The Civilizational Culture of Buddhism

meets Japan’s Particular Cultural

Identity

Based on Ways of Thinking of Eastern Peoples Hajime Nakamura

(University of Hawaii Press, 1964)

Jonathan S. Watts Keio University, Tokyo

Religious Matrix #1:

Beyond or Within the World? Whatshouldwebemoreconcernedabout:whathappensafterdeath/heaven/salvationORhowyoufindhappinessandleadagoodlifetoday?

• Transcendentalismviewstheworldasimpureandseesthesolutionin“transcending”theworld,usuallythroughachievingheavenafterdeath.Tendencytowardssocialpassivityandescapism.Indianreligion

• Immanentalismseestheworldaseitherinherentlygoodorastheonlyworld,sothatspiritualsolutionsaresoughtforinpracticalactionanddailylife.EastAsianreligion

TheBuddhataughtthe“MiddleWay”emphasizedthathappinessisleadingagoodlifenow,whichwillleadonward,refusingtodiscusstheafterlife.

Religious Matrix #2: Faith or Practice? Whichismoreimportant:whatyoubelieveORhowyoulive?

• Ortho-doctic正教-basedondoctrine&belief;maybeintellectualorfaithoriented;properunderstanding;Christianity(esp.Protestant),JapaneseTruePureLandJodoShin,JapaneseNichiren/LotusSutraschools

• Ortho-practic正⾏-basedonpracticeandritual;properperformanceofreligiousacts;Islam,orthodoxJudaism,Brahmanism,mostJapanesereligion&“FuneralBuddhism”

TheBuddhataught“rightlivelihood”(virtue戒)basedon“rightunderstanding”(wisdom慧)and“rightawareness”(mindfulness定)

Religious Matrix #3: Impurity or Sin?

Whensomeonebreaksamoralorethicalcode,shouldacleansingritualbedoneandthepersonthenbeforgivenorfacebeingostracizedfromthecommunityORshouldtheybeforcedtoconfess,repent,andacceptpunishmentorfacelongtermconsequencesthatextendintotheafterlife?

• Impurity汚れisabreakingcommunitystandardsandtaboos,whichmayormaynotbeuniversallymoralorethical.Purificationandritualarerequiredtore-establishpurity.Ritualpuritydeterminesnextlife.

• Sin罪isabreakingofuniversal,transcendenttruthsandtheirmoralandethicalnorms道徳.Confession懺悔andpunishmentorrepentantacts後悔arethenrequired.Changeinindividualattitudeandconscience.Sin/Virtuedeterminesfateinnextlife.

Religious Matrix #3: Impurity or Sin?

•  “Universal”religions(Buddhism,Christianity,Islam)focusonsinandthemaintenanceofegalitarianethics.“Tribal”religions(Brahmanism,Shinto)focusonpurityandritualactstorestoresocialorder/community/“tribe”,whichmaybeegalitarianornot.

TheBuddha’sMiddleWaygoesbeyondboth.HerejectedthepurityfocusedritualsofBrahmanism(earlyHinduism).Histeachingofkarmaas“intentionalaction”issimilartothesenseofsinbutrejectsanexternaljudgmentbyacreatorGod.

Religious Matrix #4

Universal Civilization or Tribal Nationalism? Isreligionafailureoraproblemasameansforlegitimizingracism,sexism,andnationalismORawayofbringingtogetherpeopleofmanydifferentbackgroundstobeabletolivewithcommonmoralsandethics?

• Thegreat“axial”軸性religions“universalized”thereligiousinsightsoftheirforerunnerstocreate“salvation”availabletoanyperson.Goingbeyond“salvation”救(orthecontrolofsalvation)foraprivilegedclass,gender,ortribe/nation.RabbinicJudaism,Christianity,Islam,Buddhism,Mo-Tzu墨⼦

• TheBuddhataughtinhisfirstoffiveethicalprecepts五戒“non-harming”towardsALLsentientlife衆⽣,notjusthumanlife.Heordainedasmonksmemberofthelowclassandout-castes(untouchables)whobecameleadersinthecommunity.Healsoeventuallyordainedwomenasnuns,creatingoneofthefirstorganizedfemalereligiousordersinhistory.

