ground war

increase anti-war/withdrawal campaigns LBJ popularity down to 35%

$322k/soldier, $53/person in poverty

LBJ ‘68- turns to isolation

Depression, paranoia

Reports that victory not viable prospect

Undermining Great Society programs

Dem. Party fragmenting Bobby Kennedy for President? An option vs. LBJ

Sen. Eugene McCarthy (MN)- student vote, anti-war (42% in NH)

March 31- limited halt to bombing, new attempt @ negotiations END to quest for victory

Now? How to extricate with minimal damage to prestige

Paris- May, ’68: discussions w/ NV end when demand final end to US bombing

BUT- end to “escalation”- no more troops

PS. . . “I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for

another term as your President.”

1968 Election

Traumatic Year: 1968 April 4- MLK, Jr. assassinated

June 6- Bobby Kennedy assassinated Had defeated McCarthy in CA Dem. Primary would have taken lead in antiwar

forces for pres.

August- antiwar protests in Chicago attacked w/ tear gas, billy clubs April- riots after MLK assassination “shoot-to-kill” orders

Unrest w/ Dems Return of Nixon Miami- nomination for Pres.

’60- loss to JFK, ‘62- loss in CA gov. race, vow to never run again, ‘64- support of Goldwater, through ’68 active in politics

Nixon = stability, order for “silent majority”, “peace with honor”, “law and order”

Other Nominees George Wallace- American Indep. Party

Defender of segregation, but by ‘68 more moderate

Play off fear from riots, anti-war, welfare, growth of gov.

“liberals, intellectuals, and long hairs have run the country for too long.”

Simple solutions- rioters shot, war won, states’ rights/law & order restored, welfare cheats in jail

=reactionary candidacy- appeal to white-working class communities in & outside the south

Nixon again Nixon the favorite with early lead (conservative)

VP- Spiro Agnew (MD)

Wallace hurt by running mate (Gen. Curtis LeMay- nuke ‘Nam)

Hubert Humphrey (D, VP, liberal)- angered leadership w/ announcement to end bombing of NV

Nixon victorious! 500k vote margin, EC 301-191

Wallace- 10 m. votes, 46 EC (best since La Follette in ‘24)