the children november-2018--82+2 · 2019. 9. 16. · stories environment science and technology...

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Volume 2Issue 11

IMF Appoints Gita Gopinath

as Chief Economist

Stories

EnvironmentScience and Technology

Mapping India

Human�HistoryHealth FoodHealth Tips

Akbar-Birbal Tales

Panchatantra Tales

Hitopadesha Tales

of Sportsof Frenchof MusicHISTORY

The Universe

Culture of India

Sports – International

The 2018 ITTF Men's World Cup was a table tennis

competition held in Paris, France, from 19 to 21

October 2018. It was the 39th edition of the ITTF-

sanctioned event, and the third time that it was staged

in Paris.

2018 ITTF Men's World Cup

In total, 20 players qualified for the World Cup:

l 18 players from the five Continental Cups held

during 2018

l A host association representative

l A wild card, selected by the ITTF

A maximum of two players from each association

could qualify. As reigning World Champion, China's

Ma Long was invited to take part, but withdrew prior to

the event. His place was taken by Lin Gaoyuan.

Final:

Fan Zhendong, China defeated Timo Boll, Germany

11-9, 11-5, 11-6, 9-11, 11-8

Australia and Pakistan are currently touring the

United Arab Emirates between 29 September 2018

and 28 October 2018. The teams engaged in 2 Test

Matches and 3 Twenty20 Internationals. Pakistan won

the Test matches 1-0, with the first Test drawn.

The Scores:

First Test: Match Drawn

Pakistan: First Innings: 482 all out, Mohammad

Hafeez 126 (208), Haris Sohail 110 (240), Peter Siddle

29-11-58-3.

Australia: First Innings: 202 all out, Usman Khawaja

85 (175), Aaron Finch 62 (161), Bilal Asif 21.3-7-36-6.

Pakistan: Second Innings: 181/6 declared, Imam-ul-

Haq 48 (104), Asad Shafiq 41 (56), Jon Holland 20-3-

83-3.

Australia: Second Innings: 362/8, Usman Khawaja

141 (302), Travis Head 72 (175), Yasir Shah 43.5-9-

114-4.

Australia and Pakistan tour

of United Arab Emirates

Second Test: Pakistan won by 373 runs.

Pakistan: First Innings: 282 all out, Sarfraz Ahmed 94

(129), Fakhar Zaman 94 (198), Nathan Lyon

27-5-78-4.

Australia: First Innings: 145 all out, Aaron Finch 39

(83), Mitchell Starc 34 (45), Mohammad Abbas 12.4-

4-33-5.

Pakistan: Second Innings: 400/9 declared, Babar

Azam 99 (171), Sarfraz Ahmed 81 (123), Nathan Lyon

43-8-134-4.

Australia: Second Innings: 164 all out, Marnus

Labuschagne 43 (78), Travis Head 36 (53),

Mohammad Abbas 17-2-62-5.

05


2018 Summer Youth Olympics

The 2018 Summer Youth Olympic Games, officially

known as the III Summer Youth Olympic Games, and

commonly known as Beunos Aires 2018, were an

international sports, cultural, and educational event

held in Beunos Aires, Argentina between 6 and 18

October 2018. They were the first Summer Youth

Olympic Games held outside of Asia, also first in the

Southern and Western Hemispheres, and the first

Youth Games for either summer or winter held outside

Rank Nation Gold Silver Bronze Total

Total 240 241 263 744

2Russia 18 12 591

18 China 9 9 362

15Japan 12 12 39 3

13Mixed NOCs 13 13 39-

12 Hungary 7 5 244

11Italy 10 13 345

7Iran 3 4 146

6UAE 5 7 187

5France 15 7 278

Medal Table:

29

5Ukraine 7 6 189

108Remaining 136 166 41011-93

Eurasia. It was the second Olympic Games held in

South America after the 2016 Summer Olympics in

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

2018 World Taekwondo Grand Prix

The 2018 World Taekwondo Grand Prix is the 6th edition of the World

Taekwondo Grand Prix series. This is the first year where it will be five

Grand Prix events. The results of the Manchester Grand Prix:

Men 58Kg:

GOLD SILVER BRONZE

Armin Hadipour, Iran Kim Tae-hun, South Korea Adrian Vicente, Jesus Tortosa, Spain

Men 68Kg:

Lee Dae-hoon, South Korea Mirhashem Hosseini, Iran Si Mohamed Ketbi, Belgium

Bradly Sinden, Great BritainMen 80Kg:

Raul Martinez, Spain Damon Sansum, Great Britain Seif Eissa, Egypt

Nikita Rafalovich, Uzbekistan

Men +80Kg:

Vladislav Larin, Russia In Kyo-don, South Korea Sajjad Mardani, Iran

Sun Hongyi, China

Men

06


Women 49Kg:

GOLD SILVER BRONZE

Sim Jae-young, South Korea Hung Yu-Ting, Chinese Taipei

Jade Jones, Great Britain Zhou Lijun, China

Women 67Kg:

Lauren Williams, Great Britain Matea Jelic, Croatia

Women +67Kg:

Zheng Shuyin, China Bianca Walkden, Great Britain

Skylar Park, Canada

Raheleh Asemani, Belgium

Victoria Tamez, Mexico

Nur Tatar, Turkey

Maria Espinoza, Mexico

Gao Pan, China

Women

Women 57Kg:

Panipak Wongpattanakit, Thailand

Miyu Hamada, Japan

England is touring Sri Lanka

between 5 October 2018 and 27

November 2018. Both the teams

will engage in 5 One Day

Internationals, 3 Test Matches,

and 1 Twenty20 International.

England is leading the One Day

International series 3-0 with the

first match concluding with No

Result.

The Score:

First One Day International: The

match was abandoned after 15

overs were bowled to England

due to rain. Hence, the match

concluded with No Result.

Second One Day International:

England won by 31 runs by

Duckworth-Lewis Method

England: 278/9, Eoin Morgan 92

(91), Joe Root 71 (83), Lasith

Malinga 10-1-44-5.

Sri Lanka: 140/5 in 29 overs,

Thisara Perera 44 (49) not out,

Dhananjaya de Silva 36 (50) not

out, Chris Woakes 5-0-26-3.

Third One Day International:

England won by 7 wickets (match

reduced to 21 overs per side due

to rain).

Sri Lanka: 150/9, Niroshan

Dickwella 36 (20), Sadeera

Samarawickrama 35 (34), Adil

Rashid 5-0-36-4.

England: 153/3 in 18.3 overs,

Eoin Morgan 58 (49) not out,

Jason Roy 41 (26), Amila Aponso

3.3-0-27-2.

Fourth One Day International:

England won by 18 runs by

Duckworth-Lewis Method

Sri Lanka: 273/7, Dasun Shanaka

66 (66), Niroshan Dickwell 52 (70),

Moeen Ali 10-0-55-2.

