the changing american school-editor john goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu

314

Upload: bonusje

Post on 06-Apr-2018

218 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

TRANSCRIPT

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 1/327

THE CHANGING AMERICAN SCHOOL

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 2/327

Officers o f the Society1 9 6 5 - 6 6

( T e r m o f o f f i c e e x p i r e s M a r c h t o f t h e y e a r i n d i c a t e d . )

STEPHEN M. COREY(1968)

U n i v e r s i t y o f M i a m i , C o r a l G a b l e s , F l o r i d a

EDGAR DALE

(1967)

O h i o S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , C o l u m b u s , O h i o

JOHN I . GOODLAD

(1966)

U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , L o s A n g e l e s , C a l i f o r n i a

ROBERT J . HAVIGHURST

(1967)

U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o , C h i c a g o , I l l i n o i s

HERMAN G . RICHEY

(1968) ( E x - o f f i c i o )

U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o , C h i c a g o , I l l i n o i s

HAROLD G. SHANE(1968)

I n d i a n a U n i v e r s i t y , B l o o m i n g t o n , I n d i a n a

PAUL A . WITTY

(1966)

N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y , E v a n s t o n , I l l i n o i s

S e c r e t a r y - T r e a s u r e r

HERMAN G . RICHEY

5 8 3 5 K i m b a r k A v e n u e , C h i c a g o , I l l i n o i s 6 0 6 3 7

n

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 3/327

THE CHANGING AMERICAN SCHOOL

T h e S i x t y - f i f t h Y e a r b o o k o f t h e

N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r t h e St u d y o f E d u c a t i o n

PART I I

By

THE YEARBOOK COMMITTEEa n d

ASSOCIATED CONTRIBUTORS

Edited by

JOHN I . GOODLAD

1 9 I . ' S S E 6 6

D i s t r i b u t ed b y THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS • CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 6 0 6 3 7

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 4/327

T h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e B o a r d o f D i r e c t o r s o f t h e N a t i o n a l

S o c i e t y f o r t h e S t u d y o f E d u c a t i o n i n t h e c a s e o f y e a r b o o k s p r e -

p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s c o m m i t t e e s a r e ( i ) t o s e l e c t t h e s u b j e c t s t o

b e i n v e s t i g a t e d , (2) t o a p p o i n t c o m m i t t e e s c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e i r p e r -

s o n n e l t o i n s u r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a l l s i g n i f i c a n t p o i n t s o f v i e w ,( 3 )

t o p r o v i d e a p p r o p r i a t e s u b s i d i e s f o r n e c e s s a r y e x p e n s e s , ( 4 ) t o p u b -

l i s h a n d d i s t r i b u t e t h e c o m m i t t e e s ' r e p o r t s , a n d ( S ) t o a r r a n g e f o r

t h e i r d i s c u s s i o n a t t h e a n n u a l m e e t i n g .

T h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e S o c i e t y ' s e d i t o r i s t o p r e p a r e t h e s u b -

m i t t e d m a n u s c r i p t s f o r p u b l i c a t i o n i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e p r i n -

c i p l e s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s a p p r o v e d b y t h e B o a r d o f D i r e c t o r s .

N e i t h e r t h e B o a r d o f D i r e c t o r s , n o r t h e S o c i e t y ' s e d i t o r , n o r t h e

S o c i e t y i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c o n c l u s i o n s r e a c h e d o r t h e o p i n i o n s

e x p r e s s e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s y e a r b o o k c o m m i t t e e s .

P u b l i s h e d 1 9 6 6 b y

THE NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE STUDY OF EDUCATION

5 8 3 5 K i m b a r k A v e n u e , C h i c a g o , I l l i n o i s 6 0 6 3 7

C o p y r i g h t , 1 9 6 6 , - b y HERMAN G . R I C H E Y , S e c r e t a r y o f t h e S o c i e t y

No part of this Yearbook m ay be reproduced in any form

w i t h o u t w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e S e c r e t a r y o f t h e S o c i e t y .

F i r s t p r i n t i n g , I o , o o o C o p i e s

S e c o n d p r i n t i n g , 5 , 0 0 0 C o p i e s , J u l y , 1 9 6 7

P r i n t e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a

i v

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 5/327

The Soci et y's Comm it te e on the Changing

Ame ri can Scho ol

MERLE L. BORROWMANP r o f e s s or o f E d u c a t i o n a l P o l i c y S t u d i e s a n d H i s t o r y

C h a i r m a n , D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n a l P o l i c y S t u d i e s

U n i v e r s i t y o f W i s c o n s i n

Mad iso n, Wis consin

JOHN I . GOODLAD

( C h a i r m a n )

P r o f e s s o r o f E d u c a t i o n

D i r e c t o r , U n i v e r s i t y E l e m e n t a r y S c h o o l

U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a

L o s A n g e l e s , C a l i f o r n i a

J . STEELE GOW

V i c e P r e s i d e n t f o r P l a n n i n g a n d D e v e l o p m e n t

P r o f e s s o r o f P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e

B u c k n e l l U n i v e r s i t y

L e w i s b u r g , P e n n s y l v a n i a

A s s o c i a t e d C o n t r i b u t o r s

FRANCIS S . CHASE

P r o f e s s o r o f E d u c a t i o n

U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o

C h i c a g o , I l l i n o i s

EDGAR DALE

P r o f e s s o r o f E d u c a t i o n

O h i o S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

Columb us, Ohio

WILLIAM K. FRANKENAP r o f e s s o r o f P h i l o s o p h y

U n i v e r s i t y o f M i c h i g a n

Ann Arb or, Michi gan

V

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 6/327

V i ASSOCIATED CONTRIBUTORSROBERT GLASER

P r o f e s s o r o f E d u c a t i o n a n d P s y c h o l o g y

D i r e c t o r , L e a r n i n g R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t C e n t e r

U n i v e r s i t y o f P i t t s b u rg h

P i t t s b u r g h , P e n n s y l v a n i a

HAROLD B . GORES

P r e s i d e n t , E d u c a t i o n a l F a c i l i t i e s L a b o r a t o r i e s , I n c .

New Yor k, New Yor k

GLEN HEATHERSP r o f e s s o r o f E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y

New York Unive rsi ty

New Yor k, New Yor k

BURKART HOLZNERA s s o c i a t e S o c i o l o g i s t , S o c i a l S c i e n c e R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e

U n i v e r s i t y o f H a w a i i

Honol ul u, Hawai i

GORDON C . LEE

D e a n , C o l l e g e o f E d u c a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f W a s h i n g t o n

S e a t t l e , W a s h i n g t o n

WILLIAM C . PENDLETON

Progra m Associate , The Ford Foundation

New Yor k, New Yor k

NORMAN A . SPRINTHALL

A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r o f E d u c a t i o n

G r a d u a t e S c h o o l o f E d u c a t i o n , H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y

C a m b r i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s

DAVID V . TIEDEMAN

P r o f e s s o r o f E d u c a t i o n

G r a d u a t e S c h o o l o f E d u c a t i o n , H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y

C a m b r i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s

RALPH W. TYLERD i r e c t o r , C e n t e r f o r A d v a n c e d S t u d y i n t h e B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n c es

S t a n f o r d , C a l i f o r n i a

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 7/327

E d i t o r ' s P r e f a c e

Dur ing 1 9 62 and 1 9 6 3 , the Board o f Directo rs revi ewed a con-

s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f p r o p o s a l s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s f o r y e a r b o o k s w h i c h

appeared to ha ve one characteri stic in common . All focused upon

rece nt cha nges in Ameri can educa tio n or, in some way, dealt with

societal force s or emergi ng ideas which presumab ly were relat ed

to those changes . Among the topics di scussed were (a) aspect s of

t h e c u r r i c u l u m w h i c h w e r e u n d e r r e v i e w , ( b ) c o n c e p t i o n s o f t e a c h -

i n g a r i s i n g f r o m c h a n g e s i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n , ( c )

a n a c c e p t a b l e m e a n i n g o f e d u c a t i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e c h a n g e s

i n a n d e f f e c t u p o n t h e s c h o o l s a n d s c h o o l p r a c t i c e s t h a t w o u l d a r i s e

from this more compr ehensive meaning, (d) patter ns of school o r-

g a n i z a t i o n a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g , ( e ) n e w f a c i l -

i t i e s , ( f ) c h a n g i n g a p p r o a c h e s t o l e a r n i n g , ( g ) t h e c h a n g i n g r o l e o f

the tea cher, and (h) th e forces th at have brough t recent changes

i n e d u c a t i o n .

In Sept emb er , 1 9 6 3 , the Board aske d Mr . J o h n I . Goodlad, who

h a d p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s u g g e s t i o n s b e f o r e i t , t o

draw up a tentative plan for a yearbook that would de scribe a nd

a n a l y z e s e l e c t e d e d u c a t i o n a l c h a n g e s t h a t h a d f o u n d s t r o n g s u p p o r t

and which, preferably, had be come re asonably well es tablish ed i n

elementary and se condary schools dur ing the pre ceding decad e and

t h a t w o u l d a t t e m p t t o r e l a t e s u c h c h a n g e s t o t h e c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i a b l e

s o c i e t a l f o r c e s o f t h a t p e r i o d .Mr. G o o d l a d ' s r a t h e r u n i q u e p r o p o s a l w a s n o t b a s i c a l l y c h a n g e d

by the committ ee (Mr . Goodl ad, chair man ; Mr . J . S t e e l e G o w ; a n dMr. Mer le L. Borr owman) appoi nted b y the Boar d to d eve lopf u r t h e r t h e p l a n o f t h e y e a r b o o k , t o w r i t e c h a p t e r s o f i t , a n d t o

n o m i n a t e c o n t r i b u t i n g a u t h o r s .

The Commi tte e recog nized t hat the au thors , chose n from among

t h e l e a d i n g s c h o l a r s i n t h e i r f i e l d s , m u s t h a v e c o m p l e t e f r e e d o m t o

vu

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 8/327

V I I I EDITOR'S PREFACEe x p r e s s t h e m s e l v e s o n t h e i r s u b j e c t s a s t h e y s a w f i t . I t a l s o r e c o g -

n i z e d t h a t i f t h e y e a r b o o k w a s t o b e m o r e t h a n a t i m e l y c o l l e c t i o n

o f e x c e l l e n t e s s a y s , s o m e g u i d e l i n e s n e e d t o b e a g r e e d u p o n . The se

a r e c l e a r l y l a i d d o w n i n t h e v o l u m e . T h e r e f o r e , f o r a f u l l e r u n d e r -

s t a n d i n g o f t h e n a t u r e a n d p u r p o s e o f t h e y e a r b o o k , t h e r e a d e r i s

a d v i s e d t o t u r n , b e f o r e b e g i n n i n g t h e b o d y o f t h e t e x t , n o t o n l y t o

" I n t r o d u c t i o n : P l a n o f t h e Y e a r b o o k " b u t a l s o t o t h e t h r e e s e t s o f

" i n s t r u c t i o n s " t o t h e a u t h o r s , o n e o f w h i c h p r e c e d e s e a c h s e c t i o n

of the yearbook .

Ameri can educat ion is changing so rapi dly and on so many

fronts that analyses of change from the perspect ive of t oday are

b a s e d u p o n d a t a t h a t w i l l b e i n c o m p l e t e n e x t y e a r . T h e r e a d e r w i l l

f i n d t h e b o o k ' s v a l u e e n h a n c e d i f h e , t o o , a t t e m p t s w h a t t h e a u t h o r

o f t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r h a s d o n e s o w e l l - i f h e p u l l s t o g e t h e r t h e s t r a n d s

t h a t a p p e a r i n t h e c h a p t e r s o f t h e b o o k a n d i n t e r w e a v e s t h e m w i t h

o t h e r influences "which seem essential to understanding t he i m-

p e t u s e s f o r e d u c a t i o n a l c h a n g e , t h e c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h d e t e r m i n e t h e

k i n d s a n d a m o u n t o f c h a n g e , a n d t h e b a s e s f o r h o p e t h a t e d u c a t i o n

may become more re sponsive to the needs of our so ciet y and the

individuals who compose it . "

The Committ ee and the contributi ng authors have produ ced a

timely, thought- provoking volume that will stand as a bench mark

i n t h e h i s t o r y o f e d u c a t i o n a l c h a n g e i n A m e r i c a .

HERMAN G. RICHEYE d i t o r f o r t h e S o c i e t y

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 9/327

Table o f C o n t e n t s

PAGE

i x

OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY, 1965-66 .

THE SOCIETY' S COMMITTEE ON THE CHANGING AMERICAN SCHOOL . .

ASSOCIATED CONTRIBUTORS .

EDITOR'S PREFACE1VVV i i

INTRODUCTION : PLAN OF THE YEARBOOK, John I. Good la d . . . I

SECTION I

I l l u s t r a t i v e C h a n g e s i n t h e S c h o o l s

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE WRITERS, John I . Good ladCHAPTERI . THE CHANGING ROLE OF THE TEACHER, Gordon C . L e e .9

I n t r o d u c t i o n . The Teach er i n Amer ica : P r o l o g u e . T h e

Ameri can Teach er b efor e World War II . The Changing

Role o f the Ameri can Teach er . C h a n g i n g A p p r o a c h e s t o

Teache r Educati on . E n v o i .

I I . THE CURRICULUM, John 1 . Good lad2I n t r o d u c t i o n : Th e Refo rm Move me nt . I n f l u e n c i n g

Forces and Factors . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e C h a n g i n g

Curricul um . C r i t i q u e .

I I I . GUIDANCE AND THE PUPIL, Norman A. Sprinthall and DavidV. Tied eman9The "Tida l Wave" o f Guidance a nd Guid ance Coun-

s e l o r s. A Rati onale f or Guid ance : The Chal le nge of

Comp lexi ty and Change . Emerg ence of Profe ssio nal

Organizati on and Leadersh ip . Emer gence o f Theo ry :

C o u n s e l i n g . Emer gence of Theory : C a r e e r D e v e l o p m e n t .

I m p l i c a t i o n s a n d F u t u r e T r e n d s .

IV . INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES, Edg ar Dale4A v a i l a b l e I n s t r u c t i o n a l R e s o u r c e s a n d T h e i r S i g n i f i c a n t

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . S o c i a l F o r c e s I n f l u e n c i n g I n s t r u c t i o n a l

R e s o ur c e s . E x a m p l e s a n d I s s u e s i n t h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f

N e w I n s t r u c t i o n a l M a t e r i a l s . T h e O r g a n i z a t i o n a n d U s e

o f I n s t r u c t i o n a l R e s o u r c e s . I n C o n c l u s i o n .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 10/327

X TABLE OF CONTENTSCHAPTER PAGEV . SCHOOL ORGANIZATION : NONGRADING, DUAL PROGRESS, AND

TEAM TEACHING, Glen Hea the rs10Introduction . Purpo ses a nd Feat ure s of t he New Organi-

zati onal Plans . Forc es and Ideas Resha ping Scho ol

Organiza tio n . Theo ret ical Foundati ons of the New Plans .

Sc h o o l Re o r g a n i z a t i o n T o d a y : Its Exte nt and Sig -

n i f i c a n c e . The Prospec ts fo r Stre ngthening Educat ion

by Schoo l Reor ganizat ion .

VI. SCHOOLHOUSE IN TRANSITION, Harol d B . G o r e s . . . . 135

The Size of Schools . The Classroo m . The Library .The Gymnasium . The Audit ori um . Co m f o r t w i t h o u tGuil t. For t he Futur e . Co-opera tive Buildi ngs. TheUrb an Scho ol . In Sum .

SECTION I I

F o r c e s a n d I d e a s H o l d i n g P o t e n t i a l f o r I n f l u e n c i n g t h e S c h o o l s

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE WRITERS, J o h n I . G o o d l a d . .

VII . ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND POLITICAL FORCES, J . S t e e l e G o w , J r . ,

B u r k a r t H o l z n e r , and W i l l i a m C. P e n d l e t o nntroduction . Cultur al Themes and Socia l Forces . Ex-ample s from Three Perspec tiv es on Change . Conclusion .

VIII . THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES AND THE SCHOOLS, Ra l p h W . T y l e r

The Nature of the Indivi dual . Current Studie s of Per-

c e p t i o n . Perso nality Rese arch . Res ear ch and Learning .

Rese arch o n Soci al Groups . Social Class and Occupa tion .

The Stud y of Org aniz atio ns . Resear ch o n Leader ship .

Other Resear ch Areas .

155

159

200

IX . THE DESIGN OF INSTRUCTION, R o b e r t G l a s e r1 5Analyzing t he Characteri stics of Subject-Matter Compe-

tence. Diagnosing Preinstruc tional Behavi or . Carrying

Out th e Instruct ional Proce ss. Meas uri ng Lea rning Out-

c o m e s . Conclusion .

X. PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY, W i l l i a m K . F r a n k e n antroduct ion. Rece n t Philo soph y and Normati ve Prem-ises for the Schools . Rece nt Philosop hy and Othe r

(Nonnormativ e) Premi s es . Phil osop hic al Analysis a nd

the Schools . Conclusion .

243

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 11/327

TABLE OF CONTENTSCHAPTER SECTION I I I

C r i t i q u e

INSTRUCTIONS TO THE WRITER, J o h n I . G o o d l a d z 6 9

XI . SCHOOL CHANGE IN PERSPECTIVE, F r a n c i s S . C h a se . . . . 2 7 1

Introduc tio n . Genesis of New Demands on Educa tio n .

The Response of Schools to t he Social- Cult ural Trans-

formation . The Functio ns of Educ at ion Toda y . An Ap -

praisal of Developme nts and Possibili ties .

INDEX .

x i

PAGE

3 0 7

INFORMATION CONCERNING THE SOCIETY21LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY23

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 12/327

I n t r o d u c t i o n : P l a n o f t h e Y e a r b o o k

JOHN I . GOODLAD

A m o o d o f c h a n g e p r e v a i l s i n A m e r i c a ' s s c h o o l s . Such moo ds

h a v e p r e v a i l e d b e f o r e . B u t W o r l d W a r I I a n d e v e n t s l e a d i n g u p t o

a n d i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g i t r e t a r d e d n o r m a l p r o c e s s e s o f ch a n g e .

T h e s c h o o l s o f t h e 1 9 4 0 ' s a n d e a r l y 1 9 S o ' s r e m a i n e d v e r y m u c h a s

t h e y h a d b e e n d u r i n g e a r l i e r d e c a d e s . B u t t h e y a r e n o w c h a n g i n g

r a p i d l y , a l m o s t e x p l o s i v e l y , i n e v e r y r e s p e c t .

By the be ginning of World War II, the te achi ng of fore ign

l a n g u a g e s h a d v i r t u a l l y d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m m o s t s c h o o l s . M i l i t a r y

t e s t i n g p r o g r a m s r e v e a l e d w i d e s p r e a d a c a d e m i c d e f i c i e n c i e s a m o n g

h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n m a t h e m a t i c s a n d t h e s c i e n c e s .

S o o n , t h e v a r i e d v o i c e s o f c r i t i c i s m w e r e i n f u l l c r y : S c h o o l s a r e

n e g l e c t i n g t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s ; l i f e - a d j u s t m e n t e d u c a t i o n h a s b e e n t o o

l o n g i n t h e s a d d l e ; J o h n n y c a n ' t r e a d ; s c h o o l s r e p r e s s c r e a t i v i t y a n d

i n d i v i d u a l i t y .

T h e l a u n c h i n g o f t h e f i r s t R u s s i a n s a t e l l i t e i n 1 9 5 7 g a v e u s o u r

b e t e n o i r , a n d t h e s c h o o l s b e c a m e o u r s a c r i f i c i a l l a m b . T h e s c h o o l s

c o u l d n o t r e m a i n - o r a t l e a s t , c o u l d n o t a p p e a r t o r e m a i n - a s t h e y

had been. C h a n g e , a l m o s t f o r t h e s a k e o f c h a n g e , b e c a m e t h e o r d e r

o f t h e d a y . C h a n g e a n d t h e s p i r i t o f c h an g e h a v e s w ep t a l o n g i n a

d i s o r d e r l y w a y , p r o p o s a l f o l l o w i n g p r o p o s a l o n a b r o k e n f r o n t .

L i t t l e t i m e a n d e n e r g y h a v e b e e n e x p e n d e d o n a p p r a i s a l , a n d a d e -

q u a t e e v a l u a t i v e c r i t e r i a a p p e a r n o t t o b e a v a i l a b l e . A s a n a t i o n , w e

h a v e n o t d e f i n e d w h a t w e w a n t o f o u r s c h o o l s a n d , t h e r e f o r e , h a v e

g r a v e d i f f i c u l t y i n s e e k i n g t o d e t e r m i n e t h e w o r t h o f a n y s p e c i f i c

p r o p o s a l o r a c t i o n .

I n t e r e s t i n g l y , p r o p o s a l s w h i c h a r e o f f e r e d as a s o l u t i o n o f t e n a r e

w e l c o m e d f o r q u i t e d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s . S o m e s e e c u r r e n t r e o r g a n i z a -

t i o n o f t h e a c a d e m i c d i s c i p l i n e s i n t h e p r e c o l l e g i a t e c u r r i c u l u m a s

a r e t u r n t o t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s ; o t h e r s s e e i t a s a r e j e c t i o n o f w h a t

I

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 13/327

2 INTRODUCTIONonce was considered fu ndamental . Some se e thi s moveme nt as a

r e a c t i o n t o c h i l d - c e n t e r e d c u r r i c u l a ; o t h e r s s e e i t a s a r e a c t i o n t o

a c l u t t e r o f i l l - a r r a n g e d a n d o u t - d a t e d b i t s a n d p i e c e s o f s u b j e c t

matte r, claimi ng that we have never had a trul y child -centered

curriculum . S o m e s e e t h e n o n g r a d e d s c h o o l a s a d e v i c e f o r d i f f e r -

entiating rates of st udent progress through a co mmon curriculum ;

o t h e r s s e e i t a s a d e v i c e f o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g c u r r i c u l a a c c o r d i n g t o

i n d i v i d u a l p u p i l n e e d s . S o m e s e e p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n a s a m e a n s

o f p r o v i d i n g f o r i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s ; o t h e r s s e e i t a s a m e a n s o f

r e d u c i n g t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n a b i l i t y a m o n g

s t u d e n t s s e t t i n g f o r t h t o g e t h e r o n a l e a r n i n g s e q u e n c e .

A p u r p o s e o f t h i s y e a r b o o k i s t o d e s c r i b e a n d a n a l y z e i l l u s t r a t i v e

proposal s for change which have fou nd support du ring this past

decad e and which ar e now reasonably well e stabl ishe d in pre-

c o l l e g i a t e s c h o o l i n g . What do they seek to accompl ish? What i s

f a c t a n d w h a t i s f a d o r f a n c y ? M o r e i m p o r t a n t , w h a t a r e t h e f o r c e s

- s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c - a n d t h e i d e a s - p s y c h o l o g i c a l , b i o l o g i -

c a l , p h i l o s o p h i c a l - t h a t l i e b e h i n d t h e s e c h a n g e s ?

S e c t i o n I a n a l y z e s s e l e c t e d a s p e c t s o f s c h o o l i n g w h i c h a r e u n d e r -

going change . S i n c e t h e a t t e m p t i s t o b e i l l u s t r a t i v e a n d a n a l y t i c a l ,

not com prehe nsive, only a sample of changes is e xamined : t h e

curriculum (chap . i i ) ; g u i d a n c e a n d i t s r e l a t i o n t o t h e p u p i l ( c h a p .

i i i ) ; i n s t r u c t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s ( c h a p . i v ) ; s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n , w i t h

n o n g r a d i n g a n d t e a m t e a c h i n g s e l e c t e d a s e x a m p l e s o f c h a n g e ( c h a p .

v ) ; a n d s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s ( chap . v i ) . C h a p t e r i , s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t

i n c h a r a c t e r , p l a c e s t h e c h a n g i n g r o l e o f t h e t e a c h e r i n h i s t o r i c a l

p e r s p e c t i v e . Authors of these chapters have bee n chosen both

because of t heir ide ntificati on with the sub ject and because of

t h e i r r e l a t i v e l y o b j e c t i v e , r e s e a r c h - o r i e n t e d a p p r o a c h t o i t .

A s e c o n d p u r p o s e o f t h i s y e a r b o o k i s t o s e t f o r t h s o m e o f t h e

m a j o r f o r c e s a n d c e n t r a l i d e a s t o w h i c h t h e s c h o o l s m i g h t w e l l h a v e

responded during this past decade . Again, the a tte mpt i s to b e

i l l u s t r a t i v e a n d a n a l y t i c a l , n o t c o m p r e h e n s i v e , b o t h i n t h e s e l e c t i o n

o f c h a p t e r t o p i c s a n d i n t h e a u t h o r s ' s e l e c t i o n o f f o r c e s a n d i d e a s .

T h e s c h o o l c a n n o t b e r e s p o n s i v e t o a l l o f t h e m a n y s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l ,

and economic forces that impinge upon it . N o r s h o u l d i t r e a c t t o

a l l t h e v o i c e s i n t h e m a r k e t p l a c e o f i d e a s . B u t t h e s c h o o l , b y i t s

v e r y e x i s t e n c e , i s c a u g h t u p i n p r o b l e m s o f u r b a n i z a t i o n , m o b i l i t y ,

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 14/327

GOODLAD 3

s e g r e g a t i o n a n d d e s e g r e g a t i o n , a n d l o c a l , s t a t e , a n d f e d e r a l c o n t r o l

o f e d u c a t i o n . S i m i l a r l y , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o s e e h o w t h e s c h o o l s c a n

r e m a i n u n t o u c h e d b y c e n t r a l t r e n d s o f t h o u g h t r e g a r d i n g t h e n a t u r e

o f m a n a n d t h e g o o d l i f e .

S e c t i o n I I , t h e n , e x a m i n e s s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , a n d e c o n o m i c f o r c e s

(chap . v i i ) ; c o n c e p t s f r o m t h e b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s ( c h a p . v i i i ) ;

r e c e n t a d v a n c e s i n t h e o r y a n d r e s e a r c h o n i n s t r u c t i o n ( c h a p . i x ) ;

a n d s i g n i f i c a n t p h i l o s o p h i c a l i n q u i r y ( c h a p . x ) . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s

s e c t i o n i s t o i d e n t i f y w h a t e v e r a p p e a r s t o b e m o s t p e r t i n e n t t o t h e

conduct of s chool s si nce World War II. The aut hors were not

r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e r e c e n t p e r i o d , h o w e v e r , a n d w e r e f r e e t o g o b a c k

b e y o n d i t , i f n e c e s s a r y , f o r t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n t t r e n d s .

Nor were they required t o indicate how the schools might have

r e s p o n d e d , b u t t h e y w e r e a s k e d t o u s e e x a m p l e s t h a t w o u l d h a v e

l i t t l e d o u b t a b o u t t h e r e l e v a n c e o f a f o r c e o r c o n c e p t f o r s c h o o l i n g .

I s t h e r e a n i d e n t i f i a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n s c h o o l c h a n g e s o f

t h e p a s t d e c a d e a n d s o m e o f t h e s o c i e t a l f o r c e s a n d i d e a s t h a t w e r e

emerging during this period? Have the latter been molding the

f o r m e r ? O r h a v e t h e s c h o o l s g o n e t h e i r w a y l a r g e l y u n a f f e c t e d b y

t h e l a r g e r i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s c o u r s e a n d t h e s w e e p o f e v e n t s a b o u t t h e m ?

T h e s e a n d o t h e r s a r e t h e q u e s t i o n s t o w h i c h t h e w r i t e r o f t h e f i n a l

c h a p t e r w a s a s k e d t o r e s p o n d , u s i n g t h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e p r e c e d i n g

t e n c h a p t e r s a s h i s d a t a . T h e s e a r e t h e q u e s t i o n s t h e r e a d e r m a y w i s h

t o p o n d e r a s h e p e r u s e s t h e y e a r b o o k .

M u c h o f o u r e d u c a t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e i s a n d h a s b e e n c o n d u c t e d i n

s l o g a n s a n d , a s a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e m o s t c o m p l e x p r o b l e m s o f t e n a r e

m a d e t o a p p e a r d e c e p t i v e l y e a s y . T h e p a n a c e a s s o g l i b l y p r o f e r r e d

d e c e i v e t h e l a y m a n , o n o n e h a n d , a n d o f t e n s e d u c e t h e s c h o o l m a n

s e a r c h i n g f o r v i a b l e s o l u t i o n s t o h i s p r o b l e m s , o n t h e o t h e r . E d u c a -

t i o n n e v e r h a s b e e n a s i m p l e b u s i n e s s ; i t i s m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o d a y t h a n

i t h a s e v e r b e e n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e t a s k o f t h e w r i t e r s i n s e e ki n g

t o a n a l y z e c h a n g e s i n t h e s c h o o l s o r i n t h e f o r c e s a n d i d e a s s i g n i f i -

c a n t f o r s c h o o l i n g w a s a f o r m i d a b l e o n e .

T h i s y e a r b o o k d i f f e r s f r o m m a n y i n i t s a p p r o a c h a n d o r g a n i z a -

t i o n . A t f i r s t g l a n c e , i t m i g h t a p p e a r m o r e l o g i c a l t o r e v e r s e t h e

o r d e r o f S e c t i o n s I a n d I I s o t h a t f o r c e s a n d i d e a s t o w h i c h t h e

s c h o o l s m i g h t h a v e r e s p o n d e d c o u l d b e u s e d a s b a s e s f o r t h e a n a l y s i s

o f c h a n g e . B u t t h i s w o ul d d e f e a t t h e p u rp o s e s o f t h e y e a r b o o k a t

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 15/327

4 INTRODUCTION

t h e o u t s e t . C h a n g e s h a v e o c c u r r e d ; this we know. Howeve r, the y

m a y n o t b e s o u n d r e s p o n s e s t o t h e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r c e s o f o u r s o c i e t y

o r t h e c o m p e l l i n g i d e a s o f o u r t i m e . A n d s o , S e c t i o n s I a n d I I a r e

t r e a t e d a s s e p a r a t e e n t i t i e s , w i t h n o d e p e n d e n c e o n e a c h o t h e r .

T h e b o o k i s n o t i n t e n d e d , t h e n , t o b e a u n i f i e d w h o l e . A n d y e t ,

t a k e n a s a w h o l e , i t p r o v i d e s t h e b a s i s f o r s p e c u l a t i o n s s e t f o r t h i n

t h e c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r . T h e s p e c i f i c c h a r g e s t o t h e a u t h o r s a p p e a r

a s i n t r o d u c t i o n s t o e a c h o f t h e t h r e e s e c t i o n s . T h e i r r e s p o n s e s c o n -

s t i t u t e t h e s e v e r a l c h a p t e r s .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 16/327

SECTION I

ILLUSTRATIVE CHANGES IN THE SCHOOLS

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 17/327

I n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h e W r i t e r s

JOHN I . GOODLAD

Y o u h a v e b e e n a s k e d t o d e s c r i b e a n d a n a l y z e a v i s i b l e a s p e c t o f

s c h o o l i n g t h a t h a s e m e r g e d o r un d e r g o n e s i g n i f i c a n t r e - e x a m i n a t i o n

si nce World War II. T h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f d e v e l o p m e n t s w h i c h h a v e

o c c u r r e d m u s t b e b r i e f a n d y e t s u f f i c i e n t t o a s s u r e t h e r e a d e r ' s

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m . M o r e i m p o r t a n t a r e t h e a n a l y s e s o f f o r c e s

a n d i d e a s w h i c h a p p e a r t o h a v e m o t i v a t e d r e t h i n k i n g a n d c h a n g e .

W h a t f o r c e s a n d i d e a s h a v e b e e n a t w o r k ? H a v e t h e r e b e e n r e a l

c h a n g e s i n s c h o o l p r a c t i c e s o r o n l y t a l k o f t h e m ? D o n e w p r a c t i c e s

r e f l e c t e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y , o r h a v e t h e y b e c o m e d i v o r c e d f r o m i d e a s

w h i c h s u p p o s e d l y m o t i v a t e d t h e m i n i t i a l l y ? I n b r i e f , t o w h a t e x t e n t

a r e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s y o u d e s c r i b e a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h o s e c e n t r a l

f o r c e s a n d i d e a s t h a t h a v e b e e n e m e r g i n g i n A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y d u r i n g

t h e p a s t t w o d e c a d e s ?

W h i l e w r i t e r s a r e f r e e t o d e v e l o p t h e i r i d e a s a s t h e y s e e f i t , a l l

c h a p t e r s i n t h i s s e c t i o n s h o u l d i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g : ( a ) a s u c c i n c t

d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e p r a c t i c e s b e i n g a n a l y z e d ; ( b ) a n a p p r a i s a l o f t h e i r

e x t e n t a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e ; ( c ) a n a n a l y s i s o f d i f f e r i n g t h e o r e t i c a l

p o s i t i o n s , i f a n y , a n d t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s o n s c h o o l

p r a ct i c e s ; a n d ( d ) a n a p p r a i s a l o f t h o s e i d e a s o r s o c i e t a l c o n d i t i o n s

t h a t a p p e a r t o u n d e r l i e o r t o i n f l u e n c e t h e p r a c t i c e s u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n .

Y o u w i l l n o d o u b t f i n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o b a c k a w a y f r o m t h e s u b j e c t

o f y o u r a n a l y s i s , t o r e m o v e y o u r s e l f f r o m m a n y o f t h e s p e c i f i c s , i n

s e a r c h i n g f o r c e n t r a l c o n c e p t s a n d a d e q u a t e p e r s p e c t i v e .

7

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 18/327

CHAPTER I

The Changing Role o f t h e T e a c h e r

GORDON C . LEE

Introd uctio n

T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s f i r s t c h a p t e r i s t o c o n s i d e r t h e w a y s i n

which th e role of the Ameri can teac her and common perce ptions

o f t h a t r o l e h a v e c h a n g e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s o r s e e m t o b e p r e s e n t l y

c h a n g i n g f r o m t h e i r e a r l i e r c h a r ac t e r . I n o r d e r t o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s

t a s k , i t i s p r o p o s e d t h a t w e f o c u s u p o n t e a c h i n g a n d t e a c h e r s i n t h e

p e r i o d s i n c e t h e o u t b r e a k o f W o r l d W a r I I , a t t e m p t i n g t o c o m p a r e

c o n c e p t i o n s o f 1 9 4 0 ( o r t h e l a t e 1 9 3 0 ' s ) w i t h t h o s e o f t h e m i d -

1 9 6 o ' s . A n a t t e m p t i s m a d e , t h e r e f o r e , t o p r e s e n t " p h o t o g r a p h s " of

t h e A m e r i c a n t e a c h e r a t t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d a t t h e c l o s e o f t h e p e r i o d

t o i d e n t i f y t h e i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s i n w h i c h t h e l a t e r p i c t u r e d i f f e r s

f r o m t h e e a r l i e r o n e . T h e e f f o r t i s m e a n t t o b e p u r e l y d e s c r i p t i v e ;

a n a l y s i s o r a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e c h a n g e s o r t r e n d s r e p o r t e d i s n o t r e -

g a r d e d a s w i t h i n t h e p r o v i n c e o f t h i s c h a p t e r . P r e c e d i n g t h e p r e s e n -

t a t i o n o f t h e t w o p i c t u r e s i s a v e r y b r i e f s k e t c h o f t h e h i s t o r y o f

t h e t e a c h e r i n A m e r i c a , w h i c h w i l l s u g g e s t , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s ,

t h a t t h e c h a n g e s t a k i n g p l a c e w i t h i n r e c e n t t i m e s o n l y c o n t i n u e a

l o n g - t e r m p r o c e s s . T h e c h a p t e r c o n c l u d e s w i t h a g l a n c e a t s o m e o f

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n w h i c h a p p e a r t o b e c o r o l l a r y

t o t h e c h a n g e s n o t e d i n t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f t e a c h i n g a n d t e a c h e r s .

M o r e t h a n i s u s u a l l y t h e c a s e , h o w e v e r , i t s e e m s a d v i s a b l e t o

e n t e r a b o d y o f c a v e a t s a s t h i s d i s c u s s i o n i s a p p r o a c h e d . I n t h e f i r s t

p l a c e , a s a n y h i s t o r i a n w o u l d i n s i s t , a l l t i m e p e r i o d s a r e a r b i t r a r y

a n d a r t i f i c i a l , a n d n o i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l c h a n g e s o r t r e n d s can be

s h o w n c o n c l u s i v e l y t o h a v e h a d t h e i r i n c e p t i o n a t s o m e p a r t i c u l a r

p o i n t i n t i m e o r e v e n w i t h i n a t i m e s p a n s u c h a s t h a t d e a l t w i t h i n

t h i s p a p e r . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r c l e a r l y m a r k e d , a s - , , ,

h a v e f e w e v e n t s i n h u m a n h i s t o r y , t h e c r e a t i o n o f a n e w s i t u a t i o n

a n d t h e s e t t i n g i n m o t i o n o f n e w f o r c e s . A s t h i s e s s a y w i l l i n d i c a t e ,

9

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 19/327

1 0 CHANGING ROLE OF THE TEACHERt h e t e a c h e r i n t h e m i d - I g 6 o ' s i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m h i s 1 9 4 0

p r e d e c e s s o r , t h o u g h t h e r o o t s o f s u c h c h a n g e c a n h a r d l y b e s a i d t o

l i e e n t i r e l y w i t h i n t h e q u a r t e r c e n t u r y u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n .

I n t h e s e c o n d p l a c e , g r e a t h a z a r d s a r e i n h e r e n t i n a d i s c u s s i o n

w h i c h g e n e r a l i z e s a b o u t a l l p e r s o n s i n a p a r t i c u l a r c a t e g o r y - w h i c h

d e a l s , a s i n t h i s i n s t a n c e w i t h t h e Ameri can tea cher . T h i s e x a m i n a -

t i o n t a k e s l i t t l e o r n o a c c o u n t o f e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l , a n d o t h e r d i f f e r -

ences bet ween men and women tea chers , between teac hers o f musi c

a n d t e a c h e r s o f m a t h e m a t i c s , b e t w e e n t e a c h e r s i n r u r a l a n d t h o s e i n

u r b a n s e t t i n g s , b e t w e e n t e a c h e r s o f a g e 3 o a n d t h o s e o f a g e5 5 ,

and

s o o n - a n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e s m a y b e s i z a b l e . I t d o e s s e e m r e a s o n a b l e ,

h o w e v e r , t o s u g g e s t c e r t a i n g r o s s p a t t e r n s a n d t e n d e n c i e s w h i c h ,

t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r d e g r e e , a p p e a r t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e p r o f e s s i o n

as a whole .