Japanese Thought #1: Immanental, Intuitive, This Worldly

•  “TheJapanesearewillingtoacceptthephenomenalworldasAbsolutebecauseoftheirdispositiontolayagreateremphasisuponintuitivesensibleconcreteevents,ratherthanuniversals.”(Nakamurap.350)

•  Logic,asbasedonauniversalorultimateformofprinciples,isnotemphasizedinJapaneselanguageorthought,whereintuitionandemotionisprimary.

•  Vagueness(ingender,number,lackofpersonalsubjects,etc.)isahallmarkofJapaneselanguageandcommunication,whichcreatesaestheticbeauty(e.g.haiku)throughimprecise,openexpression.

Japanese Thought #2: Faith & Intuition

•  TheethicallogicandpsychologicalfocusonmeditationinearlyIndianBuddhismgavewaytomorefaithorientedandmysticalpracticeinEastAsianMahayanaBuddhism

•  JapaneseBuddhistthoughtissimilarly“mystical”(e.g.theunspeakabletruthofZen,the“mantra”oftheLotusSutra)incontrasttoIndianandGreekthoughtwhichexploresalllogicalpropositions.

•  Japan’slargestBuddhistgroupsarecenteredaroundfaith:JodoShin(16million),Jodo(6m.),Nichiren(3.5m),SokaGakkai(8m),RisshoKoseikai(3m)asopposedtoZen(4m),Shingon(4m),Tendai(1.3m)

Japanese Thought #1: Immanental & This Worldly

•  AncientJapanesebelievedspirits(神kami)resideinallkindsofthingslikemountains,rivers,forests,treesorstonesàShinto

•  InmainstreamBuddhism,enlightenmentcametomeanatranscendentalstatebeyondtheworld.InJapaneseBuddhism,especiallyTendai,itreferstounderstandingthingsinthephenomenalworld.HonkakuHomon本覚法門 appearancesofthingsinthephenomenalworldareaspectsoftheBuddha.本覚=“innateenlightenment”,alwayspresent,suddenrealization

•  Dogen,founderofJapaneseSotoZen:“Asinglestalkofgrassandasingletreeareboththemindandbodyofusandthebuddhas.”

•  NichirenfelttheLotusSutra 法華経wassuperiorbecauseofitsrecognitionoftheeligibilityofthegrassandtreestobecomebuddhas.

v  ThereisnosensethatthenaturalworldiscursedorgruesomeastheIndiansdoindukkhaandsamsaraortheAbrahamicreligionsdoinsin.

Japanese Thought #1: Immanental & This Worldly

•  TheIndianemphasisonthetranscendentalrejectionoftheworldisseeninthevalueofthereligioussagewhoisabeggarnotinvolvedinproductivework.InEastAsiaandespeciallyinJapan,workisseenassacred.

•  Zenmonkstraditionallygrewtheirownfoodandbuiltandrepairedtheirowntemples.ThegreatChineseChan/ZenmasterBaizhangHuaihai百丈懷海said,"Adaywithoutworkisadaywithoutfood”一日不做一日不食

•  Today,itiscommonthatJapaneseprieststaketypicalsecularjobstoearnincometosupporttheirfamiliesandlivelihoods.SuchsalariedemploymentformonksisgenerallyforbiddeninallotherBuddhistcountries.

Japanese Thought #3: Emphasis on Impurity over Sin

•  Shinto,likeearlyHinduism(VedicBrahmanism),emphasizesimpurity(ofform)rathersin(ofprinciple)

•  However,asIndianthoughtandspiritualitydeveloped,puritybecameametaphysicalstateofcleansingthesoul(Upanishadicasceticism)orapsychologicalstateofpurifyingthemind(Buddhistmeditation&precepts)throughdisregardingform/thebody(e.g.wearingrags,walkingbarefooted,beggingforleftoverfood)

•  Japanesespiritualityhasalwaysheldfasttophysicalcleanlinessandpurity(e.g.regularBuddhistspiritualpracticeofcleaningthetemple作務 samu)andaestheticrefinement(thefineartsofZen,ikebana,sado,etc.).