England: 132/2 in 27 overs, Jason

Roy 45 (49), Joe Root 32 (57) not

out, Akila Dananjaya 7-0-27-2.

Sri Lanka vs England 2018, 1st ODI, Dambulla

England Tour of Sri Lanka 201807

The Pakistan Women team toured Bangladesh

between 2 October 2018 and 8 October 2018. The

two teams engaged in 1 One Day International and 4

Twenty20 Internationals. The One Day International

was won by Bangladesh, whereas Pakistan won the

Twenty20 Internationals 3-0, with the first match

abandoned due to rain. The scores:

First Twenty20 International: Abandoned due to

rain, without toss.

Second Twenty20 International: Pakistan won by 58

runs, the match was reduced to 14 overs per side due

to wet outfield.

Pakistan: 88/5, Javeria Khan 25 (18), Nahida Khan 18

(18), Nahida Akter 3-0-19-2.

Bangladesh: 30 all out in 12.5 overs, Rumana Ahmed

9 (12), Anam Amin 3-3-0-3.


Pakistan Women Tour

of Bangladesh 2018

Third Twenty20 International: Pakistan won by 7

wickets.

Bangladesh: 81/8, Nigar Sultana 19 (29), Rumana

Ahmed 12 (9), Nashra Sandhu 4-0-16-2.

Pakistan: 85/3 in 18.1 overs, Nahida Khan 33 (40),

Javeria Khan 31 (37) not out, Rumana Ahmed

4-0-10-1.

Fourth Twenty20 International: Pakistan won by 7

wickets.

Bangladesh: 77 all out, Rumana Ahmed 24 (31),

Fahima Khatun 14 (15), Natalia Pervaiz 4-0-20-3.

Pakistan: 78/3 in 14.5 overs, Javeria Khan 36 (29),

Muneeba Ali 18 (23) not out, Salma Khatun

2.5-0-13-1.

Only One Day International: Bangladesh won by 6

wickets.

Pakistan: 94 all out in 34.5 overs, Javeria Khan 29

(46), Ayesha Zafar 18 (36), Khadija Tul Kubra 9.5-1-

20-6.

Bangladesh: 95/4 in 29 overs, Fargana Hoque 48

(81), Rumana Ahmed 34 (70), Sana Mir 8-1-20-2.

Pakistan won the Twenty20 Internationals 3-0

The United States Grand Prix is a motor race that has

been held in the United States on and off since 1908,

when it was known as the American Grand Prize. The

race later became part of the Formula One World

Championship. As of 2017, the race has been held 47

times, and it has taken place at 10 different locations

in total. Since 2012, it has been held every year at the

Circuit of the Americas in Elroy, Texas, 12 miles south

of Austin.

Lewis Hamilton held the pole position. Kimi

Raikkonen of Ferrari won the race, followed by Max

Circuit of the Americas 2018

Kimi Raikkonen of Ferrari won the race

Verstappen of Red Bull Racing – TAG Heuer, followed

by Lewis Hamilton, Mercedes.

08


West Indies cricket team is currently touring India

between 29 September 2018 and 11 November 2018.

The two teams will engage in 5 One Day

Internationals, 2 Test Matches, and 3 Twenty20

Internationals. Of these, India won the Test series 2-0.

India is leading the One Day Internationals 1-0.

The scores:

First Test: India won by an innings and 272 runs.

India: First Innings: 649/9 declared, Virat Kohli 139

(230), Prithvi Shah 134 (154), Ravindra Jadeja 100

(132) not out, Devendra Bishoo 54-3-217-4.

West Indies: First Innings: 181 all out, Roston Chase

53 (79), Keemo Paul 47 (49), Ravichandran Ashwin

11-2-37-4.

West Indies Tour of India 2018

India won the Test series 2-0

West Indies: Second Innings: 196 all out, Kieran

Powell 83 (93), Roston Chase 20 (24), Kuldeep Yadav

14-2-57-5.

Second Test: India won by 10 wickets.

West Indies: First Innings: 311 all out, Roston Chase

106 (189), Jason Holder 52 (92), Umesh Yadav 26.4-

3-88-6.

India: First Innings: 367 all out, Rishabh Pant 92

(134), Ajinkya Rahane 80 (183), Jason Holder 23-5-

56-5.

West Indies: Second Innings: 127 all out, Sunil

Ambris 38 (95), Shai Hope 28 (42), Umesh Yadav

12.1-3-45-4.

India: Second Innings: 75 for no loss, Prithvi Shah 33

(45), Lokesh Rahul 33 (53), Roston Chase 4-0-14-0.

First One Day International: India won by 8 wickets.

West Indies: 322/8, Shimron Hetmyer 106 (78),

Kieran Powell 51 (39), Yuzvendra Chahal 10-0-41-3.

India: 326/2 in 42.1 overs, Rohit Sharma 152 (117)

not out, Virat Kohli 140 (107), Devendra Bishoo

10-0-72-1.

New Zealand women team toured Australia between

29 September 2018 and 5 October 2018. The two

teams engaged in 3 Twenty20 Internationals.

Australia won the series 3-0. The scores:

First Twenty20 International: Australia won by 6

wickets.

New Zealand: 162/5, Katey Martin 56 (34) not out,

Sophie Devine 43 (33) Ashleigh Gardner 3-0-22-2.

Australia: 164/4 in 17.4 overs, Rachael Haynes 69

(40) not out, Meg Lanning 56 (44), not out, Sophie

Devine 4-0-31-2.

Second Twenty20 International: Australia won by 6

wickets.

New Zealand: 145/8, Suzie Bates 77 (52), Amy

Satterthwaite 27 (19), Megan Schutt 4-0-15-3.

New Zealand Women Tour of Australia 2018

Australia: 149/4 in 18.5 overs, Alyssa Healy 57 (41),

Elyse Villani 50 (39) not out, Sophie Devine 4-1-26-1.

Third Twenty20 International: Australia won by 9

wickets.

New Zealand: 103 all out in 19 overs, Katey Martin 35

(34) not out, Amy Satterthwaite 14 (17), Ellyse Perry

4-0-21-4.


Beth Mooney 29 (28) not out, Sophie Devine 3-0-14-1.

09


Zimbabwe Tour of South Africa 2018Zimbabwe toured South Africa between 30

September 2018 and 14 October 2018. Both

countries engaged in 3 One Day Internationals and 3

Twenty20 Internationals. South Africa won the One

Day Internationals 3-0 and the Twenty20

Internationals 2-0. The last Twenty20 International

was abandoned without a ball being bowled.

The scores from the second One Day International

onwards that were played in October are:

Second One Day International: South Africa won by

120 runs.

South Africa: 198 all out in 47.3 overs, Dale Steyn 60

(85), Aiden Markram 35 (49), Tendai Chatara

9-1-42-3.

Zimbabwe: 78 all out in 24 overs, Hamilton

Masakadza 27 (40), Donald Tripano 12 (16) not out,

Imran Tahir 6-1-24-6.