T h i s d i s c u s s i o n c o n c e n t r a t e s a l m o s t e n t i r e l y u p o n c o n c e p t i o n s

o f t h e r o l e o r f u n c t i o n o f t h e t e a c h e r , r a t h e r t h a n u p o n t h e p a r t i c u -

l a r s o f t h e w a y i n w h i c h h e p e r f o r m s t h a t f u n c t i o n . O b v i o u s l y , a n d

s o m e s l i g h t a l l u s i o n i s m a d e t o t h e f a c t , t e a c h i n g m e t h o d h a s n o t

been immune to change in the period under considerat ion, but our

f o c u s i s l a r g e l y u p o n t h e m o r e b a s i c e l e m e n t s o f t h e r o l e a n d f u n c -

t i o n o f t h e t e a c h e r .

T h e T e a c h e r i n A m e r i c a : P r o l o g u e

I n o r d e r t o m a n a g e t h e t a s k b e f o r e u s a s m e an i n g f u l l y a s p o s s i b l e ,

i t i s v i t a l t h a t w e s e n s e s o m e t h i n g o f t h e c h a r a c t e r o f " t h e t e a c h e r "

in America pri or to t he quart er-century upon which thi s chapter

f o c u s e s . W e s h a l l e n d e a v o r t o s u g g e s t b r i e f l y w h a t t h e t e a c h e r h a d

been and how he had been perceive d in preceding period s and to

i n d i c a t e h o w h e a n d h i s i m a g e h a d a t t a i n e d t h e i r 1 9 4 0 f o r m s .

TEACHING A FAITH

In. i t s b e g i n n i n g s , A m e r i c a n p r e c o l l e g i a t e e d u c a t i o n c a n b e s a i d

to have been governed by a fundamental commitment to r e l i g i o u s

i n s t r u c t i o n , t o s c h o o l i n g i n t h e b a s i c t e n e t s a n d r i t u a l s o f o n e o r

a n o t h e r C h r i s t i a n s e c t . In the South as well as the North, ea rly

colonial America conceived of ed ucation as based upon religion,

i n d e e d , a s a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l w i t h i t . Church and schoo l generally

w e r e s e e n a s o n e , a n d i t i s h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n d t h a t v e r y f r e -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 20/327

LEE II

q u e n t l y m i n i s t e r a n d t e a c h e r w e r e o n e a s w e l l . I n s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s ,

the t eacher's central function was that of indoctrination in the

d e n o m i n a t i o n a l c r e e d , a n d i t w o u l d b e i m p o s s i b l e t o s p e a k o f t e a c h -

ing apart from the advancement of some dogma . I n d i c a t i v e o f t h e

r e l a t e d n e s s o f r e l i g i o n a n d e d u c a t i o n , t o q u a l i f y f o r a p o s t i n a

s c h o o l i n C h a r l e s t o n , S o u t h C a r o l i n a , i n 1 7 1 2 , i t w a s s t i p u l a t e d " t h a t

t h e p e r s o n t o b e m a s t e r o f t h e s a i d s c h o o l s h a l l b e o f t h e r e l i g i o n

of the Church o f England, and conform to the s ame, and shall be

c a p a b l e t o t e a c h t h e l e a r n e d l a n g u a g e s , t h a t i s t o s a y , L a t i n a n d

Greek tongues, and t o cate chise and instruct the youth i n the

p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n , a s p r o f e s s e d i n t h e C h u r c h o f

England . " 1 I n a l l s e c t i o n s o f A m e r i c a , i n t o w n s c h o o l s a s w e l l a s

i n p r i v a t e s c h o o l s , t h e r e l i g i o u s p u r p o s e p r e d o m i n a t e d .

TEACHING FOR BASIC LITERACY

E v e n b e f o r e t h e f i r s t s e t t l e m e n t s , h o w e v e r , P r o t e s t a n t C h r i s t i -

anity had come to recognize the inescapabl e depe ndence of the

Reformation churches upon a degree of general literacy hitherto

unknown to Western civi liza tion. The fi rst America n scho ols de -

veloped in a c o n t e x t o f w i d e s p r e a d a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y

n o t i o n t h a t e v e r y o n e s h o u l d b e a b l e _ t o r e a d . A l t h o u g h t h e o r i g i n a l

b a s i s f o r s u c h a p o s i t i o n w a s n a r r o w l y s e c t a r i a n , i t b r o a d e n e d i m -

measurab ly the pote ntial scope of the te acher's concerns ; i t a l s o

prompte d the est ablishm ent of schools and the employment of

t e a c h e r s l e s s c l o s e l y t i e d t o t h e c h u r c h . Thus was i ntrodu ced the

s e c u l a r i z a t i o n o f t e a c h i n g w h i c h s t e a d i l y g r e w t o b e c o m e a c e n t r a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f A m e r i c a n p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n .

TEACHING FOR PUBLIC RESPONSIBILITY

C o l o n i a l A m e r i c a w a s b a s i c a l l y B r i t i s h a s w e l l a s P r o t e s t a n t , ,

w h i c h m e a n t a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s a h e r i t a g e o f d e v e l o p i n g d e m o c r a t -

i z a t i o n o f c o m m u n i t y l i f e a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n . F r o m t h e i r i n c e p t i o n ,

t h e r e f o r e , m o s t s c h o o l s a b o v e t h e m o s t r u d i m e n t a r y l e v e l s , w h e t h e r

in Virgi nia or Massachuse tts, whethe r Puritan or Anglic an, were

d e d i c a t e d t o t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f y o u n g m e n f o r r e s p o n s i b l e p a r t i c i p a -

1 . Edga r W. K n i g h t a n d C l i f t o n L . H a l l , R e a d i n g s i n A m e r i c a n E d u c a t i o n a l

H i s t o r y , p . 2 9 . New Yor k : A p p l e t o n , C e n t u r y & C r o f t s , 1 9 5 1 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 21/327

1 2 CHANGING ROLE OF THE TEACHERtio n in community affa irs . T o b e s u r e , t h i s c o n c e r n w a s a l s o , t o

v a r y i n g d e g r e e s , r e g a r d e d a s i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e d i s c h a r g e o f r e -

s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t o t h e c h u r c h . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e f o u n d i n g o f Y a l e i n

1701 as a scho ol "wherein youth may be i nstructe d in the art s &

s c i e n c e s , w h o t h r o u g h t h e b l e s s i n g o f A l m i g h t y G o d m a y b e f i t t e d

f o r p u b l i c k e m p l o y m e n t , b o t h i n c h u r c h & c i v i l s t a t e , " 2 i n d i c a t e d

unmistakably a demand for teachi ng de voted to the re quirements

o f p u b l i c a f f a i r s a s w e l l a s t o r e l i g i o n .

TEACHING FOR OCCUPATIONS

The d emands upon education, and hence t he e xpected r ole of

t h e t e a c h e r , w e r e o f c o u r s e a l s o c o n d i t i o n e d b y c e r t a i n p a r t i c u l a r

necessit ies o f life in the New World . R e l a t i v e l y e a r l y i n c o l o n i a l

h i s t o r y , s c h o o l s a n d t e a c h e r s b e g a n t o r e s p o n d t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s

of th e new economy : o f s u c h p u r s u i t s a s a g r i c u l t u r e , n a v i g a t i o n ,

s h i p b u i l d i n g , a n d s u r v e y i n g . S t e a d i l y , i n e x o r a b l y , t h e c h a r a c t e r o f

s c h o o l s a n d t e a c h e r s c h a n g e d a s t h e e f f o r t t o a t t e n d t o s u c h p r a c t i c a l

matt ers gai ned sup port, and a new dime nsion was add ed t o the

b a s i c d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e w o r k o f a t e a c h e r .

TEACHING A MORALITY

W i t h i n a f e w d e c a d e s a f t e r t h e a d o p t i o n o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n , t h e

p a t t e r n o f c h u r c h e s t a b l i s h m e n t ( o f a n o f f i c i a l s t a t e c h u r c h ) h a d

d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e l a n d . O v e r t h e s a m e p e r i o d , t h e - b a s i c e l e m e n t s

o f a p u b l i c s c h o o l s y s t e m b e g a n t o e m e r g e a n d n e c e s s a r i l y , a s t h e y

d i d s o , t h e r e l a t e d n e s s o f s c h o o l t o c h u r c h w a s w e a k e n e d . T e a c h e r s

p e r f o r c e c e a s e d t o b e t h e a g e n t s o f a p a r t i c u l a r s e c t a r i a n c r e e d , b u t

t h e y w e r e a t l e a s t a s e n e r g e t i c a l l y e n g a g e d i n m o r a l t u t e l a g e a s

b e f o r e . T h e a l m o s t c o m p l e t e s u b s c r i p t i o n , w h e t h e r o f f i c i a l o r n o m i -

n a l , t o s o m e v e r s i o n o f P r o t e s t a n t C h r i s t i a n i t y m e a n t t h a t a g e n e r a l -

ize d, synthe tic Old-and-New Test ament moral cod e was presum ed

t o g o v e r n a n d t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e w o r k o f e v e r y t e a c h e r . M o r e o v e r ,

i t w a s g e n e r a l l y a s s u m e d t h a t t h e t e a c h e r w o u l d h i m s e l f r e p r e s e n t

t h e m o r a l i t y , t h e v i r t u e s , t o w h i c h t h e c o m m u n i t y s u b s c r i b e d . S i n c e

2 . R i c h a r d H o f s t a d t e r a n d C . D e W i t t H a r d y , T h e D e v e l o p m e n t a n d S c o p e

o f H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , p . 4 . N e w Y o r k : C o l u m b i a U n i v e r -

s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 2 .

MR

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 22/327

LEE1 3

l e a r n i n g w a s c o n c e i v e d l a r g e l y t o b e b y i m i t a t i o n , t h e t e a c h e r w a s

t o p r o v i d e t h a t m o r a l - b e h a v i o r a l m o d e l w i t h w h i c h c h i l d r e n c o u l d

i d e n t i f y ; l o g i c a l l y e n o u g h , t h e c o m m u n i t y i n s i s t e d u p o n s o m e r e g u-

l a t i o n o f t h e t e a c h e r ' s l i f e i n o r d e r t h a t h e b e t h a t g o o d e x a m p l e .

TEACHING A LOYALTY

A l m o s t i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e A m e r i c a n t e a c h e r ' s c o m m i t m e n t t o

m o r a l i n s t r u c t i o n w a s h i s p r e s u m e d o b l i g a t i o n t o w a r d t h e c u l t i v a -

t i o n o f n a t i o n a l l o y a l t y . T o a d e g r e e p r o b a b l y n e v e r b e f o r e e q u a l l e d

e l s e w h e r e , t h e n e w A m e r i c a n n a t i o n c o n f r o n t e d t h e c h a l l e n g e i m -

p l i c i t i n t h e m o t t o , " E p l u r i b u s u n um " - a n d t h e n a t i o n a s s u m e d t h a t

i t w a s i n t h e s c h o o l s e s p e c i a l l y t h a t t h e b u s i n e s s o f a m a l g a m a t i o n

would be accompli shed . I n c u l c a t i n g p a t r i o t i s m a n d l o v e o f c o u n t r y -

s o o n b e c a m e a c h i e f c o m p o n e n t o f t h e t e a c h e r ' s w o r k , a n d i t w a s

e x p e c t e d t h a t a l l o f h i s i n s t r u c t i o n w o u l d b e s u f f u s e d w i t h a c o n c e r n

f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f l o y a l t y t o t h e i d e a l s o f t h e y o u n g c o u n t r y .

TEACHING FOR PHYSICAL HEALTH

From t he tu rn of the pre sent century, and for a vari ety of

reasons, the Unite d State s gre w increasingly committ ed t o t h e

p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t m o r e s y s t e m a t i c a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p h y s i c a l w e l l - b e i n g

of Americ an youth was re quire d . A s i n t h e p a s t , t h e c o u n t r y i m -

m e d i a t e l y l o o k e d t o i t s s c h o o l s a s m e a n s f o r a t t a i n i n g d e s i r e d e n d s ,

s a y i n g , i n e f f e c t , t h a t i n a s m u c h a s a l l c h i l d r e n w e r e n o w i n t h e

s c h o o l s ' c h a r g e f o r a g o o d p o r t i o n o f t h e i r w a k i n g h o u r s , t h e s c h o o l

w a s t h e m o s t l i k e l y a g e n c y f o r a d e q u a t e , e f f e c t i v e p h y s i c a l and

h e a l t h e d u c a t i o n . T h e t e a c h e r , t h u s , w a s c a l l e d u p o n t o p r o v i d e b o t h

i n s t r u c t i o n a n d e x e r c i s e . " T o d i s c h a r g e t h e d u t i e s o f l i f e a n d t o

b e n e f i t f r o m l e i s u r e , o n e m u s t h a v e g o o d h e a l t h . T h e h e a l t h o f t h e

i n d i v i d u a l i s e s s e n t i a l a l s o t o t h e v i t a l i t y o f t h e r a c e a n d t o t h e d e -

f e n s e o f t h e N a t i o n . H e a l t h e d u c a t i o n i s , t h e r e f o r e , f u n d a m e n t a l . " 3

TEACHING FOR SOCIAL FACILITY

S c h o o l s a n d t e a c h e r s d e d i c a t e d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f m o r a l i t y ,

l o y a l t y , a n d c i v i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y c o u l d h a r d l y a v o i d a p e r v a s i v e

c o n c e r n f o r s o c i a l b e h a v i o r . I n c r e a s i n g l y , a n d p e r h a p s m o r e p o i n t -

3 . C a r d i n a l P r i n c i p l e s o f Seco ndary Educ ati on ( a s e x c e r p t e d i n K n i g h t a n d

H a l l , op . c i t . , p . 5 8 9 ) , B u r e a u o f E d u c a t i o n , D e p a r t m e n t o f I n t e r i o r , B u l l e t i nNo.3 5 ,

j 9 1 8 . Washington : G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 1 8 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 23/327

1 4 CHANGING ROLE OF THE TEACHERe d l y a s t h e i m p a c t o f s y s t e m a t i c p s y c h o l o g y b e g a n t o b e f e l t i n

e d u c a t i o n , t h e A m e r i c a n t e a c h e r w a s e x p e c t e d t o s h a p e h i s w o r k i n

t h e c o n t e x t o f a n o v e r - a l l s c h o o l e f f o r t t o p r o m o t e f r u i t f u l i n t e r -

p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s , e f f e c t i v e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d a c c e p t a b l e s o c i a l

a t t i t u d e s . Whe n, for e xampl e, Dewey procl aim ed : " I b e l i e v e t h a t

t h e s c h o o l i s p r i m a r i l y a s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n . E d u c a t i o n b e i n g a s o c i a l

p r o c e s s , t h e s c h o o l i s s i m p l y t h a t f o r m o f c o m m u n i t y l i f e i n w h i c h

a l l t h o s e a g e n c i e s a r e c o n c e n t r a t e d t h a t w i l l b e m o s t e f f e c t i v e i n

b r i n g i n g t h e c h i l d t o s h a r e i n t h e i n h e r i t e d r e s o u r c e s o f t h e r a c e ,

a n d t o u s e h i s o w n p o w e r s f o r s o c i a l e n d s " , 4 h e w a s , i n e s s e n c e ,

c a l l i n g u p o n e a c h t e a c h e r t o a s s u m e s u b s t a n t i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s o c i a l h a b i t s a n d i d e a l s m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e t o

a f r e e p e o p l e .

TEACHING FOR GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o s u g g e s t p r e c i s e l y w h e n a c o n c e r n f o r g e n e r a l

e d u c a t i o n b e g a n t o p e r m e a t e t h e A m e r i c a n s c h o o l . I t m i g h t b e a r -

g u e d t h a t t h e s u m o f t h e f o r e g o i n g c o m m i t m e n t s a m o u n t s t o a d e f i -

n i t i o n o f g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n - b u t s o m e t h i n g m o r e i s a t s t a k e h e r e .

A t s o m e p o i n t , t h e A m e r i c a n t e a c h e r f o u n d h i m s e l f c a l l e d u p o n t o

p r o v i d e i n s t r u c t i o n b e y o n d t h a t r e q u i r e d b y a n y p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f

i n j u n c t i o n s - p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , o r e c o n o m i c - a n d t o e x p o s e h i s c h a r g e s

t o k n o w l e d g e f o r k n o w l e d g e ' s s a k e a l o n e . S i m p l y t o k n o w c a m e t o

b e p r i z e d a n d , w h e t h e r t h r o u g h l i t e r a t u r e o r m u s i c o r b i o l o g y o r

F r e n c h , t h e t e a c h e r w a s s e e n a s t h e p r e - e m i n e n t i n s t r u m e n t f o r s u c h

accompl ishme nt .

TEACHING FOR PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT

I n o n e s e n s e , t h e t e a c h e r i n a l l p e r i o d s h a s b e e n r e g a r d e d a s

o b l i g a t e d t o t r y t o e n h a n c e individual growth . A t t e n t i o n t o a n y o r

a l l o f t h e f o r e g o i n g t e a c h i n g c o m m i t m e n t s , o f c o u r s e , c o m e s t o a

h e a d i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l b o y o r g i r l . B u t i n m o r e r e c e n t

t i m e s , A m e r i c a n e d u c a t i o n h a s b e e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a m o r e e x p l i c i t

c o n c e r n f o r t h e w a y s i n w h i c h s c h o o l s a f f e c t t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l

4 . J o h n D e w e y , " M y P e d a g o g i c C r e ed , " i n T h e S c ho o l J o ur n a l , L I V , No . 3

( J a n u a r y i 6 , 1 8 9 7 ) . ( A s r e p r o d u c e d i n D e w e y o n E d u c a t i o n : S e l e c t i o n s , p . i i .

E d i t e d b y M a r t i n S . D w o r k i n . N e w Y o r k : T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , C o l u m b i a U n i -

v e r s i t y , 1 9 5 9 . )

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 24/327

LEE 1 5

and emotional aspects of a human personality . A s a r e s u l t , t h e

t e a c h e r h a s c o m e t o b e r e g a r d e d a s d e e p l y a n d i n t e g r a l l y i n v o l v e d

in the est ablishme nt of conditions which will conduce to genuine

p e r s o n a l s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d f u l f i l m e n t , w h i c h w i l l a s s i s t i n p r e p a r i n g

young people to mee t and master the circumst ances that will con-

f r o n t t h e m a s a d u l t s . T o b e s u r e , t h i s i s b a s i c t o e v e r y t h i n g t h a t h a s

b e e n m e n t i o n e d , b u t a m o r e g e n e r a l , l e s s l i m i t e d f o c u s i s i n t e n d e d .

An excerpt from the r eport of the Educati onal Polices Commission

i n 1 9 3 8 s u g g e s t s t h e t e n o r o f t h i s c o m p o n e n t o f h i s r o l e :

F i n a l l y , t h e s c h o o l s m u s t , i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l , s e a r c h

f o r t h e t y p e s o f e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t w i l l m a k e p r o b a b l e t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f

h a p p i n e s s . S o m e h o w , t h e l e a r n e r m u s t c o m e t o k n o w w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s

r e a l h a p p i n e s s , m u s t l e a r n w h e r e i t i s m o s t l i k e l y t o b e f o u n d , m u s t d e s i r e

t o a c q u i r e i t f o r h i m s e l f a n d o t h e r s , a n d m u s t m a s t e r t h e w a y o f c l a i m -

i n g i t . . . . I t i s t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l s t o h e l p e v e r y p e r s o n t o f i n d

a n d u s e t h e k e y t h a t w i l l u n l o c k t h e r i c h e s t h a t a r e t h e c o m m o n p o s s e s -

s i o n o f a l l . 5

Unques tionably, schools and teache rs have come to be loo ked

to for t he discharge of a wide variety of functions presumably

d i r e c t e d a t m o r e e f f i c i e n t l i v i n g . T h e s e e x p e c t e d f u n c t i o n s n o w i n -

c l u d e b o t h i n s t r u c t i o n a n d s e r v i c e s , b o t h t h e s t a t i n g o f p r e c e p t a n d

t h e p r o v i s i o n o f _ e x a m p l e , , b o t h t h e e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y

a n d t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f order .

The pre ceding summary represents an attempt to sugges t the

major conceptions of the role of t he teacher which have bee n

s u c c e s s i v e l y i n t r o d u c e d d u r i n g t h e 3 5 0 y e a r s o f A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y .

The ch ronology is i mperfec t ; i n d e e d , p r e c i s i o n i s i m p o s s i b l e . B u t ,

w i t h t h e s i n g l e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l c h a r g e o n t h e t e a c h e r t o

p r o m o t e a r e l i g i o u s f a i t h ( a n d o n t h i s m a t t e r , i n t h e m i d - 1 9 6 o ' s ,

deb ate waxes intense ; i t i s a t t h i s w r i t i n g s e r i o u s l y p r o p o s e d b y

s o m e t h a t t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n s h o u l d b e a m e n d e d t o i n s u r e a p l a c e f o r

r e l i g i o n i n p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n ) , t h e l i s t i n g c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s c u m u l a -

t i v e ; i n a p p r o x i ma t e l y t h e o r d e r p r e s e n t e d , t h e s e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

were assigned to a nd assumed by the school and the teacher . I t i s

i n t h e l i g h t o f t h i s i n h e r i t a n c e , t h i s c o l l e c t i o n o f f u n c t i o n s , t h a t

any effort to examine the mode rn teacher must b e conducted .

5 .E d u c a t i o n a l P o l i c i e s C o m m i s s i o n , T h e P u r p o s e s o f E d u c a t i o n i n A m e r i -

can Democracy (1 9i8), a s r e p r o d u c e d i n P o l i c i e s f o r E d u c a t i o n i n A m e r i c a n

Demo cra cy, p . 1 3 . W a s h i n g t o n : E d u c a t i o n a l P o l i c i e s C o m m i s s i o n , 1 9 4 6 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 25/327

1 6 CHANGING ROLE OF THE TEACHERT h e A m e r i c a n T e a c h e r b e f o r e W o r l d W a r I I

VITAL STATISTICS

T h e " t y p i c a l " t e a c h e r i n t h e y e a r s i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e W o r l d

W a r I I w a s a f a i r l y y o u n g , s i n g l e w o m a n w i t h b e t w e e n t h r e e a n d

f o u r y e a r s o f p o s t - h i g h - s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n , e a r n i n g a n a n n u a l s a l a r y

o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y $ x , 4 4 o . o o a f t e r e i g h t t o t e n y e a r s o f t e a c h i n g e x -

p e r i e n c e . M o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e s i t u a t i o n w a s a s f o l l o w s :

There were in 1940 some 640,000 e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l t e a c h e r s

and 330,400 s e c o n d a r y - s c h o o l t e a c h e r s , o f w h o m 7 9 p e r c e n t w e r e

women, mostly unmarr ied . Of e very twenty ele mentary-sch ool

t e a c h e r s ( a l m o s t a l l w o m e n ) , o n l y t h r e e o r f o u r w e r e m a r r i e d ; o f

e v e r y t w e n t y w o m e n t e a c h e r s i n s e n i o r h i g h s c h o o l s , o n l y o n e o r

two were mar ried . Only one ele mentary- and fo ur hi gh- sch ool

t e a c h e r s i n t w e n t y w e r e m a r r i e d m e n .

The medi an age of ele mentary-school t eachers i n t h e e a r l y

1 9 3 0 ' s w a s t w e n t y - s e v e n y e a r s ; o f h i g h - s c h o o l t e a c h e r s , t w e n t y - n i n e

y e a r s . I t w a s r e l i a b l y c a l c u l a t e d t h a t , b y1939 o r 1 9 4 0 , t h e s e

f i g u r e s , a t l e a s t f o r u r b a n t e a c h e r s , h a d r i s e n b y a b o u t f o u r y e a r s .

F o r a l l t e a c h e r s i n c i t i e s w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f 2 , 5 0 0 o r o v e r , t h e

m e d i a n n u m b e r o f y e a r s o f c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n w a s 4 . 2 , a n d a p p r o x i -

m a t e l y 1 6 p e r c e n t h a d c o m p l e t e d 5 y e a r s o r m o r e o f c o l l e g e - l e v e l

s t u d y . I n r u r a l a r e a s , n e a r l y t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e t e a c h e r s h a d c o m -

p l e t e d l e s s t h a n f o u r y e a r s o f c o l l e g e w o r k . A b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f t h e

e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l t e a c h e r s h e l d a b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e o r e q u i v a l e n t

d i p l o m a ; n i n e o u t o f t e n h i g h - s c h o o l t e a c h e r s w e r e c o l l e g e g r a d u -

a t e s . F e w e r t h a n o n e i n e i g h t w e r e t e a c h i n g i n a n o n - p u b l i c s c h o o l . °

THE PREVAILING CONCEPTION OF THE TEACHER

P r o b a b l y t h e f o c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e p r e w a r t e a c h e r w a s h i s

c o m m i t m e n t t o a c o n c e p t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n a s i n e s s e n c e t h e g u i d a n c e

o r s h a p i n g o f s o c i a l a n d a t t i t u d i n a l d e v e l o p m e n t . I n h e r e n t i n t h e

c e n t r a l e d u c a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t s o f t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e t w e n t i e t h

c e n t u r y w a s t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s c o n -

s t i t u t e t h e c r u c i a l d e t e r m i n a n t s o f a n y l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n , t h a t t h e

e m o t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t s o f f o r m a l s c h o o l i n g a r e p r o b a b l y f a r m o r e

6 . T h e f o r e g o i n g d a t a a r e t a k e n l a r g e l y f r o m T h e S t a t u s o f t h e T e a c h i n g

P r o f e s s i o n , p p . 5 5 - 5 9 .R e s e a r c h B u l l e t i n o f t h e N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n ,

V o l . X V I I , N o . 2 . W a s h i n g t o n : N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , M a r c h , 1 9 4 0 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 26/327

LEE 1 7

i m p o r t a n t t h a n a n y o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r , a n d t h a t

s t a b i l i t y o f p e r s o n a l i t y i s t h e u l t i m a t e m e a s u r e o f t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s

o f e d u c a t i o n .

Dominating the approach t o teach ing was the "whole-c hild"

c o n c e p t , t h e v i e w t h a t t h e t o t a l h u m a n o r g a n i s m i s i n v o l v e d i n a n y

g e n u i n e l e a r n i n g a n d t h a t , t h e r e f o r e , t h e e n t i r e b o y o r g i r l p r o p e r l y ,

indeed necessari ly, comes under the school's purvi ew . Supp ort ed

b y t h e o r g a n i s m i c p o s i t i o n i n p s y c h o l o g y , s c h o o l s a n d t e a c h e r s s a w

t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a s e x t e n s i v e a n d a l l - i n c l u s i v e , i n a s m u c h a s a n y -

t h i n g might have an effect upon Johnny's l earning hi story and,

m o r e o v e r , s i n c e J o h n n y ' s e x p e r i e n c e w i t h h i s t o r y c o u l d c o n c e i v a b l y

a f f e c t e v e r y t h i n g e l s e i n h i s l i f e .

W i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h i s h o l i s t i c o u t l o o k , t h e t e a c h e r ' s r o l e

g r e w i n c r e a s i n g l y p l u r a l i s t i c , a n d t h e r a n g e o f h i s p r e s u m e d r e s p o n s i -

b i l i t i e s b e c a m e e v e r m o r e e x t e n s i v e a n d i n c l u s i v e . To be sur e, he

w a s l o o k e d u p o n , b y t h e c o m m u n i t y a n d b y h i s p u p i l s , a s p r i m a r i l y

a source of i nformati on and as one who check ed for mas tery . B u t

he and they were commit ted to a much b roader view of the educa-

t i o n a l p r o c e s s ; t h e t e a c h e r , t h e r e f o r e , w a s h e a v i l y e n g a g e d i n t h e

d i r e c t i o n _ _ o f s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s , t h e s p o n s o r s h i p o f r e c r e a t i o n a l p r o -

g r a m s , t h e p r o v i s i o n o f c o u n s e l i n g s e r v i c e s , a n d t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f

t h e e x t r a c u r r i c u l u m , w h i c h i n c l u d e d s u c h " a c t i v i t i e s " a s t h e n e w s -

paper, the chess club, and st udent government .

I n e s c a p a b l y , a t l e a s t u n d e r s t a n d a b l y , t h i s c l i m a t e e n c o u r a g e d a

b l u r r i n g o f d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e s t r i c t l y a c a d e m i c p h a s e s o f t h e

school program and those with more obvious psychological over-

t o n e s o r i m p l i c a t i o n s . I n d e e d , t h e t e n d e n c y t o a s s e s s e v e r y a s p e c t

o f t h e l i f e o f t h e s c h o o l i n t e r m s o f i t s i m p a c t u p o n t h e g e n e r a l

d e v e l o p m e n t o f p e r s o n a l i t y m a d e i t d i f f i c u l t , i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e , t o

a d v a n c e a n y c u r r i c u l a r h i e r a r c h y , t o s u p p o r t , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e c o n -

t e n t i o n t h a t E n g l i s h o r c h e m i s t r y w a s m o r e ( o r l e s s ) v a l u a b l e t h a n

typing or home economics or basketb all . On th e contra ry, th e

teacher was assumed to be operat ing within the bounds of a com-

m i t m e n t t o t e a c h i n g i t s e l f a s h o l i s t i c a n d i n t e g r a t e d , s o t h a t " c i t i z e n -

s h i p " i n t h e E n g l i s h c l a s s h e l d a s t a t u s a l m o s t a s h i g h a s t h a t a c -

corded the performance in English, and so metimes higher .

P a r a d o x i c a l a s i t m a y a p p e a r , t h e Americ an teac her circa 19 40

was compelli ngly dedicated to a focus upon personal development

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 27/327

I 8 CHANGING ROLE OF THE TEACHER

a n d a r e s p o n s e t o i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r e s t s . D e s p i t e t h e p e r v a s i v e a t -

t a c h m e n t t o t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f s o c i a l c o h e s i o n a n d f a c i l i t y , m o s t

t e a c h e r s s a w t h e m s e l v e s a s r e s p o n s i b l e f i r s t f o r t h e a d v a n c e m e n t o f

i n d i v i d u a l skill or knowledge, for the enhancement of parti cular

t a l e n t s o r i n t e r e s t s . The widesp read encouragem ent of "shari ng"

a n d o f c r e a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e p r i m a r y g r a d e s , t h e f a i r l y c o m p l e t e

a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e i n s c h o o l a n d c o l l e g e , t h e f o c u s

u p o n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e l e a r n e r , a n d t h e s t r e s s u p o n o c c u p a t i o n a l

g u i d a n c e - a l l o f t h e s e e v i d e n c e d s t r o n g s u p p o r t f o r a n e s s e n t i a l l y

i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c c o n c e p t i o n o f l e a r n i n g a n d t e a c h i n g . B u t t h i s w a s a n

i n d i v i d u a l i s m u n d e r s t o o d o n l y a s l i n k e d u l t i m a t e l y t o s o c i a l n e e d s ,

as rele vant only to some l arge r community framework . I t i s n o t

surprising that much of the d iscussion of teachi ng then and sub-

s e q u e n t l y h a s b e e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a c e r t a i n a m b i v a l e n c e , i f n o t

tension, between the "ch ild-ce ntered " and the "soci ety-centered "

e l e m e n t s i n t h i s c o m p l e x .

O n t h e b a s i s o f 1 9 3 0 f i g u r e s , f e w e r t h a n h a l f o f t h e c h i l d r e n

entering the first grade could be e xpected to graduate from high

s c h o o l ; w h i l e o n l y1 3

p e r c e n t o f p e r s o n s 1 8 - 2 4 years of age were

i n s c h o o l o r c o l l e g e . T h e t e a c he r i n t h i s p e r io d , t h e r e fo r e , i n ev i t a b l y

regarde d the elementary-secondary school seq uence as, in effect,

t e r m i n a l e d u c a t i o n f o r t h e l a r g e m a j o r i t y o f h i s s t u d e n t s . O f c o u r s e ,

t h e r e w a s g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t t h a t c e r t a i n b a s i c s t u d i e s w e r e a p p r o -

p r i a t e f o r t h e c o m m o n s c h o o l s r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e e x t e n t o f f u r t h e r

education ; indeed, the prevailing contention was that if publi c

school ed ucation was termi nal, all the more re ason for a program

c o n s i s t i n g l a r g e l y o f t h e c l a s s i c a l , l i b e r a l s t u d i e s f o r e v e r y o n e .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , e v e n g i v e n a f a i r l y s t a b l e c u r r i c u l u m , t h e t e r m i n a l

note was sounded in a numbe r of ways i n t h e t e a c h i n g . Comp re -

h e n s i v e n e s s a n d u t i l i t a r i a n i s m w e r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n c e t h e e n d o f

formal st udy was nigh ; the contempo rary and the imm edia te were

s t r e s s e d s i n c e t h e " r e a l " w o r l d w a s c l o s e a t h a n d . P e r h a p s s u b s t a n -

t i a l l y a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n , t h e t e a c h e r s a w h i m s e l f l e s s a s a

s i n g l e l i n k i n a n e n d l e s s , c o n t i n u i n g c h a i n a n d m o r e a s o n e o b l i g a t e d

t o d o a s m u c h a s p o s s i b l e f o r t h e p e r s o n w h i l e h e w a s s t i l l a s t u d e n t ,

a s t a t u s a t b e s t p r e c a r i o u s a n d s h o r t - l i v e d .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 28/327

LEE 1 9

T h e C h a n g i n g R o l e o f t h e A m e r i c a n T e a c h e r

T h e y e a r s s i n c e 1 9 4 0 o r1 9 4 5

h a v e b e e n s o f i l l e d w i t h e v e n t s o f

t h e m o s t i n t e n s e s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a t n o t h i n g i n t h e i r w a k e c a n h a v e

escaped profound modification . This chapte r can do no more than

mention such eve nts as t he est ablis hment of the United Nations

o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e l a u n c h i n g o f e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s , t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f

colonial empi res and the emerg ence of new nations, the Supreme

C o u r t d e c i s i o n s o n r a c i a l s e g r e g a t i o n , a n d t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f a

p r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . S e l d o m , i f e v e r , i n h i s t o r y h a s a

single quarte r-ce ntury encompasse d so many deve lopme nts of such

p r o f o u n d s i g n i f i c a n c e ; i t w o u l d b e n a i v e t o b e h a v e a s t h o u g h t h e s e

h a d h a d s l i g h t i m p a c t u p o n a m a j o r s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n . T h u s , w h a t -

ever the teacher of the 1 9 6 o ' s i s , h e i s , i n p a r t , b e c a u s e o f s u c h

m o n u m e n t a l h a p p e n i n g s a s t h e s e , a n d w h i l e t h i s d i s c u s s i o n f o c u s e s

e n t i r e l y u p o n m a t t e r s e s s e n t i a l l y p e d a g o g i c a l o r p r o f e s s i o n a l , t h e

i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s e l a r g e r f o r c e s m u s t n e v e r b e o v e r l o o k e d .

VITAL STATISTICS

I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 o ' s , the " median" American teacher was about

f o r t y y e a r s o f a g e , h a d s o m e t h i n g l e s s t h a n f i v e y e a r s o f c o l l e g e

educ ati on, and had an income o f approxi mate ly $5,5oo . o o ( i n c l u d -

i n g i n c o m e o t h e r t h a n s a l a r y ) a f t e r a l i t t l e m o r e t h a n 1 3 y e a r s i n

the classroom . About two-thir ds of t he Ameri can teache rs were

women, of whom about thre e-fourt hs were or had b een married .

Single women consti tut ed 1 7 per cent of the tot al number of

t e a c h e r s .

For the sc hool year 1 9 6 4 - 6 5 , there were approximately 9 3 8 , o o o

elementary-school and 700,000 s e c o n d a r y - s c h o o l c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s

i n t h e n a t i o n . The to tal number of cl assroom t eachers was I 1 5 , 0 0 0

l a r g e r t h a n i n 1 9 6 1 - 6 2 .

I n 1 9 6 1 , the est imated median age of women teachers was4 5 . 5

y e a r s ; for men in teaching, the comparab le figu re was 3 3 . 6 y e a r s .

I t a p p e a r s t h a t , a l t h o u g h r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l , a s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s i n g n u m -

ber of m en are entering elementary-school t eaching and that both

men and women are te nding to r emain longer in teachi ng at both

l e v e l s .

I n 1 9 6 1 , i t w a s e s t i m a t e d t h a t , o f t h e e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l t e a c h e r s ,

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 29/327

20 CHANGING ROLE OF THE TEACHER2 3 . 8 p e r c e n t h e l d n o d e g r e e ; 62 . 2 p e r c e n t h e l d t h e b a c h e l o r ' s d e -

g r e e a n d a n a d d i t i o n a l 14 p e r c e n t h e l d a b a c h e l o r ' s a n d a l s o a h i g h e r

d e g r e e. The med ian numbe r of years of co llege stud y compl ete d

was 4 . 6 . Fo r 1963-64, i t w a s e s t i m a t e d o n t h e b a s i s o f r e p o r t s f r o m

2 8 s t a t e s t h a t 8 2 . 1 p e r c e n t o f t h e e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l t e a c h e r s w e r e

c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e s .