Japanese Thought #4: This Worldly Salvation

•  EarlyShintorecognizestheintrinsicvalueoflifeinthisworld-theJapanesepeopleasdescendentofgods.Weakorvaguesenseofotherworld(あの世 ano-yo).Thereislittlereflectiononthetranscendentpossibilityofthesoulorspiritorondeathortheafterlife,whichseemedtonotworryorcausefearintraditionalJapanese.Deathisaformofimpurity.

•  TheclassicalsixrealmsofBuddhistreincarnationarerarelyrecognizedandevenAmida’sPureLandbecomesanancestralrealm.Karmaasametaphysicalsystemofcauseandeffectandrewardsandpunishmentsisnotanimportantbelief.Buddhistfuneralritualsarethemeanstoagoodafterlife.

•  JapaneseBuddhismdoesteachthattheindividualpossessestranscendentaloruniversalpotentials,likenirvanaorheavenorenlightenment,butmanycoreJapaneseBuddhistvalues--likehonesty,self-sacrifice無私,harmony和,repayingbenefitstoelders報恩–emphasisacollectivesocialnexus.ThesevaluesarerarelyemphasizedinBuddhismoutsideofJapanorEastAsia

Japanese Thought #4:

This Worldly Salvation•  InChina,ancestorworshipwastiedtoTaoismbutinJapanitwas

tiedtoBuddhism,inpartbecauseShinto’shighregardforpuritymeantitdidnotwanttobetiedtodeathandfuneralrites

•  As“FuneralBuddhism”葬式仏教developedhistoricallyinJapan,thevenerationoftheBuddha,auniversalortrans-nationalfigure,andhisrelics(仏舎利)wasreplacedbyvenerationofone’sownancestorsandtheirrelics/ashes(遺骨)

•  WhenafamilymemberdiesandreceivesaBuddhistfuneralceremony,theyreceiveordinationasamonk/nunwithaspecialname(戒名 kaimyo),aresaidtohaveattainedBuddhahood(成仏 jobutsu),andbecomeliterallyaBuddha(仏 hotoke)orancestralspirit.Thecausefor“salvation”oragoodafterlifeistheproperperformanceoffuneralritualratherthanthekarmicmeritofone’sethicalactions.

•  Moralsarenotboundtoasetofuniversalprincipleslikethe10Commandmentsorthe5Precepts(pancasila)buttoacompleteandwillingdedicationofselftoothersinaspecifichumancollective(“tribe”).

•  InJapan,this“tribe”wasoriginallytheclan氏systembutthenbecameextendedtofamily(Confucianism),lord(Feudalism),andImperialState

•  Devotionandsacrificetoanidealorauniversalvalueisunusual.e.g.Buddhism(PureLand/LotusSutrarebellionsofWarringStatesperiod)orChristianity(MartyrsofJapan日本の殉教者ofEdoperiod).

•  ThishelpstoexplainthehighnumberofBuddhistsub-sects:105officialtraditionalsectsandsome60ormorenewsectsinwhichdevotiontoteacherandcommunityisemphasizedovercommonteaching(ref.BuddhistsectsinSriLanka4,Thailand2,Myanmar4).

•  Ultimately,thespecificteachingofeachgroupislessimportantasalltraditionalgroupspracticethebasicformofancestorworshipthroughfuneralsandmemorialservices.