Third One Day International: South Africa won by

4 wickets.

Zimbabwe: 228 all out in 49.3 overs, Sean Williams

69 (79), Brendan Taylor 40 (44), Dale Steyn

9.3-1-29-3.

South Africa: Reeza Hendricks 66 (82), Heinrich

Klaasen 59 (67), Donald Tiripano 9-0-35-2.

South Africa won the ODI 3-0 and the Twenty20 Internationals 2-0.

First Twenty20 International: South Africa won by

34 runs.

South Africa: 160/6, Rassie van der Dussen 56 (44),

David Miller 39 (34), Kyle Jarvis 4-0-37-3.

Zimbabwe: 126 all out in 17.2 overs, Peter Moor 44

(21), Brandon Mavuta 28 (14), Imran Tahir 4-0-23-5.

Second Twenty20 International: South Africa won

by 6 wickets.

Zimbabwe: 132/7, Sean Williams 41 (28), Brendan

Taylor 29 (35), Robbie Frylinck 4-0-20-2.

South Africa: 135/4 in 15.4 overs, Jean-Paul Duminy

33 (26) not out, Quinton de Kock 26 (23), Sean

Williams 3-0-25-2.

The South African Women team toured West Indies

between 16 September 2018 and 6 October 2018.

The two teams engaged in 3 One Day Internationals,

and 5 Twenty20 Internationals. The One Day

International series was a draw resulting in 1-1, with

the second match abandoned due to rain and

concluding in No Result. The Twenty20 International

series was a draw resulting in 2-2, with the third match

South Africa Women Tour of West Indies 2018

being abandoned

without even a

toss due to rain.

T h e l a s t t w o

T w e n t y 2 0

I n t e r n a t i o n a l s

were played in

October 2018.

The scores:

Fourth Twenty20 International: South Africa women

won by 8 wickets.

West Indies: 135/3, Natasha McLean 57 (61) not out,

Deandra Dottin 28 (15), Tumi Sekhukhune 4-0-27-2.

South Africa: 136/2 in 18.4 overs, Lizelle Lee 54 (38),

Laura Wolvaardt 54 (57) not out, Afy Fletcher

4-0-12-1.

Fifth Twenty20 International: South Africa women

won by 3 wickets.

West Indies: 155/5, Hayley Matthews 70 (52),

Shemaine Campbelle 28 (17), Saarah Smith 2-0-24-2.

South Africa: 156/7, Lizelle Lee 42 (24), Chloe Tryon

31 (22), Shamilia Connell 3.5-0-20-2.

10


Australia Women and Pakistan Women Tour of Malaysia 2018

Australia women and Pakistan women are touring

Malaysia between 18 October 2018 and 29 October

2018. The two teams will engage in 3 One Day

Internationals and 3 Twenty20 Internationals.

Australia won the One Day International series 3-0.

The scores:

First One Day International: Australia won by 5

wickets by Duckworth-Lewis Method. The match was

reduced to 41 overs per side due to rain and the target

set at 92.

Pakistan: 95 all out in 37.2 overs, Javeria Khan 21

(27), Sana Mir 21 (60) not out, Megan Schutt

7.2-4-17-3.


Rachael Haynes 24 (34), Sana Mir 7-0-26-3.

Second One Day International: Australia won

by 150 runs.

Australia: 273/7, Meg Lanning 124 (106), Rachael

Haynes 79 (82), Nashra Sandhu 10-1-54-3.

Pakistan: 123 all out in 40.1 overs, Nahida Khan 66

(114), Sophie Molineux 9-2-14-4.

Third One Day International: Australia won by

89 runs.

Australia: 324/7, Alyssa Healy 97 (75), Ashleigh

Gardner 62 (37) not out, Sana Mir 10-2-53-3.

Pakistan: 235/7, Aliya Riaz 51 (69), Sidra Ameen 41

(74), Ashleigh Gardner 10-1-44-3.

Australia won the One Day International series 3-0

Japanese Grand Prix 2018

for 20 years and gained a reputation as one of the

most challenging F1 circuits. In 1994 and 1995,

Japan also hosted the Pacific Grand Prix at the T1

Circuit, making Japan one of only seven countries to

host more than one Grand Prix in the same season,

the others being Great Britain, France, Spain,

Germany, Italy, and the United States of America. In

2007, the Grand Prix moved back to the newly

redesigned Fuji Speedway. After a second race at Fuji

in 2008, the race returned to Suzuka in 2009, as part

of an alternating agreement between the owners of

Fuji Speedway and Suzuka Circuit, perennial rivals

Toyota and Honda. However, in July 2009, Toyota

announced it would not host the race at Fuji

Speedway in 2010 and beyond due to a downturn in

the global economy, and so the Japanese Grand Prix

was held at Suzuka instead. Suzuka has hosted the

Japanese Grand Prix every year since 2009.

Lewis Hamilton of Mercedes held the pole position

and won the race. He was followed by Valtteri Bottas

of Mercedes, followed by Max Verstappen.

11

The Japanese Grand Prix 2018 is a race in the

calendar of the FIA Formula One World

Championship. Historically, Japan has been one of

the last races of the season, and as such, the

Japanese Grand Prix has been the venue for many

title-deciding races, with 13 World Champions being

crowned over the 30 World Championship Japanese

Grands Prix that have been hosted. Japan was the

only Asian nation to host a Formula One race until

Malaysia joined the calendar in 1999.

The first two Formula One Japanese Grands Prix in

1976 and 1977 were held at the Fuji Speedway before

Japan was taken off the calendar. It returned in 1987

at Suzuka, which hosted the Grand Prix exclusively

Current Affairs - National

AICTE to Establish Country’s First Training

and Learning Academy

All India Council for

Technical Education

(AICTE) will establish

I n d i a ’ s f i r s t A I C T E

Training and Learning

Academy (ATAL) in Jaipur,

Rajasthan. This academy will

provide upgraded teaching methods and

modules to make technical education more effective

and accountable.

Three more ATAL academies will come up at

Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala), Guwahati (Assam),

and Baroda (Gujarat) by 2019. Faculties of technical

education will be trained on an eight-module course

in these academies over a period of five months. The

training will be mandatory for new teachers from 2019

onwards, and it will be necessary for existing teachers

and assistant teachers to apply for promotions. The

respective State Governments have provided

infrastructure and land for the setting-up of these

academies.

AICTE is a statutory body established in November

1945. It comes under the aegis of the Department of

Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resources

Development. It is a national-level council for

technical education and is responsible for planning

and coordination of technical education, and

management of the education system in India. It

accredits graduate and post-graduate programmes

at Indian institutions. It is headquartered in New Delhi.

Sikkim was awarded the UN Food and Agriculture

Organisation’s (FAO) Future Policy Gold Award (Gold

Prize) for its achievement in becoming the world’s

first totally organic agriculture state. Sikkim was one

among 51 nominees from around the world. Policies

from Brazil, Denmark, and Quito (Ecuador) were

jointly awarded Silver Prize.

