The classification of languagesThe classification of languagesIntroduction to Linguistics 2Introduction to Linguistics 2

Defining languageDefining language

Dialect and languageDefining criteria

If two speeches are mutually intelligible, they are dialects.

Dialect and languageDefining criteria

If two speeches are mutually intelligible, they are dialects.

Fuzzy boundaries Fuzzy boundaries

Claimed to be one language, but there are a variety of mutually unintelligible ‘dialects’. Chinese

Taiwanese, Cantonese, Mandarin/ Putonhua, Wu…

Claimed to be two independent languages, but they are actually mutually intelligible. Serbian and Croatian

Claimed to be one language, but there are a variety of mutually unintelligible ‘dialects’. Chinese

Taiwanese, Cantonese, Mandarin/ Putonhua, Wu…

Claimed to be two independent languages, but they are actually mutually intelligible. Serbian and Croatian

Approaches to language classification

Approaches to language classification

Genetic classificationLinguistic typology

Genetic classificationLinguistic typology

Genetic Classification Genetic Classification

Genetic classificationGenetic classification

Languages with related historical decent are said to be genetically related.

‘language families’

Languages with related historical decent are said to be genetically related.

‘language families’

Language familiesLanguage families

Case Study: The Indo-European language

family

Case Study: The Indo-European language

family

Linguistic TypologyLinguistic Typology

Linguistic typology Linguistic typology

Languages are grouped together according to the similarities of their linguistic features.

Languages are grouped together according to the similarities of their linguistic features.

Linguistic UniversalsLinguistic Universals

The common linguistic features that are found in all or most languages.

The common linguistic features that are found in all or most languages.

How to describe linguistic universals

How to describe linguistic universals

Absolute universals vs. universal tendencies

Implicational universalsMarkedness theory

Absolute universals vs. universal tendencies

Implicational universalsMarkedness theory

Absolute universals vs. universal tendencies

Absolute universals vs. universal tendencies

Absolute universalsThe linguistic features that occur in

ALL languagesUniversal tendencies

The linguistic features that occur in MOST languages

Absolute universalsThe linguistic features that occur in

ALL languagesUniversal tendencies

The linguistic features that occur in MOST languages

Implicational universalsImplicational universals

The presence of one linguistic feature in one language must indicate the occurrence of another.

If A is found in language L, B must be also present in language L.

The implication is one-way.Example:

If one language has fricative phonemes, it will also have stop phonemes

The presence of one linguistic feature in one language must indicate the occurrence of another.

If A is found in language L, B must be also present in language L.

The implication is one-way.Example:

If one language has fricative phonemes, it will also have stop phonemes

Implicational universals: Example

Implicational universals: Example

The implication is one-way.Example:

If one language has fricative phonemes (/s/, /z/), it will also have stop phonemes (/p/, /t/).

But not vice versa.

The implication is one-way.Example:

If one language has fricative phonemes (/s/, /z/), it will also have stop phonemes (/p/, /t/).

But not vice versa.

Markedness theoryMarkedness theory

The most common/default features are unmarked.

The less common features are marked.

The most common/default features are unmarked.

The less common features are marked.

Markedness theory:example

Markedness theory:example

Gender in nounsWhich is marked? Masculine or feminine

? Prince-princess; actor-actressDoctor-female doctor; nurse-male nurse

萬綠叢中一點紅Which is marked?

Gender in nounsWhich is marked? Masculine or feminine

? Prince-princess; actor-actressDoctor-female doctor; nurse-male nurse

萬綠叢中一點紅Which is marked?

Typological classification by Typological classification by

PhonologyMorphologySyntax

PhonologyMorphologySyntax

Typology: phonologyTypology: phonology

Vowel systemsConsonant systemsSuprasegmental systemsSyllable structure

Vowel systemsConsonant systemsSuprasegmental systemsSyllable structure

Typology: phonology: vowel Typology: phonology: vowel

UniversalsThe most common vowel system

5 vowels /a/-/i/-/u/-/e/-/o/The most common phonemes

/a/-/i/-/u/Front vowel phonemes are generally unr

ounded.Low vowels are generally unrounded.

UniversalsThe most common vowel system

5 vowels /a/-/i/-/u/-/e/-/o/The most common phonemes

/a/-/i/-/u/Front vowel phonemes are generally unr

ounded.Low vowels are generally unrounded.

Typology: phonology: Consonant

Typology: phonology: Consonant

Universals All languages have stops/p, t, k/The most common fricative phoneme is /s/Most of languages have at least one nasal.