In May, 1 9 6 1 , i s w a s r e p o r t e d t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 9 8 p e r c e n t

o f t h e s e c o n d a r y - s c h o o l t e a c h e r s h e l d t h e b a c h e l o r ' s d e g r e e , a n d

about 36 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l h e l d t h e m a s t e r ' s d e g r e e . The m ed ian

number of school years complet ed was 5 . 1 y e a r s . About one-sixth

o f t h e c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s w e r e t e a c h i n g i n i n d e p e n d e n t o r p r i v a t e

s c h o o l s . '

THE CHANGED OR CHANGING TEACHER

Probab ly the most fundamental change in the conception of

t e a c h i n g a n d t e a c h e r s t o b e n o t e d f o r t h e p e r i o d i s a s h i f t i n t h e

f o c u s o f t h e g o a l s s e t f o r e d u c a t i o n . , T o b e s u r e , d e s p i t e t h e c a t a -

clysmic cha ract er of rec ent histo ry, twenty or twenty-fi ve years

i s a v e r y s h o r t p e r i o d , a n d i t w o u l d b e r a s h t o c l a i m t h a t t h i s o r

t h a t c h a n g e h a d , i n f a c t , t r a n s p i r e d ; e s p e c i a l l y i s c a u t i o n i n o r d e r

w h e n o n e i s a t t e m p t i n g t o c o n s i d e r m a t t e r s a s a b s t r a c t a n d e l u s i v e

a s t h e g e n e r a l a i m s o r p u r p o s e s o f s u c h a n e n t e r p r i s e a s e d u c a t i o n .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , c h a n g e s i n t h i s b a s i c a s p e c t o f A m e r i c a n l i f e d o a p p e a r

t o b e c l e a r l y i n t h e m a k i n g , i f n o t a l r e a d y r e a l i z e d , a n d t h e s e a r e

m o s t p r o f o u n d l y e v i d e n t i n t h e c a s e o f t h e c e n t r a l g o a l s b e i n g s e t

for and by teachers .

T h e r e a r e a t l e a s t t h r e e c r u c i a l r e s p e c t s i n w h i c h e d u c a t i o n a l

g o a l s c a n b e s e e n t o b e i n t r a n s i t i o n . I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e, w h i le _ A m er i -

can educati on before t he war was governed by a primary concern

7 . T h e r 9 6 1 e s t i m a t e s a r e f r o m a s a m p l e s t u d y , T h e A m e r i c a n P u b l i c S c h o o l

T e a c h e r , 1 9 6 o - 6 1 , p p . 7 7 - 7 8 , 9 1 . ( R e s e a r c h M o n o g r a p h x 9 6 3 - M z , R e s e a r c h D i v i -

s i o n , N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , A p r i l , 1 9 6 3 ) . S t a n d ar d e r r o r s a r e r e a s o n -

a b l y s m a l l a n d c a r e f u l a t t e m p t s w e r e m a d e t o a v o i d o t h e r t y p e s o f e r r o r . T h e

1 9 6 4 - 6 5 s t a t i s t i c s a r e f r o m E s t i m a t e s o f S c h o o l S t a t i s t i c s , 1 9 6 4 - 6 5 ( R e s e a r c h

R e p o r t , 1 9 6 4 - R 1 7 , R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n , N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , Dece m-

b e r , 1 9 6 4 ) . O t h e r r e p o r t s u s e d w e r e Economic Stat us o f T e a c h e r s , 1 9 6 2 - 6 3

( R e s e a r c h R e p o r t , 1 9 6 3 , R 9 , R e s e a r c h D i v i s i o n , N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a -

t i o n , A u g u s t , 1 9 6 3 ) ; T e a c h e r S u p p l y a n d D e m a n d i n P u b l i c S ch o o l s , 1 9 6 4 , p . 2 4

(Research Repor t, R 9 . R e s e a r c h D i v is i o n , N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s oc i a t i o n ,

A p r i l , 1 9 6 4 ) . S e e a l s o , W .WC h a r t e r s , J r . , " T h e S o c i a l B a c k g r o u n d o f T e a c h -

i n g , " i n Handboo k of Resear ch on Teac hing, pp . 7 1 8 - 1 9 ( C h i c a g o : Rand

McNally, 1963) .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 30/327

LEE 2 1

f o r s e r v i c e s t o t h e p e r s o n a l a i m s a n d n e e d s o f i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s ,

t h e b a s i c d e d i c a t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l i n r e c e n t y e a r s h a s b e e n s h i f t i n g

more and more toward the meeti ng of broad n a t i o n a l n e e d s a n d t h e

f a c i l i t a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s . T h e t e a c h e r i s c ur r e n t l y c a l l e d u p o n

t o e x e r t h i s e f f o r t s i n b e h a l f o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c i t i z e n r y w h i c h

i s n ot s i m p l y l it e r a t e bu t i s li t e r a t e i n r e l a t i o n t o p r e s s i n g p o l i t i c a l

a n d s o c i a l r e a l i t i e s . O n e h a s b u t t o e x a m i n e t h e f e d e r a l e d u c a t i o n a l

l e g i s l a t i o n o f t h e p o s t w a r y e a r s w i t h i t s p r i m a r y e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f

s u b j e c t s w i t h i m m e d i a t e o r p o t e n t i a l p o l i t i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y u s e f u l -

ness t o sense the ch anging climate, and the teache r (even at the

e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l l e v e l ) m u s t p e r f o r c e r e s p o n d .

T h u s , i n t h e s e c o n d p l a c e , t h e b r o a d , u n d e r l y i n g c o m m i t m e n t t o

t h e p s y c h o s o c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f b o y s a n d g i r l s w h i c h h a s b e e n t h e

m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l e l e m e n t i n t h e A m e r i c a n t e a c h e r ' s o u t l o o k f o r s e v -

e r a l d e c a d e s a p p e a r s t o b e g i v i n g w a y t o a m o r e c o n c e n t r a t e d f o c u s

u p o n t h e c ul t i v a t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l p o w e r . I f n a t i o n a l r e q ui r e m e n t s

a r e t o t a k e p r e c e d e n c e , t h e n , i t i s w i d e l y b e l i e v e d t h a t s k i l l a n d

u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n t h e b a s i c d i s c i p l i n e s must stand as the paramount

c o n c e r n s of the school ; m a t h e m a t i c s , E n g l i s h , t h e b a s i c s c i e n c e s ,

h i s t o r y , a n d f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s s i m p l y m u s t b e m a s t e r e d b y a l l s t u -

d e n t s t o t h e l i m i t s o f t h e i r a b i l i t i e s . A n e s s e n t i a l l y a c a d e m i c o r i e n -

t a t i o n i s g a i n i n g i n p r o m i n e n c e , p e r h a p s m o s t d r a m a t i c a l l y i n t h e

e l e m e n t a r y g r a d e s t o w h i c h , i n r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e a t t e n t i o n o f l e a d i n g

s c h o l a r s i n n e a r l y e v e r y f i e l d h a s b e e n d r a w n . The e xploding de -

m a n d f o r c o l l e g e a n d u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a t i o n h a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y a c c e l -

e r a t e d m o v e m e n t i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n ; m a s t e r y o f t h e c e n t r a l a c a d e m i c

d i s c i p l i n e s h a s b e c o m e t h e c r u c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y

r i g o r o u s c o l l e g e - a d m i s s i o n s p o l i c i e s t h a t p r e s e n t l y o b t a i n .

I n t h e t h i r d p l a c e , t h e r u l i n g c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e a n d a i m s

o f e d u c a t i o n r e f l e c t s g r o w i n g r e j e c t i o n o f a n i d e a o f e d u c a t i o n a s

h a v i n g a f i x e d b e g i n n i n g o r e n d p o i n t , a s b e i n g s u s c e p t i b l e o f o r -

g a n i z a t i o n i n t o n e a t o r d e r l y p a c k a g e s . E a r l i e r n o t i o n s a s t o t h e e a s e

and tid iness with which one could d ist inguish "ele mentary" from

"secondary" schooling-and both from "hi gher" ed ucation-are no

l o n g e r r e g a r d e d a s t e n a b l e ; t h e p r o c e s s h a s c o m e t o b e s e e n a s c o n -

t i n u o u s , s e a m l e s s , a n d e n d l e s s . T h e s c h o o l t o d a y i s l e s s l i k e l y t h a n

previously to be organized in terms of a commit ment to "third-

g r a d e a r i t h m e t i c " o r " f r e s h m a n l i t e r a t u r e " ; t h e g r a d e p l a c e m e n t o f

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 31/327

2 2 CHANGING ROLE OF THE TEACHERs u b j e c t m a t t e r f a d e s a s t h e s t r e s s u p o n i t s c o n t i n u i t y from grade to

grade g rows more pronounced . T h e t e a c h e r i n t h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e i s

l e s s l i k e l y t o a c t a s t h o u g h a n y l e s s o n , c l a s s , o r c o u r s e o f s t u d y i s

complete and conclusive . Rather , he bec omes far mo re the e xem-

p l a r a n d p r o m o t e r o f w h a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a ( i n d e s i g -

n a t i n g i t s p r o g r a m o f c o n t i n u i n g e d u c a t i o n ) c a l l s " l i f e l o n g l e a r n i n g "

- a c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e b a s i c f u n c t i o n o f f o r m a l

e d u c a t i o n i s t o t r y t o h e l p p e o p l e l e a r n h o w t o l e a r n , t o b e a b l e

i n s o m e m e a s u r e t o g o o n t e a c h i n g t h e m s e l v e s f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e i r

l i v e s . Thus, it is p robably an accurate epitom e of t he prevai ling

s e n t i m e n t s i m p l y t o o b s e r v e t h a t t h e d e s i g n a t i o n " t e r m i n a l e d u c a -

tion" is now likely to be regarde d as a contradiction in terms .

Clearly, the go verning emphasis can be sai d to lie mor e and more

with t he de velopment of intellectu al power and with a comm and

o f t h e b a s i c i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o c e s s e s a s a f o u n d a t i o n f o r c o n t i n u o u s

f u r t h e r l e a r n i n g .

I n e v i t a b l y , a s h i f t o f t h i s m a g n i t u d e i n t h e g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n o f

t h e c e n t r a l g o a l s f o r e d u c a t i o n i s a c c o m p l i s h e d b y , i f i n d e e d i t d o e s

n o t r e f l e c t , b a s i c c h a n g e i n t h e w a y s i n w h i c h s t u d e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s

a r e t h e m s e l v e s p e r c e i v e d . I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e d o m i n a n t

p r e w a r i d e a o f t h e s c h o o l - c h i l d w a s c o m p r e h e n s i v e , t h a t t h e d e r i v a -

t i v e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s e m b r a c e d n e a r l y e v e r y

p h a s e o f t h e c h i l d ' s d e v e l o p m e n t . I t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e p r e v a i l i n g d e f i -

n i t i o n o f t h e c h i l d a t s c h o o l , w h e t h e r i n c l u s i v e o r s o m e w h a t s e l e c t i v e

i n n a t u r e , w a s e s s e n t i a l l y m u l t i p l e a n d c o m p l e x i n i t s c o m p o s i t i o n .

W h i l e i t c o u l d h a r d l y b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t p e r s o n a l i t i e s h a v e g r o w n

l e s s c o m p l e x i n r e c e n t y e a r s , i t d o e s a p p e a r t h a t t h e b a s i c c o n c e r n

of the e ducator refl ects movement toward a more unitary view of

t h e c h i l d a s s t u d e n t . S u b s c r i p t i o n t o t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e " w h o l e

c h i l d " c o m e s t o s c h o o l a n d t h a t t h e r e f o r e t h e s c h o o l m u s t a t t e n d t o

a l l o f h i m i s b e i n g s u p p l a n t e d b y t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e s c h o o l h a s ,

p a r t i c u l a r , u n i q u e f u n c t i o n s t o p e r f o r m a n d t h a t t h e s e r e l a t e d i -

r e c t l y o n l y t o p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s o f t h e d e v e l o p i n g p e r s o n . I t i s ,

o f c o u r s e , t h e i n t e l l e c t ua l a n d t h e d i s c i p l i n a r y ( i n t h e s e n s e o f t h e

d i s c i p l i n e s ) t o w h i c h t h i s e m p h a s i s i s p o i n t i n g , a n d o t h e r m a t t e r s

a r e s u b o r d i n a t e d o r l e f t t o a g e n c i e s o u t s i d e t h e s c h o o l . T h i s a t t i t u d e

i s r e i n f o r c e d a s n o t e i s t a k e n o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g , a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 32/327

LEE 2 3

complicat ed, intelle ctual or academ ic demands upon the school .

New probl ems, new subje cts, new fie lds, in a sense ev en new dis-

c i p l i n e s a p p e a r i n p r o f u s i o n w i t h i n c r e d i b l e r a p i d i t y . To a cco m-

m o d a t e t h e s e , a d j u s t m e n t s i n o u t l o o k a n d c u r r i c u l u m a r e i n e s c a p a b l e .

The gro wing concern for the c ulti vatio n of th e cou ntry's in-

t e l l e c t u a l r e s o u r ce s t o t h e i r f u l l p o t e n t i a l h a s b e e n e v i d e n c e d i n s t i l l

another change in the approach t o the student ; a m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t

rece nt deve lopment has bee n a dramat ic increase in concern for

d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f s t u d e n t s . While this trend may appear t o run

c o u n t e r t o t h e t e n d e n c y t o n a r r o w t h e s c h o o l ' s v i e w o f t h e s t u d e n t ,

i t i s i n r e a l i t y a n o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e i m p a c t o f t h e e f f o r t t o

c o n c e n t r a t e t h e s c h o o l ' s e n e r g i e s . If the focus i n terms of which

c h i l d r e n i n g e n e r a l a r e t a u g h t i s b e i n g r e d u c e d i n s c o p e , a t t h e s a m e ' e

time the focus in terms of which i n d i v i d u a l c h i l d r e n a r e r e c e i v e d

f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i s b e i n g v a s t l y e x p a n d e d . Whet her one thinks of

a b i l i t y g r o u p i n g w i t h i n t h e n o r m a l r a n g e o f s c h o l a s t i c c a p a c i t i e s

o r o f p r o g r a m s d e s i g n e d f o r " e x c e p t i o n a l " s t u d e n t s o f o n e s o r t o r

another (f rom honors programs to classes f or the mentally re-

t a r d e d ) , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t a t t e n t i o n t o d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g s t u d e n t s

is growing more system atic and more e xtensive . But t he c rux of

t h e c h a n g e w o u l d s e e m t o b e t h a t t h e t r e a t m e n t o f s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s ,

h e n c e t h e a c t i v i t y o f t h e t e a c h e r , i s b a s e d , n o t u p o n t h e a l l - e m b r a c -

i n g v i e w o f t h e c h i l d a t s c h o o l w h i c h p r e v a i l e d e a r l i e r , b u t u p o n

t h e m o r e e x p l i c i t , m o r e m o d e s t d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e c h i l d a s s t u d e n t

which has rece ntly gained in promi nence .

A l l o f t h e t r e n d s n o t e d a r e p r o d u c i n g p r o f o u n d c h a n g e s i n t h e

behavior of te achers, in the way in which th ey conceive of thei r

f u n c t i o n a n d a r e p e r c e i v e d b y s o c i e t y a t l a r g e . T h e s e c h a n g e s , o f

c o u r s e , a r e p r e s a g e d , w h e r e t h e y a r e n o t a c t u a l l y s p e c i f i e d , i n a l l

t h a t h a s p r e c e d e d i n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n ; now we endeavor to note the

i m p a c t o f t h e m u p o n t e a c h i n g a s e x p l i c i t l y a s p o s s i b l e .

F i r s t , i t i s a p p a r e n t i n a v a r i e t y o f w a y s t h a t t h e r o l e o f t h e

t e a c h e r i s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , _ c h a n g i n g f r o m _ t h e

p l u r a l i s t i c t o t h e s i n g u l a r , f r o m t h e d i v e r s i f i e d t o t h e s p e c i a l i z e d .

On the o ne hand, incre asi ng stres s on knowled ge and mast ery on

t h e p a r t o f p u p i l s m a n d a t e s t h e s a m e f o r t h e t e a c h e r . T h e r e s u l t h a s

b e e n a g r o w i n g t e n d e n c y t o s e e t h e t e a c h e r , r e g a r d l e s s o f l e v e l , a s

a s p e c i a l i s t t o s o m e d e g r e e i n a b a s i c f i e l d o f l e a r n i n g . O n t h e o t h e r

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 33/327

24 CHANGING ROLE OF THE TEACHER

h a n d , t h e s a m e n a r r o w i n g f o c u s h a s m e a n t a d e c r e a s i n g e x p e c t a t i o n

t h a t t h e t e a c h e r w i l l s e r v e a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f f u n c t i o n s , o n l y s o m e o f

w h i c h a r e e s s e n t i a l l y a c a d e m i c i n n a t u r e . T h e t e n d e n c y i s t o e l a b -

o r a t e a n u m b e r o f s p e c i a l t i e s , b o t h i n a n d o u t s i d e t h e s c h o o l , t o

d e a l w i t h t h e a r r a y o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s w h i c h h a v e b e e n c u s t o m a r i l y

a s s i g n e d t o t h e t e a c h e r . T h e h i g h s c h o o l h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n c o n -

s t r u c t e d o n t h e b a s i s o f s p e c i a l t i e s i n s u b j e c t - m a t t e r f i e l d s ; t h e e l e -

m e n t a r y s c h o o l , w i t h s p e c i a l i s t s i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f r e a d i n g o r a r i t h -

metic or earth sciences, is rapidly developing toward the same

p a t t e r n . T e a c h e r s a t b o t h l e v e l s a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y s u p p l e m e n t e d b y

s p e c i a l i s t s i n v a r i o u s c a p a c i t i e s - c o u n s e l o r s , s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t s ,

p s y c h o m e t r i s t s , c u r r i c u l u m c o - o r d i n a t o r s , s u p e r v i s o r s , s c h o o l s o c i a l

workers -whose very prese nce encourages t he more c oncentrat ed

approach to teac hing .

S e c o n d , t h e t e a c h e r i s m o v i n g a w a y f r o m t h e p o s i t i o n o f b e i n g

exclusively or predomi nantly a source of data and a di spenser of

i n f o r m a t i o n . The rec ent develop ments with which thi s chapt er is

c o n c e r n e d p o i n t t o a m a j o r r e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e t e a c h e r ' s b a s i c r e -

s p o n s i b i l i t y . The growing stres s up on "learning how to le arn"

m e a n s t h a t t h e e l e m e n t a l i n g r e d i e n t i n e d u c a t i o n i s n o t d i s c r e t e f a c t

b u t u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e , n o t d e t a i l s o f i n f o r m a t i o n b u t i n s i g h t i n t o

i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o c e s s e s . This means that the teach er must fu nction

m o r e a s c a t a l y s t , a s o n e w h o s e p r i m e o b l i g a t i o n i s t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o f

the urge to inquire and the oversi ght of individual, independent

study . F a c t a n d i n f o r m a t i o n a r e v i t a l , o f c o u r s e , b u t i n t h i s p e r s p ec -

t i v e t h e y b e c o m e i n s t r u m e n t s f o r t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g r a t h e r t h a n

u l t i m a t e e n d s i n t h e m s e l v e s .

Third , and in line with t he for egoi ng, the concepti on of the

t e a c h e r ' s r o l e g r o w s l e s s d i d a c t i c a n d m o r e t u t o r i a l ; h e b e c o m e s l e s s

t h e s o u r c e t h a n a r e s o u r c e f o r i n f o r m a t i o n , w h i c h i s t o s a y t h a t h e

t e n d s t o s t a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y a s a m o b i l i z e r o f m a t e r i a l s f o r l e a r n i n g .

T h e i d e a , e s p e c i a l l y p r e v a l e n t a t t h e e l e m e n t a r y l e v e l , o f t h e t e a c h e r

a s s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t i s s u p pl a n t e d b y s u c h p a t t e r n s a s t e a m t e a c h i n g a n d

t e a c h e r a i d e s a n d b y t h e e v e r m o r e e l a b o r a t e m e c h a n i z a t i o n o f a p -

p a r a t u s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n , a r r a n g e m e n t s i n w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l t e a c h e r

i s n o l e s s i m p o r t a n t t h a n b e f o r e b u t w i t h i n w h i c h h e m u s t p e r f o r m

i n r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t w a y s .

T h u s , i n t e r m s o f t h e r o l e h e p l a y s , i t i s u n m i s t a k a b l e t h a t t h e

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 34/327

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 35/327

26 CHANGING ROLE OF THE TEACHERSPECIALIZATION

We have noted some thing of t he de gree to which the entire

s c h o o l e n t e r p r i s e g r o w s s t e a d i l y m o r e s p e c i a l i z e d . T h i s r e l a t e s b o t h

t o s u b j e c t s ( e . g . , F r e n c h , m a t h e m a t i c s , b i o l o g y ) a n d t o p r o f e s s i o n a l

f u n c t i o n s ( e . g . , c o u n s e l i n g , s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , s t u d e n t p e r s o n n e l

w o r k ) - a n d a s t h i s s i t u a t i o n h a s e m e r g e d , s o n e c e s s a r i l y h a s t e a c h e r ,

o r p r o f e s s i o n a l , e d u c a t i o n i t s e l f b e c o m e m o r e s p e c i a l i z e d . T h i s d e v e l -

o p m e n t i s m a n i f e s t e d i n s e v e r a l w a y s .

Perhaps most import ant is the more vigorous emphasis upon

; s u b j e c t - m a t t e r m a s t e r y a s t h e c e n t r a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e t e a c h e r ' s

I equipme nt . I t w o u l d b e g r o s s l y i n a c c u r a t e t o s u g g e s t t h a t s u b j e c t t

matter was earli er widely regarded as an unimportant factor, but

i t s p r e - e m i n e n c e i n t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n c e r t a i n l y h a s b e e n s e r i o u s l y

c h a l l e n g e d i n r e c e n t d e c a d e s . O p i n i o n s d i f f e r a s t o t h e e x t e n t t o

w h i c h t h i s c h a l l e n g e b o r e f r u i t , b u t t h e r e w e r e c l e a r a n d p r o m i n e n t

patterns of requirements and curricula for prospe ctive teache rs

which shar ply exemplif ied a pri mary commit ment to the under-

s t a n d i n g o f c h i l d r e n a n d l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e t e a c h -

i n g f i e l d s . S u c h i s d e c r e a s i n g l y t h e d o m i n a n t p a t t e r n ; i n o n e f o r m

or another, contemporary programs of t eacher e ducati on are char-

a c t e r i z e d b y m o r e e x p l i c i t a n d m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e c u l -

t i v a t i o n , b y t h e p r o s p e c t i v e t e a c h e r , o f a t t a c h m e n t t o a n d f a c i l i t y

w i t h i n o n e o f t h e e s t a b l i s h e d s c h o o l - s u b j e c t a r e a s .

T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t i n t h e a p p r o a c h t o t h e

p r e p a r a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s f o r e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s . It ha s be en cus-

t o m a r y t o r e g a r d t h e j o b o f t h e e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l t e a c h e r a s c o n -

s i s t i n g o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i n a v e r y b r o a d r a n g e o f

f i e l d s a n d f o r a n a r r a y o f n o n a c a d e m i c s o c i a l o r h y g i e n i c o r r e c r e -

a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s a s w e l l . S u c h a c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e t e a c h e r ' s r o l e

s e e m e d t o c a l l f o r a p a t t e r n o f p r e p a r a t i o n w h i c h w a s c o r r e s p o n d -

i n g l y e x t e n s i v e a n d d i v e r s i f i e d , i n w h i c h b r e a d t h a n d g e n e r a l f a m i l -

i a r i t y w i t h a n u m b e r o f a r e a s w e r e b a s i c . R e c e n t t e n d e n c i e s i n t h e

a p p r o a c h t o t h e e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m a n d t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f

s u b j e c t m a t t e r h a v e c l e a r l y b e g u n t o d i r e c t t h i s e f f o r t a l o n g n a r -

r o w e r , m o r e s y s t e m a t i c l i n e s . I f , s o t h e l o g i c r u n s , i t i s i m p o r t a n t

t h a t w e e n a b l e c h i l d r e n t o b e c o m e l i t e r a t e i n , f o r e x a m p l e , p h y s i c a l

s c i e n c e , a n d i f i t i s d e m o n s t r a b l e t h a t t h e p r o c e s s o f p r o m o t i n g s u c h

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 36/327

LEE 27

l i t e r a c y c a n a n d s h o u l d b e s t a r t e d i n t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f s c h o o l i n g , i t

follows that we need some pe rsons in the e lementary school who

rea lly know physics . A n d s o f o r e a c h o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l f i e l d s o r

d i s c i p l i n e s , t h e r e s h o u l d b e i n c r e a s i n g s t r e s s o n s u b j e c t - m a t t e r m a s -

t e r y , o n e x p e r t n e s s i n s o m e c e n t r a l f i e l d , a s a p r i m e e l e m e n t i n t h e

p r e p a r a t i o n o f e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l t e a c h e r s . I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e c o n -

v e n t i o n a l g e n e r a l m a j o r i n " e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n " i s g i v i n g p l a c e

t o r e g u l a r m a j o r s i n a s i n g l e s u b j e c t o r a c l u s t e r o f i n t e r r e l a t e d s u b -

j e c t s a n d t h a t t h e g e n e r a l p r o g r a m f o r t h o s e i n t e n d i n g t o t e a c h a t

t h e e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l l e v e l i s b e c o m i n g e v e r m o r e c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d

w i t h t h e m a i n s t r e a m s o f c o l l e g e o r u n i v e r s i t y a c t i v i t y .

A s w i t h t h e s u b j e c t f i e l d s , s o w i t h t h e p e d a g o g i c a l s i d e o f t e a c h e r

e d u c a t i o n ; t h e i m p a c t o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i s u n m i s t a k a b l e . T h e r e a r e

a t l e a s t t w o b a s e s f o r t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t . I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e d e =

mands upon organized e ducatio n and the rising level of the coup

t r y ' s s c h o l a s t i c e x p e c t a t i o n s e x t e n d t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e s c h o o l s

f a r b e y o n d t h e r e a c h o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t e a c h e r o r t h e s i n g l e c l a s s -

r o o m . A b a t t e r y o f s p e c i a l i s t s i n a w i d e v a r i e t y o f t e c h n i c a l a r e a s

i s e s s e n t i a l i f s u c h r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a r e t o b e m e t ; t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f

t h e t e a c h e r ' s r o l e , h e n c e o f t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n , h a s b r o a d e n e d t o

i n c l u d e s u c h s p e c i a l t i e s a s c o u n s e l i n g a n d s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g y , a d m i n -

i s t r a t i o n a n d s t u d e n t p e r s o n n e l w o r k , c u r r i c u l u m c o - o r d i n a t i o n a n d

l i b r a r i a n s h i p . - W i t h t h e e m e r g e n c e o f p a r t i c u l a r p r o f e s s i o n a l c o n -

c e r n s o f t h i s s o r t , t h e e d u c a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s a n d , i n d e e d , a l l s c h o o l

p e r s o n n e l n e c e s s a r i l y g r o w s m o r e s p e c i a l i z e d .

I n t h e s e c o n d p l a c e , s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n t h e s e v e r a l p e d a g o g i c a l

b r a n c h e s o f t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n i s a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f t h e g r o w t h o f

knowledge ab out the educational process . Whil e co mme ntary and

t h e o r i z i n g o n e d u c a t i o n a r e a s o l d a s l a n g u a g e , t h e o r g a n i z e d s t u d y

o f t h i s p r o c e s s i s i t s e l f a v e r y r e c e n t p h e n o m e n o n . M o r e r e c e n t s t i l l ,

e s s e n t i a l l y w i t h i n t h e p e r i o d d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r , i s t h e e m e r -

g e n c e o f l a r g e - s c a l e s u p p o r t , p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e , f o r t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n

o f s c h o l a r s h i p i n a n a t t a c k u p o n e d u c a t i o n a l o r p e d a g o g i c a l p r o b -

lems .

W h i l e , i n r e l a t i v e t e r m s , t h e i n v e s t m e n t i n s u c h s t u d y i s m i n u s -

c u l e , t h e e l a b o r a t i o n a n d d e f i n i t i o n o f n e e d e d s p e c i a l t i e s w i t h i n t h e

e d u c a t i o n a l e n t e r p r i s e h a v e b e e n m i g h t i l y e n c o u r a g e d . P e r h a p s t h e

most noteworthy of such developme nts in recent years ha s been

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 37/327

ZS CHANGING ROLE OF THE TEACHERthe gr owth of new hybrid fields , marrying a com mitment to a par-

t i c u l a r s u b j e c t t o a n e q u a l l y s t r o n g c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e i m p r o v e m e n t

o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n t h a t s u b j e c t . T h u s h a v e a p p e a r e d s u c h e s s e n t i a l l y

n e w s p e c i a l t i e s a s " m a t h e m a t i c s e d u c a t i o n , " " s c i e n c e e d u c a t i o n , "

a n d " e c o n o m i c s e d u c a t i o n " t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e r e s o u r c e s o f a u t h o r i -

t i e s i n o n e o r a n o t h e r f i e l d a r e j o i n e d w i t h t h e t a l e n t s o f e x p e r t s i n

t h e t e a c h i n g o f t h a t f i e l d .

INTELLECTUALIZATION

W o o d r i n g o n c e w r o t e t h a t t h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f s c h o o l s i n a

/ f r e e s o c i e t y i s " t o p r e p a r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o m a k e w i s e d e c i s i o n s .

A l l e l s e i s b u t c o n t r i b u t o r y . " 9 While t his sta teme nt when first

w r i t t e n w a s a n e x p r e s s i o n o f o n e p e r s o n ' s o w n e d u c a t i o n a l o u t l o o k ,

i t c a n s t a n d a s a n i n d e x t o o n e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p h e n o m e n a o f

postwar American educ ation . We have noted the c hanging char ac-

t e r o f e l e m e n t a r y - a n d s e c o n d a r y - s c h o o l c u r r i c u l a , t h e m o r e c o n -

c e n t r a t e d r o l e o f t h e t e a c h e r , a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t n a r r o w i n g o f t h e

f o c u s i n t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n . A l l o f t h e s e , i t s e e m s c l e a r , a r e r e s p o n s e s

t o a n i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e l l e c t u a l e m p h a s i s i n f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n a t a l l

s t a g e s , a n d t h i s e m p h a s i s c e r t a i n l y h a s i n f l u e n c e d t h e d i r e c t i o n o f

p r o g r a m s f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s .

P e r h a p s t h e m o s t f o r c e f u l e v i d e n c e o f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l i z a t i o n o f

t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n i s t h e g r o w i n g r e c o g n i t i o n a n d a c c e p t a n c e o f t h i s

f u n c t i o n a s p r o p e r l y , i n d e e d n e c e s s a r i l y , b e l o n g i n g t o t h e u n i v e r s i t y

a s a w h o l e . M u c h t h a t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r

s u g g e s t s t h e a u g m e n t e d p l a c e o f t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r f a c u l t i e s i n t h e

governance and conduct of teac her-ed ucation programs . T o b e s u r e ,

i n m o s t i n s t i t u t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o s e c o n d a r y - s c h o o l

t e a c h e r s , t h e a r t s a n d s c i e n c e s d e p a r t m e n t s h a v e h e r e t o f o r e b e e n

r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e c o u r s e o f s t u d y , b u t u n t i l

r e c e n t l y t h i s w a s r a r e l y c o n s i d e r e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e e x p e c t e d u l t i -

mate teachi ng task . I n c r e a s i n g l y , a n d d r a m a t i c a l l y a t t h e l e v e l o f

e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n , t h e f a c u l t i e s i n t h e b a s i c f i e l d s

h a v e b e e n e x a m i n i n g t h e i r p r o g r a m s i n t h e c o n t e x t o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

f o r t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s ; i n c r e a s i n g l y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e -

q . P a u l W o o d r i n g , A F o u r t h o f a N a t i o n , p . i i i . New York : M c G r a w - H i l l

B o o k C o. , 1 9 5 7 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 38/327

LEE 29

t w e e n t h e s e a r e a s a n d t h e c e n t r a l p e d a g o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s g r o w

m o r e i n t i m a t e a n d m o r e r e c i p r o c a l .

A l m o s t e q u a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , t h o u g h p e r h a p s l e s s p r e c i s e l y a p o s t -

w a r p h e n o m e n o n , i s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f r i s i n g s t a n d a r d s f o r t e a c h e r

c e r t i f i c a t i o n a n d e d u c a t i o n . T h i s h a s t a k e n a n u m b e r o f f o r m s , f r o m

t h e e x t e n s i o n o f b a s i c c e r t i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s ( t o f o u r o r f i v e

y e a r s o f c o l l e g e s t u d y ) t o t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f a b o v e - a v e r a g e s c h o l a s t i c

r e q u ir e m e n t s f o r a d m i s s i o n t o o r c o n t i n u a t i o n i n p r o g r a m s o f

t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n . A c c o m p a n y i n g a n d f a c i l i t a t i n g s u c h d e v e l o p -

m e n t s h a v e b e e n s u b s t a n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i on s t o t h e b o d y o f d a t a a n d

k n o w l e d g e a b o u t e d u c a t i o n i t s e l f , c o n t r i b u t i o n s w h i c h h a v e t e n d e d

t o u n d e r s c o r e t h e v i e w t h a t t h e s t u d y o f e d u c a t i o n i s , i n e s s e n c e ,

a n a l o g o u s t o t h e s t u d y o f a n y s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n o r s o c i a l p r o c e s s .

T h u s , t h e e d u c a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s , a s i t i s m o r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o i t s

p a r e n t f i e l d s - p s y c h o l o g y , p h i l o s o p h y , a n t h r o p o l o g y , f o r e x a m p l e

- b e c o m e s m o r e d i r e c t l y a s c h o l a r l y , h e n c e a n i n t e l l e c t u a l , e n t e r -

p r i s e . A g a i n , m a n y o f t h e c u r r e n t a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e p r e p a r a -

t i o n o f e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l t e a c h e r s a n d t h e e m e r g i n g p a t t e r n s f o r

t h e i r t r a i n i n g e l o q u e n t l y d e m o n s t r a t e t h i s s p i r i t .

CONTINUATION

T h e t e n d e n c i e s t o w a r d s p e c i a l i z a t i o n a n d a n i n t e l l e c t u a l e m p h a s i s

i n t h e e d u c a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s h a v e c l e a r l y r e s u l t e d i n , o r a t l e a s t h a v e

a c c e l e r a t e d , a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e p a r a t i o n

f o r t e a c h i n g i s a c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s . T h i s , o f c o u r s e , i s i n p a r t a

r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i n t r o d u c e d e a r l i e r t h a t e d u c a t i o n

i t s e l f i s c o m i n g t o b e s e e n a s e n d l e s s a n d l i f e l o n g . B u t , w i t h p a r -

t i c u l a r r e s p e c t t o t e a c h e r s , t h e r e f e r e n c e i s t o m o r e t h a n t h i s ; t h e

c r u x o f t h e m a t t e r h e r e i s t h a t t h e t e a c h e r c a n n o t , a n d c a n n o t b e

e x p e c t e d t o , p e r f o r m h i s d u t i e s a d e q u a t e l y e x c e p t a s h e i s h i m s e l f

c o n t i n u a l l y e n g a g e d i n l e a r n i n g . T h i s i s t o s a y , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t e d u -

c a t i o n i s c o m i n g t o b e r e g a r d e d a s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e t e a c h e r ' s

e n t i r e p r o f e s s i o n a l l i f e , n o t j u s t o f h i s p r e l i m i n a r y p r e p a r a t i o n .

T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h i s i n c o n t e m p o r a r y d e v e l -

o p m e n t s i n t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n . O n e s u c h i s t h e r a t h e r w i d e s p r e a d

i n t e r e s t i n r e - e x a m i n i n g t h e t i m i n g a n d s e q u e n c e o f t h e c o m p o n e n t

p a r t s o f a t e a c h e r - e d uc a t i o n p r o g r a m . Q u e s t i o n s a r e i n s i s t e n t a n d

e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n i s r i f e o n i s s u e s s u c h a s w h e n o r w h e t h e r a s t u d e n t -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 39/327

30 CHANGING ROLE OF THE TEACHER

t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e i s m a n d a t o r y , t h e b e s t p o i n t i n t h e s e q u e n c e o f

c o u r s e s f o r t h e d e t a i l e d s t u d y o f t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f l e a r n i n g o r t h e

b e h a v i o r o f c h i l d r e n , a n d t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f r e m o v i n g a l l s t u d y o f

e d u c a t i o n p e r s et o a p o s t - b a c c a l a u r e a t e p e r i o d . M o r e b a s i c a l l y ,

q u e s t i o n s a r e r a i s e d a s t o w h e t h e r c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l

t r a i n i n g , t r a d i t i o n a l l y a s s i g n e d t o c o l l e g e s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s, m i g h t b e

m o r e u s e f u l l y a n d e f f i c i e n t l y h a n d l e d o n t h e j o b , m i g h t b e a s s u m e d

b y t h e s c h o o l s t h e m s e l v e s a s i n t e g r a l p a r t n e r s i n t h e t e a c h e r - e d u c a -

tion program . Again, thoug h once more pre cede nt dat es fro m long

bef ore World War II, the p ast two dec ades have witnessed ve ry

s u b s t a n t i a l r e a l l o c a t i o n o f f u n c t i o n s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n t e a c h e r

e d u c a t i o n , r e i n f o r c e d b y a n u n d e r l y i n g c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e p r o c e s s

is never complet ed .

These d evelop ments have bee n accompa nied b y marked expan-

s i o n o f s c h o l a r l y a c t i v i t y i n t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n . The pr esumpt ion

that professional study for tea chers knows no terminus has meant

t h a t s o m e f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h r e s e a r c h a n d s c h o l a r s h i p i s c o m i n g t o b e

r e g a r d e d a s a n e s s e n t i a l c o m p o n e n t o f a n y t e a c h e r ' s e x p e r i e n c e a n d

equipme nt . E v e r m o r e w i d e l y , i t i s a s s u m e d t h a t , a t s o m e p o i n t i f

not peri odically in his care er, every teache r will be engaged in

advanced study-in his chose n field or t he pedag ogy ther eof, in

s o m e p a r t i c u l a r p r o f e s s i o n a l s p e c i a l t y , o r i n s o m e b a s i c a r e a w i t h

s i g n i f i c a n t m e a n i n g f o r h i s g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l o r i n t e l l e c t u a l g r o w t h .

( T e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n , t h e n , l i k e e d u c a t i o n i n g e n e r a l , i s c o m i n g t o b e

seen as a proce ss of continuous development ; t o c o m m i t o n e ' s s e l f

t o t e a c h i n g i s t o o b l i g a t e o n e ' s s e l f t o a l i f e t i m e o f s t u d y .