The prize honours exceptional policies adopted by

political leaders who have decided to act, no longer

accepting widespread hunger, poverty, or

environmental degradation. This award is nicknamed

the “Oscar for best policies”. Previously, it was

awarded for policies combating desertification,

violence against women and girls, nuclear weapons,

and pollution of the oceans. This year’s award was

based on the central theme of agro-ecology policies

and was co-organised by FAO, World Future Council

(WFC), and IFOAM – Organics International. Agro-

ecology has potential to increase farmers’ earnings

and make farms more resilient to climate change as

erratic rainfall and extended dry periods hamper food

production.

Sikkim is the first organic State in the world and all

Sikkim world's First Organic State

farmlands in the state are certified organic. Sikkim’s

policy approach reaches beyond organic production

and has proven transformational for its citizens. It

primarily focusses on socio-economic aspects such

as consumption and market expansion, cultural

aspects as well as health, education, rural

development, and sustainable tourism.

The policy implemented by the state has phased out

chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and achieved total

ban on sale and use of chemical pesticides within the

state. The transition has benefitted more than 66,000

farming families in the state.

Transition to 100 percent organic state also greatly

benefits the tourism sector and the number of tourists

have increased by

over 50 percent

between 2014 and

2017 . W i th th i s

Sikkim has set an

excellent example for

other Indian states to

successfully upscale

agro-ecology.

17

Cambodia

Cambodia is a Southeast Asia nation whose

landscape spans low-lying plains, the Mekong Delta,

mountains and Gulf of Thailand coastline. Phnom

Penh, its capital, is home to the art deco Central

Market, glittering Royal Palace, and the National

Museum's historical and archaeological exhibits. In

the country's northwest are the ruins of Angkor Wat, a

massive stone temple complex built during the

Khmer Empire.

Cambodia, officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a

country located in the southern portion of the Indo-

China peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is 1,81,035

Central Market in Phnom Penh

square kilometres in area, bordered by Thailand to

the northwest, Laos to the northeast, Vietnam to the

east, and the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest. The

sovereign state of Cambodia has a population of over

15 million. The official religion is Theravada

Buddhism, practised by approximately 95 percent of

the population. The country's minority groups include

Vietnamese, Chinese, Chams, and 30 hill tribes. The

capital and largest city is Phnom Penh, the political,

economic, and cultural centre of Cambodia. The

kingdom is an elective constitutional monarchy with a

Norodom Sihamoni, King of Cambodia

18

monarch, currently Norodom Sihamoni, chosen by

the Royal Throne Council as head of state. The head

of government is the Prime Minister, currently Hun

Sen, the longest serving non-royal leader in

Southeast Asia, ruling Cambodia since 1985. In 802

AD, Jayavarman II declared himself king, uniting the

warring Khmer princes of Chenla under the name

“Kambuja”. This marked the beginning of the Khmer

Empire, which flourished for over 600 years, allowing

successive kings to control and exert influence over

much of Southeast Asia and accumulate immense

power and wealth. The Indianised kingdom facilitated

the spread of first Hinduism, and then, Buddhism to

much of Southeast Asia and undertook many

religious infrastructural projects throughout the

region, including the construction of more than 1,000

temples and monuments in Angkor alone. Angkor

Wat is the most famous of these structures and is

Royal Palace as seen from acros Tonle Sap River

Cambodia Sculptures

designated as a World Heritage Site. After the fall of

Angkor to Ayutthaya in the 15th century, a reduced

and weakened Cambodia was then ruled as a vassal

state by its neighbours. In 1863, Cambodia became a

protectorate of France, which doubled the size of the

country by reclaiming the north and west from

Thailand.

Cambodia gained independence in 1953. The

Vietnam War extended into the country with the US

bombing of Cambodia from 1969 until 1973.

Following the Cambodian coup of 1970, which

installed the right-wing pro-US Khmer Republic, the

deposed king gave his support to his former

enemies, the Khmer Rouge. The Khmer Rouge

emerged as a major power, taking Phnom Penh in

1975 and later, carrying out the Cambodian genocide

from 1975 until 1979, when they were ousted by

Vietnam and the Vietnamese-backed People's

Republic of Kampuchea, supported by the Soviet

19

Union in the Cambodian-Vietnamese War (1979 – 91).

Following the 1991 Paris Peace Accords, Cambodia

was governed briefly by a United Nations Mission

(1992 – 93). The UN withdrew after holding elections

in which around 90 percent of the registered voters

cast ballots. The 1997 factional fighting resulted in the

ousting of the government by Prime Minister Hun

Sen, and the Cambodian People's Party, who remain

in power as of 2018.

Cambodia is a member of the United Nations since

1955, ASEAN, the East Asia Summit, the WTO, the

Non-Aligned Movement, and La Francophonie.

According to several foreign organisations, the

country has widespread poverty, pervasive

corruption, lack of political freedom, low human

development, and a high rate of hunger. Cambodia

has been described by Human Rights Watch's

Southeast Asian Director, David Roberts, as a

“vaguely communist free-market state with a

relatively authoritarian coalition ruling over a

superficial democracy”. While per capita income

remains low compared to most neighbouring

countries, Cambodia has one of the fastest growing

economies in Asia, with growth averaging 7.6 percent

over the last decade. Agriculture remains the

dominant economic sector, with strong growth in

textiles, construction, garments, and tourism leading

Cardamom Mountains rain forests

Cambodia has an area of 1,81,035 square kilometres

and lies entirely within the tropics, between latitudes

10 degrees and 15 degrees North, and longitutes 102

degrees and 108 degrees East. It borders Thailand to

the north and west, Laos to the northeast, and

Vietnam to the east and the southeast. It has a 443-

kilometre coastline along the Gulf of Thailand.

to increased foreign investment and international

trade. The American World Justice Project's 2015

Rule of Law Index ranked Cambodia 76 out of 102

countries, similar to other countries in the region.

Country: Kingdom of Cambodia

Capital and largest city: Phnom Penh

Motto: Nation, Religion, King

Anthem: Majestic King

Official Language: Khmer

Government: Unitary dominant-party parliamentary elective constitutional monarchy

King: Norodom Sihamoni

Prime Minister: Hun Sen

President of the Senate: Say ChhumLegislature: Parliament

Population 2008 Census: 1,33,95,682

Currency: Riel (KHR)

20

Cambodia's landscape is characterised by a low-

lying central plain that is surrounded by uplands and

low mountains and includes the Tonle Sap (Great

Lake) and the upper reaches of the Mekong River

delta. Extending outward from this central region are

transitional plains, thinly forested and rising to

elevations of about 650 feet above sea level.

To the north, the Cambodian plain abuts a sandstone

escarpment, which forms a southward-facing cliff

stretching more than 200 miles from west to east and

rising abruptly above the plain to heights of 600 to

1,800 feet. This cliff marks the southern limit of the

Dangrek Mountains.