Implicational universalsFricatives -> stopsVoiced obstruents -> voiceless obstruentsAffricates -> stops and fricatives

Universals All languages have stops/p, t, k/The most common fricative phoneme is /s/Most of languages have at least one nasal.

Implicational universalsFricatives -> stopsVoiced obstruents -> voiceless obstruentsAffricates -> stops and fricatives

Typology: phonology: suprasemental

Typology: phonology: suprasemental

Types Tone languages

Languages that use pitch to make semantic distinctions of words

Mandarin Chinese Stress languages

Fixed stressFree stress

Syllable structureCV, V

Types Tone languages

Languages that use pitch to make semantic distinctions of words

Mandarin Chinese Stress languages

Fixed stressFree stress

Syllable structureCV, V

Typology: morphology Typology: morphology

The isolating typeThe polysynthetic typeThe synthetic type

The agglutinating typeThe fusional type

The isolating typeThe polysynthetic typeThe synthetic type

The agglutinating typeThe fusional type

Typology: morphology: The isolating/analytic type

Typology: morphology: The isolating/analytic type

One word represents one single morpheme. No affixes

Mandarin Chinese

One word represents one single morpheme. No affixes

Mandarin Chinese

Typology: morphology: The polysynthetic typeTypology: morphology: The polysynthetic type

One single word with a long string of roots and affixes

The semantic equivalent of one sentence in other languages.Qasu-iir-sar-vig-ssar-si-ngit-luunar-nar-p

uq ‘some one did not find a completely suitable resting place.’ (Inuktitut)

One single word with a long string of roots and affixes

The semantic equivalent of one sentence in other languages.Qasu-iir-sar-vig-ssar-si-ngit-luunar-nar-p

uq ‘some one did not find a completely suitable resting place.’ (Inuktitut)

Typology: morphology: The agglutinating type Typology: morphology: The agglutinating type

An agglutinating words Contains several morphemesThe root and affixes in the words can

be semantically identified.

An agglutinating words Contains several morphemesThe root and affixes in the words can

be semantically identified.

Swahili Tu –ta –wa -on- esha we-fut.-them-see-cause 'we will show them'

An aggluinating example: Antidisestablishmentarianism

An aggluinating example: Antidisestablishmentarianism

establish (9) to set up, put in place, or institute (originally from the Latin star

e, to stand) dis-establish (12)

ending the established status of a body, in particular a church, given such status by law, such as the Church of England

disestablish-ment (16) the separation of church and state (specifically in this context it

is the political movement of the 1860s in Britain) anti-disestablishment (20)

opposition to disestablishment antidisestablishment-arian (25)

an advocate of opposition to disestablishment Antidisestablishmentarian-ism (28)

the movement or ideology that opposes disestablishment

establish (9) to set up, put in place, or institute (originally from the Latin star

e, to stand) dis-establish (12)

ending the established status of a body, in particular a church, given such status by law, such as the Church of England

disestablish-ment (16) the separation of church and state (specifically in this context it

is the political movement of the 1860s in Britain) anti-disestablishment (20)

opposition to disestablishment antidisestablishment-arian (25)

an advocate of opposition to disestablishment Antidisestablishmentarian-ism (28)

the movement or ideology that opposes disestablishment

Typology: morphology: The fusional/inflectional type

Typology: morphology: The fusional/inflectional type

A fusional/inflectional word contains several morphemes which indicate grammatical categories. Ein kleiner Hamster "a little hamster" (nominati

ve case) Der kleine Hamster "the little hamster" (nominative case) Ich sah den kleinen Hamster "I saw the little ha

mster" (accusative case) Mit kleinem Hamster "with little hamster" (dati

ve case).

A fusional/inflectional word contains several morphemes which indicate grammatical categories. Ein kleiner Hamster "a little hamster" (nominati

ve case) Der kleine Hamster "the little hamster" (nominative case) Ich sah den kleinen Hamster "I saw the little ha

mster" (accusative case) Mit kleinem Hamster "with little hamster" (dati

ve case).

Typology: syntaxTypology: syntax

Word order universalsSVOSOVVSO

Word order universalsSVOSOVVSO

Word order: SVOWord order: SVO

John loves Mary. John loves Mary.

word order: SOVword order: SOV

私 は 箱 を 開けます。watashi-wa-hako-o-akemasu. I box open‘I open the box.’

私 は 箱 を 開けます。watashi-wa-hako-o-akemasu. I box open‘I open the box.’

word order: OSVword order: OSV

Sentence الكتاب المدرس قرأ

Words الكتاب المدرس قرأ

al-kitāba al-mudarrisu Qara'a

Read. the teacher the book

Parts Object Subject Verb

Translation The teacher read the book.