Envoi

To summa rize t his e xamination of the changing Ameri can

t e a c h e r : We have been moving since the war toward a mo re mod est

and a more manageable conception of the teache r's function . The

i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e r n f o r s p e c i a l i z a t i o n a n d t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l d i m e n s i o n

d o e s n o t p r e c l u d e c o n c e r n f o r o t h e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s - s o c i a l , a e s -

t h e t i c , p h y s i c a l , v o c a t i o n a l - w h i c h h a v e b e e n , a n d c o n t i n u e t o b e ,

i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s i n t h e l i f e o f a s c h o o l . B u t t h e t r e n d i s t o w a r d

focus and c oncentration and t oward a contracted (not necessar ily

a constricted) vie w of the individual te acher's role within that

s c h o o l . Indeed, the esta bli shment of less am bigu ous, hence more

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 40/327

LEE3 1

f u n c t i o n a l , p r i o r i t i e s f o r b o t h s c h o o l a n d t e a c h e r f o r t h e l a t t e r t h i r d

of the twentiet h century may be the most important legacy from

t h e e d u c a t i o n a l d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e y e a r s s i n c e t h e w a r .

Sele cte d Read ings

The Ameri can Publi c Schoo l Teach er, 1 9 60-6 1 . Wash ington : R e s e a r c h

D i v i s i o n o f t h e N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , A p r i l , 1 9 6 3 .

CHARTERS, W. W . , J R . " T h e S o c i a l B a c k g r o u n d o f T e a c h i n g , " Handboo k

o f R e s e a r c h o n T e a c h i n g . Edi ted by N. L . G a g e . C h i c a g o : R a n d -

McNally, 1 9 6 3 .

MCMURRIN, STERLING. " A C r i s i s o f C o n s c i e n c e , " Ameri can Educati on

Tod ay . Edi te d b y Paul Wood ri ng and John Scanlon . Ne w Yor k :

McGraw-Hill Boo k Co . , 1 9 6 3 .

T h e S t a t u s o f t h e T e a c h i n g P r o f e s s i o n . R e s e a r c h B u l l e t i n o f t h e N a t i o n a l

E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , V o l . XVII, No . 2 . Washington : R e s e a r c h

D i v i s i o n o f t h e N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , M a r c h , 1 94 0 .

T e a c h e r S u p p l y a n d D e m a n d i n P u b l i c S c h o o l s , 1964 . Washi ngton : R e -

s e a r c h D i v i s i o n o f t h e N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , A p r i l , 1 9 6 4 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 41/327

CHAPTER I I

T h e C u r r i c u l u m

JOHN I . GOODLAD

I n t r o d u c t i o n : The Ref or m Movem ent

Curriculum c hange usually stems from assumed e xcesses or in-

a d e q u a c i e s i n w h a t e x i s t s . A peri od of change produc es i ts own

s h o r t c o m i n g s a n d c r e a t e s t h e n e e d f o r a n o t h e r . I n r e l a t i ve l y s t a b l e

t i m e s , c h a n g e i s l i k e l y t o b e e v o l u t i o n a r y a n d m o d e s t i n c h a r a c t e r

and to co me from within ; t h a t i s , s c h o o l p e o p l e e f f e c t i t u n d e r t h e

d i r e c t i o n o f t h e i r o w n p r o f e s s i o n a l l e a d e r s . B u t i n p e r i o d s o f u n -

u s u a l p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , o r e c o n o m i c s t r e s s , c u r r i c u l u m c h a n g e i n t h e

s c h o o l s i s l i k e l y t o b e m o r e c o u n t e r - c y c l i c a l i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e p a s t ,

t o o c c u r r a p id l y , a n d t o b e l e d b y p e r s o n s n o t i d e n t i f i e d w i t h e a r l i e r

c u r r i c u l a r c h a n g e o r , f o r t h a t m a t t e r , w i t h t h e s c h o o l s - i n e f f e c t ,

t o b e s o m e w h a t r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n c h a r a c t e r . The cu rric ulum c hange

now under way in the United States, aspe cts o f which da te b ack t o

about 1 951 and which has b een intense for a decad e, has been

m a r k e d b y b o t h e v o l u t i o n a r y a n d r e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

I n i t i a l l e a d e r s h i p c a m e f r o m o u t s i d e o f w h a t C o n a n t i d e n t i f i e d

a s t h e " e d u c a t i o n e s t a b l i s h m e n t " I t h a t l o o s e l y k n i t g r o u p o f e d u -

c a t o r s m a d e u p o f s t a t e d e p a r t m e n t o f e d u c a t i o n p e r s o n n e l , s c h o o l

T h i s c h a p t e r , f o l l o w i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r a l l c h a p t e r s o f t h i s s e c t i o n , s e e k s

to document in short space what is and for some years has b een a very com-

prehensive movem ent in American educat ion . The m any generaliz atio ns set

forth here stem from th e writer's analysis duri ng 1 9 6 3 - 6 4 of more than 2 5

p r o j e c t s i n c u r r i c u l u m r e f o r m a n d c o n t i n u i n g a n a l y s i s o f a d d i t i o n a l p r o j e c t s

during 1 9 6 5 . B e c a u s e o f t h e s c o p e o f t h i s m o v e m e n t a n d s p a c e l i m i t a t i o n s , t h e

d a t a a n d s p e c i f i c e x a m p l e s t o s u p p o r t t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e n o t r e p o r t e d e x -

t e n s i v e l y h e r e . They are available elsewhere ( see John I . Goodlad , Scho ol

Curri culum Reform i n the Unite d Stat es . New Yor k : Fund fo r the Adva nce-

ment of Education, 1 9 6 4 ) .

i . Jam es B . C o n a n t , The Educat ion of Amer ica n Teac her s . New York :

McGraw-Hill Book Co . , 1 963 -

3 2

7

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 42/327

GOO DL AD 3 3

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , p r i n c i p a l s , a n d t e a c h e r s , a n d t h e p r o f e s s o r s o f e d u -

c a t i o n w h o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e p a r a t i o n . U n i v e r s i t y

professors i n the academ ic discip lines corresponding to subjects

t a u g h t i n t h e s c h o o l s h a v e b e e n i n v o l v e d i n u n p r e c e d e n t e d f a s h i o n ,

most of them for short periods of time b ut some of them on a

c o n t i n u i n g b a s i s . In this sec ond gr oup, the names o f Zacharias,

Suppe s, Begle , Karpl us, and ma ny more come rea dil y to mind . 2

They came to eff ect needed change ; t h e y s t a y e d o u t o f f a s c i n a t i o n

with t he comple x problems of e ducati ng the young .

J u s t a s r e c e n t c u r r i c u l u m c h a n g e h a s n o t b e e n i n s p i r e d a n d l e d

a t t h e g r a s s - r oo t s l o c a l a n d s t a t e l e v e l s b y t e a c h i n g , s u p e r v i s in g , a n d

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p e r s o n n e l i n t h e s c h o o l s , n e i t h e r h a s i t b e e n f i n a n c e d

b y t h e s t a t e o r i t s s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s . Financial suppor t-q uite hand-

some by previous standards-has come fr om the National Science

Foundat ion, the Unite d Stat es Offi ce of Educat ion, and priva te

f o u n d a t i o n s . This flow of funds from the fi rst two sources has

placed t he fede ral government square ly in the mainstream of e du-

c a t i o n a l a f f a i r s , i n e s c a p a b l y a f f e c t i n g w h a t i s t a u g h t a n d l e a r n e d i n

t h e n a t i o n ' s s c h o o l s . T h e a c a d e m i c d e b a t e o v e r w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e r e

s h o u l d b e f e d e r a l a i d t o e d u c a t i o n p r o c e e d e d " h o t a n d h e a v y " w h i l e

f e d e r a l a i d b e c a m e a s u b s t a n t i a l r e a l i t y .

I n e f f e c t , t h e r e c e n t a n d c o n t i n u i n g e f f o r t f o r c u r r i c u l u m c h a n g e

in elementary and secondary schools has receive d it s momentum

f r o m f o r c e s a n d i n t e r e s t s l y i n g l a r g e l y o u t s i d e t h e s t a t e a n d l o c a l

s c h o o l s y s t e m s c h a r g e d l e g a l l y w i t h r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r d e t e r m i n i n g

w h a t t o t e a c h . I t i s e a s y t o s e e , t h e r e f o r e , g i v e n i t s p e r v a s i v e s c o p e ,

w h y t h e m o v e m e n t f r e q u e n t l y i s l a b e l e d " n a t i o n a l . " B u t i t i s n o t a t

a l l n a t i o n a l i n t h e s e n s e o f b e i n g n a t i o n a l l y o r f e d e r a l l y c o n t r o l l e d .

T h e f e d e r a l g r a n t o r s h a v e b e e n c i r c u m s p e c t i n m a i n t a i n i n g a " h a n d s

off" policy regarding the productio n of curriculum ma terials a nd

h a v e b e e n e x a c t i n g i n t h e i r r e s t r i c t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g t o a d v e r t i s i n g o r

2 . Jerrold R . Z a c h a r i a s i s p r o f e s s o r o f p h y s i c s a t M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s t i t u t e o f

Technology and has been a prime mover in precollegi ate curri culum reform ;

Patrick C . S u p p e s b r o u g h t h i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l , m a t h e m a t i c a l , a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l

a b i l i t i e s t o b e a r o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a m a t h e m a t i c s p r o g r a m f o r y o u n g c h i l -

dren ; E. G . Begle has he aded the School Mathemat ics Study Group, first at

Yale a nd then at Stanford ; and Robe rt Karplu s has expe rime nted with new

approaches to sci ence for young child ren in his Science Curriculum Improve-

ment Study .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 43/327

3 4CURRICULUM

p r o s e l y t i n g o f a n y k i n d . N o r i s t h e m o v e m e n t n a t i o n a l i n t h e s e n s e

of provid ing a single "national curri culum . " T h e a l t e r n a t i v e s i n

m a t h e m a t i c s , t h e s c i e n c e s , a n d , m o r e r e c e n t l y , E n g l i s h a n d t h e s o c i a l

s c i e n c e s a r e i n c r e a s i n g a t a g r a t i f y i n g b u t b e w i l d e r i n g r a t e . T h e r e

i s n o q u e s t i o n , h o w e v e r , g i v e n t h e i n i t i a l e m p h a s i s o n m a t h e m a t i c s

a n d t h e s c i e n c e s a n d a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i m b a l a n c e i n f u n d i n g , t h a t t h e

c u r r e n t c u r r i c u l u m - r e f o r m m o v e m e n t i s , i n a l a r g e m e a s u r e , f e d e r -

a l l y i n f l u e n c e d a n d w i l l c o n t i n u e t o b e s o f o r s o m e y e a r s i n t o t h e

f u t u r e .

Perhaps this curriculum-reform movement of the 1 9 5 o ' s and

1 9 6 o ' s i s b e s t d e s c r i b e d a s n a t i o n - w i d e , i n t h a t i t s i m p a c t h a s b e e n

fel t i n Maine and Calif ornia, Orego n and Florida , and t hrou ghou t

t h e g i c a t h e a r t l a n d o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . R e l a t i v e l y f e w h i g h - s c h o o l

stud ents study physics, but more than half of those who do use

mate rial s prod uced b y the Physica l Science Study Commi tte e .

Many take biology, and more than half of the high-scho ol biol ogy

t e x t b o o k s s o l d i n t h i s c o u n t r y d u r i n g 1 9 6 5 - 6 6 b e a r t h e l a b e l o f t h e

B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s C u r r i c u l u m S t u d y . T h e s u b s t a n c e o f c u r r i c u l u m

p r o j e c t s , s u c h a s t h e C h e m i c a l E d u c a t i o n M a t e r i a l s S t u d y , i s f i n d i n g

i t s w a y i n t o t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s o f c o m m e r c i a l h o u s e s n o t o f f i c i a l l y

r e l e a s i n g p r o j e c t m a t e r i a l s . And curri culum pr oduc ts have be en

t r a n s l a t e d i n t o m a n y l a n g u a g e s f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n a r o u n d t h e w o r l d .

SMSG, PSSC, BSCS, CHEMS, ESS-the se a re t he ne w al ph ab e t

soup of American education . Many of t hese curricu lum pr ojects

u s e u p t o a m i l l i o n d o l l a r s e a c h i n a y e a r f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f d e v e l -

o p i n g a n d r e f i n i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l p a c k a g e s . Most of t hem a re, in

large mea sure, predicated on the assump tion that the ends and

m e a n s o f s c h o o l i n g ( b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y o f e d u c a t i o n a s a w h o l e )

a r e d e r i v e d f i r s t f r o m t h e a c a d e m i c d i s c i p l i n e s a n d o n l y s e c o n d a r i l y

f r o m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c h i l d r e n o r y o u t h a n d o f s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l .

Let us now examine some of the forces and factors thoug ht to be

productive of the movement and then move on to some of its most

c e n t r a l c h a r a c t e r i st i c s .

I n f l u e n c i n g F o r c e s a n d F a c t o r s

I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o e x p l a i n t h e c u r r e n t c u r r i c u l u m - r e f o r m m o v e -

m e n t i n a n y o n e - t o - o n e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o p o s s i b l e c a s u a l f a c t o r s . B u t ,

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 44/327

GOODLAD 3 5

c e r t a i n l y , t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e at l e a s t p a r t i a l l y d e s c r i p t i v e

o f t h e s e t t i n g i n w h i c h i t w a s s p a w n e d .

First , World War II and its imme dia te aft ermat h reve aled e x-

tensive (it has been described b y some as shocking) mathemati cal

a n d s c i e n t i f i c i l l i t e r a c y a m o n g h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s . A s s c i e n t i s t s

became increasingly aware of this fact a nd, subseque ntly, looked

i n t o t h e q u a l i t y a n d q u a n t i t y o f s c i e n c e a n d m a t h e m a t i c s t a u g h t i n

s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s , r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e i r o w n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y s t r u c k a t

l e a s t a c o r p s o f t h e m w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f o r c e . I n f a c t , E . G . B e g l e ,

direct or of t he School Mathemat ics Study Group, traces th e roots

o f t h i s f a r - r e a c h i n g p r o j e c t d i r e c t l y t o a s o u l - s e a r c h i n g c o n f e r e n c e

o f m a t h e m a t i c i a n s h e l d i n t h e e a r l y ' 5 o ' s 3 E x c e p t f o r s e t t i n g a d -

m i s s i o n s t a n d a r d s t o t h e i r o w n i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h i g h e r l e a r n i n g a n d

p r e r e q u i s i t e s f o r a d m i s s i o n t o t h e i r c o u r s e s , t h e a c a d e m i c i a n s h a d

b e e n s t a n d i n g a l o o f f r o m i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h p r e c o l l e g i a t e c u r r i c u l u m

m a t t e r s .

S e c o n d , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s b a r e l y o u t o f a " h o t " w a r b e f o r e

i t f o u n d i t s e l f i n a " c o l d " w a r , a w a r c a l l i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r p e r

s o n n e l k n o w l e d g e a b l e i n t h e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s a n d m a t h e m a t i c s . A'

f e w f a r - s i g h t e d s c h o l a r s , l e a d i n g c i t i z e n s , a n d m e m b e r s o f C o n g r e s s

-somewhat belate dly, admitte dly-saw the need . B u t b o t h g e n e r a l

concern and act ion lagged until 195 7, when the lau nching of the

f i r s t R u s s i a n s a t e l l i t e s h o o k t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e o u t o f t h e i r l a s s i -

t u d e a n d f o c u s e d u p o n t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s t h e m o s t c r i t i c a l a t t e n t i o n

they had received in decades . Educators, dodgi ng the blows and

l i c k i n g t h e i r w o u n d s , c o u l d n o t t h e n h a v e e n v i s i o n e d t h e a t t e n t i o n ,

encouragement, and support that were to come to them i n a short

s p a n o f y e a r s , p a r t l y a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f b e i n g p l a c e d a t t h e c o r e

o f t h e n a t i o n ' s m a l a i s e a n d , s u b s e q u e n t l y , a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f b e i n g

s e e n a s a t t h e c o r e o f t h e n a t i o n ' s w e l f a r e. S p u t n i k h a s b e e n r e f e r r e d

to so many times and in so many contexts t hat we are too mu ch

i n c l i n e d t o i g n o r e o r u n d e r e s t i m a t e i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e a s a f a c t o r p r o -

ductive of school curriculum reform .

Third, the crippling economic dep ressi on predi cted alm ost

3 . R e p o r t e d t o t h e w r i t e r i n a c o n f e r e n c e w i t h P r o f e s s o r B e g l e i n t h e

p r o c e s s o f c o l l e c t i n g d a t a f o r S c h o o l C u r r i c u l u m R e f o r m i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ,

o p . c i t .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 45/327

3 6 CURRICULUM

monotonously during the 1950's si mply did not materiali ze . As a

consequence, an expanding midd le clas s knew great er pros perit y

a n d h i g h e r s t a n d a r d s o f l i v i n g a t a n e a r l i e r a g e t h a n e v e r b e f o r e .

And th is re lative ly young group of ambit ious men and women saw

e d u c a t i o n a s t h e r o a d t o t h e g o o d l i f e f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n - e d u c a t i o n

o f a s o r t t h o u g h t b a s i c f o r a d m i s s i o n t o t h e p r e s t i g e c o l l e g e s o f t h e

l a n d . M e a n w h i l e , r e p e a t e d r e p o r t s i n t h e p o p u l a r p r e s s p r e d i c t e d

b u l g i n g c o l l e g e e n r o l m e n t s a n d a n i n a d e q u a t e n u m b e r o f p l a c e s f o r

all who would b e knocking at the d oors . P a r e n t a l a t t e n t i o n t u r n e d

t o t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s w h i c h , s t r a n g e l y a n d i r o n i c a l l y , w e r e e x p e c t e d

b o t h t o d o t h e j o b o f p r e p a r a t i o n a n d t o c r e a t e t h e n e c e s s a r y c o l l e g e

p l a c e s . T h i s a t t e n t i o n n o d o u b t s t i m u l a t e d e d u c a t i o n a l c h a n g e a n d

i n n o v a t i o n i n g e n e r a l , b u t i t m a y h a v e g i v e n s p e c i a l s t i m u l us t o t h e

kind of curriculum ref orm gett ing underway . M o s t o f t h i s r e f o r m

w a s s p e a r - h e a d e d b y d i s t i n g u i s h e d s c h o l a r s . W a s i t n o t , t h e r e f o r e ,

reasonable to assu me that such persons would know best how to

r e d e s i g n t h e p r e c o l l e g i a t e c u r r i c u l u m f o r c o l l e g e p r e p a r a t i o n ? I t i s

n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t r e q u e s t s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n p l a n s t o d e v e l o p a n d

use the new curriculum materials came most freque ntly from sub-

urban communities where th is young, vocal, and ambi tious group

h a d c o m e t o r e a r i t s c h i l d r e n .

1F o u r t h , v a l u e s w h i c h h a d l o n g g u i d e d A m e r i c a n l i f e w e r e s h i f t -

i n g a n d c r u m b l i n g , a p r o c e s s s h a r p l y a c c e l e r a t e d b y W o r l d W a r I I .

T o b e s u r e , t h e r e a l w a y s h a d b e e n s u r g e s o f d e f i a n c e a g a i n s t w h a t

appeared to be prevailing values-but at the peri phery and by a

few rather t han at the ce nter a nd by many . B u t n o w , t h e l i v e s o f

m i l l i o n s w e r e c h a n g i n g r a p i d l y a n d f u n d a m e n t a l l y , i n d i r e c t i o n s a n d

w a y s t h a t o f t e n w e r e b e y o n d t h e i r c o n t r o l . Young coup les who ha d

been taught the ab solute virtue of buying only what they could

p a y f o r d i s c o v e r e d t h a t w h a t t h e y w a n t e d h a d , i n m a n y i n s t a n c e s ,

d o u b l e d i n p r i c e b y t h e t i m e t h e y p o s s e s s e d t h e c a s h t o p a y f o r i t .

They would h ave be en served b ett er by a rati onal underst anding

of consumer economics than by absolute rules . J o b o p p o r t u n i t i e s

took these young couples from the st able communities of the ir

parents and grandparents to be droom co mmunities with no past-

and freq uently to a new, new com munity every oth er year . Job

o b s o l e s c e n c e c l o u d e d t h e f u t u r e , c r e a t i n g t h e s p e c t e r o f u n e m p l o y -

ment in a land of pl enty . Unemployment, in turn, threa te ned an

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 46/327

GOODLAD 3 7

i n d i v i d u a l ' s s e n s e o f w o r t h , e s p e c i a l l y i f h i s f a t h e r h a d b e e n d e e p l y

m o t i v a t e d b y t h e w o r k e t h i c . H o m e , j o b , v a l u e s - t h e s e a n d e v e r y -

thi ng e lse one had known-were c hanging . Fro m New Yor k' s

M a d i s o n A v e n u e t o C h i c a g o ' s S o u t h S i d e a n d S a n F r a n c i s c o ' s N o r t h

B e a c h , i t w a s b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y a p p a r e n t t h a t " y o u c a n ' t c o u n t

o n n o t h i n g t h e s e d a y s . " T h e m a n o n t h e s t r e e t w a s f e e l i n g w h a t

t h e s c h o l a r w a s s e e i n g : t h e e m e r g e n c e o f n e w c u l t u r a l v a l u e s s t r e s s -

i n g u n c e r t a i n t y , a d a p t a b i l i t y , a n d t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f r a t i o n a l i t y .

F i f t h , a n d c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e a b o v e , t h e k n o w l e d g e e x p l o s i o n ;

w a s r u l i n g o u t t r a d i t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s t o c u r r i c u l u m - p l a n n i n g . I t '

w a s a t l o n g l a s t b e c o m i n g a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e s e a r c h f o r t h o s e m o s t

i m p o r t a n t b i t s a n d p i e c e s o f k n o w l e d g e ( " f a c t s " ) f o r t r a n s m i t t a l

t o t h e y o u n g i s f u t i l e . T h e v e r y c o n c e p t o f f a c t w a s c h a n g i n g f r o m

t h a t o f a v e r i f i a b l e c e r t a i n t y t o t h a t o f a n o b s e r v a t i o n t a k i n g i t s

r e l e v a n c e f r o m t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t i n w h i c h i t i s u s e d a n d b y

w h i c h i t i s d e s c r i b e d . F a c t s b e c o m e f a c t s o n l y w i t h i n t h e p e r s p e c -

t i v e o f t h e v i e w e r a n d a r e c o m m u n i c a b l e a s f a c t s o n l y w i t h i n t h e

c o m m u n i c a t e d c o n t e n t o f h i s p e r s p e c t i v e . F u r t h e r , m a n ' s w a y s o f

v i e w i n g t h e u n i v e r s e a n d t h e a c c u m u l a t e d p r o d u c t s o f h i s i n v e s t i g a -

t i o n s n o w f a r s u r p a s s e d t h e c a p a c i t y o f a s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l t o e n c o m -

p a s s t h e m . T h e c u r r i c u l u m i n c r e a s i n g l y w a s s e e n t o n e e d b o t h f r e s h

i n f u s i o n s o f c o n t e n t a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n e m p h a s i z i n g

t h e s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e a c a d e m i c d i s c i p l i n e s a n d m a n ' s w a y s o f k n o w -

i n g . T h e w o r d s " s t r u c t u r e " a n d " i n t u i t i o n " m a r k e d t h e n e w p e d a -

g u e s e a n d w e r e b a n d i e d a b o u t a s c a r e l e s s l y a n d w i t h a s l i t t l e u n d e r -

s t a n d i n g a s " t h e c h i l d ' s n e e d s " a n d " r e a d i n e s s " h a d b e e n us e d i n a

p r e c e d i n g e r a .

S i x t h , t h i s g r o w i n g p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h t h e s t r u c t u r e s a n d s t r a t e =

g i e s o f t h e s u b j e c t f i e l d s l e d t o e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i t h c h i l d r e n ' s

a b i l i t i e s t o l e a r n t h e m a n d a w a v e o f n e w i n t e r e s t i n e a r l y c h i l d h o o d

s c h o o l i n g . A t l e a s t a f e w o f t h e s c h o l a r s w h o h a d s e t o u t m e r e l y t o

d e m o n s t r a t e t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e y o u n g t o h a n d l e s o l i d f a r e d i s c o v e r e d

t h a t c u r r i c u l u m d e v e l o p m e n t i s m o r e t h a n a r r a n g i n g a s e r i e s o f

t o p i c s i n a s s u m e d o r d e r o f t h e i r d i f f i c u l t y . T h e s t u d y o f c h i l d r e n ' s

l e a r n i n g t o o k o n f r e s h a n d e s s e n t i a l l y s c i e n t i f i c r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . P i a g e t

w a s r e d i s c o v e r e d a n d h i s s t u d i e s w e r e r e p l i c a t e d u s i n g m o d e r n s t a -

t i s t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s . S i m i l a r l y , w h a t b e g a n a s a r a t h e r m e c h a n i s t i c

p r o c e s s o f a r r a n g i n g c o n t e n t a c c o r d i n g t o i t s a s s u m e d s t r u c t u r e a n d

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 47/327

3 8CURRICULUM

of experime nting with gad getry soon matured into studies of pro-

g r a m i n g , i n s t r u c t i o n , a n d p e r s i s t e n t p r o b l e m s o f c u r r i c ul u m . P r e s s e y ,

t o o , w a s r e d i s c o v e r e d .

T h e a b o v e l i s t r e p r e s e n t s a s a m p l e o f b o t h s o c i e t a l p r e s s u r e s a r i s -

i n g o u t s i d e t h e f o r m a l p r o c e s s e s o f e d u c a t i o n a n d s u b s t a n t i v e p r e s -

s u r e s a r i s i n g f r o m a d v a n c e s w i t h i n e d u c a t i o n a n d i t s s t u d y , a l l o f

w h i c h a p p e a r t o h a v e a f f e c t e d t h e f o r c e , d i r e c t i o n , a n d n a t u r e o f

current curriculum reform . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o s e p a r a t e c a u s e a n d

effe ct or to di stinguish be tween primar y and secondary factors .

T h e f a c t t h a t b o t h " c r a s h " p r o g r a m s i n p r a c t i c e a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e

programs of res earch have be en mounted almost simult aneously is,

i n l a r g e p a r t , d u e t o b o t h w i d e s p r e a d r e c o g n i t i o n o f n e e d a n d t h e

u n p r e c e d e n t e d r e s p o n s e o f t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t t o t h i s n e e d . Two

o t h e r n e e d s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e r e s e a r c h - p r a c t i c e i n t e r p l a y , e a c h t h e

c o n v e r s e o f t h e o t h e r , a r e b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y a p p a r e n t . F i r s t , w e

n e e d a l a r g e r c o n t i n g e n t o f r e s e a r c h e r s w h o s t e p s a g a c i o u s l y f r o m

t h e l a b o r a t o r y o f c a r e f u l c o n t r o l i n t o t h e l a b o r a t o r y o f p o l y g l o t

p r a c t i c e . S e c o n d , w e n e e d a l a r g e r c o n t i n g e n t o f e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s

who point to the areas of drought yet to be made ferti le through

r e s e a r c h a n d w h o u s e r e l e v a n t r e s e a r c h i n t h e i r o w n d e c i s i o n s .

Characteristics o f the Changing Curriculum

Initial curriculum reform was concentrated on the high-sch ool

l e v e l . P r o c e d u r e s d e v e l o p e d a t t h i s l e v e l w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y c a r r i e d

o v e r w i t h l i t t l e m o d i f i c a t i o n i n t o r e v i s i o n a t t h e e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l

l e v e l . B u t t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s t h e r e e n c o u n t e r e d w e r e o f s u c h n a t u r e

t h a t r e - e x a m i n a t i o n o f c e r t a i n b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n s a t b o t h s e c o n d a r y -

and eleme ntary-school levels was called f or . I t s e e m s a d v i s a b l e ,

t h e r e f o r e , t o e x a m i n e s e p a r a t e l y t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e n e w s e c -

ondary as compared with the emergi ng eleme ntary curriculum .

THE SECONDARY PHASE OF SCHOOLING

The curr ent cur riculum-r eform m ovement was, at its inception,

a r e a c t i o n t o t h e f u s i o n a n d c o r r e l a t i o n o f s u b j e c t s s o o f t e n r e c o m -

m e n d e d b u t l e s s o f t e n p r a c t i c e d d u r i n g p r e v i o u s d e c a d e s . T h e r e f o r e ,

emphasis was upon discrete ness of the academic d isciplines : n o t

s c i e n c e b u t b i o l o g y , c h e m i s t r y , a n d p h y s i c s ; n o t s o c i a l s t u d i e s b u t

h i s t o r y , g e o g r a p h y , a n d e c o n o m i c s ; n o t E n g l i s h b u t l i t e r a t u r e , c o m -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 48/327

GOODLAD3 9

posit ion, and grammar . The p hysics curric ulum would be p lanned

b y p h y s i c i s t s ; h i g h - s c h o o l s t u d e n t s w o u l d c o m e t o t h i n k l i k e p h y s -

i c i s t s .

The curriculum in each field was to be organized around pri-

m a ry s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s o f t h e d i s c i p l i n e . S c h o l a r s , w o r k i n g p r i -

m a r i l y i n s u m m e r i n s t i t u t e s , s o u g h t t o i d e n t i f y t h e s e e l e m e n t s , d i s -

a g r e e m e n t s o v e r w h i c h a r e p r i m a r y , o f t e n b e i n g s e t t l e d b y t e a c h e r s

s e l e c t e d f r o m h i g h s c h o o l s w h o a t t e m p t e d t o j u d g e t h e i r a p p r o p r i -

a t e n e s s f o r a d o l e s c e n t l e a r n e r s . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f

s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s - c o n c e p t s , k e y i d e a s , p r i n c i p l e s , a n d m o d e s o f

i n q u i r y - o f t e n p o s t d a t e d t h e s e l e c t i o n o f n e w c o n t e n t a n d d i d n o t ,

t h e r e f o r e , g i v e d i r e c t i o n t o t h i s p r o c e s s . The Woo ds Hol e Con-

ference (i96 o) 4 o f s c i e n t i s t s , p s y c h o l o g i s t s , a n d e d u c a t i o n i s t s

b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r t o d i s c u s s p r o b l e m s o f t e a c h i n g v a r i o u s a c a d e m i c

d i s c i p l i n e s , a t t r a c t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n a n d s t i m u l a t e d a g o o d

d e a l o f t h i s b e l a t e d c u r r i c u l a r a c t i v i t y .

It was assumed tha t understanding these eleme nts (rat her than

m e r e l y p o s s e s s i n g f a c t s ) w o u l d g i v e t h e s t u d e n t i n t e l l e c t u a l p o w e r

-power to attack previous ly unknown problems and power to

g r a s p i n t u i t i v e l y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f n e w p h e n o m e n a n o t p r e v i o u s l y

encountered to p henomena alr eady experienced . T h e r e f o r e , a b i l i t y

t o t h i n k i n d u c t i v e l y b e c a m e a b u i l t - i n g o a l a n d t e a c h e r s w e r e e n - -

couraged to le t students discover meanings for themselves . Th e

word "d iscovery" popped u p everywhere i n articles des cribing new

c u r r i c u l u m p r o j e c t s , a u t h o r s f r e q u e n t l y f a i l i n g t o d i s t i n g u i s h . b e -

t w e e n d i s c o v e r y a s a n a s p e c t o f i n d u c t i v e b e h a v i o r t o b e s o u g h t i n

l e a r n e r s a n d d i s c o v e r y a s a p r o c e s s o f a t t a i n i n g o r t e a c h i n g f o r s u c h

b e h a v i o r .

C o m m o n l y , s p e c i f i c c u r r i c u l u m - p l a n n i n g i n a s u b j e c t f i e l d b e g a n

with d ete rmining what a "t ypical" stu dent shoul d know on com-

p l e t i n g h i g h s c h o o l o r t h e c o u r s e . Work was t hen planned bac k-

ward or downward to what was to be th e stu dent's b egi nning point

and, later, upward to provide for the extended p rogram of t he

m o r e a b l e s t u d e n t s . C o u r s e s w e r e i n t e n d e d t o f i t i n t o e x i s t i n g t i m e

allotments but, as work progresse d, the desire for mor e time was

4 . Jerom e S. B r u n e r , The Proces s of Educat ion . Cambri dge, Massach uset ts :

H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , i g 6 o .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 49/327

40 CURRICULUMv oic e d, espec ially by scholars and teach ers planning and te aching

single-year course s . Of cour se, for tho se pl anning in fields such a s

g eog raphy and anthropology, as yet lacking a clear ly stake d cl aim

to a plac e in the high-sc hool curriculum , any time a t all would

represent gain over the existing situation . Time for t hem was and

is still a ke y problem .

In curriculum t heory, the term "organizing ele ments" frequently

is used in referring to the concepts, skills, or values servi ng as

threa d s from which specif ic learning stimuli are to be or g aniz e d . 5

We have seen that, in the curriculum-reform movement di scussed

here, the id entificati on of organizing elements freq uently followed

rather than preceded t he selection of specific stimuli if, indeed, the

former were identified at all . Herr ic k 6 and others refer to these

stimu li as "org anizing centers" for l earning, points in time and place

through which the stud ent is guid ed toward the more fundamental

organizing ele ments underlying the curricul um . Clea rly, sel ect ion

o f t h e s e o r g ani z i n g c ent e r s w a s a p r i m e c on c e rn d u r ing t h e e a r ly

years of t his high-school curriculum revision .

Guiding criteria for their selection, usually implicit rather t han

explicit, included the following : (a) The c ontent used in the o rgan-

iz ing center must b e authentic and important to the fiel d , as de-

termined by leading scholars i n it . (b) The co ntent i n the organiz-

ing center must have linkage value, that is, it should re late to other

p o s s i b i l i t i e s a l r e a d y e x p e r i e nc e d o r t o b e e x p e r i e n c e d . ( c ) Th e

organizing center shou ld have great p otentiali ty for involving the

stude nt fully, for assuri ng that he will become act ive in thinking

and doing . (d) The org aniz ing center sho uld pre sent alter nativ e

avenues of approach-read ing books, viewing films, experimenting

in the laborat ory, and so on. (e ) The or ganizi ng center sh oul d le ad

the student to discover for himself. Crit eria pe rtai ning to stud ents'

past e xperience, present interest s, and individual diffe rences were

less apparent . If previo us eras of c urricu lum refo rm can be de-

5 . Ral ph W. T y l e r , B a s i c P r i n c i p l e s o f C u r r i c u l u m a n d I n s t r u c t i o n . Chic ago :

U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s ,1 9 5 0 -

6 . S t r a t e g i e s o f C u r r i c u l u m D e v e l o p m e n t . ( S e l e c t ed w r i t i n g s o f t h e l a t e

V i r g i l E . H e r r ic k . ) E d i t e d b y J a m e s B . Mac do nald , Dan W . A n d e r s o n , a n d

Fra nk B. May . C o l u m b u s , O h i o : Ch a r l e s E . M e r r i l l B o o k s , I n c . , 1 9 6 5 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 50/327

GOODLAD 4 1

s c r i b e d properly a s c h i l d - c e n t e r e d o r s o c i e t y - c e n t e r e d , t h e one

c u r r e n t l y u n d e r w a y c a n b e d e s c r i b e d j u s t a s p r o p e r l y a s d i s c i p l i n e -

o r s u b j e c t - c e n t e r e d , e s p e c i a l l y i n r e f e r e n c e t o i t s b e g i n n i n g s .

G i v e n c r i t e r i a s u c h a s t h e a b o v e f o r s e l e ct i n g o r g a n i z i n g c e n t e r s ,

c e n t r a l f o c u s o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c o m p r e h e n s i v e i n s t r u c t i o n a l

materi als package comes as no surprise . Products o f the Physical

S c i e n c e S t u d y C o m m i t t e e s e t s t a n d a r d s o f e x c e l l e n c e f o r t e x t b o o k s ,

laborato ry equipment, films, and suppl ementary materials of many

k i n d s . P a i n s t a k i n g c a r e i n t h i s p r o j e c t a n d o t h e r s h a s g o n e i n t o t h e

producti on of superb films to demonstrate dec eptive ly complex

p r i n c i p l e s a n d t o d o c u m e n t t h e p r o b l e m s , m o t i v a t i o n s , a n d e x c i t e -

m e n t o f s c i e n t i s t s a t w o r k . S o m e t i m e s , a c o l l e c t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s i s

to be consumed in the classroom as a tota l package ; s o m e t i m e s i t

m a y b e b r o k e n u p a t t h e d i s c r e t i o n o f t h e t e a c h e r . I n s o m e c o u r s e s ,

t h e r e i s a p r e c i s e p l a c e f o r t e x t b o o k , f i l m , a n d l a b o r a t o r y , e a c h a l -

ternating with the others acco rding to a predete rmined sequence .

In othe rs, films and experi ments are opt ional components of the

t e a c h e r ' s t o t a l r e p e r t o i r e .

At the outset, curriculum reformers recognized formidable

s u b j e c t - m a t t e r d e f i c i e n c i e s i n t e a c h e r s a n d s e t o u t t o r e m e d y t h e m

in summer and year- long instit utes, financed primari ly through

provis ions of t he National Defense Educati on Act and by the Na-

tio nal Science Foundati on . T e n s o f t h o u s a n d s o f t e a c h e r s p a r t i c i -

p a t e d , m o s t l y i n m a t h e m a t i c s a n d t h e s c i e n c e s , s t u d y i n g b o t h c o n -

tent and ways of teach ing it . S e v e r a l o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m - r e v i s i o n

p r o j e c t s r e s t r i c t e d u s e o f t h e i r m a t e r i a l s t o s c h o o l s y s t e m s s e n d i n g

t e a c h e r s t o t h e i r i n s t i t u t e s . T e n s o f t h o u s a n d s o f a d d i t i o n a l t e a c h e r s

p a r t i c i p a t e d i n l o c a l s c h o o l - d i s t r i c t w o r k s h o p s d e s i g n e d p r i m a r i l y

t o u p d a t e t h e i r s u b j e c t - m a t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g . I t i s f a i r t o s a y t h a t ,

as a consequence, many teach ers who had be come le thargi c and

discouraged enjoyed fre sh stimul ation and sati sfaction in their

chose n work .

THE ELEMENTARY PHASE OF SCHOOLING

O n l y a f e w o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m p r o j e c t s a t t h e e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l

l e v e l d a t e b a c k t o t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s . I n f a c t , i n t e r e s t c o m p a r a b l e t o i n t e r e s t

i n t h e r e v i s i o n o f t h e s e c o n d a r y - s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m i s o n l y b e g i n -

ning to become a ppare nt. Actual ly, however, a number of pa sses

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 51/327

42 CURRICULUMa t t h e t a s k w e r e m a d e i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s , u s i n g m a n y

o f t h e a s s u m p t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g h i g h - s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m r e f o r m . B u t

m a n y o f t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s d i d n o t h o l d u p , a n d t h e p a s s e s f e l l f a r

s h o r t o f c o n c e r t e d a c t i o n .