Flowing south through the country's eastern regions

is the Mekong River. East of the Mekong, the

transitional plains gradually merge with the eastern

highlands, a region of forested mountains and high

plateaus that extend into Laos and Vietnam. In

southwestern Cambodia, two distinct upland blocks,

the Kravanh Mountains and the Damrei Mountains,

form another highland region that covers much of the

land area between the Tonle Sap and the Gulf of

Thailand.

In this remote and largely uninhabited area, Phnom

Aural, Cambodia's highest peak rises to an elevation

of 5,949 feet. The southern coastal region adjoining

the Gulf of Thailand is a narrow lowland strip, heavily

wooded and sparsely populated, which is isolated

from the central plain by the southwestern highlands.

The most distinctive geographical feature is the

inundations of the Tonle Sap, measuring about 2,590

square kilometres during the dry season and

expanding to about 24,605 square kilometres during

the rainy season. This densely populated plain, which

is devoted to wet rice cultivation, is the heartland of

Cambodia. Much of this area has been designated as

a biosphere reserve.

Cambodia's biodiversity is largely founded on its

seasonal tropical forests, containing some 180

recorded tree species, and riparian ecosystems.

There are 212 mammal species, 536 bird species,

240 reptile species, 850 freshwater fish species, and

435 marine fish species recorded by science. Much

of this biodiversity is contained around the Tonle Sap

Lake and the surrounding biosphere.

The Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve is a reserve

surrounding the Tonle Sap Lake. It encompasses the

lake and nine provinces: Kampong Thom, Siem

Reap, Battambang, Pursat, Kampong Chhnang,

Banteay Meanchey, Pailin, Oddar Meanchey, and

Preah Vihear. In 1997, it was successfully nominated

as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. Other key habitats

include the dry forest of Mondolkiri and Ratanakiri

provinces and the Cardamom Mountains ecosystem,

including Bokor National Park, Botum-Sakor National

Park, and the Phnom Aural and Phnom Samkos

wildlife sanctuaries.

The Worldwide Fund for Nature recognises six

distinct terrestrial ecoregions in Cambodia – the

Cardamom Mountains rain forests, Central Indochina

dry forest, Southeast Indochina dry evergreen forest,

Southern Annamite Range tropical forest, Tonle Sap

freshwater swamp forest, and Tonle Sap-Mekong

peat swamp forest.

Mekong Delta river21

Special Coverage

Frances H. Arnold George P. Smith

Nobel Prizes

Alfred Nobel's

The Nobel Foundation, a private institution

established in 1900, has ultimate

responsibility for fulfilling the intentions in

Alfred Nobel's will. The main mission of

the Nobel Foundation is to manage

Alfred Nobel's fortune in a manner that

ensures a secure financial standing for

the Nobel Prize over the long term and

that the prize-awarding institutions are

guaranteed independence in their

work of selecting recipients.

The Foundation is also

tasked with strengthening

the Nobel Prize's position by

administering and developing

the brands and intangible assets

that have been built up during the

Nobel Prize's history, which spans more

than 100 years.

The Nobel Foundation also strives to safeguard the

prize-awarding institutions' common interests and to

represent the Nobel organisation as a whole. In the

past two decades, a number of outreach activities

have been developed with the aim of inspiring and

disseminating knowledge about the Nobel Prize.

In the year 2018, 12 new laureates have been

awarded for achievements that have conferred the

greatest benefit to humankind.

Nobel Prize in Physics

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018 was awarded "for

groundbreaking inventions in the field

of laser physics" with one half to Arthur

Ashkin "for the optical tweezers and

their application to biological

systems" and the other half jointly

to and Donna Gerard Mourou

Strickland "for their method of

generating high-intensity, ultra-soft

optical pulses".

Their inventions have revolutionised laser

physics. Extremely small objects and

incredibly rapid processes are

now being seen in a new light.

A d v a n c e d p r e c i s i o n

instruments are opening up

unexplored areas of research and a

multitude of industrial and medical

applications.

Nobel Prize in Chemistry

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2018 was awarded with

one half to "for the directed Frances H. Arnold

evolution of enzymes" and the other half jointly to

George P. Smith and Sir Gregory P. Winter "for the

phage display of peptides and antibodies".

This year's Nobel Laureates have been inspired by

the power of evolution and used the same principles –

genetic change and selection – to develop proteins

that solve humankind's chemical problems.

Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2018 was

Arthur Ashkin Gerard Mourou

22

James P. Allison

Tasuku Honjo

awarded to and James P. Allison

Tasuku Honjo "for their discovery

of cancer therapy by inhibition of

negative immune regulation". The

Laureates have shown how

different strategies for inhibiting

the brakes on the immune system

can be used in the treatment of

cancer. Their discoveries are a

landmark in our fight against

cancer.

Nobel Peace Prize

The Nobel Peace Prize 2018 has

been awarded jointly to Denis

Mukwege and Nadia Murad for

courageously combating war

crimes and seeking justice for

victims. Both Laureates have

made a crucial contribution to

focusing attention on, and

combating, war crimes. Denis

Mukwege is the helper who has

devoted his life to defending these

victims. Nadia Murad is the

witness who tells of the abuses

perpetrated against herself and

others. Each of them, in their own

way, has helped to give greater

visibility to war-time sexual

violence, so that the perpetrators

can be held accountable for their

actions.

Nobel Prize in Economic

Sciences

William D. Nordhaus

The Nobel Prize in Economic

Sciences 2018 has been awarded

to William D. Nordhaus "for

integrating climate change into

l o n g - r u n m a c r o e c o n o m i c

analysis" and Paul M. Romer "for

i n t e g r a t i n g t e c h n o l o g i c a l

i nnova t ions in to long- run

macroeconomic analysis". Their

f indings have signi f icant ly

b r o a d e n e d t h e s c o p e o f

e c o n o m i c a n a l y s i s b y

constructing models that explain

how the market economy

in teracts wi th nature and

knowledge.

This year's Laureates have

designed methods for addressing

some of our time's most basic and

pressing questions about how we

create long-term sustained and

sustainable economic growth.

Their contributions provide us with

fundamental insights into the

causes and consequences of

technological innovation and

climate change.

The 2018 Nobel Prize in Literature

has been postponed, and not

announced yet.

Nadia Murad and Denis Mukwege

23

Rugby Union, commonly known in most parts of the

world as rugby, is a contact team sport which

originated in England in the first half of the 19th

century. One of the two codes of rugby football, it is

based on running with the ball in hand. In its most

common form, a game is between two teams of 15

players using an oval-shaped ball on a rectangular

field with H-shaped goalposts on each try line.

Rugby union is a popular sport around the world,

played by male and female players of all ages. World

Rugby School

Rugby, previously called the International Rugby

Football Board and the International Rugby Board

has been the governing body for rugby union since

1886, and currently has 101 countries as full

members and 18 associate members.