Japanese Thought #5: Community/Tribal vs. Civilizational/Universal Ethics

•  Japanesearemoralandethicalbutasdeterminedbytheirgroup,notbyasetofuniversalideals.JapanisnotethicallyBuddhist

•  “AlthoughBuddhismhasbeenthefleshandbloodofJapanesecultureformorethanthepasttencenturies,thepeoplebyandlargestillregarditas‘animportedsystemofthought’.Inthisrespect,ourattitudediffersfromthoseofWesternnationsinregardtoChristianityandfromthoseofsouthernAsiaticnationsinregardtoBuddhism.Asforthosenations,universalworldreligionsareconceivedtobesuchintegralpartsoftheirownculturethattheyarelinkedtotheformationofrespectivenormsthemselves.ButfortheJapanese,incontrast,suchaconceptionistotallyabsent.”(p.489)

Japanese Thought #5: Community/Tribal vs. Civilizational/Universal Ethics

Japanese Thought #6: Concepts of Public and Nation

•  Withtheimperialsystemandoriginalclanbasedsociety,thenotionofapublicspaceorcivilsocietyhasalwaysbeenweek.Originally,thepeopleweredefinedasminorfamilies(koyake)inrelationtotheImperialFamilyor“principalfamily”(公ōyake)whichmeans“public”

•  InEurope,monarchswereemanationsofGodandruledbyHisWill,whileinChina,emperorsruledthrough“themandateofheaven”.ButinJapan,theemperorwasseenasagod,theGod,himselfwithallJapanesebeingblooddescendents.

•  ToruleimmorallyinEuropeorChinaallowedthebasisforoverthrowingthemonarch(i.e.tolosethebasisofrulebydivinemandate),butdoingsoinJapanwouldamounttopatricide,thekillingofone’sownfather.Hence,Japanhasanunbrokenlineageofemperorswithnodynasticchanges.

•  Thishelpedformthebasisofnationalismduringthe19thand20thcenturieswhentheideaofbeingagainstthestatewasasmuchasareligiousbetrayalorsinasanunpatrioticaction.

The Potential of Buddhism for Japan •  Violencenotforideologicalreasonsbuttopreservecommunity.Wardoes

notpersistforideologicalreasons.“HolyWar”isnottopreservereligionbutclan/nation,nortowipeout“evil”buttorestore“harmony”.

•  Allegiancetoleadersandnormsofcommunity,notuniversalethicsorreasonà suddenchangeincommunityleadstosuddenchangeinethics.

•  Nakamura,“ThosewhoobservedthemoralconfusioninJapanimmediatelyafterWorldWarIImaybeledtodoubtthepropositionthattheJapaneseinthepastweremoralisticallyinclined…LittledifferenceseemstodiscoverablebetweentraditionalandrecentJapanesemorality.ThedifferenceseemstolieratherinthefactthatwhatwasconsideredtobemorallytenableinJapan’s‘closed-door’pastbecameuntenableunderrapidlychangingworldwidesocialandeconomicconditionstowhichJapanisadaptingitself.ThetraditionalconceptsofhonestyasloyaltytotheclanandEmperorisapplicableonlytotheconductofmanasamemberoftheparticularandlimitedhumannexustowhichhebelongs;itisnotapplicabletotheconductofmanasamemberofhumansocietyasawhole.”(p.521)

The Potential of Buddhism for Japan

• CouldBuddhismprovidetheuniversalethicforJapantoovercomelingeringresentmentwithinAsiaandbetterintegrateintotheglobalsystem,whilestillpreservingmanyofitsindigenousvalues?

• CansociallyengagedBuddhismprovideJapaneseBuddhismameansforre-establishingitscoreteachings,ethics,androleinsocietyforthepresentandfutureofJapan?

India at the time of the Buddha: “Positive Disintegration”

“positive disintegration”: a growth in 1) diversification and differentiation (social classes and spiritual movements) as well as 2) integration and consolidation (economic expansion and administrative and political consolidation).

Reciprocal exchange: in economic trade and in the Buddha’s vision a civilizational movement based on combining individual cultivation with social ethics based on non-violent communication.

both differentiating and integrating: 1) the religious and the secular, 2) the personal and the social

Monks forbidden to be involved in political or economic affairs BUT Established systems of Buddhist ethics for both 1) monarchies and republics; 2) merchants and capitalists.