W h a t h a s o c c u r r e d s o f a r a t t h e e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l l e v e l r e s e m -

b l e s t h e h ig h - s c h o o l p i c t ur e i n s e v er a l r e s p e c t s : t a n g i b l e c u r r i c u l u m

m a t e r i a l s a r e , i n g e n e r a l , m o r e a v a i l a b l e i n m a t h e m a t i c s a n d s c i e n c e ;

t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l - m a t e r i a l s p a c k a g e i s c e n t r a l a n d i s g i v e n h i g h v i s i -

b i l i t y ; t e a c h e r s i n s e r v i c e h a v e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n w o r k s h o p s a n d i n -

s t i t u t e s s t r e s s i n g t h e n e w c o n t e n t ; c u r r i c u l u m d i s c o u r s e h a s s t r e s s e d

d i s c r e t e n e s s o f t h e a c ad e m i c d i s ci p l i n e s ; a n d t h o s e w o r d s , " s t r u c t u r e , "

" i n t u i t i v e l e a r n i n g , " a n d " d i s c o v e r y " h a v e c o m e t o t h e f o r e a g a i n .

B u t b e y o n d t h e s e s i m i l a r i t i e s , t h e r e a r e v e r y b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n

a p p r o a c h w h i c h a l r e a d y a r e a f f e c t i n g s o m e h i g h - s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m

r e v i s i o n s a n d w h i c h , w h e n f o l l o w e d t h r o u g h e v e n t o t e n t a t i v e c o n -

c l u s i o n s , w i l l h a v e p r o f o u n d i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e f u l l s w e e p o f t h e

s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m .

Two troub lesom e que sti ons have been encountered i n seek ing

t o e x t e n d s e p a r a t e d i s c i p l i n e s d o w n w a r d . F i r s t , i f r o o t c o n c e p t s i n

b i o l o g y , c h e m i s t r y , a n d p h y s i c s a r e t h e b a s i s o f c u r r i c u l u m - p l a n n i n g

in the high school, what should be the basis in the eleme ntary

school? Presumably, these same concepts should be ta ught in a

simp ler bu t, nonethel ess , honest way. The s ear ch f or d ownward

e x t e n s i o n s o f t h e s e o r g a n i z i n g e l e m e n t s a n d f o r o r g a n i z i n g c e n t e r s

throug h which to de velop the m with young childr en has proved

b o t h c h a l l e n g i n g a n d b a f f l i n g , s e p a r a t i n g t h e m e n f r o m t h e b o y s i n

curriculum reform . N o d o u b t , g e t t i n g b a c k t o t h e r e s e a r c h l a b o r a -

t o r y a n d t o c o l l e g e t e a c h i n g s u d d e n l y a p p e a r e d v e r y a t t r a c t i v e t o

those sci entists who really came face to face with the prob lems .

C l e a r l y , a d e q u a t e s o l u t i o n s r e q u i r e d v i r t u a l l y a f u l l - t i m e c a r e e r

c o m m i t m e n t .

S e c o n d , w h i c h d i s c i p l i n e s s h o u l d b e i n c l u d e d i n t h e e l e m e n t a r y -

school curr iculum or any division of it? The existi ng curric ulum

c o n s i s t e d , f o r e x a m p l e , o f a h o d g e p o d g e o f t o p i c s i n s c i e n c e , n o t

s e p a r a t e s e q u e n c e s i n t h e s e v e r a l s c i e n c e f i e l d s . E i t h e r t h e c o m m i t -

m e n t t o p r e s e r v i n g t h e i n t e g r i t y o f e a c h d i s c i p l i n e h a d t o g o , o r

s o m e v e r y t o u g h d e c i s i o n s a s t o p r i o r i t i e s h a d t o b e m a d e , o r s o m e

p a t t e r n o f a l t e r n a t i n g a t t e n t i o n t o m a n y d i s c i p l i n e s h a d t o b e d e -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 52/327

GOODLAD4 3

veloped . F o r , c l e a r l y , t h e r e c o u l d n o t b e t h i r t y o r m o r e s e p a r a t e

a c a d e m i c d i s c i p l i n e s i n t h e k i n d e r g a r t e n ! , '

I n m a t h e m a t i c s , t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s w e r e n o t s o f o r m i d a b l e . Mathe-

m a t i c s w a s f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e c u r r i c u l u m i n s o m e f o r m , a n d

high-scho ol mathe matics a lways was base d on the assumpti on of

s t u d i e s p r e c e d i n g i t . The pr ogram of the School Mathemat ics Study

Group, for example, planned from the top d own rather than the

b o t t o m u p , e n c o u n t e r e d a s q u e e z e i n t h e l o w e r y e a r s b e c a u s e o f a n

occasional poor fit between time available and substance to be

put into it-a situ ation somewhat comparable t o buttoning one's

s h i r t f r o m t h e t o p d o w n a n d t h e n d i s c o v e r i n g t h a t t h e r e i s n o h o l e

r e m a i n i n g f o r t h e b o t t o m b u t t o n . But e leme ntar y sci ence was much

m o r e t r o u b l e s o m e , a n d n o w s o c i a l s t u d i e s i s p r o v i n g t o b e e q u a l l y s o .

I n r e t r o s p e c t , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e i s s u e s w e r e

p e r c e i v e d i n a d v a n c e o r w h e t h e r t h e p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m s s i m p l y w e r e

deal t with on an ad hoc b a s i s . A t a n y r a t e , i n e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l

s c i e n c e a t l e a s t f o u r p a t t e r n s h a v e e m e r g e d : s e l e c t i o n o f a s i n g l e

d i s c i p l i n e n o t n o r m a l l y t a u g h t i n t h e h i g h s c h o o l ( r e p r e s e n t e d b y

t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s E l e m e n t a r y - S c h o o l S c i e n c e P r o j e c t w h i c h

i s o r g a n i z e d a r o u n d s e l e c t e d m a j o r t h e m e s o f a s t r o n o m y ) ; d e v e l o p -

ment of seque nces in several s ciences which then can be inter-

c h a n g e d a n d a l t e r n a t e d o v e r s i x o r s e v e n y e a r s o f i n s t r u c t i o n ( r e p r e -

s e n t e d b y t h e E l e m e n t a r y - S c h o o l S c i e n c e P r o j e c t a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y

o f C a l i f o r n i a , B e r k e l e y , w h i c h i n c l u d e s s u c h f i e l d s a s m a t h e m a t i c s ,

p h y s i c s , p h y s i o l o g y , b o t a n y , c h e m i s t r y , p a l e o n t o l o g y , a n d z o o l o g y ) ;

s p e c i f i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f b a s i c s k i l l s a n d c o m p e t e n c i e s t h o u g h t t o b e

e s s e n t i a l t o l e a r n i n g s c i e n c e b u t o n l y g e n e r a l g u i d a n c e i n t h e s e l e c -

t i o n o f t o p i c s t h r o u g h w h i c h s c i e n t i f i c b e h a v i o r i s t o b e a c h i e v e d

(rep resented by "Science-A Process Approach ," develope d by the

Commi ssion on Science Educatio n of the Ameri can Associ ati on for

the Advanceme nt of Science, and orga nized around such be havio rs

a s o b s e r v a t i o n , c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , m e a s u r e m e n t , c o m m u n i c a t i o n , i n f e r -

e n c e , a n d p r e d i c t i o n ) ; a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f a k i n d o f s p r e a d i n g t r e e

o f c o n c e p t s t h o u g h t t o b e b a s i c t o s c i e n c e a n d i t s m a n - m a d e d i v i -

s i o n s , w i t h l i t t l e o r n o e f f o r t t o d i s t i n g u i s h a m o n g t h e s e d i v i s i o n s

(rep resented by the Science Curriculum Improveme nt Study, with

h e a d q u a r t e r s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , B e r k e l e y ) . A l r e a d y i t

i s b e c o m i n g a p p a r e n t t h a t a l l o f t h e s e a n d p e r h a p s a d d i t i o n a l p a t -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 53/327

44 CURRICULUMt e r n s a r e l i k e l y t o e m e r g e i n t h e s o c i a l s t u d i e s , w i t h s u c h p r e v i o u s l y

n e g l e c t e d f i e l d s a s e c o n o m ic s , l a w , a n d p o l i t i c al s c i e n c e a l s o e n t e r i n g

t h e p i c t u r e .

Partly because of some of the di lemmas which become sharply

appare nt in conside ring the elem entary-schoo l curri culum, work

a t t h i s l e v e l h a s p r o c e e d e d m o r e s l o w l y a n d i n a m o r e e x p l o r a t o r y

and experime ntal fashi on . There has not been anything like t he

d e g r e e o f i n t e n s e a c t i o n i n w h i c h s c h o l a r s a r r i v e d a t s o m e p r e l i m -

i n a r y a g r e e m e n t s a t s p r i n g m e e t i n g s , j o i n e d t e a c h e r s f o r s u m m e r s

o f h u r r i e d w r i t i n g , t r i e d o u t p r e l i m i n a r y m a t e r i a l s d u r i n g t h e y e a r ,

r e t u r n e d f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l s u m m e r o f w r i t i n g , a n d t h e n m o v e d i n t o

t r i a l e d i t i o n s o f t e x t b o o k s a n d s u p p l e m e n t a r y m a t e r i a l s - o f t e n w i t h i n

two years or less . Nor has t here bee n the s ame as surance with

r e s p e c t t o b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n s .

Notable among missing assumptions is uniform precommi tment

t o a t l e a s t t h e b r o a d c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f e x i s t i n g c u r r i c u l a - t o t i m e

a l l o t m e n t s , g r a d e p l a c e m e n t o f c o u r s e s , a n d t r a d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t s , f o r

example . Elementary-school curriculum re formers seem to have

e m b r a c e d , a l b e i t h e s i t a n t l y a n d p a r t i a l l y , t h e n o t i o n t h a t s c h o o l s

need not remain as they have been . Some of them have identified

r a t h e r c l o s e l y w i t h r e c e n t i n c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t i n i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c es

and with such innovatio ns as nongrading, team teach ing, pro-

g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n , a n d m o r e f l e x i b l e s c h oo l f a c i l i t i e s , o f t e n a d a p t i n g

t h e i r m a t e r i a l s t o t h e m . I n c u r r i c u l u m - p l a n n i n g , s o m e o f t h e m h a v e

been willing to break away from a commitment to sep arate di sci-

plines in the se arch bo th for mor e meaningful synthes es and for

b e h a v i o r s c u t t i n g a c r o s s s e v e r a l f i e l d s w i t h i n a g e n e r a l d i v i s i o n o f

knowled ge . And they have shown some inclination to pl an from

the bot tom up rather th an from the top down. As a conseque nce,

t h e y h a v e t e n d e d t o p a y m o r e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l c h a r -

a c t e r i s t i c s o f c h i l d r e n .

T h e s e c u r r i c u l u m i d e a s a r e n o t a l l f o r e i g n t o s e c o n d a r y e d u c a -

t i o n . T h e y r e c e i v e d m u c h a t t e n t i o n i n t h e I 9 3 o ' s a n d 1 9 4 0 ' s . But

t h e s c h o l a r i s c l o s e r t o t h e h i g h s c h o o l t h a n t o t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l

- h e r e c e i v e s i t s r e c e n t p r o d u c t s - a n d , t h e r e f o r e , h e p r o b a b l y c o n -

c l u d e s , t h e h i g h s c h o o l s h o u l d b e c l o s e t o h i s d i s c i p l i n e . I d e a s s u c h

a s t h e c o r e c u r r i c u l u m , l i f e - a d j u s t m e n t e d u c a t i o n , a n d p r o b l e m s o f

s o c i a l l i v i n g , r a m p a n t i n t h e p r e w a r p e r i o d , s e e m e d t o t a k e t h e h i g h

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 54/327

GOODLAD4 5

s c h o o l a w a y f r o m h i s d i s c i p l i n e ; i t b e c a m e s o m e t h i n g o f a f o r e i g n e r

to him . Reform had t o be away from what was presu med to e xist .

As a conseque nce, there has be en an inadeq uate blending of new

and old . T h e s e c u r r i c u l u m i d e a s w i l l r e t u r n t o t h e h i g h s c h o o l , b u t

proba bly not for a few more years .

The eleme ntary school, on the other hand, always has b een a

s t r a n g e r t o t h e s c h o l a r . H e c a n a d m i t h i s i g n o r a n c e f r e e l y a n d c a n

l i s t e n t o t h o s e w h o a p p e a r t o b e o n i n t i m a t e t e r m s w i t h i t . The re

a p p e a r s , t h e r e f o r e , t o b e m o r e o f a d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n t h o s e s c h o l a r s

coming new to the fie ld and those scholars and teac hers who have

l i v e d w i t h t h e f i e l d o f e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n f o r s o m e y e a r s. P e r h a p s

because of this, curriculum change in the eleme ntary school has

b e e n a n d p r o b a b l y w i l l c o n t i n u e t o b e m a r k e d l e s s b y " c r a s h " t h a n

b y e v o l u t i o n a r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Nonethele ss, some of the c hanges

a r e l i k e l y t o b e q u i t e s w e e p i n g .

C r i t i q u e

I n t h a t t h e c u r r e n t m o v e m e n t s e t o u t t o c o r r e c t c e r t a i n c u r r i cu l a r

d e f i c i e n c i e s a n d i m b a l a n c e s a n d t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e h a s s u c -

c e e d e d , i t h a s p r o v i d e d s o m e n o t a b l e a s s e t s . B u t i n a s m u c h a s i t w a s

a l s o a r e a c t i o n t o p r e v i o u s e x c e s s e s a n d s h o r t c o m i n g s , r e c e n t c u r r i c u -

lum change has spawned some excesses a nd short comings of itsown .

ASSETS

T h e s e r i o u s i n v o l v e m e n t o f s c h o l a r s i n f i e l d s s u c h a s m a t h e m a t i c s ,

b i o l o g y , c h e m i s t r y , p h y s i c s , a n d , m o r e r e c e n t l y , E n g l i s h , e c o n o m i c s ,

h i s t o r y , g e o g r a p h y , a n t h r o p o l o g y , a n d s o c i o l o g y w a s l o n g o v e r d u e .

W h i l e m o s t o f t h e m s t i l l v i e w t h i s a c t i v i t y a s p e r i p h e r a l t o t h e i r

o w n i n t e r e s t s , t h e y n o w r e c o g n i z e i t s i m p o r t a n c e a n d s e e m p l e a s e d

t h a t a t l e a s t s o m e o f t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s a r e s e r i o u s l y i n v o l v e d . How-

e v e r , r e l a t i v e l y f e w p r o f e s s o r s w o u l d u r g e a n y s u b s t a n t i a l c a r e e r

commitment to pre collegiate curriculum-planning for their own

g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s . T h e p r o b l e m o f e n g a g i n g t h e a t t e n t i o n o f f i r s t -

rate acade mic m en and women on a continuing bas is re mains .

The parti cipation of scholars which already has occurred has

produced some penetrating analyses of t he lower branches of the

l i b e r a l - a r t s t r e e - a t l e a s t e n o u g h t o e x p o s e b o t h t h e i m p o r t a n c e a n d

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 55/327

4 6 CURRICULUMt h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h i s w o r k . Up to the post -World War II peri od,

t h e r e h a d n o t b e e n , i n r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t t i m e s , a n y s e r i o u s , s p e c i f i c

c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f w h a t t h e n a t u r e a n d s t r u c t u r e o f k n o w l e d g e m i g h t

m e a n f o r c u r r i c u l u m a n d i n s t r u c t i o n . F o r n e a r l y t h r e e d e c a d e s , t h e

a t t e n t i o n o f t h o s e p e r s o n s m o s t i n t e r e s t e d i n p r e c o l l e g i a t e e d u c a t i o n

had focused primarily on the e ducational implicati ons of human

developme nt and societa l conditions. Although organized sub ject

m a t t e r h a d r e m a i n e d c e n t r a l t o w h a t w e n t o n i n t h e c l a s s r o o m , t h e

p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f o r g a n i z i n g i t u n i q u e l y f o r i n s t r u c t i o n were large ly

ignored . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , D e w e y ' s c o n c e r n f o r t h i s q u e s t i o n h a d b e e n

v i r t u a l l y b y - p a s s e d b u t i s n o w b e i n g r e d i s c o v e r e d . W h i l e s c h o l a r s

i n s u b j e c t s t a u g h t i n t h e l o w e r s c h o o l s i n j e c t e d e m p h a s i s o n t h e i r

d i s c i p l i n e s i n t o t h e s e s c h o o l s , t h e e m p i r i c a l q u e s t i o n s a r e b e i n g

pushed mainly by psychologi sts, many of whom have more th an a

p a s s i n g i n t e r e s t i n p r o g r a m e d i n s t r uc t i o n . L i t t l e o f a n i m m e d i a t e l y

p r a c t i c a l n a t u r e h a s a s y e t e m a n a t e d f r o m t h i s w o r k , b u t a t l e a s t

i t s p o t e n t i a l i t y i s n o w s p o t l i g h t e d .

Simila rly, psychologists in increasi ng numbers are studying

d i r e c t l y t h e c o m p l e x p r o c e s s e s o f h u m a n i n q u i r y r a t h e r t h a n t h o s e

rote process es which more readily seem to perm it inferences from

s t u d i e s o f a n i m a l s . A g a i n , m u c h o f t h e s t i m u l u s c a m e i n i t i a l l y f r o m

s u b j e c t - m a t t e r s p e c i a l i s t s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e s c i e n c e s , w h o s a w t h a t

any attemp t to "cove r" the vast accumul ations of knowledge in

t h e i r f i e l d s n o t o n l y w a s d o o m e d a t t h e o u t s e t b u t a l s o w a s i n i m i c a l

to the proce sses though t by them to be central to science and to

the work of scie ntists . E d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r i e s s t r e s s i n g i n d u c t i v e

reasoning for stude nts and inductive method s for teache rs run

t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . But the y

a r e n o w r e c e i v i n g a c e n t r a l i t y a n d a r e s p e c t a b i l i t y n o t p r e v i o u s l y

enjoyed, providi ng an example of ch ange that is more cumu lati ve

than c ountercyclical . Such theorie s have both contributed to

dire ctions inherent in the new curricu lum refo rm and have been

s t r e n g t h e n e d b y i t .

There is ample testi mony and some research 7 t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t

7 . S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , R o b e r t M . G a g n 6 a n d A s s o c i a t e s , " F a c t o r s i n A c q u i r i n g

K n o w l e d g e o f a M a t h e m a t i c a l T a s k , " P l y c h o l o g i c a l M o n o g r a p h s : G e n e r a l a n d

A p p l i e d , L X X V I , No . 7 (Whole No . 5 2 6 ) , ( 1 9 6 2 ) , 1 - 2 1 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 56/327

GOODLAD 47

m a n y s t u d e n t s o f p r e v i o u s p e d e s t r i a n p e r f o r m a n c e i n a g i v e n f i e l d

perform well in a restructured program . P e r h a p s t h i s i s b e c a u s e

some new behavior s are stressed ; b e c a u s e m o r e v a r i e d a v e n u e s f o r

l e a r n i n g u s u a l l y a r e p r o v i d e d ; b e c a u s e s t i m u l i a r e m o r e c a r e f u l l y

p r o g r a m e d t o r e d u c e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e r r o r ; or because of some

c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e s e a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s . A t a n y r a t e , t h e h y p o t h e s i s

t h a t r e a s o n a b l e a c a d e m i c a t t a i n m e n t s a r e w i t h i n t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f

a l l s t u d e n t s , g i v e n p r o p e r a n d a d e q u a t e m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f l e a r n i n g

e n v i r o n m e n t s , o p e n s u p v i r t u a l l y l i m i t l e s s p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r e d u c a -

t i o n a l r e s e a r c h a n d p r a c t i c e . In our m ore r apt urou s mom ents, we

are able e ven to envision the ulti mate eme rgence of a science of

p e d a g o g y s u p p o r t i n g i n d i v i d u a l d i a g n o s i s a n d s u b s e q u e n t p r e s c r i p -

t i o n s f r o m a p h a r m a c y o f t e s t e d e d u c a t i o n a l a l t e r n a t i v e s .

S t i l l a n o t h e r a s s e t i n p r e s e n t - d a y c u r r i c u l u m c h a n g e i s e x t e n s i v e

i n c l u s i o n o f m a t e r i a l s o t h e r t h a n t e x t b o o k s i n t h e t o t a l i n s t r u c t i o n a l

package : f i l m s , f i l m s t r i p s , p r o g r a m e d e x e r c i s e s , l i v i n g c r e a t u r e s , a n d

r e a l i a o f m a n y k i n d s . I t o f t e n i s i m p o s s i b l e f o r t e a c h e r s t o o f f e r t h e

c o u r s e s w i t h o u t u s i n g t h e n e w a u d i o - v i s u a l m e d i a . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e ,

t h e y a r e d i s c o v e r i n g t h a t m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g y c a n c a r r y i n s t r u c t i o n

f a r b e y o n d t h e al m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y t e l l i n g - a n d - l i s t e n i n g a c t i v i t y s t i l l

c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t e a c h i n g a n d t h a t a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t o f i t c a n b e

put t o work merely by press ing buttons and switc hes . M o s t o f u s

r e m e m b e r o n l y t o o w e l l t h e f r u s t r a t i o n s o f n o i s y p r o j e c t o r s , b r o k e n

f i l m , a n d m i s s i n g p i c k - u p r e e l s , b u t t h e 8 - m i l l i m e t e r f i l m c a r t r i d g e

and accompa nying projector promise to end all th at . The p ict ure

i s n o t q u i t e a s r o s y a s s o m e a u d i o - v i s u a l e n t h u s i a s t s w o u l d h a v e u s

b e l i e v e , b u t t h e p r o b l e m s n o w c a l l l a r g e l y f o r w i s e e x p e n d i t u r e o f

funds and improved educat ion of teachers .

W i d e s p r e a d i n - s e r v i c e e d u c a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s , p r i m a r i l y i n t h e

s u b j e c t m a t t e r t o b e t a u g h t b u t a l s o i n m e t h o d o l o g y i n c l u d i n g t h e

u s e o f a u d i o - v i s u a l t e c h n i q u e s , h a s b e e n a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n o f

the reform movement . P e r h a p s e v e n m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n t h e f a c t

o f u p d a t i n g h a s b e e n a g r o w i n g r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e n e e d f o r c o n t i n u -

ing self-improvement . One's formal education is merely a begin-

ning ; a t i t s b e s t - s e l d o m a c h i e v e d - p r e p a r a t i o n f o r s e l f - p r o p e l l e d

l e a r n i n g . Rep ea te d t es ti monia ls f oll owing NDEA- and NSF-s up-

p o r t e d w o r k s h o p s a n d i n s t i t u t e s s u g g e s t s i g n i f i c a n t r e j u v e n a t i o n o f

m a n y t e a c h e r s a n d a n i n v i g o r a t e d p r o f e s s i o n .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 57/327

4 8 CURRICULUME x t e n s i v e i n f u s i o n o f n e w p e r s o n n e l a n d f u n d s a n d t h e c o l l a b o r a -

tion of many groups have dramatize d the conditions essential to

s i g n i f i c a n t , c o n t i n u i n g c u r r i c u l u m r e v i s i o n . Afte rnoon meet ings of

t i r e d t e a c h e r s , o n t h e i r o w n t i m e , k e p t t h e s c h o o l s h i p a f l o a t d u r i n g

previous decad es but did not bring about significant curriculum

renewal . T h e t o o l s w e r e m i s s i n g . W o r s e , e d u c a t o r s w e r e o n l y d i m l y

aware of the lack . But now we know what can be a cco mpl ish ed

t h r o u g h c o m b i n i n g m i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s , t h e t a l e n t s o f p s y c h o l o g i s t s

a n d o f l e a d i n g s c h o l a r s i n t h e f i e l d s t o b e t a u g h t , s u b s i d i z e d s u m m e r

time, and the c ompetence of publishers a nd film-make rs with the

p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e o f t e a c h e r s . To da te, however, we have seen

o n l y a r a t h e r c r u d e p r o c e s s o f t r i a l a n d e r r o r , l a c k i n g i n t h e o r y a n d

t r u l y e x p e r i m e n t a l s e l f - c o r r e c t i o n . T h e f u l l p r o m i s e o f t h i s u n i q u e

c o m b i n a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s s t i l l l i e s a h e a d .

LIMITATIONS AND LIABILITIES

Reaction in current curri culum reform against suppose d over-

e m p h a s i s i n p r e v i o u s d e c a d e s o n p r o b l e m s o f s o c i a l l i v i n g a n d s e l f -

a d j u s t m e n t h a s r e s u l t e d i n h e a v y e m p h a s i s o n p r o b l e m s i n h e r e n t i n

t h e d i s c i p l i n e s . T h e r e i s s o m e d a n g e r , a s a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h a t t h o s e

significant mankind p roble ms gr owing out of where and when one

lives-pro blems which cut across sub ject lines-may not be bro ught

i n t o t h e c l a s s r o o m . Simi larly, there now appe ars t o be growing

c o n c e r n t h a t p r e s e n t e m p h a s e s o n u n d e r l y i n g c o n c e p t s , a b s t r a c t i o n s ,

a n d s o - c a l l e d i n t u i t i v e b e h a v i o r , e s p e c i a l l y i n m a t h e m a t i c s , i s r e s u l t -

i n g i n n e g l e c t o f m o r e i m m e d i a t e l y p r a c t i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a n d a p p l i -

c a t io n s . D i s a g r e e m e n t o f t h i s k i n d , l i k e l y t o g r o w i n t h e i m m e d i a t e

f u t u r e , c a r r i e s u s i n t o i s s u e s p e r t a i n i n g t o g o a l s a n d e v a l u a t i o n w h i c h

a r e d i s c u s s e d l a t e r .

T o d a t e , f o c u s i n g o n t h e s e p a r a t e d i s c i p l i n e s h a s t e n d e d t o s p o t -

l i g h t t h o s e a l r e a d y f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e c u r r i c u l um . I t w a s o n l y

n a t u r a l t h a t e x i s t i n g c u r r i c u l u m a r e a s w o u l d r e c e i v e f i r s t a t t e n t i o n

as the need for ref orm bec ame increasingly appare nt . B u t a l e s s

apparent curriculum refor m also was neede d . F o r s o m e y e a r s , f i e l d s

which had only a toe-h old on the college cur riculum have b een

g a i n i n g a c e n t r a l p l a c e i n i t , a n d n e w o n e s h a v e e m e r g e d a s a r e s u l t

o f s p l i t t i n g o f f f r o m e x i s t i n g d i s c i p l i n e s . What should be t he place

of these e merging fields in precollegiat e educat ion? At the very

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 58/327

GOODLAD 49

p e r i o d t h i s q u e s t i o n s h o u l d h a v e b e e n r e c e i v i n g s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n ,

the race was on to stre ngthen subjects already in elementary and

s e c o n d a r y c u r r i c u l a a n d t o r e t a i n t h e m a s s e p a r a t e d i s c i p l i n e s . I n -

e v i t a b l y , t h e c o m p e t i t i o n f o r t i m e i n c r e a s e d . The c onditi ons have

n o t b e e n f a v o r a b l e , t h e n , f o r i n c o r p o r a t i n g n e w f i e l d s , e i t h e r a s

s e p a r a t e en t i t i e s o r i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h r e l a t e d s u b j e c t s . R e s o l u t i o n

o f t h i s p r o b l e m i s a n a g e n d a i t e m f o r t h e f u t u r e , o n e t h a t i s l i k e l y

t o b e t a k e n u p f i r s t f o r t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l .

Planning from the top d own and within the st ructur es of the

disciplines has tended to slight the d evelopmental processes of

l e a r n e r s - t h e i r i n t e r e s t s , t h e i r r e g u l a r i t y o f t h e i r g r o w t h , a n d t h e i r

i n d i v i d u a l d i f f er e n c e s . F u r t h e r , i t i s f a i r t o s a y t h a t t h e n e w c u r -

riculum movement virtually ignored the fact that thousands upon

thousa nds of teach ers who were to be i nvolved had be en throu gh

a p o s t w a r d e c a d e o f i n t e n s i v e c h i l d s t u d y . M a n y s t u d e n t s o f e d u c a -

t i o n s a w t h a t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g t o s t u d e n t s , o n o n e h a n d , a n d

t o s u b j e c t m a t t e r , o n t h e o t h e r , s h o u l d b e b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r . But

the marriage did not occur . The leade rship for refo rm came from

o u t s i d e o f t h e e d u c a t i o n e s t a b l i s h m e n t , w a s c o n t e m p t u o u s o f i t , a n d

s u s p i c i o u s o r i g n o r a n t o f t h e c h i l d s t u d y m o v e m e n t t h e n _ s w e e p i n g

Ameri ca . A p p r o p r i a t e i n t e r r e l a t i n g o f a l l d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e c u r -

riculu m becom es another agenda item for to morrow, one that

i n c r e a s i n g l y i s b e c o m i n g a p p a r e n t t o r e s e a r c h e r s a n d p r a c t i t i o n e r s

a l i k e . Inter esti ngly, it was Zachar ias, a p rime mover in current

curric ulum c hange, who at the 196 5 White House Conference on

Educat ion forcefully expressed hi s concern over the a bsence of

t h e c h i l d i n p r e s e n t e d u c a t i o n a l d i s c o u r s e .

T h e i m p l i e d c o m p l e t e n e s s a n d o r d e r o f s o m e i n s t r u c t i o n a l p a c k -

a g e s m a y v e r y w e l l d e n y , f o r a t i m e a t l e a s t , t h e s p o n t a n e i t y a n d

p u p i l - t e a c h e r p l a n n i n g o f l e s s s t r u c t u r e d c u r r i c u l a . Many teach ers

d o n o t y e t f e e l a d e q u a t e l y c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h t h e n e w c u r r i c u l a a n d

a r e r e l u c t a n t , a s a r e s u l t , t o d e p a r t f r o m t h e m a n u a l s a n d m a t e r i a l s

provided . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e f r e e - w h e e l i n g , e x p l o r a t o r y p r o c e s s e s

s o v a l u e d b y p r o j e c t s t a f f s a n d t h e i r a d v i s o r s o f t e n a r e a b o r t e d a t

the most cr itical po int-the point where stu dent and teache r come

t o g e t h e r . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , t h e w r i t e r r e m e m b e r s o n l y t o o v i v i d l y

visi ting a classroo m using-th ankfully, only beg inning to use-th e

m a t e r i a l s o f a n e w p r o j e c t i n e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l s c i e n c e . A r r i v i n g

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 59/327

50 CURRICULUMa f e w m i n u t e s b e f o r e t h e c l a s s w a s s c h e d u l e d t o b e g i n , h e a l m o s t

t r i p p e d o v e r a c l u s t e r o f e x c i t e d c h i l d r e n e x a m i n i n g a h a n d s o m e b o x

t u r t l e . S a i d t h e t e a c h e r , " N o w , c h i l d r e n , p u t a w a y t h e t u r t l e . We' re

g o i n g t o h a v e o u r s c i e n c e l e s s o n ." The less on was o n crabs!

T h e b r o k e n - f r o n t , s e p a r a t e - p i e c e a p p r o a c h t o c u r r i c u l u m - p l a n -

ning has placed se vere b urde ns of choi ce and synthes is on local

s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s . T h e y h a v e f e w g u i d e l i n e s f o r c h o o s i n g t h i s m a t h e -

m a t i c s p r o g r a m o v e r t h a t o n e , a n d t h e p r o b l e m o f c h o i c e w i l l b e c o m e

i n f i n i t e l y m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d w h e n t h e m a n y d i v e r s e p r o g r a m s i n t h e

s o c i a l s t u d i e s b e c o m e a v a i l a b l e . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o p r o v i d e s a t i s f a c t o r y

a n s w e r s t o q u e r y i n g p a r e n t s b e c a u s e , a c c o r d i n g t o p r o j e c t s t a f f s , e x -

i s t i n g s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t s d o n o t m e a s u r e w h a t t h e i r p r o g r a m s a r e

designed to do . There are no accepte d yardsti cks for adequatel y

compa ring new and old or se veral new curri cula with eac h other .

T h e a b s e n c e o f s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e s d o e s n o t h e l p , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n

s t a t e a n d l o c a l s c h o o l s y s t e m s ( w h i c h h a v e s o m e l e g a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

f o r d e c i d i n g w h a t t h e i r s c h o o l s a r e f o r ) a r e e q u a l l y v a g u e . As a

c o n s e q u e n c e , s c h o o l s y s t e m s p u r c h a s i n g n e w i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s

v i r t u a l l y " b u y " t h e e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s b u i l t i n t o t h e m.

I f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r s p e c i a l i s t s h a v e a d i f f i c u l t t a s k i n s e e k i n g t o

s q u e e z e a l l t h e y w a n t t o d o i n t o s h o r t s p a n s o f t i m e , t h e p r o b l e m

i s c o m p o u n d e d a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e l o c a l s c h o o l d i s t r i c t . The co m-

puter is b eing used increasingly to solve compl ex problems of

s c h e d u l i n g s t u d e n t s i n a w i d e r r a n g e o f c u r r i c u l a a l t e r n a t i v e s . 8 Bu t

i t h a s n o t y e t p r o v e d u s e f u l i n i n c r e a s i n g t h e t o t a l t i m e a v a i l a b l e o r

i n m a k i n g t h e b a s i c v a l u e c h o i c e s , t h e f e a r s o f m a n y p e r s o n s n o t -

w i t h s t a n d i n g . Summer -sch ool prog rams have b een vastly expanded ,

a n d t a l k o f a l o n g e r s c h o o l d a y a n d w e e k o f t e n i s i n t h e a i r . But

p a r e n t s a s w e l l a s h i g h - s c h o o l s t u d e n t s i n c r e a s i n g l y e x p r e s s c o n c e r n

o v e r t h e p r e s s u r e a n d t h o s e e v e r - p r e s e n t t e s t s o f t h e C o l l e g e E n t r a n c e

Exami nati on Boar d . C l e a r l y , a p p r a i s a l a n d r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e

c u r r i c u l u m a s a t o t a l i t y , r a t h e r t h a n a c o l l e c t i o n o f p i e c e s , a r e

c a l l e d f o r .

8 . See John I . Good lad and Assoc iat es, Appli cati on of Elect ronic Data

Processi ng Meth ods in Educa tion . Project No. F-0z6, Cooperati ve Researc h

Program of t he Office o f Education, United States Depart ment of Health ,

Educ ati on, and Welfar e, January, 1965 . Wash ingto n : United Stat es Gove rn-

m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 6 5 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 60/327

GOODLAD 51

Emphasis on the subject- field as both ends and means of school-

ing has broug h t with it sev eral troubl e som e probl e ms . In the ir

preoc cupat ion with what c o n t e n t i s to be le arned, some project

staffs have flag rantly violate d or ignored the old curri culum prin-

c i p l e : specify what the student is to b e able to do . One searc hes in

v a in f o r s u c h s p e c i f i c a t i o n in t h e m an u a l s and o t h e r d e s c r i p t i v e

docume nts of ma ny project s . Even in what one must conclude are

the be st programs, from the poi nt of view of specificity in educa-

t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s , o n e i s u s u a l l y f o r c e d t o s e t t l e f o r v a g u e s t a t e m e n t s

about lea rning the struct ures and methods of the subject and to

think like a chemist or physicist .

The fiel d of curri culum, althoug h young, has some useful lore .

Those who work in the vi neyard have responsibi lity for fami liari z-

ing themselves with this lore, even if only to reject it afte r thought-

ful consideration . The need t o clarify educat ional objectives for pur-

poses of sel ecti ng what to te ach and evaluating both pupil per-

formance and program effe ctiveness is a first pri nciple, one that is

increasi ngly bei ng reinforce d . 9 There is as yet lit tle evi dence that

this principle is guid ing current curriculum reform .

Fa i l u r e t o s p e c i fy e d u c a t i ona l o b j e c t i v e s c on f o und s p r o c e s s e s

of curriculum evaluat ion and revision . There is no poi nt in experi-

m entally comparing metho ds of achi ev ing obj ect iv es if t hese obj ec-

tives are not desired . And if the object ives, once found, are also

found wanting, then new statem ents of ob jective s as well as new

means for attaining them are necessita ted . Rece n t adv ances in

analytical philosophy might well be put to work in clarifying te rms

and in distinguishing between normative and experimental processes

in curriculum devel opment. Such analyses ar e conspic uous ly absent .

By failing to clari fy goals, the new moveme nt likewise has f ailed

to advance the search for relationships between immediate and inter-

medi ate object ives of schooli ng and more remot e, long-term aims

9 . A landmark d ocume nt in this connecti on isT a x o n o m y o f E d u c a t i o n a l

O b j e c t i v e s . Handbook I : Cognit ive Domai n (ed ite d by Benjamin S. Bloom .

New Yor k : Longm ans, Gree n & Co . , 1 9 6 5 , p r e l i m i n a r y e d i t i o n , 1 9 5 4 ) . Mor e

r e c e n t s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s i n c l u d e R o b e r t F . M a g e r , P r e p a r i n g O b j e c t i v e s

for Programmed Instruct ion ( S a n F r a n c i s c o : F e a r o n P u b l i s h e r s , 1 9 6 2 ) ; and

David R . K r a t h w o h l , B e n j a m i n S . B l o o m , a n d B e r t r a m B . M a s i a , Taxonomy of

E d u c a t i o n a l O b j e c t i v e s . Handb oo k II : A f f e c t i v e D o m a i n (New York : D a v i d

McKay Co . , I n c . , 1 9 6 4 ) .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 61/327

52 CURRICULUMo f e d u c a t i o n . W e c a n h a v e l i t t l e c o n f i d e n c e t h a t s t r i c t l y a c a d e m i c

g o a l s f o r s c h o o l i n g , i m p l i e d i n t h e a c a d e m i c s t u f f t o b e l e a r n e d

r a t h e r t h a n s p e c i f i e d , a r e a d e q u a t e . T h e c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n a c a -

demic grad es and anything other than academic grades-good citi-

z e n s h i p , v o c a t i o n a l s u c c e s s , h o n e s t y , p e r s o n a l a u t o n o m y , o r m e n t a l

health- are shockingly low . Perhaps we need to look b ack upo n

p o s s i b l e a i m s o f e d u c a t i o n p r o v i d e d b y p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d t h e o l o g i -

c a l s p e c u l a t i o n , t o t r a n s l a t e t h e s e i n t o m o r e s p e c i f i c h um a n b e h a v i o r s ,

and the n to experi ment with al ternative ways of achi eving them .