In 1845, the first football laws were written by Rugby

school pupils; other significant events in the early

development of rugby include the Blackheath Club's

decision to leave the Football Association in 1863 and

the split between rugby union and rugby league in

1895. Historically, an amateur sport, in 1995

restrictions on payments to players were removed,

making the game openly professional at the highest

level for the first time.

Rugby union spread from the Home Nations of Great

Britain and Ireland, and was absorbed by many of the

countries associated with British Empire. Early

exponents of the sport included Australia, New

Zealand, South Africa, and France. Countries that

have adopted rugby union as their de facto national

sport include Fiji, Georgia, Madagascar, New

Zealand, Samoa, and Tonga.

24

International matches have taken

place since 1871, when the first

game took place between

Scotland and England at Raeburn

Place in Edinburgh. The Rugby

World Cup, first held in 1987, takes

place every four years. The Six

Nations Championship in Europe

and The Rugby Championship in

the southern hemisphere are

o the r ma jo r i n te rna t i ona l

competitions, held annually.

The history of rugby union follows

from various football games

played long before the 19th

century, but it was not until the

middle of that century that the

rules were formulated and

codified. The code of football, later

known as rugby union, can be

traced to three events: the first set

of written rules in 1845; the

Blackheath Club's decision to

leave the Football Association in

1863; and the formation of the

Rugby Football Union in 1871. The

code was originally known simply

as “rugby football”. It was not until

a schism in 1895, over the

payment of players, which

resulted in the formation of the

separate code of rugby league,

that the name “rugby union” was

used to differentiate the original

rugby code. For most of its history,

rugby was a strictly amateur

football code, and the sport's

a d m i n i s t r a t o r s f r e q u e n t l y

imposed bans and restrictions on

players who they viewed as

professional. It was not until 1995

that rugby union was declared an

“ o p e n ” g a m e , a n d t h u s ,

professionalism was sanctioned

by the code's governing body,

World Rugby – then known as the

International Rugby Football

Board.

Although rugby football was

codified at Rugby School, many

rugby playing countries had pre-

existing football games not

dissimilar to rugby. Forms of

traditional football similar to rugby

have been played throughout

Europe and beyond. Many of

these involved handling of the

ball, and scrimmaging formations.

For example, New Zealand had Ki-

o-rahi, Australia marn grook,

Japan kemari, Georgia lelo burti,

the Scottish Borders Jeddart Ba'

and Cornwall Cornish hurling,

Central Italy Calcio Florentino,

South Wales cnapan, East Anglia

Campball and Ireland had caid, an

ancestor of Gaelic football.

The first detailed description of

what was almost certainly football

in England was given by William

FitzStephen in about 1174 – 1183.

He described the activities of

London youths during the annual

festival of Shrove Tuesday:

“After lunch, all the youth of the city

go out into the fields to take part in

a ball game. The students of each

school have their own ball; the

workers from each city craft are

also carrying their balls. Older

citizens, fathers, and wealthy

citizens come on horseback to

watch their junior competing, and

to re l ive thei r own youth

vicariously: you can see their inner

passions aroused as they watch

the action and get caught up in the

fun being had by the carefree

adolescents.”

Numerous attempts were made to

ban football games, particularly

the most disruptive forms. This

was especially the case in

25

England, and in other parts of

Europe, during the Middle Ages

and ear ly modern per iod.

Between 1324 and 1667, in

England alone, football was

banned by more than 30 royal and

local laws. The need to repeatedly

proclaim such laws demonstrated

the difficulty in enforcing bans on

popular games. King Edward II

was so troubled by the unruliness

of football in London that, on 13

A p r i l 1 3 1 4 , h e i s s u e d a

proclamation banning it.

“Forasmuch as there is great

noise in the city caused by

hustling over large balls from

which many evils may arise which

God forbid; we command and

forbid, on behalf of the King, on

pain of imprisonment, such game

to be used in the city in the future.”

In 1531, Sir Thomas Elyot wrote

that English “Footeballe is

nothinge but beastlie furie and

extreme violence.”

Football games that included ball

carrying continued to be played

over the century, right up to the

time of William Webb Ellis' alleged

invention. One form, recorded as

early as 1440 and which persisted

until the 19th century, was an East

Anglican game called variously

Camping, Campan, Camp-ball,

and Campyon which was explicitly

based on carrying the ball and

tossing it from player to player in

order to continue the advance.

According to an observer writing

in 1823 (ironically the year of

rugby's “invention”).

“Each party has two goals, ten or

fifteen yards apart. The parties, ten

or fifteen on a side, stand in line,

facing each other at about ten

yards' distance midway between

their goals and that of their

adversaries. An indi f ferent

spectator throws up a ball the size

of a cricket ball midway between

the confronted players and makes

his escape. The rush is to catch

the falling ball. He who first can

catch or seize it speeds home,

making his way through his

opponents and aided by his own

sidesmen. If caught and held or

rather in danger of being held, for

i f caught with the ball in

possession he loses a snotch, he

throws the ball (he must in no case

give it) to some less beleaguered

friend more free and more in

breath than himself, who if it be not

arrested in its course or be jostled

away by the eager and watchful

adversaries, catches it; and he in

like manner hastens homeward, in

like manner pursued, annoyed

and aided, winning the notch or

snotch if he contrive to carry or

throw it within the goals. At a loss

a n d g a i n o f a s n o t c h a

recommencement takes place.”

Sir Thomas Elyot

William Webb Ellis26

An estimated one million dogs in the United States have

been named primary beneficiaries in their

owner’s wills.

Dogs are capable of understanding up to 250 words and gestures. The average dog is as intelligent as a two-year-old child.

Goats have rectangular

pupils.

French is a Romance Language of the Indo-

European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin

of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages.

French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken

Latin in Gaul, and more specifically, in Northern Gaul.

Its closest relatives are the other languages

historically spoken in northern France and in

southern Belgium, which French has largely

Northern Gaul

supplanted. French was also influenced by native

Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia

Belgica and by the (Germanic) Frankish language of

the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to

France's past overseas expansion, there are

numerous French-based creole languages, most

notably Haitian Creole. A French-speaking person or

nation may be referred to as Francophone in both

English and French.

French is an official language in 29 countries across

five different continents, most of which are members

of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie

(OIF), the community of 84 countries which share the

official use or teaching of French. It is spoken as a first

language in France, Canadian provinces of Quebec,

Ontario and New Brunswick as well as other

Francophone regions, Belgium (Wallonia and

Brussels), western Switzerland (cantons of Bern,

Fribourg, Geneva, Jura, Neuchatel, Vaud, Valais),

Monaco, parts of the United States (Louisiana, Maine,

New Hampshire, and Vermont), and by various

communities elsewhere. French is the fourth most

widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union.

Of Europeans who speak other languages natively,

approximately one-fifth are able to speak French as a

second language. French is the second most taught

foreign language in the European Union. French is

also the 18th most natively spoken language in the

world, and is the second most studied language

worldwide.