T h e t a s k s c a l l f o r a c o n s o r t i u m o f s c h o l a r s a n d p r o c e s s e s o f i n q u i r y

u n p r e c e d e n t e d i n e d u c a t i o n .

SOME CONTINUING ISSUES AND PROBLEMS

P r o b l e m s a n d i s s u e s f o r c o n t i n u i n g c u r r i c u l u m d e v e l o p m e n t h a v e

b e e n i m p l i e d o r s p e c i f i c a l l y i d e n t i f i e d i n e v e r y s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p -

t e r . B y w a y o f c o n c l u s i o n , s e v e r a l o f t h e s e w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d b r i e f l y

f o r p u r p o s e s o f g i v i n g a s e n s e o f d i r e c t i o n f o r t h e f u t u r e .

The move ment descri bed has be en experi mental only in rare

i n s t a n c e s . I t b e g a n a n d g e n e r a l l y s t a y e d w i t h s o m e i n i t i a l a s s u m p -

t i o n s , r e f i n i n g r a t h e r t h a n t e s t i n g t h e m i n p r a c t i c e . Thu s, th e

r e q u e s t f o r a n d t h e n a t u r e o f f e e d - b a c k f r o m c o - o p e r a t i n g s c h o o l s

have focus ed not so much on the viab ility of what was being

a t t e m p t e d a s o n t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s w i t h w h i c h i t w a s b e i n g a c c o m -

p l i s h e d . B u t , e v e n h e re , t h e r e r a r e l y h a v e b e e n c l e a r - c u t a l t e r n a t i v e s

to test and from which to choose . 1 0 We are likely to witness a

m a r k e d c h a n g e i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n d u r i n g t h e n e x t d e c a d e . The nee d

t o r e - e s t a b l i s h c o n c e r n f o r s u b j e c t m a t t e r i n t h e c u r r i c ul u m i s b e i n g

me t . T h e r e i s n o l o n g e r t h e s a m e u r g e n c y a b o u t i t ; t h e p r e s s u r e f o r

c r a s h p r o g r a m s , t h e r e f o r e , h a s b e e n v a s t l y r e l i e v e d . The d ocu me nts

e m e r g i n g f r o m p r o j e c t s a r e l e s s s e l f - c o n g r a t u l a t o r y a n d , e s p e c i a l l y

at the elementary-school le vel, show increased awareness of the

t o . T h e w r i t e r r e a l i z e s t h a t , i n m a k i n g g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s o f t h i s k i n d h e r e a n d

e l s e w h e r e i n t h e c h a p t e r , h e d o e s a n i n j u s t i c e t o t h o s e p r o j e c t s w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e

a n e x c e p t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , i t i s n o t e w o r t h y i n r e g a r d t o t h i s p a r t i c u l a r g e n e r a l -

i z a t i o n t h a t t h e B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s C u r r i c u l u m S t u d y p r e s e n t s G r e e n , Y e l l o w ,

and Blue versions, each differi ng in approach bu t each organized around the

same u nifying concepts . But t o list any exceptions is to run the danger of

s l i g h t i n g o t h e r s e v e n m o r e t h a n i s t h e c a s e w h e n n o n e i s c i t e d . F o r t h i s r e a s o n ,

t h e w r i t e r h a s c h o s e n t h e l a t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 62/327

GOODLAD5 3

c u r r i c u l a r i s s u e s a n d a l t e r n a t i v e w a y s o f r e s o l v i n g t h e m . Thes e

c o n d i t i o n s , a d d e d t o t h e f r e s h i n t e r e s t o f r e s e a r c h e r s i n c u r r i c u l u m

p r o b l e m s r a t h e r t h a n c u r r i c u l u m p r o d u c t i o n , a u g u r w e l l f o r s o m e

t r u l y e x p e r i m e n t a l w o r k i n t h e i m m e d i a t e f u t u r e .

A s m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , t h e r e o f t e n i s a f o r m i d a b l e g a p b e t w e e n

t h e i n t e n t o f c u r r i c u l u m p r o j e c t s a n d w h a t a c t u a l l y h a p p e n s i n

t h e c l a s s r o o m s . T h i s p r o b l e m i s s t i l l r e g a r d e d b y m a n y a s a d i r e c t

c o n s e q u e n c e o f t e a c h e r s ' i n a d e q u a c y i n t h e s u b j e c t ' s c o n t e n t , a

d e d u c t i o n t h a t f o l l o w s c o n s i s t e n t l y f r o m t h e n a i v e n o t i o n t h a t

t e a c h i n g b e g i n s a n d e n d s w i t h t h e su b j e c t . U n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t w h a t

i s t o b e t a u g h t a n d l e a r n e d i s a f a c t o r , b u t o n e h a s o n l y t o o b s e r v e

t h e i n e p t c l a s s r o o m b e h a v i o r o f t e a c h e r s . w h o k n o w t h e i r f i e l d s

t h o r o u g h l y ( m o s t u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s , f o r e x a m p l e , w h o a t t e m p t

t o t e a c h y o u n g c h i l d r e n f o r a f u l l s e m e s t e r r a t h e r t h a n i n o c c a s i o n a l

g u e s t a p p e a r a n c e s ) t o r e a l i z e t h a t m u c h m o r e i s i n v o l v e d . P a r t o f

t h e t r o u b l e l i e s a l s o i n p e r s o n a l i t y d i f f i c ul t i e s ; p a r t o f i t i n n o t

a d e q u a t e l y u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e a g e g r o u p ; p a r t o f i t i n n o t a d h e r i n g

t o b a s i c p e d a g o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s . T h e f i r s t p r o b a b l y r e q u i r e s t h e r a p y

f o r i t s c o r r e c t i o n . The ot her t wo can be and oft en have be en

t a u g h t a n d l e a r n e d i n t e a c h e r - e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s . R e g r e t t a b l y , i n

r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e y h a v e b e e n g i v e n b a c k - o f - t h e - h a n d t r e a t m e n t o r

s h r u g g e d o f f a s u n i m p o r t a n t . T h e y m u s t r e t u r n t o t h e c e n t e r o f

t h e r i n g , t h i s t i m e w i t h s u b j e c t m a t t e r t o b e t a u g h t , i f t h e gap

b e t w e e n t h e " p a p e r c u r r i c u l u m " a n d t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l c u r r i c u l u m

i s t o b e c l o s e d .

I t i s b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y c l e a r t h a t t h e p r e p a c k a g i n g o f c u r -

r i c u l u m m a t e r i a l s f o r a c o m p l e t e c o u r s e , u s e f u l t h o u g h t h i s h a s

p r o v e d t o b e , i s n o t a d e q u a t e f o r t h e d i v e r s e d e m a n d s o f s t u d e n t s

a n d t e a c h e r s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r , t e a c h e r s a r e a c u t e l y a w a r e

o f t h e v a l u e o f m a n y d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f s t i m u l i w h i c h b r i n g t h e

s t u d e n t i n t o d i r e c t c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e c o n t e n t o f i n s t r u c t i o n .

M a t e r i a l s c e n t e r s i n e a c h s c h o o l w h i c h f a c il i t a t e t h e b u i l d i n g o f o n e ' s

o w n c o u r s e t o s u p p l e m e n t o r r e p l a c e e x i s t i n g o n e s a r e e s s e n t i a l .

These , in turn, shoul d be b acke d by distri ct-wide c e n t e r s a n d

c o m p u t e r - b a s e d i n f o r m a t i o n l i b r a r i e s l i s t i n g w h a t i s a v a i l a b l e i n

a d j o i n i n g d i s t r i c t s , t h e s t a t e , o r t h e r e g i o n . M o d e s t f a c i l i t i e s o f t h i s

k i n d e x i s t i n m a n y p l a c e s , a n d e n c o u r a g i n g p l a n s f o r t h e i r f u r t h e r

deve lopme nt and expansion are u nder way . B u t i t i s s o b e r i n g t o

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 63/327

5 4CURRICULUM

r e a l i z e t h a t o n l y 3 0p e r c e n t o f t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s i n t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s p o s s e s s l i b r a r i e s o f a n y k i n d a n d t h a t m o s t o f t h e s e s c h o o l s a r e

w o e f u l l y s h o r t o f b o o k s f o r t h e i r l i b r a r i e s . There appe ars to be

one leve l of discourse in education where we tal k champagne and

another where we dr ink near-b eer .

T h e r e i s a h o s t o f m o r e t h e o r e t i c a l a n d s p e c u l a t i v e p r o b l e m s a n d

issues to occu py our attention in the c oming years . The mos t

i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e i s t h e q u e s t i o n o f e n d s . We are in a seet hing

p e r i o d o f w o r l d - w i d e c h a n g e , s o m e o f i t r e v o l u t i o n a r y . We ca nnot

predic t the kind of world tod ay's school populat ion will live i n

and what will be expected of it . An acad emi c overh aul of ou r

s c h o o l s a p p e a r s c l e a r l y t o b e n e c e s s a r y a n d w e a r e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f

e f f e c t i n g i t. And yet, we ca n have lit tle confide nce t hat the new

curricula come even close to doing what should be done . I n f a c t ,

w e k n o w p r e c i o u s l i t t l e a b o u t w h a t t h e y a r e a c c o m p l i s h i n g , w h e t h e r

what th ey are doing would pl ease u s if we knew more pr ecisely

w h a t i t i s . B o t h t h e c r i t e r i a a n d t h e m a c h i n e r y f o r a s s e s s m e n t a r e

l a c k i n g . T h e i s s u e s a n d t h e p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d i n e s t a b l i s h i n g s u c h

criter ia and such machinery are comple x and dif ficult . But t hey

g r o w n o e a s i e r b e c a u s e o f o u r n e g l e c t .

F o u r k i n d s o f a c t i v i t i e s f o r t h e p r e l i m i n a r y r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e s e

p r o b l e m s a n d i s s u e s a p p e a r t o b e c a l l e d f o r . F i r s t , a c o l l o q u y o v e r

p o s s i b l e a i m s f o r A m e r i c a n e d u c a t i o n n e e d s t o b e i n i t i a t e d a t t h e

n a t i o n a l l e v e l a n d c a r r i e d o v e r i n t o s t a t e a n d l o c a l s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s .

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t P r e s i d e n t J o h n s o n a l r e a d y h a s m o v e d

t o a p p o i n t a c o m m i t t e e o f d i s t i n g u i s h e d c i t i z e n s t o f o r m u l a t e s t a t e -

ments of t he nation's edu cational, economic, and so cial needs .

W h e t h e r i t w i l l i n i t i a t e t h e c o l l o q u y r e f e r r e d t o h e r e r e m a i n s t o

be seen . S e c o n d , s t a t e a n d l o c a l s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s n e e d t o c o m m i t

t h e m s e l v e s t o p r i o r i t i e s s t a t e d a s e d u c a t i o n a l g o a l s . T h i r d , t e c h n i q u e s

f o r a s s e s s i n g t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f w h a t e v e r g o a l s a r e c h o s e n m u s t b e

developed . Fourth, we must engage in vigorous trial and experi-

mental comparis on of alte rnative ways of achieving these goals .

T h i s l a s t t a s k m i g h t w e l l b e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r a r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p -

ment center of t he kind now being financed t hrough the United

S t a t e s O f f i c e o f E d u c a t i o n .

A p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e c a r t o f t e n

i s p u t b e f o r e t h e h o r s e i n r e g a r d t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n o r g a n -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 64/327

GOODLADi z i n g e l e m e n t s a n d o r g a n i z i n g c e n t e r s i n t h e c u r r i c u l u m . I t w i l l b e

r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e f o r m e r a r e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t s , i d e a s , p r i n -

c i p l e s , s k i l l s a n d v a l u e s s e r v i n g t o t i e t o g e t h e r t h e o r g a n i z i n g c e n t e r s

to be stru ng like be ads on the threads, so to speak . Hop ef ul ly,

o r g a n i z i n g e l e m e n t s a r e w h a t t h e s t u d e n t i s t o d i s c o v e r f o r h i m s e l f

and, sub seq uently, to de epe n and broad en in mea ning . There a re

e s s e n t i a l l y t w o t y p e s o f o r g a n i z i n g e l e m e n t s : s u b s t a n t i v e a n d b e -

h a v i o r a l . I n p l a n n i n g f o r l e a r n i n g a n d t e a c h i n g , o n e i s r a t h e r m e a n -

i n g l e s s w i t h o u t t h e o t h e r .

Let us i magine a two-dime nsional grid with the intended b e-

h a v i o r t o b e d e v e l o p e d o n o n e a x i s a n d t h e s u b s t a n t i v e c o n c e p t o r

p r i n c i p l e o n t h e o t h e r . T h e o r g a n i z i n g c e n t e r i s s h o w n a t t h e p o i n t

o f i n t e r s e c t i o n ( F i g . i) . T h r o u g h i t , s t u d e n t s a r e t o b e p r e s e n t e d

I S

C

Sby0

Od0m07

dCCuuU i- _ 7 7 - 17 1

B e h a v i o r a l o r g a n i z i n g , O r g a n i z i n g ;

1 1

e l e m e n t : a p p l i c a t i o n Ic e n t e r s

I 1, 5 5

F I G . j . - G r i d o f s u b s t a n t i v e a n d b e h a v i o r a l o r g a n i z i n g e l e m e n t s i n s c i e n c e

with organizing centers at the poi nt of inters ecti on and extending throug h

t i m e a s t h e t h i r d d i m e n s i o n .

w i t h o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o - a p p l y ( b e h a v i o r a l o r g a n i z i n g e l e m e n t ) p r i n c i -

p l e s o f g n e r g y ( s u b s t a n t i v e o r g a n i z i n g e l e m e n t ) . A s e r i e s o f s u c h

organizing centers through ti me provid es a third di mension and

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 65/327

56 CURRICULUMs u g g e s t s p o s s i b l e i n c r e a s i n g c o m p l e x i t y o f s t u d e n t s ' l e a r n i n g s i n a

c o u r s e o r o v e r a p e r i o d o f s e v e r a l y e a r s . We now see the utili ty

o f e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s s p e c i f y i n g b o t h b e h a v i o r a n d c o n t e n t a n d

t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o o t h e r c u r r i c u l a r d e c i s i o n s : s e l e c t i o n o f l e a r n i n g

o p p o r t u n i t i e s , d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s e q u e n c e s , e v a l u a t i o n o f s t u d e n t

progress, and so on. The end produc t of a whole se ries of such

d e c i s i o n s i s a c u r r i c u l u m d e s i g n .

N e e d l e s s t o s a y a t t h i s p o i n t , n e i t h e r t h e s t u d y o f c u r r i c u l u m

d e s i g n n o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f c u r r i c u l u m d e s i g n s b a s e d o n a n s w e r s t o

the whole gamut of pe rtinent curriculum q uestions has attracted

much at tention in rece nt years . The spe cifi cati on of organizing

centers and the producti on of materials for them have been the

dominant preoccupat ions . T h e m o r e t h e o r e t i c a l i s s u e s o f c u r r i c u -

lum- planning have gone beg ging . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , p u b l i c s c h o o l p e r -

sonnel (notably the c urricu lum s taff of t he Montgome ry County,

Maryland, Publi c Schoo ls, for exampl e) ar e occa sionally becom ing

a w a r e o f t h e n e e d , p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e y s e e t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f d e s i g n

i n m a k i n g o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s a n d p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e y a r e

d i s c o v e r i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l a c k s i n t h e n e w m a t e r i a l s c o m i n g t o t h e m ,

however much t hese impro ve on what was available before . Th e

tasks of developing curriculum designs involve such a unique

c o m b i n i n g o f t h e o r e t i c a l a n d p r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a n d o f t a l e n t s

t h a t t h e y a p p e a r t o b e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e n e w r e g i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l

laborato ries now being developed with fi nancial suppor t provide d

through the United States Office of Educati on .

A f i n a l s e t o f p r o b l e m s h a s t o d o w i t h s e l f - r e n e w i n g m e c h a n i s m s .

T h r e e a r e o f c r u c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e : continued involvement of pe r-

s o n n e l r e p r e s e n t i n g a c o m p l e t e a r r a y o f e s s e n t i a l c o m p e t e n c i e s , t h e

p r e p a r a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s , a n d t h e e d u c a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s o f t e a c h e r s .

R e g a r d i n g t h e f i r s t , t h e h e a r t o f t h e m a t t e r i s i n k e e p i n g t h e s u b j e c t -

m a t t e r s p e c i a l i s t s i n v o l v e d , s i n c e t h e p r o b l e m s a r e i n h e r e n t l y i n t e r -

e s t i n g t o e d u c a t i o n i s t s a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y s o t o p s y c h o l o g i s t s , l i n g u i s t s ,

and others comm itte d to the study of human behavio r . The pro-

f e s s o r o f E n g l i s h , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w h i l e i n t e r e s t e d i n w h e t h e r

or not high-school students study Milton, is more intereste d in

analysis of what Milt on wrot e . T h e r e i s l i t t l e h o p e t h a t p r o f e s s o r s

i n t h e f i e l d s w h i c h a r e t a u g h t i n e l e m e n t a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y e d u c a -

tion may become permanently involved in planning precolle giate

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 66/327

GOODLAD5 7

c u r r i c u l a a n d , w e r e t h e y t o d o s o , t h e f r e s h n e s s a n d v i g o r o f t h e i r

contributi on would diminish . Curriculum revision will m ove for-

ward adeq uately if these scholars can be attracted i nto summer

i n s t i t u t e s a n d o t h e r s h o r t - t e r m a c t i v i t i e s a n d i f e d u c a t i o n i s t s c o m -

mitted t o curriculum development have the good se nse to ask of

t h e m t h e r i g h t q u e s t i o n s .

R e g a r d i n g t h e s e c o n d , t h e p r e s e n t u n d e r g r a d u a t e c u r r i c u l a f o r

p r o s p e c t i v e t e a c h e r s g e n e r a l l y d o n o t r e p r e s e n t t h e a p p r o a c h w h i c h

most of the se young people will be expecte d to furthe r when they

b e g i n t h e i r t e a c h i n g c a r e e r s . T h e s c h o l a r s h a v e n o t y e t e f f e c t e d i n

t h e i r o w n i n s t i t u t i o n s t h e c u r r i c u l u m c h a n g e s w h i c h t h e y h a v e b e e n

u r g i n g u p o n t h e s c h o o l s . T h e c o l l e g e s o f A m e r i c a a r e l o n g o v e r d u e

f o r s w e e p i n g e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m a n d , a l t h o u g h n e e d e d c h a n g e s a r e

a p p e a r i n g a t a n a c c e l e r a t i n g r a t e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s e v e r a l n e w s t a t e -

s u p p o r t e d i n s t i t u t i o n s , t h e g r e a t m a s s o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i s o c c u -

pied more with numbers than with self- appraisal . Today's high-

schoo l grad uate s, many of whom have known o n l y the new mathe -

mat ics, biolo gy, chem ist ry, and physics, are dema nding somet hing

d i f f e r e n t o f t h e i r c h o s e n c o l l e g e s a n d a r e b e c o m i n g f a c t o r s p r o d u c -

t i v e o f r e f o r m . F o r s o m e y e a r s y e t , h o w e v e r , s c h o o l s y s t e m s c a n n o t

count on beg inning teacher s' awareness of moder n curri cular e m-

phases and must provide imme diate in-service educ ation for them .

O f c o u r s e , s c h o o l s y s t e m s w h i c h i n t e n d t o k e e p a b r e a s t o f t h e t i m e s

a l w a y s m u s t m a k e e v e r y p o s s i b l e p r o v i s i o n f o r t h e c o n t i n u i n g s e l f -

r e n e w a l o f t h e i r t e a c h e r s .

The current curriculum-re form movement has proceede d apart

f r o m t h e e d u c a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s o f o u r t e a c h e r s . I n g e n e r a l , p r o j e c t

d i r e c t o r s h a v e n o t b e e n s u r r o u n d e d b y d o c t o r a l s t u d e n t s i n t h e i r

o w n f i e l d s o r i n t h e f i e l d o f e d u c a t i o n . U s u a l l y , t h e y h a v e l e f t t h i s

curriculum work for periods of the day to lecture or to engage

o t h e r w i s e i n a c t i v i t i e s b e a r i n g n o r e l a t i o n s h i p t o i t . N a i v e l y , g i v e n

the i nherent comple xity of what th ey seek to do, they have em-

p l o y e d a s s i s t a n t s , r a r e l y a b o v e t h e m a s t e r ' s l e v e l , a n d a t e a c h e r o r

two from su rrounding schools . Occasionally, they have employed

p s y c h o l o g i s t s a n d e d u c a t i o n i s t s a s c o n s u l t a n t s , b u t r a r e l y f o r p e r io d s

o f s u c h l e n g t h t h a t g r o u p s o f s c h o l a r s h a v e c o m e s e r i o u s l y t o g r i p s

w i t h t h e i s su e s . S i m i l a r l y , d o c t o r a l s t u d e n t s i n e d u c a t i o n h a v e b e e n

involved only rarely . Again, there have b een notable exceptions .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 67/327

5 8 CURRICULUM

B u t p r o b l e m s o f p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f f e r i n g b a s i c r e s e a r c h p o s -

s i b i l i t i e s h a v e g o n e b e g g i n g .

The p rice of pr ejudice, ignorance, and p oor co mmunication-

t h e s e a r e b u t s o m e o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e s e i n e x c u s a b l e e d u c a t i o n a l

g a p s - c o m e s h i g h . T h e y h a v e s e r v e d t o b l o c k f u l l u t i l i z a t i o n o f

c u r r i c u l u m i d e a s a n d p e r s o n n e l e s s e n t i a l t o c o m p r e h e n s i v e c u r r i c u -

lum development in all its aspects . I n s p i t e o f t h i s , s i g n i f i c a n t

e x c e s s e s a n d s h o r t c o m i n g s i n p r e v i o u s c u r r i c u l u m d e v e l o p m e n t h a v e

been remedied . T h e e x c e s s e s a n d s h o r t c o m i n g s i n t h e p r e s e n t m o v e -

ment are now quite appare nt and can be corre cted short of a

counter-reform t hrough the combined e fforts of scholars in the

f i e l d s t o b e t a u g h t , t e a c h e r s i n t h e s c h o o l s , p s y c h ol o g i s t s , a n d e d u c a -

t i o n i s t s . Perhaps, through an evolutionary process profiti ng from

a w a r e n e s s o f t h e p a s t a n d e s p e c i a l l y f r o m s t r e n g t h s a n d w e a k n e s s e s

i n e a r l i e r c u r r i c u l u m e f f o r t s , w e w i l l b o t h p r o d u c e i m p r o v e d c u r -

r i c u l u m m a t e r i a l s a n d a d v a n c e t h e s t u d y o f c u r r i c u l u m .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 68/327

CHAPTER I I I

G u i d a n c e a n d t h e P u p i l

NORMAN A. SPRINTHALL

a n d

DAVID V. TIEDEMAN

T h e " T i d a l W a v e " o f G u i d a n c e a n d G u i d a n c e C o u n s e l o r s

S c h o o l g u i d a n c e i n A m e r i c a n s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s h a s c o m e o f a g e

a s m e a s u r e d i n t e r m s o f t h e p r e s e n t q u a n t i t y o f c o u n s e l o r s . I n 1 959

T y l e r n o t e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e o v e r I 1 , o o o e q u i v a l e n t f u l l - t i m e g u i d -

a n c e c o u n s e l o r s i n t h e s c h o o l s a n d e s t i m a t e d a n e e d f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l

2 6 , o o o . 1 I n 1 9 6 4 , D u g a n e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e 2 4 , 0 0 0 e q u i v a l e n t

f u l l - t i m e , h i g h - s c h o o l g u i d a n c e c o u n s e l o r s a n d e s t i m a t e d a n e e d f o r

a n a d d i t i o n a l 2 6 , 0 0 0 2 I n l e s s t h a n f i v e y e a r s , t h e n , t h e c o u n s e l i n g

staffs in schools have more than doubled . Since th e numbe r of

c o u n s e l o r s i n t h e f i e l d h a s i n c r e a s ed , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n d t h a t

g r a d u a t e s t u d y i n c o u n s e l i n g a l s o i s o n t h e r i s e . Shob en rece ntly

n o t e d t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s i n g u i d a n c e n o w e x c e e d s

t h e c o m b i n e d t o t a l i n p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n , b u s i n e s s e d u c a t i o n , i n d u s -

t r i a l a r t s , a n d m u s i c , a n d i s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h o s e i n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

and curriculu m . 3 T h i s i n c r e a s e i n t h e n u m b e r o f s t u d e n t s i s i n p a r t

d u e t o a d d e d f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t f o r t r a i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s a n d f e l l o w s h i p s

i . Leona E. T y l e r , T h e N a t i o n a l D e f e n s e a n d G u i d a n c e T r a i n i n g I n s t i t u t e s

Program : A R e p o r t o f t h e F i r s t 5 o I n s t i t u t e s . Washi ngton : U n i t e d S t a t e s G o v -

e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 6 o .

2 . From t he t est imony of Dr . W i l l i s D u g a n b e f o r e t h e S u b - C o m m i t t e e o n

Educat ion of th e Committe e on Educat ion and Labor, House of Representa-

t i v e s , t o a m e n d a n d e x t e n d t h e N a t i o n a l D e f e n s e E d u c a t i o n A c t o f 1 9 6 4 . Wash -

i n g t o n : U n i t e d S t a t e s G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 6 4 -

3. Edward J . S h o b e n , J r . , " G u i d a n c e : R e m e d i a l F u n c t i o n o r S o c i a l R e c o n -

s t r u c t i o n ? " Harv ard Educa ti onal Revi ew, XXXII ( F a l l , 1 9 6 2 ) , 4 3 0- 4 3 .

5 9

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 69/327

6o GUIDANCE AND THE PUPILprovided by the fe deral government under th e National Defense

Educ ati on Act o f 19 58 . S o m e s i x t y t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t e s h a v e b e e n

e s t a b l i s h e d t h r o u g h t h e A c t a n d i t s f i r s t e x t e n s i o n .

Guida nce is burg eoning, at leas t as quantitat ively measure d .

T r a i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s h a v e e x p a n d e d , m o r e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s a r e u n d e r -

t a k i n g s t u d i e s i n g u i d a n c e , a n d m o r e s c h o o l s y s t e m s a r e e m p l o y i n g

more counselors . G u i d a n c e s e r v i c e s h a v e i n c r e a s e d i n e v e r y s t a t e

a n d i n p r a c t i c a l l y e v e r y s c h o o l d i s t r i c t o f m o d e s t s i z e o r l a r g e r .

I n t h i s s e n s e , g u i d a n c e s e r v i c e s a s p a r t o f t h e A m e r i c a n e d u c a t i o n a l

enterpri se se emi ngly enjoy a heyday. I t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t

now to examine some of t he re asons why guid ance has so rec ently

c a u g h t f i r e , f o r t h e f o r c e s w h i c h h a v e p r o d u c e d i t s d r a m a t i c e x -

p a n s i o n m a y p a r a d o x i c a l l y a l s o b e h i n d e r i n g i t s d e v e l o p m e n t a s a

p r o f e s s i o n .

THE CAUSES OF RECENT EXPANSION

T h e e x p a n s i o n o f g u i d a n c e s e r v i c e s h a s b e e n c a u s e d b o t h b y t h e

desire on the part of more youth for post-high-school education

and, more re cently, by a recog niti on of the sp ecia l educ atio nal

problem s which confront our urban schools . T h e s o - c a l l e d " t i d a l

w a v e " o f s t u d e n t s p r e p a r i n g f o r c o l l e g e h a s b e e n t h e m a j o r s o u r c e

of both the need and support for th e prese nt expansion . S i m u l t a -

n e o u s w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e d e s i r e t o a t t e n d c o l l e g e , t h e g r o w i n g

spect re of technological unemployment through aut omati on has

p r o v i d e d a d d i t i o n a l i m p e t u s t o i n c r e a s e s e r v i c e s u s u a l l y l o o s e l y r e -

f e r r e d t o a s t h o s e o f " v o c a t i o n a l " g u i d a n c e . S o m e r e c e n t e s t i m a t e s

i n d i c a t e t h a t w e l l o v e r h a l f o f t h e h i g h - s c h o o l s t u d e n t s n o w g o o n

f o r f u r t h e r c o l l e g i a t e o r t e c h n i c a l e d u c a t i o n .

T h e s e t r e n d s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e h i g h s c h o o l i n c r e a s i n g l y s e r v e s

t h e f u n c t i o n o f t r a n s i t i o n , n o t t o t h e a d u l t w o r l d , b u t t o f u r t h e r ,

more demanding educati on . T h i s t r e n d w i l l i n a l l l i k e l i h o o d c o n -

t i n u e , a n d w i t h i t g u i d a n c e w i l l a s s u m e a n e v e n g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e .

G u i d a n c e s t a f f s w i l l e x p a n d a n d t h e i r v i s i b i l i t y w i l l i n c r e a s e . The

v i s i b i l i t y o f t h e " c o l l e g e n i g h t " ( a d m i t t e d l y t h e b a n e o f b o t h t h e

g u i d a n c e c o u n s e l o r a n d t h e c o l l e g e - a d m i s s i o n o f f i c e r ) , t h e c a r e e r

d a y , t h e e x t e n s i v e s c h o o l v i s i t i n g b y c o l l e g e - a d m i s s i o n o f f i c e r s o r

t h e a l u m n i , t h e p u b l i c i t y a c c o r d e d l o c a l s c h o l a r s h i p r e c i p i e n t s , t h e

massive t esti ng programs for gui dance which have be en incorpo-

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 70/327

SPRINTHALL AND TIEDEMAN 61

r a t e d i n t o p r a c t i c a l l y e v e r y s c h o o l s y s t e m - t h e s e a r e s o m e o f t h e

f a c t o r s w h i c h c a s t a s p o t l i g h t o n g u i d a n c e a s n e v e r b e f o r e . 4

I n v i e w o f p u b l i c i t y a n d p u b l i c e x p e c t a t i o n , i t i s n o t i r o n i c t h a t

t h e g u i d a n c e c o u n s e l o r i s o f t e n s e e n a s m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e

teache r-he can do more f o r t h e s t u d e n t . A s t h e c o l l e g e - a d m i s s i o n

p a n i c c o n t i n u e s t o s p r e a d , t h e n u m e r i c a l i n c r e a s e i n r e a l a n d " m u l -

t i p l e " a p p l i c a t i o n s w i l l c a u s e t h e c o l l e g e - a d m i s s i o n p r o c e d u r e s t o

b e c o m e b o t h m o r e s e l e c t i v e a n d m o r e c o n f u s i n g t o t h e p u b l i c . T h i s

w i l l o n l y s e r v e t o r a i s e t h e p u b l i c ' s e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e g u i d a n c e

s e r v i c e , n a m e l y , t h a t t h e c o u n s e l o r w i l l p e r f o r m g r e a t f e a t s , s u c h

a s f i n d i n g v a c a n c i e s i n a c c e p t a b l e c o l l e g e s o r t u r n i n g u p o b s c u r e

s c h o l a r s h i p s . T h e s u p p o s e d i n t r i c a c i e s o f t h e p r o c e d u r e s o f t h e C o l -

l e g e E n t r a n c e E x a m i n a t i o n B o a r d , t h e r e q u i r em e n t s o f t h e N a t i o n a l

M e r i t S c h o l a r s h i p P r o g r a m , a n d t h e m u l t i p l e - a p p l i c a t i o n p r o c e d u r e

( v e r t i c a l , n e v e r h o r i z o n t a l ) a r e a l l s e e n a s m y s t e r i e s f o r w h i c h t h e

g u i d a n c e c o u n s e l o r h a s t h e k e y . I t i s , o f c o u r s e , n o t s u r p r i s in g i n

s u c h a c o n t e x t t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t g r o w t h o f g u i d a n c e s e r v i c e s h a s

b e e n i n t h e s u b u r b a n s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s w h e r e g u i d a n c e h a s b e c o m e

t h e s i n e q u a n o n o f c o l l e g e - g o i n g .

A n o t h e r r e c e n t t r e n d i n d i c a t e s f u r t h e r e x p a n s i o n o f g u i d a n c e

s e r v i c e s . W h i l e t h e s u b u r b s h a v e t e n d e d t o v i e w g u i d a n c e a s f u n c -

t i o n a l i n t e r m s o f c o l l e g e a t t e n d a n c e , t h e u r b a n s c h o o l s n o w v i e w

g u i d a n c e i n t e r m s o f d e a l i n g w i t h s p e c i a l p r o b l e m s , s u c h a s t h e

s c h o o l d r o p o u t ( t h e e a r l y s c h o o l - l e a v e r ) , t h e j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n t ,

and those segm ents of our youth which it i s fashi onable nowa-

d a y s t o c a l l " a l i e n a t e d . " E x t r a p o l a t i n g f r o m t h e p i o n e e r i n g H i g h e r

H o r i z o n s P r o j e c t i n N e w Y o r k , i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e G r e a t C i t i e s

P r o g r a m p r e s e n t l y e n v i s a g e s a n e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t a n d s i g n i f i c a n t

r o l e f o r g u i d a n c e c o u n s e l i n g i n s c h o o l s i n w h i c h s u c h s e r v i c e s h a v e

b e e n h e r e t o f o re n o n e x i s t e n t . E x p e r im e n t a l p r o c e d u r e s a r e p r e s e n t l y

b e i n g t e s t e d f o r d e a l i n g w i t h s c h o o l d r o p o u t s a t b o t h t h e j u n i o r

4 . T h e p u b l i c p r e s s u r e o n g u i d a n c e f o r c o l l e g e - g o i n g s e r v i c e r e s u l t s f r o m

m u c h o f t h e u n f o r t u n a t e e m p h a s i s o n a n d p u b l i c i t y e n u m e r a t i n g t h e m a t e r i a l i s t i c

b e n e f i t s o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . The pub lic lit erally has bee n oversold on the

monetary value of college so that college choice is now "too important to

l e a v e t o t h e p u p i l . " T h e p a r e n t a l a n x i e t i e s a r e i m m e n s e a n d d i s r u p t i v e . F o r a

recent excellent summary of the colle ge-adm ission and the "par ent" problem,

see Charles H. D o e b l e r , Who Gets i nto Colle ge a nd Why (New Yor k : Mac -

f a d d e n - B a r t e l l , ' 9 6 4 ) .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 71/327

6 2 GUIDANCE AND THE PUPILh i g h a n d s e n i o r h i g h l e v e l s . G u i d a n c e s e r v i c e s a r e a l s o b e i n g p r o -

p o s e d f o r t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l , t r a d i t i o n a l l y t h e e x c l u s i v e d o m a i n

o f t h e s c h o o l p s y c h o l o g i s t , a s a " n o n i n s t r u c t i o n a l " s e r v i c e . I t i s a l s o

suggested that guidance become a part of the junior-college pro-

g ram . Thus, the pre sent finds guida nce se rvice s expanding from

s e n i o r h i g h s c h o o l d o w n t o e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l i n n e a r l y a l l s y s t e m s

from the suburban to the great sprawling urban ones and usually

s e r v i n g s u c h e x p l i c i t p u r p o s e s a s c o l l e g e - g o i n g o r a s r e m e d i a l o r

reclamation procedures for use in connection with the actual or

p o t e n t i a l s c h o o l d r o p o u t - d e l i n q u e n t . T h e t o t a l i m p a c t i s t o b e n o t e d

i n t h e i n c r e a s e d v i s i b i l i t y , r e c o g n i t i o n , a n d a c c e p t a n c e o f g u i d a n c e ,

b u t , e v e n s o , t h e m o s t o p t i m i s t i c w o u l d c o n c l u d e t h a t g u i d a n c e i n

i t s p r e s e n t s t a t e i s m o r e t e c h n o l o g i c a l t h a n p r o f e s s i o n a l .

GUIDANCE AT PRESENT : ANCILLARY TO TEACHING

T h e c o n c e p t o f s e r v i c e p r e s e n t l y d o m i n a t e s t h e r o l e o f g u i d a n c e .

A t b e s t , g u i d a n c e i s s u p p l e m e n t a r y t o t h e b a s i c t e a c h i n g f u n c t i o n

o f t h e s c h o o l . I t s s t a t u s , a s s u c h , h i n d e r s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a p r o -

f e s s i o n s i n c e g u i d a n c e r e m a i n s a s e t o f t e c h n i q u e s , s e n s i t i v e l y o r

i n s e n s i t i v e l y a d m i n i s t e r e d , a n d l i t t l e m o r e . The r ole and function

o f t h e c o u n s e l o r i s s e e n i n t e r m s o f w h a t h e c a n d o f o r t h e t e a c h e r ,

s t u d e n t , o r p a r e n t t h r o u g h h i s s p e c i a l i z e d k n o w l e d g e o f t e s t s , o f

c o l l e g e - e n t r a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s , o f v o c a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n - i n s h o r t ,

t h r o u g h h i s k n o w l e d g e o f t h e " r i t e s o f p a s s a g e " w h i c h c o n f r o n t o u r

youth . E v e n w i t h s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n i c a l k n o w l e d g e , t h e c o u n s e l o r ,

b y a n d l a r g e , p r e s e n t l y f u n c t i o n s a s a n a g e n t w h o s e e k s t o i m p l e -

m e n t c e r t a i n g o a l s s e t b y s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l a n d b y t h e c o m m u n i t y

i n p a r t i c u l a r . Tied eman and Fiel d note, "In this f ramework it is

e a s y t o c o m p r e h e n d t h e e f f o r t s o f e a r l y g u i d a n c e p r a c t i t i o n e r s t o

e v a l u a t e , t o s e l e c t , a n d t o p l a c e p u p i l s i n o r d e r t o a c h i e v e t h e g o a l s

of the school and of the community . " 5 A s a n a i d e , n o t a p a r t n e r ,

i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s , t h e c o u n s e l o r r e m a i n s a n c i l l a r y t o t h e

t e a c h e r o r p r i n c i p a l o r b o t h a n d , h e n c e , t o t h e p r o c e s s o f e d u c a t i o n

i t s e l f . He do es m ore f o r a n d l e s s wit h t h e p u p i l . Or, as Shoben

p u t s i t , t h e c o u n s e l o r p r o v i d e s r e m e d i a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n r e c o n s t r u c -

5 . D a v i d V . T i e d e m a n a n d F r a n k L . F i e l d , " G u i d a n c e : T h e S c i e n c e o f

P u r p o s e f u l A c t i o n A p p l i e d t h r o u g h E d u c a t i o n , " i n Harvard Educa tional Re-

v i e w , X X X I I ( F a l l , 1 9 6 2 ) , 4 8 3 - 5 0 1 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 72/327

SPRINTHALL AND TIEDEMAN 6 3

t i o n . s Thus, while guid ance servic es expand, the base u pon which

they stand remains narrow and l imite d, largely because of an in-

a d e q u a t e r a t i o n a l e . A t p r es e n t , t h e on l y c l e a r - cu t r a t i on a l e f o r g u i d -

a n c e i s t h a t o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p u p i l c o n t a c t w i t h a n a d u l t i n t h e

school but outside of the classroom . T h i s h e i g h t e n s p r o f e s s i o n a l -

r o l e a m b i g u i t y . T h e a v e r a g e g u i d a n c e c o u n s e l o r i s e x p e c t e d t o p e r -

f o r m a p l e t h o r a o f f u n c t i o n s f r o m s o l v i n g t h e p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d i n

f a c i l i t a t i n g c o l l e g e - g o i n g , u s i n g v o c a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n , d e a l i n g w i t h

s c h o o l d r o p o u t s , a n d s o o n , t o t h e o t h e r e x t r e m e o f a p p r o v i n g a l l

courses selecte d by students, managing or administering individ -

u a l a n d g r o u p t e s t i n g f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d s e l e c t i o n p u r p o s e s , a n d ,

f i n a l l y , e v e n t o t h e e x t r e m e o f d i s p o s i n g o f d i s c i p l i n a r y p r o b l e m s .

I n m a n y i n s t a n c e s , t h e l i s t c o u l d b e l e n g t h e n e d b y t h e i n c l u s i o n o f

teac hing courses vari ously titled " Occupa tional Informatio n" or

"Grou p Guid ance . " I n t h i s f r a m e w o r k , i t i s h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t

a s u b s t a n t i a l g a p e x i s t s b e t w e e n t h e p r e s e n t r e a l i t y o f g u i d a n c e i n

p r a c t i c e a s t e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e i d e a l o f g u i d a n c e a s a p r o f e s s i o n .

A Rati onale for Guid ance : The Challenge of

Comp le xit y and Cha nge

I n g e n e r a l , t h e r e h a s b e e n a n e m e r g e n c e a n d r e a l i z a t i o n o f p o s -

s i b i l i t i e s f o r a l e g i t i m a t e a n d c e n t r a l r o l e f o r g u i d a n c e i n e d u c a t i o n .

The growing recognition of the comple xities of mode rn socie ty,

a l t h o u g h u s u a l l y t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a k i n d o f p u b l i c p r e s s u r e f o r e x -

t r i n s i c s e r v i c e s , a s w e h a v e n o t e d , m a y p r o v i d e a r a t i o n a l e f o r a

s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t d e f i n i t i o n f o r g u i d a n c e i n e d u c a t i o n . Dug an

n o t e s t h a t a c t i v e a s s i s t a n c e f o r y o u t h h a s b e c o m e a m o d e r n n e c e s s i t y :

"The complexiti es of today's living and the mult itude of choices

t h a t f a c e A m e r i c a n y o u t h m a k e i t i n c u m b e n t u p o n r e s p o n s i b l e c i t i -

z e n s t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e g u i d a n c e a n d c o u n s e l i n g f o r o u r c h i l d r e n

a t a l l e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l s . " 7

A d e q u a t e g u i d a n c e i n t h i s c o n t e x t i s n o t a o n c e - a n d - f o r - a l l s o l u -

tion conveyed b y an adult to a ch ild b ut, rather, the proce ss of

d e v e l o p i n g w i t h i n t h e p u p i l t h e a b i l i t y a n d u r g e n c y t o c h o o s e w i s e l y

f o r h i m s e l f . A s o u r s o c i e t y c o n t i n u e s t o i m p l e m e n t t h e d e m o c r a t i c

6 . S h o b e n , o p . c i t .

7 . Dug an, o p . c i t . , p . t o o .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 73/327

64 GUIDANCE AND THE PUPILidea l of maximum self-de velopme nt by removi ng the encumbrances

o f e x t e r n a l f o r c e s a n d o f a r t i f i c i a l d e l i m i t i n g f a c t o r s , t h e n e e d f o r

a d e q u a t e g u i d a n c e i n c r e a s e s . When the individ ual cannot ab dic ate

t h e r i g h t o f c h o i c e , l o n g d e n i e d b e c a u s e o f a c c i d e n t s o f b i r t h , r a c e ,

s t a t u s , o r o t h e r o u t s i d e f o r c e s , p o w e r f o r s e l f - d i r e c t i o n a n d p u r -

p o s e f u l l i v i n g w i l l m e e t i t s s e v e r e s t t e s t . F o r e x a m p l e , a s w e e l i m i -

n a t e b a r r i e r s t o e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y i n e d u c a t i o n o r i n e m p l o y m e n t ,

we pre sent youth with a b ewildering complexity of choice . I n t h e

a r e a o f e m p l o y m e n t a l o n e t h e w i d e v a r i e t y o f c h o i c e s i s i n d i c a t e d

by the more t han 4 0 , 0 0 0 t i t l e s l i s t e d i n t h e D i c t i o n a r y o f O c c u p a -

t i o n a l T i t l e s . Y e t , t o t r a i n o r t e a c h a p u p i l f o r a s p e c i a l i z e d j o b i n

t o d a y ' s w o r l d s e e m s o n l y t o c r e a t e a n e e d f o r r e t r a i n i n g o r u n t r a i n -

i n g a f e w y e a r s h e n c e . I t i s p l a t i t u d i n o u s b u t t r u e t o s a y t h a t m o r e

p u p i l s g o t o s c h o o l a n d r e m a i n i n s c h o o l l o n g e r t h a n e v e r b e f o r e .

We have opened the range of futures, increased t he time lag be-

t w e e n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r a c a r e e r a n d t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f i t , a n d ,

a s a r e s u l t , w e h a v e i n c r e a s e d t h e n e e d f o r w i s e i n d i v i d u a l c h o i c e s

t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e p r o c e s s o f e d u c a t i o n .

W o l f l e d e s c r i b e s t h e p r o b l e m s o f c h a n g e a n d c o m p l e x i t y a s f o l -

lows :

How can boys and gi rls and young men and wome n now in schoo l

b e s t b e p r e p a r e d t o c o p e w i t h t h e p r o b l e m s t h e y w i l l f a c e t w e n t y y e a r s

f r o m n o w ? T h e w o r l d o f t h e n w i l l b e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e w o r l d o f n o w ,

a t l e a s t a s d i f f e r e n t a s t h e w o r l d o f n o w i s f r o m t h e w o r l d o f 1940 . There

w i l l b e t e c h n o l o g i c a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l c h a n g e s , s o c i a l c h a n g e s , c h a n g e s i n

i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s , a n d c h a n g e s i n ed u c a t i o n a l m e t h o d s a n d o r g a n i z a -

t i o n. S o m e o f t h e s e c h a n g e s w i l l o f f e r p r o m i s i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s ; s o m e

m a y p o s e d i s t u r b i n g t h r e a t s . Some of the ch anges can be pre dicte d ;

o t h e rs w i l l c om e a s su r pr i s es . T h a t t h e r e w i l l b e m a j o r c h a n g e i s a b s o -

l u t e l y c e r t a i n , f o r w e h a v e d e v e l o p e d a s o c i e t y t h a t s i m p l y c a n n o t s t a n d

s t i l l . 8

I n s u c h a d y n a m i c s o c i e t y , a s A l l p o r t c o g e n t l y n o t e s , t h e o l d

g u i d e p o s t s h a v e f a l l e n :

N o l o n g e r c a n y o u t h c o n t e m p l a t e i t s f u t u r e u n d e r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f

t h e g r e a t s o c i a l s t a b i l i z e r s o f t h e p a s t . N o l o n g e r c a n o n e c o u n s e l w i t h i n

t h e f r a m e w o r k o f V i c t o r i a n d e c o r u m , t h e o l o g i c a l c e r t a i n t i e s , o r t h e P a x

8 . D a e l W o l f l e , " P r e f a c e , " i n The Counsel or i n a Changi ng Worl d, by C .

G i l b e r t W r e n n . W a s h i n g t o n : A m e r i c a n P e r s o n n e l a n d G u i d a n c e A s s o c i a t i o n ,

1 9 6 2 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 74/327

SPRINTHALL AND TIEDEMAN 6 5

B r i t a n n i a . . . . T h e c o m f o r t a b l e s t a b i l i t i e s o f c u l t u r e , c a s t e , t h e g o l d

s t a n d a r d a n d m i l i t a r y s u p r e m a c y a r e n o l o n g e r o u r s . 9

W r e n n , i n h i s e x c e l l e n t r e v i e w , h a s e n u m e r a t e d s o m e o f t h e n e w

c h a l l e n g e s f o r g u i d a n c e i n t h e p r e s e n t w o r l d o f c h a n g e . T h e s o c i a l

f o r c e o f g r o w i n g d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n a m i d s t c h a n g i n g f a m i l y p a t t e r n s ,

the nature of work opport unities , and the continued urbanization

a n d s u b u r b a n i z a t i o n o f s o c i e t y , e t c e t e r a , p r o v i d e a f r a m e f o r g u i d -

a n c e i n a l a r g e r c o n t e x t t h a n e x t r i n s i c s u p p l e m e n t a r y s e r v i c e i n a n

e d u c a t i o n a l s e t t i n g . 1 0 T h e s e f o r c e s , r a t h e r , c r e a t e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y

to build a legitimate basis for guidance in education-to promote

maximum sel f-de velop ment by enhancing the individ ual's power to

c h o o s e f o r a n d t o d i r e c t h i m s e l f . A s K a t z s u c c i n c t l y p u t s i t :

T h u s g u i d a n c e h e l p s t h e s t u d e n t t o f i n d o r d e r i n t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f

d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g , h e l p s h i m e n r i c h h i s e x p e r i e n c e b y e x a m i n i n g i t , a n d

h e l p s h i m t o b e c o m e t h e c o n s c i o u s a r t i s t o f h i s o w n c a r e e r . "

The emergence of these social comp lexities with such clarity

a n d f o r c e h a s c a u s e d p r o f e s s i o n a l s w i t h i n t h e g u i d a n c e f i e l d t o r e -

e x a m i n e t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r a n d f u n c t i o n o f g u i d a n c e . The o ld mo del

for counseling as an adjunct to teaching or career choice ( as a

s i n g l e , a l m o s t s i m p l e , d e c i s i o n ) i s n o l o n g e r v i a b l e . There are new

d e v e l o p m e n t s w i t h i n t h e f i e l d w h i c h a r e f o c u s e d p a r t i c u l a r l y o n a

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d p r o f e s s i o n a l r o l e. T h e r e i s a l s o i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h

them the emergence of theory for counseling and career deve lop-

me nt. We now turn to an examination of the se changes : ( a ) t h e

growth of professi onal organization, (b) th e develo pment of an

inclusive frame fo r counseling concepts and (c) rece nt tre nds in

v o c a t i o n a l t h e o r y .

T h e a n a l y s i s w h i c h w e a t t e m p t i s l a r g e l y o f t h e e m e r g e n t p o s i -

t i o n f r o m w i t h i n t h e f i e l d o f g u i d a n c e . Y e t , w e w i s h t o s t r e s s t h a t

the d eveloping frame, in our view, stems from the recognition of

c o m p l e x i t i e s o f t h e p r e s e n t s o c i e t y a n d t h e i m p l i c i t c h a l l e n g e t o

i n d i v i d u a l i n i t i a t i v e . More i mport antly, our vi ew stems f rom t he

9 . Gor do n W . A l l p o r t , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l M o d e l s f o r G u i d a n c e , " i n Harva rd

Educ ati onal Revi ew, XXXII ( F a l l , 1 9 6 2 ) , 3 7 7 .

i o . Wrenn, The Counselo r in a Changing World, op . c i t .

i i . M a r t i n K a t z , D e c i s i o n s a n d V a l u e s : A R a t i o n a l e f o r S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l

Guid ance . New Yor k : C o l l e g e E n t r a n c e E x a m i n a t i o n B o a r d , 1 9 6 3 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 75/327

6 6 GUIDANCE AND THE PUPILr e a l i z a t i o n t h a t a d v a n t a g e f r o m s u c h k n o w l e d g e i s b e s t o b t a i n e d b y

t h e i n d i v i d u a l s w e s e e k t o h e l p , n o t b y o u r p o s s e s s i o n o f i t . S u c h

a n a d v a n t a g e c a n b e r e a l i z ed o n l y w h e n g u i d a n c e i s c o n c e iv e d a s a

professio n . T h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h g u i d a n c e c a n b e c o m e a p r o f e s s i o n

i s s t i l l p r o b l e m a t i c . I t w i l l d e p e n d o n w h e t h e r g u i d a n c e c a n d i r e c t l y

a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y m e e t t h e i m p l i c i t c h a l l e n g e i n s t e a d o f m e r e l y p r o -

l i f e r a t i n g a s e t o f a n c i l l a r y f u n c t i o n s .

E m e r g e n c e o f P r o f e s s i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n a n d L e a d e r s h i p

T h e p a s t d e c a d e h a s w i t n e s s e d s u b s t a n t i a l g r o w t h o f p r o f e s s io n a l

l e a d e r s h i p . I n 1 9 5 2 t h e N a t i o n a l V o c a t i o n a l G u i d a n c e A s s o c i a t i o n

a n d i t s j o u r n a l , O c c u p a t i o n s , w e r e s u p e r c e d e d b y t h e e n l a r g e d

A m e r i c a n P e r s o n n e l a n d G u i d a n c e A s s o c i a t i o n ( A P G A ) a n d i t s

j o u r n a l , T h e P e r s o n n e l a n d G u i d a n c e J o u r n a l . T h e g r o w t h o f t h i s

e n l a r g e d a s s o c i a t i o n h a s b e e n r e m a rk a b l e , n o t o n l y i n t e r m s o f

m e m b e r s h i p , b u t , m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , i n t e r m s o f i t s l e a d e r s h i p i n a n

i n h e r e n t l y a m o r p h o u s f i e l d . F o r t h e s c ho o l c ou n s e l o r , t h e c r ea t i o n

o f t h e A m e r i c a n S c h o o l C o u n s e l o r s A s s o c i a t i o n ( a d i v i s i o n o f

A P G A ) r e p r e s e n t e d a m a j o r s t e p . L e a d e r s h i p f o r s c h o o l c o u n s e l i n g

w a s u n i f i e d b y t h e n e w l y c r e a t e d o r g a n i z a t i o n , a d i s t i n c t i m p r o v e -

m e n t o v e r t h e p r e v i o us o v e r l a p p i n g w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l V o c a t i o n a l

G u i d a n c e A s s o c i a t i o n a n d , t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t , w i t h t h e D i v i s i o n o f

C o u n s e l i n g a n d G u i d a n c e o f t h e A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a -

t i o n . N e i t h e r o f t h e t w o l a t t e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s d i d n o r c o u l d f u n c t i o n

a s a n e f f e c t i v e v o i c e f o r t h e s c h o o l c o u n s e l o r . T h e A m e r i c a n S c h o o l

C o u n s e l o r s A s s o c i a t i o n ( A S C A ) , i n a s h o r t s p a c e o f t i m e , h a s

e m e r g e d a s a n e n e r g e t i c a n d f o r c e f u l v o i c e .

C o n c u r r e n t w i t h t h e f o r m a t i o n o f A S C A , t h e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a -

t i o n f o r G u i d a n c e S u p e r v i s o r s a n d C o u n s e l o r T r a i n e r s m o d i f i e d i t s

o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h i n t h e A P G A a n d b e c a m e t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f

C o u n s e l o r E d u c a t o r s a n d S u p e r v i s o r s ( A C E S ) . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n

o f A S C A a n d A C E S u n d e r t h e a e g i s o f A P G A p r o v i d e d a w o r k a b l e

l i a i s o n f o r l e a d e r s h i p i n c o u n s e l i n g a n d t o w a r d i m p r o v em e n t i n

c o u n s e l o r t r a i n i n g . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , b o t h g r o u p s h a v e m a d e s e r i o u s

s t u d y o f b a s i c p o l i c y i s s u e s a n d o f s t a n d a r d s f o r t h e t r a i n i n g o f

c o u n s e l o r s . 1 2 I n 1 9 6 4 , a n A S C A c o m m i t t e e c o m p l e t e d a f i v e - y e a r

1 2 . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t m a n y o f t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a d o p t e d i n b o t h

t h e ASCA a n d ACES r e p o r t s w e r e a n t i c i p a t e d b y t h e W r e n n r e p o r t , The

C o u n s e l o r i n a C h a n g i n g W o r l d , o p . c i t .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 76/327

SPRINTHALL AND TIEDEMAN 6 7

study of ro le and function of seco ndary-school counselors . Som e

o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s t u d y w e r e ( a ) t h a t t h e

m a j o r r o l e o f t h e c o u n s e l o r i s i n d i v i d u a l c o u n s e l i n g ( " T h e s c h o o l

counselor should devot e no less than 5o per cent of his assigned

time i n counseling with individual p upils or sm all groups of pu-

p i l s . " ) , a n d ( b ) b y c o n s p i c uo u s a n d i n t e n t i o n a l o m i s s i o n , t h a t c l a s s -

r o o m t e a c h i n g i s n o t a n e c e s s a r y p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l c o m -

pete ncy . A l o n g w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o u n s e l i n g f u n c t i o n

as the major role, the ASCA committ ee also proposed a defi nition

o f c o u n s e l i n g . I t m a y s e e m a b s u r d , a f t e r a l l t h e s e y e a r s , t h a t a

d e f i n i t i o n o f c o u n s e l i n g i s n e c e s s a r y . Y e t , t h i s s t e p i s i m p o r t a n t ,

s i n c e o n e o f t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t h a s c o n t i n u a l l y d o g g e d t h e p r a c t i c e

o f s c h o o l c o u n s e l i n g h a s b e e n a d e f i n i t i o n t h a t e s c h e w s i n d i v i d u a l

c o u n s e l i n g . The deli berate omission of the t eaching requirement

a n d t h e s p e c i f i c e m p h a s i s o n i n d i v i d u a l c o u n s e l i n g , t a k e n t o g e t h e r ,

indicate an independent directi on for the profes sionalization of

guid ance .

T h e d e l e t i o n o f t e a c h i n g a s a p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r g u i d a n c e , t h u s

i m p l y i n g a d i f f e r e n t i a l f u n c t i o n , m a y b e r e s i s t e d . W i t t l i n , f o r e x -

ample, views guidance as part o f the bureaucr acy which is incon-

s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a t u s o f t h e t e a c h e r b e c a u s e i t r e d u c e s

t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r o r i g i n a l a n d s p o n t a n e o u s a c t i o n . S h e n o t e s t h a t ,

"The presence of guidance officers may deprive some teachers of

a s e n s e o f i n d i v i d u a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y n e e d e d b y a n a d u l t f o r s u c c e s s -

ful pe rformance . "1 3

R i v a l r y b e t w e e n t e a c h e r s a n d c o u n s e l o r s i s p r o b a b l y i n e v i t a b l e

and may already exist t o some extent . A rec ent st udy by Russ ell

a n d W i l l i s f o u n d t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f t e a c h e r s s u r v e y e d f e l t t h a t

m o s t o f t h e g u i d a n c e s e r v i c e s c o u l d b e h a n d l e d m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y b y

the teachers themse lves if they had more released time from the

c l a s s r o o m . 1 4 A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e r e i s i m p r e s s i v e r e c e n t e v i d e n c e

t h a t c o u n s e l o r s c a n p l a y a m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n t h e s c h o o l , a t l e a s t

1 3 . Alm a S. W i t t l i n , " T h e T e a c h e r , " Dae da lus, XCII, No . 4 ( F a l l , 1 9 6 3 ) ,

7 4 5 - 6 3 -

1 4. J a m e s C . R u s s e l l a n d A r t h u r R . W i l l i s , " A S u r v e y o f T e a c h e r s ' O p i n i o n s

o f G u i d a n c e S e r v i c e s , " P e r s o n n e l a n d G u i d a n c e J o u r n a l , XLII, No . 7 ( M a r c h ,

1 9 6 4 ) , 7 0 7 - 9 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 77/327

6 8 GUIDANCE AND THE PUPILfrom the pupi ls' viewpoint . H e r r i o t t ' s r e c e n t s t u d y d e m o n s t r a t e d

t h e i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e o f c o u n s e l o r s i n d e t e r m i n i n g e d u c a t i o n a l

p l a n s a n d a s p i r a t i o n s o f p u p i l s , 1 5 while Krumbol tz and Varenhorst

p r o v i d e d e v i d e n c e t o s h o w t h a t c o u n s e l o r s s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e

g e n e r a l p u p i l a t t i t u d e s . 1 6 T h e s e r e s u l t s s h o ul d b e t a k e n a s o n l y i n d i -

c a t i o n s o f w h a t i s p o s s i b l e s i n c e t h e s t u d i e s w e r e r e s t r i c t e d t o p a r t i c -

u l a r s c h o o l s a n d m a y n o t s u p p o r t a b r o a d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . But the y

d o p o i n t t o a f u n c t i o n s e p a r a t e f r o m t e a c h i n g . C r e m i n , f o r e x a m p l e ,

n o t e s t h a t t h e g r o w i n g s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n s c h o o l c u r r i c u l a m a y l e a v e

t h e g u i d a n c e c o u n s e l o r a s t h e o n e p r o f e s s i o n a l p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e

for seeing the child 's educati on "whole . " 1 7 As we have note d,

w h i l e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r i v a l r y i n t h i s c o n t e x t i s p r e s e n t , t h e c l a r i -

ficat ion of a guidance role may promote a ge nuine unders tanding

o f f u n c t i o n b y b o t h c o u n s e l o r s a n d t e a c h e r s .

Whil e the Amer ican Schoo l Counselo rs Asso cia ti on was com -

p l e t i n g i t s s t u d y o f t h e c o u n s e l o r ' s r o l e a n d f u n c t i o n , a p a r a l l e l s t e p

t o w a r d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a n d a r d s w a s t a k e n b y t h e

Asso cia ti on for Counselor Edu cat ion and Supe rvi sio n (ACES) . T h e

A C E S c o m p l e t e d a s t u d y d e s i g n e d t o s e t f o r t h s u g g e s t i v e s t a n d a r d s

f o r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . The s tudy took five years and involved

o v e r o n e t h o u s a n d p e r s o n s a c t i v e l y e n g a g e d i n c o u n s e l o r e d u c a t i o n

a c r o s s t h e c o u n t r y . T h e m a j o r i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y i s r e p r e -

: - s e n t e d b y i t s p r o p o s a l o f a t w o - y e a r t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m a t a g r a d u a t e

level as necessary for counselor compet ence . Whil e t he ASCA

s t u d y f o c u s e s o n t h e c r e a t i o n o f a n i n d e p e n d e n t p r o f e s s i o n o f s c h o o l

counseli ng, the ACES's pro posal i s des igned as th e fram ework for

professi onal tr aining to insure minimal compe tence upon entry to

c o u n s e l i n g . T h e p r o p o s a l , w h i c h m a y h a v e a t r u l y s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t

upon graduate progr ams, heavily emphasiz es training in theory

(human behavi or, counseling and career- devel opment theo ry, and

1 5 . R o b e r t E . H e rr i o t t , " So m e So c i a l D e t e r m in a n t s o f E d u c a t i o n a l A s p i r a -

t i o n , " Harv ard Edu cat ional Revi ew, XXXIII ( S p r i n g , 1 9 6 3 ) , 1 5 7 - 7 7 .

1 6 . Joh n D. K r u m b o l t z a n d B a r b a r a V a r e n h o r s t , " M o l d e r s o f P u p i l A t t i -

t u d e s , " P e r s o n n e l a n d G u i d a n c e J o u r n a l , X L I I I ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 6 5 ) , 4 4 3 - 4 6 .

1 7 . Lawrence A . Crem in, "The Progr ess ive Herit age of the Guidance

Movem ent," in G u i d a n c e i n A m e r i c a n E d u c a t i o n , p p . 1 1 - 1 g . Edi te d by Edward

Landy and Paul A . P e r r y . C a m b r i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s : Harvard Graduat e

S c h o o l o f E d u c a t i o n , 1 9 6 4 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 78/327

SPRINTHALL AND TIEDEMAN 6 9

t h e l i k e ) a n d i n t e n s i v e s u p e r v i s e d p r a c t i c e i n i n d i v i d u a l c o u n s e l i n g

throughout a two-year program . " ' T h i s s t u d y r e p r e s e n t s a n i m -

p r e s s i v e a c h i e v e m e n t b e c a u s e A C E S w a s a b l e t o d e v i s e a c o m p r e -

h e n s i v e , a n d y e t s p e c i f i c , s e t o f s t a n d a r d s f o r t r a i n i n g c o u n s e l o r s

w h i c h h a s b e e n b o t h a c c e p t e d a n d s u p p o r t e d b y c o u n s e l o r t r a i n e r s

r e p r e s e n t i n g v i r t u a l l y a l l o f t h e g r a d u a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t h e c o u n t r y

w h i c h o f f e r e d u c a t i o n t o c o u n s e l o r s .

T h e i m m e d i a t e f u t u r e w i l l s e e t h e s t r u g g l e f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l p r a c -

t i c e s h i f t f r o m p r o p o s a l a n d d e f i n i t i o n t o i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . T h e i n -

d i v i d u a l s t a t e c e r t i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s r e p r e s e n t a w i d e r a n g e o f

d i f f e r i n g s t a n d a r d s . T h e r e a r e f e w , p e r h a p s n o s t a t e s w i t h t h e s a m e

r e q u i r e m e n t s . H o w e v e r , t h e m o s t c o m m o n r e q u i r e m e n t i s a c e r t a i n

number of years in classroom te aching plus a number o f hours

( u s u a l l y f r o m 1 2 t o 30) i n g r a d u a t e c o u r s e s i n g u i d a n c e . T h e a c -

c r u a l o f c o u r s e c r e d i t s p l u s t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f c l a s s r o o m e x p e r i e n c e

r e p r e s en t t h e b a s e s o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n . T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t g e n e r a l l y p r o -

m o t e s t h e p r a c t i c e o f p a r t - t i m e g r a d u a t e s t u d y o v e r a n e x t e n d e d

p e r i o d o f t i m e , s o m e t i m e s a t a n u m b e r o f i n s t i t u t i o n s - a p r a c t i c e

d e c r i e d s o e l o q u e n t l y b y C o n a n t . 1 9

T h e r e a l i t y o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s r e p r e s e n t s a p o i n t f a r

r e m o v e d f r o m t h e f r a m e w o r k a d v o c a t e d b y t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s o c i -

a t i o n s . T h r o u g h t h e d e l i n e a t i o n o f p o s i t i o n s b y A S C A a n d A C E S ,

h o w e v e r , t h e d i r e c t i o n o f d e s i r e d c h a n g e i s i n d i c a t e d . T h e a s s o c i a -

t i o n s a r e n o w s h i f t i n g t h e i r f o c u s f r o m t h e i n t e r n a l t o t h e e x t e r n a l ,

t o c h a n g e t h e s t a t e r e q u i r e m e n t s t o f o s t e r m o r e c o n g r u e n c e i n t h e i r

p o s i t i o n . The unifi ed posi ti on ta ken by both ACES and ASCA is

o f o v e r r i d i n g i m p o r t a n c e i n i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e c h a n g e s w h i c h m u s t

b e m a d e , a n d , w e s h o u l d a d d , w h i c h a r e n o w i n f a c t b e i n g m a d e i n

s o m e s t a t e s . T h e r e a r e p r e s e n t l y s o m e s t a t e s w h i c h a r e e x p e r i m e n t -

i n g w i t h t h e i d e a o f p r o v i s i o n a l c e r t i f i c a t i o n b a s e d o n s p e c i f i c g r a d -

u a t e t r a i n i n g i n g u i d a n c e p l u s e x p e r i e n c e i n s c h o o l c ou n s e l i n g r a t h e r

1 8 . Th e p r o p o s a l s p e c i f i e s , a s m i n i m a l , 6 o h o u r s i n a s e r i e s o f c o u n s e l i n g

s e s s i o n s w i t h e a c h o f s e v e r a l s e c o n d a r y - s c h o o l - a g e y o u t h . T h e c o n n o t a t i o n i s

c l e a r ; c o m p e t e n c e i n e x t e n d e d c o u n s e l i n g r a t h e r t h a n a " o n e - s h o t " i n f o r m a t i o n a l

s e r v i c e .

1 9 . Jame s B . C o n a n t , The Education o f American Teachers . New Yor k :

McGraw-Hil l Book Co . , 1 9 6 3 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 79/327

70 GUIDANCE AND THE PUPILt h a n i n t e a c h i n g a s r e q u i s i t e f o r p e r m a n e n t c e r t i f i c a t i o n . We a p -

p l a u d t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t a s w e l l a s u n d e r l i n e i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e

f u t u r e . We have indicate d that , becau se the numerous e l e m e n t s

w i t h i n b o t h A C E S a n d A S C A c o u l d a g r e e o n s p e c i f i c r o l e , f u n c t i o n ,

a n d t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e m o v e t o w a r d a s e p a r a t e p r o f e s s i o n

w i l l a c c e l e r a t e . A s t h e n e c e s s a r y c h a n g e s a r e m a d e , e v e n t h o u g h o n

a l i m i t e d s c a l e a t f i r s t , t h e i m p e t u s t o w a r d t h i s g o a l w i l l g a i n m o -

m e n t u m b e c a u s e o f t h e p a r t i c ul a r s a n c t i o n s i m p l i c i t i n s t a t e m e n t s

o f r ol e , f un c t i o n , a n d s t a n d a r d s f or t r a i n i n g . F o r e x a m p l e , i n s e t t i n g

u p s p e c i f i c r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r c o u n s e l o r e d u c a t i o n , A C E S p o i n t e d

o u t t h a t t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l f o r A c c r e d i t a t i o n i n T e a c h e r E d u c a -

ti on (NCATE) was alr ead y evalua ting in the are a of c ounselo r

e d u c a t i o n . The i mpli cat ion to th e ACES mem be rshi p was clea r-

u n l e s s t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n w h i c h p u r p o r t s t o r e p r e s e n t c o u n s e l o r e d u -

c a t i o n w a s a b l e t o a g r e e o n s t a n d a r d s a n d o n w a y s t o a c h i e v e t h e m ,

o t h e r a g e n c i e s w o u l d t a k e o v e r t h e f u n c t i o n s o f a c c r e d i t a t i o n . T h e

warning was he ed ed . APGA is now in a positi on to att empt a c-

c r e d i t a t i o n w i t h t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f i t s j u d g m e n t

s h o u l d m e m b e r s o f t h e A s s o c i a t i o n d e c i d e u p o n s u c h a c t i o n .

Eme rge nce of The ory : C o u n s e l i n g

I n c o n c e r t w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s m a d e i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

s t r u c t u r e , w i t h t h e u n i f i c a t i o n o f p o s i t i o n , a n d w i t h r e a l e v i d e n c e

t h a t s t a n d a r d s a r e b e i n g i m p l e m e n t e d , t h e o r e t i c a l a n d d i r e c t i o n a l

c o n c e p t s f o r g u i d a n c e a r e e m e r g i n g . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n a d e -

q u a t e c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r g u i d a n c e i s s t i l l i n i t s i n f a n c y . Ar e c e n t s u r v e y o f t h e p r e s e n t t h e o r e t i c a l s t a t e o f g u i d a n c e n o t e d t h a t

" s u c h a s c i e n c e m u s t c o m e f r o m a s c h o l a r l y o r i e n t a t i o n t h a t d o e s

n o t y e t e x i s t a s a b a s i s f o r t r a i n i n g ; i t r e q u i r e s t h e e m p l o y m e n t o f

m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y m e a n s f o r m e t a d i s c i p l i n a r y e n d s . " 2 0

T h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f c o u n s e l i n g t h e o r y a n d c a r e e r d e v e l o p m e n t

m a y p r o v i d e a v i a b l e f r a m e w o r k f o r n e e d e d s c h o l a r l y o r i e n t a t i o n .

T h e f r a m e m a y b e c o m e t h e e x p l i c i t m o d e l f o r t h e f u t u r e o f g u i d -

a n c e t h e o r y w i t h i n t h e o v e r - a l l e d u c a t i v e c o n t e x t o f g u i d a n c e a s a

s e p a r a t e b u t c o m p l e m e n t a r y f u n c t i o n t o t e a c h i n g . W e w i l l a t t e m p t

t o o u t l i n e t h e r e c e n t c h a n g e s i n c o u n s e l i n g t h e o r y a n d c o n c e p t s o f

z o . T i e d e m a n a n d F i e l d , o p . e i t . , p . 4 9 6 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 80/327

SPRINTHALL AND TIEDEMAN7 1

career deve lopment that are indicati ve of the important changes

of focus toward a compre hensive theor y for guid ance .

Counseling theory has underg one chang es part ly creat e d b y the

d i ff e r ences be tween the direc t i v e and nondirec t i v e schools of

though t and partly by the growing realizat ion that the posi tion of

neither group is tenable . The litera ture during the past de cade has

been the batt leground of the two contending groups in their at-

tempts to establish their positions . Both t he di rec tiv e and nondi-

rective posit ions have tended to become rei fied and rigid . For ex-

ample, the dire c t iv e pos i t ion on counseling has bee n base d on the

assumpti on that the co unselor is in possessio n of informati on, con-

tent, and facts which he ve rbally imparts t o the stu dent . 2 1 An in-

formati onal deficit i s, in effect, the problem of pr esentation and can

be q uickly and effi ciently resolved . In our vie w, thi s concep t of

guidance is supe rfici al, even though, as we indicated i n the introduc -

tion, the position represents the presently accepted major rationale

for g ui dance pract ic e . The im parting of i nformati on as the t heo-

retical role for gu idance is as disjunctive to the goals of guidance as

i s t h e p r e s e n t ing o f in f o r m a t i on by t h e c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r t o t h e

goals of te aching . Both acti vitie s deny major educa tive goal s-car-

rying forward disci plined inquiry in the cas e of th e classro om, and

learning to make one's own personal deci sions in the case of co un-

s e l i n g . The assum ptions underlying a directi ve approach to counsel-

ing are nowhere more app arent as well as nowhere mo re prob lem-

at ic t han in the words of a colle g e stud e nt who spoke of prev io us

attempts to "guide" him :

. . . Other institutionalized bit s of guidance to stud ents have said

t h i n g s l i k e , " Y o u s h o u l d n ' t t a k e t h i s b e f o r e t h a t ; y o u s h o u l d e n t e r c o l l e g e

right away ; d o n ' t t a k e a y e a r o f f b e c a u s e y o u r s c h o l a r s h i p w o n ' t b e a n y

g o o d . " . . . These g roups are wrong . I know what I want i f y o u ' l l j us t

let me ; . . . give me the ti me to think on my own without this pr essure

to-you know-"Buddy you be tter live by the rule s . "

The thing about thi s protecti ve . . . i t ' s o f t e n b l i n d t o i t s c h a r a c t e r -

uh-the adviser-t he unwelcome advisor never knows he's unwelcome

becau se th ere's no doubt he 's te lling you The Right Thing! The as-

2 1 . T h e i n t e r e s t e d r e a d e r m a y f i n d a n e x t e n s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h i s a p -

proa ch in Edmu nd G. W i l l i a m s o n , C o u n s e l i n g A d o l e s c e n t s . New York :

McGraw- Hill Book Co . , 1 9 5 0 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 81/327

7 2 GUIDANCE AND THE PUPILs u m p t i o n a l w a y s i s , h o w c a n y o u t u r n a w a y a d v i c e w h e n i t ' s a l w a y s t h e

r i g h t t h i n g - s o m e b o d y ' s s a y i n g t h i s i s t h e w a y I o ug h t t o g o t h r o u g h

c o l l e g e a n d n o w I ' m s a y i n g w a i t a m i n u t e I ' m p a y i n g t h e b i l l , I ' v e g o t

a l i f e t h a t I w a n t t o b u i l d , I ' l l d o i t m y w a y . J u s t w a r n m e i n t i m e i f

I s t a r t . . . w e l l , e v e n t h e n l e a v e i t t o m e . . . . H o w d o e s a n y o n e e l s e

k n o w w h a t ' s r e a l l y r i g h t f o r m e ! I h a v e t o f i n d i t ! 2 2

T h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n o m a l y o f a c o u n s e l o r a s s u p e r - o r d i n a t e a n d o f

a c l i e n t a s s u b - o r d i n a t e i s u n r e s o l v e d w h e n t h e c r u c i a l f o c u s o f

c o u n s e l i n g p u r p o r t s t o b e o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a b i l i t y t o m a k e w i s e

d e c i s i o n s f o r h i m s e l f , t o s e t h i s o w n g o a l s , t o b r i n g a b o u t h i s o w n

f u t u r e e f f e c t i v e l y a n d r e s p o n s i b l y . I t a p p e a r s t o t h e w r i t e r s t h a t

t h e r e h a s b e e n a n o t i c e a b l e d e c l i n e s i n c e t h e e a r l y 1 9 5 0 ' s i n t h e

acceptance of the the ory and method of direct ive counseling . As

l o n g a s t h e c o u n s e l o r r e m a i n e d a s e x p e r t i n i n f o r m a t i o n t o b e t r a n s -

m i t t e d , s o l o n g w o u l d h e r e m a i n a t e c h n i c i a n o r p e r h a p s a t e a c h e r -

counselor, an impossible c ombination based on an inadequate vie w

o f t e a c h i n g a n d c o u n s e l i n g . T h e d e c l i n e i n i m p o r t a n c e o f d i r e c t i v e

theory has been paralleled by a decrease of t he alte rnative- non-

d i r e c t i v e t h e o r y .