As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the

16th century onward, French was introduced to new

territories in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. Most

second-language speakers reside in Francophone

Africa, in particular, Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius,

Senegal, and Ivory Coast.

27

French has a long history as an international

language of literature and scientific standards, and is

a primary or secondary language of many

international organisations including the United

Nations, the European Union, the North Atlantic

Treaty Organisation, the World Trade Organisation,

the International Olympic Committee, and the

International Committee of the Red Cross.

The discussion of the history of a language is typically

divided into “external history” that describes the

ethnic, political, social, technological, and other

changes that affected the language, and “internal

history” that describes the phonological and

grammatical changes undergone by the language

itself.

Before the Roman conquest of, what is now, France

by Julius Caesar (58 – 52 BC), much of present

France was inhabited by Celtic-speaking people

referred to by the Romans as Gauls and Belgae.

Southern France was also home to a number of other

remnant linguistic and ethnic groups including

Iberians along the eastern part of the Pyrenees and

western Mediterranean coast, remnant Ligures on the

eastern Mediterranean coast and in the alpine areas,

Greek colonials in places such as Marseille and

Antibes, and Vascones and Aquitani (proto-Basques)

in much of the southwest. The Gaulish speaking

population is held to have continued speaking

Gaulish even as considerable Romanisation of the

local material culture occurred, with Gaulish and Latin

co-existing for centuries under Roman rule, and the

last attestation of Gaulish deemed credible having

been written in the second half of the 6th century

about the destruction of a pagan shrine in Auvergne.

The Celtic population of Gaul had spoken Gaulish,

which is moderately well attested, with what appears

to be wide dialectal variation including one distinctive

variety, Lepontic. While the French language evolved

from Vulgar Latin, it was nonetheless influenced by

Gaulish. Chief among these are sandhi phenomena,

the loss of unstressed syllables, and the vowel

system. Syntactic oddities attributable to Gaulish

include the intensive prefix ro-, re-, emphatic

structures, prepositional periphrastic phrases to

render verbal aspect, the semantic development of

oui “yes”, aveugle

“blind”, and so on.

I n F r e n c h a n d

a d j o i n i n g f o l k

dialects and closely

related languages,

some 200 words of

Gaulish origin have

been retained, most

of which pertain to

folk life. Other Celtic

words were no t

borrowed directly,

but brought in through Latin, some of which had

become commonplace in Latin, as for instance braies

“knee-length pants”, chainse “tunic”, char “dray or

wagon”, daim “roe deer”, etain “tin”, glaive “broad

sword”, manteaux “coat”, vassal “serf or knave”.

Latin quickly took hold among the urban aristocracy

for mercantile, official, and educational reasons, but

did not prevail in the countryside until some four or

five centuries later, since Latin was of little or no social

value to the landed gentry and peasantry. The

eventual spread of Latin can be attributed to social

factors in the Late Empire such as the movement from

urban-focused power to village-centered economies

and legal serfdom.

From the 3rd century on, Western European was

invaded by Germanic tribes from the north and east,

and some of these groups settled in Gaul. In the

history of the French language, the most important of

these groups are the Franks in northern France, the

Alemanni in the modern German / French border

area, the Burgundians in the Rhone Valley, and the

Visigoths in the Aquitaine region and Spain. The

Frankish language had a profound influence on the

Latin spoken in their respective regions, altering both

the pronunciation, and the syntax. They also

introduced a number of new words. Sources

disagree on how much of the vocabulary of modern

French (excluding French dialects), comes from

Germanic words, ranging from just 500 words to 15%

of modern vocabulary to even higher if Germanic

words coming from Latin and other Romance

languages are taken into account.

Julius Caesar

28

ANCIENT EGYPT CIVILISATIONANCIENT EGYPT CIVILISATION

The pharaohs of the Middle

Kingdom restored the country's

stability and prosperity, thereby

stimulating a resurgence of art,

l i terature, and monumental

building projects. Mentuhotep II

and his Eleventh Dynasty

successors ruled from Thebes,

but the vizier Amenemhat I, upon

assuming the kingship at the

beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty

around 1985 BC, shifted the

nation's capital to the city of

Itjtawy, located in Faiyum. From

Itjtawy, the kings of the Twelfth

Dynasty undertook a far-sighted

land reclamation and irrigation

scheme to increase agricultural

output in the region. Moreover, the

military reconquered territory in

Nubia that was rich in quarries and

gold mines, while labourers built a

defensive structure in the Eastern

Delta, called the “Walls-of-the-

Ruler”, to defend against foreign

attack.

With the kings having secured the

country, militarily and politically,

and with vast agricultural and

mineral wealth at their disposal,

the nation's population, arts, and

religion flourished. In contrast to

elitist Old Kingdom attitudes

towards the gods, the Middle

Kingdom displayed an increase in

Mentuhotep II

expressions of personal piety.

Middle Kingdom l i terature

featured sophisticated themes

and characters written in a

confident, eloquent style. The

relief and portrait sculpture of the

period captured subtle, individual

details that reached new heights

of technical sophistication.

The last great ruler of the Middle

Kingdom, Amenemhet III, allowed

Semitic-speaking Canaanite

settlers from the Near East into the

Delta region to provide a sufficient

labour force for his especially

active mining and building

campaigns. These ambitious

building and mining activities,

however, combined with severe

HIS

TO

RY

Hu

man

Amenemhet III

29

Kim Ryholt, a professor of Egyptology at the University of Copenhagen

Nile floods later in his reign,

strained the economy and

precipitated the slow decline into

the Second Intermediate Period

during the later Thirteenth and

Fourteenth dynasties. During this

decline, the Canaanite settlers

began to assume greater control

of the Delta region, eventually

coming to power in Egypt as the

Hyksos.

The Second Intermediate Period

marks a period when Ancient

Egypt fell into disarray for a

second time, between the end of

the Middle Kingdom and the start

of the New Kingdom.

It is best known as the period

when the Hyksos made their

appearance in Egypt and whose

reign comprised the 15th dynasty.

The Thirteenth Dynasty of ancient

Egypt is often described with

Dynasties XI, XII, and XIV under

the group title Middle Kingdom.

Some writers separate it from

these dyansties and join it to

Dynasties XIV through XVII as part

of the Second Intermediate

Period. Dynasty XIII lasted from

approximately 1803 BC until

approximately 1649 BC, for 154

years.

The 13th dynasty was a direct

continuation of the preceding 12th

dynasty, with its first ruler believed

to be a son of Amenemhat IV. Kim

Ryholt, a professor of Egyptology

at the University of Copenhagen

and a specialist on Egyptian

history and literature, proposes

that the demarcation between the

two dynasties reflects the rise of

the independent 14th dynasty in

the Eastern Delta, an event which,

he proposes, occurred during

Sobekneferu's reign. As direct

heirs to the kings of the 12th

dynasty, pharaohs of the 13th

dynasty reigned from Memphis

over Middle and Upper Egypt, all

the way to the second cataract to

the south. The power of the 13th

dynasty waned progressively over

its 150 years of existence and it

finally came to an end with the

conquest of Memphis by the

Hyksos rulers of the 15th dynasty,

circa 1650 BC.

In later texts, this dynasty is

usually described as an era of

chaos and disorder. However, the

period may have been more

peaceful than was once thought

since the central government in

Itjtawy near the Faiyum was

sustained during most of the

dynasty and the country remained

relatively stable. The period was

undoubtedly characterised by

decline, with a large number of

kings with short reigns and only a

few attestations. It is clear that they

were not from a single family line,

and some of them were born

commoners. Unfortunately, the

true chronology of this dynasty is

difficult to determine as there are

few monuments dating from the

period. Many of the kings' names

are only known from odd

fragmentary inscriptions or from

scarabs.Thebes, Egypt

30

Towards the later half of the 13th

dynasty, the old capital of Itjtawy

was abandoned in favour of

Thebes. This event was triggered

by the invasion of the Eastern

Delta and the Memphite region by

Canaanite rulers. This marks the

end of the Middle Kingdom and

the beginning of the Second

Intermediate Period. This analysis

is rejected by Ryholt, however,

who notes that the stele of

Seheqenre Sankhptahi, reigning

towards the end of the dynasty,

strongly suggests that he reigned

over Memphis. Unfortunately, the

stele is of unknown provenance.

The chronological position of a

number of attested rulers could

not be conclusively determined

due to a lack of evidence.

Ryholt posits a ruler named

“ S o b e k h o t e p I S e k h e m r e

Khutawy” as the first king of this

dynasty. This is now the dominant

hypothesis in Egyptology and

Sobekhotep Sekhemre Khutawy

is referred to as Sobekhotep I.

Ryholt, thus, credits Sobekhotep I

with a reign of 3 to 4 years circa

1800 BC and proposes that

Khaankhre Sobekhotep II reigned

circa 20 years later in 1780 BC.

After allowing discipline at the

southern forts to deteriorate, the

government, eventually, withdrew

its garrisons and, not long

a f te rward , the fo r ts were

reoccupied by the rising Nubian

state of Kush. In the north, Lower

Egypt was overrun by the Hyksos,

a Semitic people from across the

Sinai. An independent line of kings

created Dynasty XIV that arose in

the western Delta during later

Dynasty XIII. Into this unstable mix

power, and that there was a

significant overlap between the

13th and 15th dynasties since

Sobekhotep IV was only a mid-

13th dynasty ruler; although one

of its most powerful kings.

Therefore, Manetho's statement

that the Hyksos 15th dynasty

violently replaced the 13th

dynasty could be a piece of later

Egyptian propaganda. Rather, the

13th dynasty's authority must

have been collapsing throughout

Egypt in its final decades and the

Hyksos state in the Delta region

simply took over Memphis and

ended the 13th dynasty 's

kingdom. However, this analysis

and the conclusions drawn from it

are rejected by Egyptologist

Robert Porter, who argues that

Khyan ruled much later than

Sobekhotep IV and that the seals

of a pharaoh were used long after

his death. Thus, the seals of

Sobekhotep IV might not indicate

that he was a contemporary of

Khyan.

Merneferre Ay was the last

Egyptian ruler of the 13th Dynasty

who is attested by objects in both

Lower and Upper Egyp t .

Henceforth, his successors, from

Merhotepre Ini on, are only

attested in Upper Egypt.

31

In Great Britain and

Japan, black cats are perceived as auspicious.

came invaders from the east

called the Hyksos who seized

Egypt “without striking a blow, and

having overpowered the rulers of

the land, they then burned our

cities ruthlessly, razed to the

ground the temples of gods….”

Their dynasty, called Dynasty XV,

was claimed to have replaced

Dynasties XIII and XIV in most of

the country.

However, recent archaeological

finds at Edfu could indicate that

the Hyksos 15th dynasty was

already in existence at least by the

mid-13th dynasty reign of king

Sobekhotep IV. In a recently

published paper in Egypt and the

Levant, Nadine Moeller, Gregory

Marouard, and N. Ayers discuss

the discovery of an important early

12th dynasty Middle Kingdom

administrative building in the

eastern Tell Edfu area of Upper

Egypt which was in continual use

into the early Second Intermediate

Period until the 17th dynasty,

when its remains were sealed up

by a large silo court. Fieldwork by

Egyptologists in 2010 and 2011

into the remains of the former 12th

dynasty building which was also

used in the 13th dynasty led to the

discovery of a large adjoining hall

which proved to contain 41

sealings showing the cartouche of

the Hyksos ruler Khyan together

with 9 sealings naming the 13th

dynasty king Sobekhotep IV. The

preserved contexts of these seals

shows that Sobekhotep IV and

K h y a n w e r e m o s t l i k e l y

contemporaries of one another.

This could mean that the 13th

dynasty did not control all of Egypt

when Sobekhotep IV acceded to

Isaac NewtonJohannes Kepler Aristarchos von Samos NicolausGalileo Galilei

High-energy gamma-ray photons

initially released with fusion

reactions in the core are almost

immediately absorbed by the

solar plasma of the radiative zone,

usually after travelling only a few

millimetres. Re-emission happens

in a random direction and usually

at a slightly lower energy. With this

sequence of emissions and

absorptions, it takes a long time

for radiation to reach the Sun's

surface. Estimates of the photon

travel time range between 10,000

and 170,000 years. In contrast, it

takes only 2.3 seconds for the

neutrinos, which account for

about 2% of the total energy

THE UNIVERSETHE UNIVERSE

Black Hole High Energy Gamma

production of the Sun, to reach the

s u r f a c e . B e c a u s e e n e r g y

transport in the Sun is a process

t ha t i n v o l v es p ho to ns i n

thermodynamic equilibrium with

matter, the time scale of energy

transport in the Sun is longer, on

the order of 3,00,00,000 years.

This is the time it would take the

Sun to return to a stable state, if

the rate of energy generation in its

core were suddenly changed.

Neutrinos are also released by the

fusion reactions in the core, but,

unlike photons, they rarely interact

with matter, so almost all are able

to escape the Sun immediately.

For many years, measurements of

the number of neutrinos produced

in the Sun were lower than

theories predicted by a factor of 3.

This discrepancy was resolved in

2001 through the discovery of the

effects of neutrino oscillation: the

Sun emits the number of neutrinos

predicted by the theory, but

neutrino detectors were missing

two-thirds of them because the

neutrinos had changed flavour by

the time they were detected.

The Sun has a magnetic field that

varies across the surface of the

Sun. The magnetic field varies in

time and location. The quasi-

periodic 11-year solar cycle is the

most prominent variation in which

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the children november-2018--82+2 · 2019. 9. 16. · stories environment science and technology...

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