T h e r e h a s b e e n a g r o w i n g r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t n o n d i r e c t i v e t h e o r y

i s i n a d e q u a t e a s a b a s i s f o r c o u n s e l i n g . S u p e r n o t e d t h a t , i n t h e l a t e

1 9 4 0 ' s , n o n d i r e c t i v e t h e o r y w a s v i e w e d a s t h e m a j o r f o c u s f o r c o u n -

s e l o r t r a i n i n g , p r o d u c i n g t o t a l o p p o s i t i o n t o o t h e r a p p r o a c h e s t o

c o u n s e l i n g . 2 3 Yet, there is now an increasi ng att empt to se ek a

more compre hensive and flexible mo del for school c ounseling than

that provid ed b y the nondirecti ve framework . T h e i d e a s p r e v a l e n t

i n n o n d i r e c t i v e t h e o r y - t h a t t h e c o u n s e l o r m u s t n e v e r h a v e a n o b -

j e c t i v e t h o u g h t , t h a t h e m u s t a l w a y s r e s p o n d i n a p r e s c r i b e d w a y ,

or that "cogniti on is bad ," as McGowan notes 2 4 -are vi ewed in-

c r e a s i n g l y a s a n a r r o w b a s e f o r s c h o o l c o u n s e l i n g . I t i s n o t e w o r t h y

2 z . T h i s e x c e r pt a n d t h e e x c e r p t q u o t e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e c h a p t e r w e r e

s e l e c t e d f o r i l l u s t r a t i v e p u r p o s e s f r o m c o u n s e l i n g i n t e r v i e w s c o n d u c t e d w i t h

c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s by t h e f i r s t a u t h o r .

2 3 . Donald E . S u p e r , " G ui d a n c e i n A m e r i c a n E d u c a t i o n : I t s S t a t u s a n d

I t s F u t u r e , " i n G u i d a n c e i n A m e r i c a n E d u c a t i o n , o p . c i t . , pp . 1 5 1 - 6 1 .

2 4 . J o h n F . M c G o w a n , " D e v e l o p i n g a N a t u r a l C o u n s e l i n g S t y l e , " i n C o u n -

s e l i n g : R e a d i n g s i n T h e o r y a n d P r a c t i c e , p p . 3 6 8 - 7 1 . E d i t e d by J o h n F . Mc-Gowan and Lyle D . S c h m i d t . New Yor k : H o l t , R i n e h a r t & W i n s t o n , 1 9 6 2 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 82/327

SPRINTHALL AND TIRDEMAN 7 3

t h a t r e c e n t r e s e a r c h h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e n o n d i r e c t i v e r e s p o n s e -

s e t d e c l i n e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h t h e a m o u n t o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e

o f a c o u n s e l o r25

F r o e h l i c h r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e t h e o r y o f n o n d i r e c t i v e c o u n s e l i n g

d o e s n o t f i t a c o u n s e l i n g m o d e l , " . . . t h e f o l l o w e r s o f t h i s s c h o o l

of thought have overemphasized psychotherapy at the expense of

c o u n s e l i n g . Carl Roger s entit led an early book Counseli ng and

Psychothera py .O n e o f h i s d i s c i p l e s h a s w r i t t e n a b o o k e n t i t l e d

I n t r o d u c t i o n t o T h e r a p e u t i c C o u n s e l i n g . More rece ntly Rogers has

w i s e l y d r o p p e d t h e p r e t e n s e o f c o u n s e l i n g a n d h a s e n t i t l e d h i s l a t e s t

book, Clie nt- Centere d Ther apy . . . . "2 6 M u c h o f t h e r e c e n t l i t e r -

a t u r e o n c o u n s e l i n g m a k e s t h e p o i n t t h a t a m o r e f l e x i b l e f r a m e w o r k

i s p o s s i b l e w h i c h " i m p l i e s f l e x i b i l i t y o f a t t i t u d e s , f e e l i n g , a n d b e -

h a v i o r i n a u t h e n t i c r e s p o n s e t o t h e r e a l s i t u a t i o n . " 2 7 The cou n-

s e l o r i s n o t r i g i d l y b o u n d t o a s i n g l e m o d e o f r e s p o n s e - r e f l e c t i n g

f e e l i n g s . McGowan, aft er re vie wing rec ent stud ie s on counseling

s t y l e , s u g g e s t s t h a t " c o u n s e l o r t r a i n e r s m i g h t d o w e l l t o b u i l d u p o n

b a s i c s k i l l s P t h a t t h e c o u n s e l i n g t r a i n e e h a s a c q u i r e d i n t h e p a s t r a t h e r

t h a n t r y t o f o r c e h i m i n t o t h e u s e o f a s p e c i f i c t e c h n i q u e , a t t h e

c o s t o f h i s f l e x i b i l i t y a n d s p o n t a n e i t y . " 2 8

The controver sy of many years ove r the cla ssic d irec tive vs .

nondirect ive mo dels m ay now be mor ibu nd . A s y n t h e s i s o f i d e a s

a n d c o n c e p t s f o r s c h o o l c o u n s e l i n g i s i n t h e o f f i n g . M o s t r e c e n t l y ,

T y l e r ' s w o r k e x e m p l i f i e s t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t . S h e d e f i n e s c o u n s e l i n g

a s " a p p r a i s a l w i t h " t h e i n d i v i d u a l o f h i s u n i q u e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r

2 5 . Hans H . S t r u p p , " A n O b j e c t i v e C o m p a r i s o n o f R o g e r i a n a n d P s y c h o -

a n a l y t i c T e c h n i q u e s , " i n J o u r n a l o f C o n s u l t i n g P s y c h o l o g y , X I X , No . 1 ( 1 9 5 5 ) ,

1 - 7 .

z 6 . C l i f f o r d P . F r o e h l i c h , " C o u n s e l i n g , I t s U s e a n d A b u s e s , " i n Guid ance

R e a d i n g s f o r C o u n s e l o r s , p . 3 7 3 . Edite d by Gail F. Farwell and Herman J .

P e t e r s . C h i c a g o : Rand- McNal ly Co . , 1 9 6 0 .

P e r r y( 1 9 5 5 )

h a s d o c u m e n t e d t h i s s a m e p o i n t b y n o t i n g t h e a s t o n i s h i n g

d e c l i n e o f r e f e r e n c e s t o " c o u n s e l i n g " i n R o g e r s ' m o r e r e c e n t writings when

c o m p a r e d t o h i s e a r l i e r w o r k a n d t h e d r a m a t i c e x p a n s i o n o f c l i e n t i n t e r v i e w s

f r o m s h o r t - t o l o n g - t e r m c a s e s ; f r o m c o u n s e l i n g t o p s y c h o t h e r a p y . I n a d d i t i o n ,

Humme l (196 2), Bordi n( 1 9 5 5 ) ,

and Shoben (196 2) note both th e economic

a n d t h e o r e t i c a l o b s t a c l e s f o r p s y c h o t h e r a p y a s a l e g i t i m a t e s c h o o l f u n c t i o n .

2 7 . Adr ian van Kaam , "Counsel ing fr om t h e V i e w p o i n t o f E x i s t e n t i a l

P s y c h o l o g y , " i n Harv ard Educ ati onal Revi ew, XXXII ( F a l l , 1 9 6 2 ) , 4 0 3 - I 5 .

z 8 . McGowan, op . c i t . , p . 37 1 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 83/327

7 4 GUIDANCE AND THE PUPILc h o i c e a n d a c t i o n , l e a v i n g t h e c o u n s e l o r c o n s i d e r a b l e f l e x i b i l i t y i n

r e s p o n s e t o t h e s t u d e n t . 2 9 O t h e r s , s u c h a s D i p b o y e , 3 0 Pepinsky and

P e p i n s k y , 3 1 C a l l i s , 3 2 P e r r y , 3 3 Humm el, 3 4 and Barr y and Wolf , 3 5

h a v e i n d i c a t e d d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e r i g i d o r t h o d o x i e s s o p r e v a l e n t

i n t h e p r e v i o u s c o u n s e l i n g m o d e l s . T h e d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n h a s p r o d u c e d

a t r e n d t o w a r d a m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d v i a b l e s e t o f c o n c e p t s f o r

guidance counseling which is neithe r di rective nor nondirect ive .

B r a y f i e l d , i n t h e m o s t r e c e n t r e v i e w o f c o u n s e l i n g t h e o r y , n o t e s a

c o n s e n s u s t h a t c o u n s e l o r s : ( a ) work with normal peop le ; ( b ) e m -

p h a s i z e t h e s t r e n g t h s a n d a s s e t s o f t h e c o u n s e l e e ; a n d ( c ) e m p h a s i z e

c o g n i t i v e a c t i v i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e i n v o l v i n g c h o i c e a n d d e c i s i o n . 3 1 1

T h e f o c u s o n c h o i c e , p l a n s , a n d d e c i s i o n i s n o t a n a i v e r a t i o n a l i s m .

T h e t h e o r i s t s , n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y , r e c o g n i z e t h e s u b t l e t y , c o m p l e x i t y ,

a n d d i s j u n c t i v e e f f e c t s o f e m o t i o n . T h e s e a f f e c t i v e d e t e r m i n a n t s a r e

t o o r e a l t o p e r m i t a n a r r o w p r e - F r e u d i a n r a t i o n a l i s m , o r t h e p o w e r

o f p o s i t i v e t h i n k i n g , t o s t a n d a s a c o u n s e l i n g m o d e l . Emot io ns are

accepte d, yet do not bec ome an exclusive focus . B o r d i n ' s c o n c e p t

o f t h e c o g n i t i v e - c o n a t i v e b a l a n c e d e s c r i b e s a c o u n s e l i n g m o d e l i n

2 9 . L e o n a E . T y l e r , " T h e M e t h o d s a n d P r o c e s s e s o f A p p r a i s a l a n d C o u n s e l -

i n g , " i n T h e P r o f e s s i o n a l P r e p a r a t i o n o f C o u n s e l i n g P s y c h o l o g i s t s , p p . 7 6 - 8 9 .

Edit ed b y Alber t S . Thom pso n and Donald E . S u p e r . New York : Bureau of

P u b l i c at i o n s , T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 4 .

3 0 - W i l b e r t J . D i p b o y e , " A n a l y s i s o f C o u n s e l o r S t y l e b y D i s c u s s i o n U n i t s , "

i n J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e l i n g P s y c h o l o g y , I ( W i n t e r ,1 9 5 4 ) ,

2 1 - 2 6 .

3 1 . H a r ol d P e pi n s k y a n d P a ul i n e Pe p i n s k y , C o u n s e l i n g T h e o r y a n d P r a c t i c e .

New Yor k : R o n a l d P r e s s ,1 9 5 4 -

P. R o b e r t C a l l i s , " T o w a r d a n I n t e g r a t e d T h e o r y o f C o u n s e l i n g , " i n J o u r n a l

o f C o l l e g e S t u d e n t P e r s o n n e l , I ( J u n e , i 9 6 o ) , 2 - 9 .

3 3. Will iam G . P e r r y , " O n t h e R e l a t i o n o f P s y c h o t h e r a p y a n d C o u n s e l i n g , "

A n n a l s o f New York Acade my o f S c i e n c e s , L X I I I ( N o v e m b e r , 1 9 5 5 ) , 3 96 - 4 0 7 -

3 4. Raymo nd C. Humm el, "Ego-Counsel ing in Guid ance : Concep t a nd

Met hod ," Harvard Educational Review, XXXII ( F a l l , 1 9 6 2 ) , 4 6 3 - 8 2 .

3 5. R u t h B a r r y a n d B e v e r l y W o l f , E p i t a p h f o r V o c a t i o n a l G u i d a n c e . New

York : B u r e a u o f P u b l i c a t i o n s , T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 2 .

3 6 . Arth ur H . B r a y f i e l d , " C o u n s e l i n g " i n Annua l Revie w of P s y c h o l o g y ,

XIV (196 3), 319-5o . Edi te d by Paul R . F a r n s w o r t h . P a l o A l t o , C a l i f o r n i a :

Annual Revi ews .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 84/327

SPRINTHALL AND TIEDEMAN7 5

t h i s r e s p e c t , w h i c h d o e s n o t d e n y t h e r e a l i t y o f i r r a t i o n a l f o r c e s b u t

s t i l l r e t a i n s t h e m a j o r f o c u s o n c o g n i t i v e c h o i c e p r o c e s s e s . 3 7

T h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f a d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r c o u n s e l -

i n g i s t h e m a j o r c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e s e t h e o r e t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s . 3 8

A g e n e r i c t e r m " c o u n s e l i n g " e m e r g e s i m p l y i n g , a t l e a s t , s e t t i n g ,

c l i e n t p o p u l a t i o n , a n d p r o c e s s f o c u s . C o u n s e l i n g i n t h i s f r a m e d e -

s c r i b e s a p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a t i v e r o l e t h a t i s n o t a w a t e r e d - d o w n

version of psychotherapy . A d i s t i n c t i o n i s p o s s i b l e b e t w e e n t h e

p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y p r e v e n t i o n o f m e n t a l i l l n e s s . T h e l a t t e r c o m -

p r e h e n d s t h e t h e r a p e u t i c t r e a t m e n t o f s e r i o u s e m o t i o n a l p r o b l e m s ,

a corrective emotional experience of unconscious conflicts . The

f o r m e r f o c u s e s o n t h e g e n e r a l p s y c h o s o c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f n o r m a l

pupils as they proceed on the path from dependence to effective

self- manag ement. Mathewson's emphasis on a developmental frame-

work for counseling is particularly pertinent in this regard . 3 s

Viewed from the point of growth and development, the individual

m o v e s t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s o f s u c c e s s i v e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d i n t e g r a -

t i o n a s h e c o n f r o n t s a n d , h o p e f u l l y , s u r m o u n t s d i s c o n t i n u i t y . The

c o n f r o n t a t i o n i m p l i e s t h e p o s s i b l e t i m e f o r e x a m i n a t i o n o f o n e ' s

p u r p o s e a n d p l a n a t s u c c e s s i v e i n t e r v a l s . T h e g o a l s a r e h i g h l y c o m -

p a t i b l e w i t h t h o s e o f t h e s c h o o l , n a m e l y , t h e g o a l o f a n e n h a n c e d

r a t i o n a l a b i l i t y t o d i r e c t o n e ' s o w n l i f e . T h e g u i d a n c e f u n c t i o n i s

t h u s c o m p l e m e n t a r y t o t e a c h i n g , a n d m o v e s f r o m t h e f r i n g e o f e d u -

c a t i o n t o a f u l l p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h t e a c h i n g . W e w i l l f u r t h e r d e l i n e a t e

t h i s c o n c e p t o f " c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y " f o l l o w i n g a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e

new departures in the theory of career development which have,

t o s o m e e x t e n t , a n t i c i p a t e d d i r e c t i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f c o u n s e l i n g .

3 7 . Edward S . B o r d i n , P s y c h o l o g i c a l C o u n s e l i n g . Ne w Yo r k : A p p l e t o n -

C e n t u r y - C r o f t s ,1 9 5 5 -

3 8. T h e r e a r e o t h e r a t t e m p t s a t d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n f o r g u i d a n c e c o u n s e l i n g .

N o t e w o r t h y i s t h e r e c e n t w o r k o f K r u m b o l t z a t S t a n f o r d w h o s e e k s t o c r e a t e

a m o d e l f o r c o u n s e l i n g w h i c h s p e c i f i e s b e h a v i o r c h a n g e t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f

o p e r a n t c o n d i t i o n i n g . S e e , J o h n D . K r u m b o l t z , " P a r a b l e of the Goo d Co u n-

s e l o r , " P e r s o n n e l a n d G u i d a n c e J o u r n a l , X L I I I ( O c t o b e r , 1 9 6 4 ) , 1 1 8 - 2 3 .

3 9 . R ob ert H . M a t he w s on , G u id a n ce P ol i c y a n d P r a ct i c e . Ne w Yo r k :

Harper & Bros . , 1 9 6 2 ( t h i r d e d i t i o n ) .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 85/327

7 6 GUIDANCE AND THE PUPIL

E m e r g e n c e o f T h e o r y : C a r e e r D e v e l o p m e n t

A s i n t h e c a s e o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f n e w d i r e c t i o n s f o r c o u n -

s e l i n g t h e o r y , c a r e e r - d e v e l o p m e n t t h e o r y h a s d e l i n e a t e d a b r o a d e r

a n d m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i v e f r a m e w o r k . T h e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f o c c u p a -

t i o n a l p s y c h o l o g y , o r , a s i t i s n o w t e r m e d , c a r e e r d e v e l o p m e n t , i s

r e c e n t . P r i o r t o 1 9 5 0 m o s t s t u d i e s i n t h i s a r e a w e r e p r i m a r i l y o f

j o b s u c c e s s , w o r k a d j u s t m e n t , o r v o c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t - a s p e c t s o f a

c a r e e r , n o t t h e c a r e e r p r o c e s s i t s e l f . D a w i s , E n g l a n d , a n d L o f t q u i s t

have recently attempted a broader definition by means of their

theory of work ad j ustment . 4 0 However, their theory accounts for

a c c o m m o d a t i o n b u t n o t f o r t h e c h o i c e p r o c e s s , a c o n c e p t e s s e n t i a l

i n a t h e o r y o f c a r e e r d e v e l o p m e n t .

T h e s t u d i e s o f v o c a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t a r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t p r e c u r s o r s

o f t h e p r e s e n t d i r e c t i o n b u t a r e n o t a d e q u a t e i n t h e m s e l v e s a s a

b a s i s f o r t h e o r y . I n t e r e s t s h a v e n o t b e e n s t u d i e d s o t h a t t h e y m i g h t

b e p l a c e d i n r e l a t i o n t o c h o i c e b y t h e i n d i v i d u a l . R e c e n t y e a r s h a v e

w i t n e s s e d a n e x t e n s i o n o f t h i s m e t h o d o l o g y t o i n c l u d e t h e s i m u l -

t a n e o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a s e r i e s o f a p t i t u d e , i n t e r e s t , a n d p e r s o n a l i t y

v a r i a b l e s w i t h l a r g e g r o u p s o f s u b j e c t s . 4 1 H o w e v e r , i n t e r e s t s s t i l l

h a v e n o t b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e w h i c h m i g h t w e l l

guide choice if the history of preferences were known and, more

c r i t i c a l l y , i f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r e l e c t i o n w e r e f u l l y a s s u m e d b y t h e

i n d i v i d u a l .

D e s p i t e t h e n o t e d i n a d e q u a c y o f t h e s t u d i e s o f i n t e r e s t , j o b s u c -

c e s s , a n d a d j u s t m e n t , t h e y f o r m c o r n e r s t o n e s i n t h e e m e r g i n g t h e o r y

we attempt to trace here . O t h e r r e c e n t a n d r e l e v a n t s t u d i e s h a v e

been the work of : ( a ) G i n z b e r g , b e c a u s e o f h i s e m p h a s i s n o t o n t h e

o c c u p a t i o n i t s e l f b u t o n t h e f a c t t h a t w e r e q u i r e c h o i c e o f o c c u p a -

4 0 . R e n e V . Dawis, George W . E n g l a n d , a n d L l o y d H . L o f t q u i s t , A Theory

o f W o r k A d j u s t m e n t . U n i v e r s i t y o f M i n n e s o t a , B u l l e t i n 3 8 , 1 9 6 4 . M i n n e a p o l i s ,

1 9 6 4 .

4 1 . F o r e x a m p l e , s e e : W i l l i a m W . C o o l e y , C a r e e r D e v e l o p m e n t o f S c i e n t i s t s

(Cambridge : G r a d u a t e S c h o o l o f E d u c a t i o n , H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y , z 9 6 3 ) ; Robert

L . T h o r n d i k e a n d E l i z a b e t h H a g e n , Ten Thou sand Careers (New York : J o h n

Wiley & Son, 1 9 5 9 ) ; a n d J o h n C . F l a n a g a n e t a l . , S t u d i e s o f t h e A m e r i c a n H i g h

S c h o o l ( P i t t s b u r g h : U n i v e r s i t y o f P i t t s b u r g h P r e s s , 1 9 6 2 ) .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 86/327

SPRINTHALL AND TIEDEMAN 7 7

t i o n ; 42 (b) Roe,43 Holland '44 and Bord in, Nachman and Segal,45

b e c a u s e o f t h e i r f o c u s o n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p e r s o n a l i t y a n d t h e t y p e

o f c a r e e r s e l e c t e d ; a n d ( c ) M i l l e r a n d F o r m , 4 6 a n d S u p e r ' 4 7 f o r t h e

concepts of career pattern w ithin vocational development .

I n a m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t w a y , a n d w i t h p a r t i c u l a r i n d e b t e d n e s s t o

S u p e r , t h e s e c h a n g e s h a v e i n t r o d u c e d t h e i n d i v i d u a l a s a n a g e n t i n

t h e p r o c e s s o f v o c a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t . I t i s a m a r k o f t h e g e n i u s o f

S u p e r t h a t t h i s m o d i f i c a t i o n i s s o f a r a d v a n c e d f r o m t h e u n d e r s t a n d -

i n g o f v o c a t i o n a l p s y c h o l o g y w h i c h e x i s t e d b e f o r e h e i n i t i a t e d h i s

e f f o r t s t o e x p l a i n v o c a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t . S u p e r ' s s t u d i e s o f c a r e e r

pattern are most noteworthy . H i s r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t v o c a t i o n a l

m a t u r i t y i s a p l a n n i n g o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d i s n o t

related to the amount of specific information or content that an

individual knows concerni ng a vocation . 4 8 A n a l o g o u s t o t h e s u p e r -

4 2. E l i G i n z b e r g , S o l W . G i n s b u r g , S i d n e y Ax e i r a d , a n d J o h n L . H e r m a ,

O c c u p a t i o n a l C h o i c e : A n A p p r o a c h t o a G e n e r a l T h e o r y . N e w Y o r k : C o l u m -

b i a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 1 -

4 3 . A n n e R o e , "E a r l y D e t e r m i n a n t s o f V o c a t i o n a l C h o i c e , " i n J o u r n a l o f

C o u n s e l i n g P s y c h o l o g y , I V ( Fa l l , 1 9 5 7 ) , 2 1 2 - 1 7 -

4 4. J o h n L . H o l l a n d , " M a j o r P r o g r a m s o f Re s e a r c h o n V o c a t i o n a l B e h a v i o r , "

i n M a n i n a W o r l d a t W o r k , p p . 2 5 9 - 8 4 . E d i t e d b y H e n r y B o r r o w . B o s t o n :

H o u g h t o n M i f f l i n , 1 9 6 4 -

4 5 . E d w a r d S . B o r d i n , B a r b a r a N a c h m a n , a n d S t a n l e y J . S e g a l , " A n A r t i c u -

l a t e d F r a m e w o r k f o r V o c a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t , " J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e l i n g P s y -

c h o l o g y , X ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 1 0 7 - 1 6 .

4 6. D e l b e r t C . M i l l e r a n d W i l l i a m H . F o r m , I n d u s t r i a l S o c i o l o g y . New

York : H a r p e r & B r o s . , 1 9 5 1 .

4 7. D o n a l d E . S u p e r , " A T h e o r y o f V o c a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t , " i n A m e r i c a n

P s y c h o l o g i s t , V I I I ( 1 9 5 3 ) , 1 8 5 - 9 0 .

S u p e r d e n o t e s t h i s p r o c e s s o f v o c a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t a s t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n

o f t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t w h i c h , a s K e h a s n o t e s , h a s h u e r i s t i c v a l u e b u t i s n o t b a s e d

o n a n a d e q u a t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f s e l f - c o n c e p t t h e o r y . S e e C h r i s D . K e h a s , " T o t h e

E d i t o r , " i n J o u r n a l o f C o u n s e l i n g P s y c h o l o g y , I X ( S p r i n g , 1 9 6 2 ) , 9 1 .

4 8. D o n a l d E . S u p e r a n d P h o e b e L . O v e r s t r e e t , T h e V o c a t i o n a l M a t u r i t y

o f N i n t h - G r a d e B o y s . New Yor k : B u r e a u o f P u b l i c a t i o n s , T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e ,

C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 o .

F o r a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p l a n n i n g , s e e R a y m o n d C . H u m m e l

and Norman A . S p r i n t h a l l , " L e v e l o f A c a d e m i c A c h i e v e m e n t i n R e l a t i o n t o

M e a s u r e s o f I n t e r e s t s , A t t i t u d e s , a n d V a l u e s , " P e r s o n n e l a n d G u i d a n c e j o u r n a l

( i n p r e s s ) . T h i s r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s t h a t a p l a n n i n g o r i e n t a t i o n w a s t h e m o s t s i g -

n i f i c a n t v a r i a b l e r e l a t e d t o a c a d e m i c s u c c e s s o f s e c o n d a r y - s c h o o l s t u d e n t s . A

p l a n n i n g o r i e n t a t i o n m a y h a v e g e n e r i c s i g n i f i c a n c e t o v o c a t i o n a l m a t u r i t y ,

a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t , a n d p u r p o s e f u l a c t i o n .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 87/327

7 8 GUIDANCE AND THE PUPIL

f i c i a l i t y o f d i r e c t i v e c o u n s e l i n g , t h e p r o v i s i o n o f v o c a t i o n a l i n f o r -

m a t i o n f o r a n i n d i v i d u a l h a s l i t t l e r e l e v a n c e t o t h e e m e r g e n c e o f h i s

c a r e e r p a t t e r n .

F r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f v o c a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t , c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f

a theory of career development becomes possible . 4 9 Research can

s h i f t t o t h e s t u d y o f t h e e l e c t i o n a n d c u l t i v a t i o n o f s t r u c t u r e b y t h e

p e r s o n . V o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e c a n b e v i e w e d a s a p r o c e s s o f d i f f e r e n t i a -

t i o n a n d i n t e g r a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t l i f e , w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n p r o -

v i d i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e d e v e l o p i n g c a r e e r . I n a r e c e n t s t u d y b y

T i e d e m a n a n d O ' H a r a , t h i s p a r a d i g m i s i l l u s t r a t e d t h r o u g h a s e r i e s

o f c a s e s t u d i e s .6 0

Cognitive problem-solving, similar to Super's

c o n c e p t o f a p l a n n i n g o r i e n t a t i o n , i m p l i e s t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o

c h o o s e e d u c a t i o n a l a n d v o c a t i o n a l p u r s u i t s r a t i o n a l l y . W h e n o n e

c h o o s e s o n a r a t i o n a l b a s i s h e h a s o p p o r t u n i t y t o l a y o u t a l t e r n a -

t i v e s , t o a s s e s s b o t h w i s h e s a n d r i s k s , t o e x a m i n e f a v o r e d a l t e r n a t i v e s ,

a n d t o c o n s t r u c t a d e f i n i t i o n o f h i m s e l f i n t h e s i t u a t i o n which guides

h i s p u r s u i t o f t h e e l e c t e d c o u r s e . T h e e x i s t e n c e , v a l i d i t y , c l a r i t y ,

f o r c e , t e n t a t i v e n e s s , a n d o p e n n e s s o f t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , a s i t s a c t u a l a n d

imputed consequences as experienced, are of concern in the study

of career development . I t i s f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t t h e e x i s t i n g c a r e e r

developm ent of each case in the Tiedeman and O'Hara monograph

i s a n a l y z e d n o t o n l y i n t e r m s o f t h e v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e b u t a l s o i n

t e r m s o f p s y c h o s o c i a l c r i s e s , i n t e r e s t s , s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n , a n d a w a r e n e s s

o f t h e d e p t h a n d t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e s i t u a t i o n .

The studies cited in the foregoing paragraphs indicate that

the techniques of vocational guidance are being modified by and

anchored in a g rowing theory of vocational d evelopment . Obvi-

o u s l y t h i s d i r e c t i o n f o r v o c a t i o n a l g u i d a n c e p r o v i d e s a c o n v e n i e n t

connection to the changes in the concepts of counseling theory ;

t h e f o r g i n g o f t h i s t h e o r e t i c a l b r i d g e i s s t i l l t o b e m a d e . H o w e v e r ,

t h e d e n o t a t i o n o f t h e a g e n c y o f t h e p e r s o n i n t h e e l e c t i o n o f s t u d y

4 9 .F o r t h e m o s t r e c e n t c o m p r e h e n s i v e s u m m a r y o f t h e o r y , p r a c t i c e ,

andr e s e a r c h i n v o c a t i o n a l g u i d a n c e , s e e M a n i n a W o r l d a t W o r k . E d ite d b y

H e n r y B o r o w . B o s t o n : H o u g h t o n M i f f l i n , 1 9 6 4 ( 5 o t h A n n i v e r s a r y v o l u m e o f

t h e N a t i o n a l V o c a t i o n a l G u i d a n c e A s s o c i a t i o n ) .

5 0 . D a v id V. T i e d e m a n a n d R o b e r t P . O ' H a r a , C a r e e r D e v e l o p m e n t :

Choice an d A d j u s t m e n t . Ne w Yo r k : College Entrance Examination Board,

1 9 6 3 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 88/327

SPRINTHALL AND TIEDEMAN

a n d w o r k c l e a r l y i m p l i e s a c o n g r u e n c e t o c o u n s e l i n g a s a p p r a i s a l

w i t h a n i n d i v i d u a l o f h i s u n i q u e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r c h o i c e a n d a c t i o n .

Another aspect of this congruence may be seen in the new em-

p h a s i s o n r a t i o n a l p o w e r s , w h i c h n e v e r t h e l e s s c o m p r e h e n d s t h e c o m -

p l e x i t i e s o f e m o t i o n , f o r b o t h v o c a t i o n a l g u i d a n c e and guidance

c o u n s e l i n g . In fact, we predict the distinction between t h e s e

" t y p e s " o f g u i d a n c e w i l l i n e v i t a b l y f a d e a s t h e f u l l f o r c e o f t h e s e

changes becomes understood and acted upon . This development

m a y a l s o a r r e s t a d r i f t t h a t T y l e r n o t e s t o w a r d t h e p o s s i b l e r e p u d i -

a t i o n o f v o c a t i o n a l - e d u c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g b y c o u n s e l o r s i n f a v o r

o f a s t r o n g e r i n v e s t m e n t i n p s y c h o t h e r a p y .5 1

Implications and Future Trends

W e e m p h a s i z e a m a j o r i m p l i c a t i o n o f c u r r e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s i n

t h i s s u r v e y - n a m e l y , a p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n i n g u i d a n c e . The growth

o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p ; t h e g r a d u a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f c r i t e r i a

f o r r o l e , f u n c t i o n , a n d t r a i n i n g ; a n d t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f c o n c e p t s

f r o m c o u n s e l i n g a n d c a r e e r t h e o r y , a n t i c i p a t e a u n i o n t o p u s h g u i d -

a n c e f r o m i t s c u r r e n t s t a t u s a s s u p p l e m e n t a r y t o t e a c h i n g t o a p o s i -

t i o n o f b e i n g c o m p l e m e n t a r y t o t e a c h i n g . G u i d a n c e a s a n e d u c a t i v e

function which complements teaching becomes a " s e p a r a t e b u t

e q u a l " b a s i s f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n . E l s e w h e r e , t h e c o n c e p t o f p u r -

p o s e f u l a c t i o n h a s b e e n d e n o t e d a s t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r g u i d a n c e . 5 2 B y

e n h a n c i n g t h e p o w e r t o c h o o s e , t h e c o u n s e l o r a i d s t h e s t u d e n t ,

w h e t h e r a s v o c a t i o n a l g u i d a n c e o r g u i d a n c e c o u n s e l i n g , t o w a r d e f -

f e c t i v e s e l f - m a n a g e m e n t . A s p e c i a l g u i d a n c e f u n c t i o n d e n o t e s p r a c -

t i c e w h i c h d o e s n o t c o m p r o m i s e t h e i n i t i a t i v e a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f

p u p i l s . R a t h e r t h a n i n c o r p o r a t i n g p u r p o s e s a n d p l a n s t h a t a n a d u l t

h a s f o r t h e s t u d e n t , t h e g u i d a n c e p r o c e s s p o i n t s t o w a r d t h e s t u -

d e n t ' s p o w e r o v e r h i s o w n d e s t i n y , e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e c o m -

p l e x s o c i e t y o f t h e f u t u r e .

I f f r e e d o m i s t o b e g u a r a n t e e d f o r y o u t h , t h e s u b s t a n c e o f e d u -

c a t i o n , t h e p r o c e s s o f e d u c a t i o n , a n d t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f p u r p o s e f u l

a c t i o n s h o u l d b e o f f e r e d t o y o u t h i n a d i v i d e d w a y s o t h a t t h e f r e e -

d o m f o r t h e g o a l e l e c t e d - b u t n o t o f t h e e l e c t i o n o f g o a l s - i s l e f t

5 1 . T y l e r , o p . c i t .

5 2 . T i e d e m a n a n d F i e l d , o p . c i t .

79

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 89/327

8 o GUIDANCE AND THE PUPIL

u n c h a l l e n g e d . T h e a t t a i n m e n t o f t h i s o b j e c t i v e r e q u i r e s t h a t u l t i m a t e

a u t h o r i t y f o r t h e s e v e r a l p a r t s o f e d u c a t i o n s h o u l d b e p r i m a r i l y i n

t h e h a n d s o f e a c h y o u t h a n d t h a t e a c h o f a s u b s e t o f i t s p a r t s s h o u l d

b e p r i m a r i l y i n t h e h a n d s o f a n a d u l t w h o s u p e r v i s e s y o u t h i n t h e

m a s t e r y o f e a c h p a r t .

F r e e d o m i s p r o t e c t e d t h r o u g h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t i n t h e s c h o o l o f

a g u i d a n c e s e r v i c e c o m p l e m e n t a r y t o t e a c h i n g r a t h e r t h a n s u p p l e -

m e n t a r y t o t e a c h i ng . T h e p u p i l m u s t a t a l l t i m e s b e v e s t e d w i t h

a u t h o r i t y a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s t r u c t u r e , p r o c e s s , a n d t h e u n i o n o f

s t r u c t u r e a n d p r o c e s s t h r o u g h t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f p u r p o s e i n a c t i o n .

T h e t e a c h e r m u s t b e g i v e n a u t h o r i t y a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p r o v i d -

i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e a n d f o r t r a i n i n g a p u p i l i n t h e l o g i c o f p r o c e s s .

T h e c o u n s e l o r , t h e s e c o n d p r o f e s s i o n a l n e c e s s a r y t o o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r

l i b e r a t i o n t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n , m u s t b e g i v e n a u t h o r i t y a n d r e s p o n s i -

b i l i t y f o r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f a p u p i l ' s a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e l o g i c o f

p r o c e s s a n d f o r t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f p u r p o s e i n y o u t h t h r o u g h c o u n -

s e l i n g . T h e e f f i c i e n t d i s c h a r g e o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w i l l r e q u i r e t h a t

c o u n s e l o r s o b s e r v e c h i l d r e n a s t h e y a r e b e i n g t a u g h t , c o u n s e l w i t h

t h e m q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y , a n d c o n s u l t w i t h t e a c h e r s a b o u t i n d i v i d u a l

p r o b l e m s . W o r t h e n e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y a t t h e 1 9 6 3

H a r v a r d - L e x i n g t o n S u m m e r P r o g r a m , w h i c h o f f e r e d a s u p e r v i s e d

p e r i o d o f s c h o o l i n g f o r e x p e r i e n c e d t e a c h e r s a n d c o u n s e l o r s o r g a n -

i z e d a s t e a m s . T h e s i x - w e e k s ' p r o g r a m f o c u s e d o n p u p i l p r o b l e m -

s o l v i n g t h r o u g h f o u r b a s i c s u b j e c t s . T e a c h e r s a n d c o u n s e l o r s p r o v e d

a b l e t o s h a r e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o r g a n i z e d w i t h i n s u c h t e a m s d e s p i t e d i f -

f i c u l t i e s i n h e r e n t i n s u c h c o l l a b o r a t i v e a c t i v i t y w h e n t i m e i s a t a p r e -

m i u m . 5 3 T h e t e a m o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s a n d c o u n s e l o r s o f f e r s

m e a n s w h e r e b y t h e s e r v i c e s o f t e a c h e r a n d c o u n s e l o r c a n b e k e p t

c o m p l e m e n t a r y .5 4 I n t h i s f r a m e t h e p u p i l c a n r e t a i n t h e r e s p o n s i -

b i l i t y f o r g o a l s m o r e i n c l u s i v e t h a n t h o s e o f t h e t e a c h e r .

T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f c o u n s e l i n g a s t h e c o m p l e m e n t t o t e a c h i n g ,

r a t h e r t h a n a s i t s s u p p l e m e n t , a v o i d s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e g o a l s o f

5 3 . J oh n W or t h en , " Th e D e ve l o pm e n t an d I m pl e m en t a ti o n o f a P r og r am

i n G u i d a n c e t h r o u g h t h e P o s i t i o n o f A s s i s t a n t D i r e c t o r a n d I n s t r u c t o r i n t h e

H a r v a r d - L e x i n g t o n S u m m e r S c h o o l , " P r o j e c t R e p o r t , H a r v a r d G r a d u a t e S c h o o l

o f E d u c a t i o n ,1 9 6 4 -

5 4. F o r a s u b s t a n t i v e a n a l y s i s o f t h e t e a m - t e a c h i n g f r a m e w o r k s e e J u d s o n

T. Shapl in and Henry F . O l d s , J r . , T e a m T e a c h i n g . Ne w Yo r k : H arper &

Row , 1964 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 90/327

SPRINTHALL AND TIEDEMAN 8 1

y o u t h w i l l b e s e t f o r t h e m b y t e a c h e r , p s y c h o l o g i s t , o r p s y c h i a t r i s t ,

a s i s n o w p o s s i b l e u n d e r t h e p r o c e d u r e b y w h i c h p s y c h o l o g i s t s a n d

p s y c h i a t r i s t s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f m e n t a l h e a l t h t h r o u g h

e d u c a t i o n p r e f e r t o o p e r a t e . P s y c h o l o g i s t s a n d p s y c h i a t r i s t s n o w

a s s u m e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t u t o r i n g t e a c h e r s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f e d u c a -

t i o n a n d l e t t h e t e a c h e r o p e r a t e o n t h e c h i l d w h i l e a t t e m p t i n g t o

a t t e n d t o s t r u c t u r e , p r o c e s s , a n d p u r p o s e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . T h e p r o b -

l e m o f s e t t i n g g o a l s c a n b e a v o i d e d b y t h e p u p i l s w h e n p r o c e s s i s

i n t r o d u c e d i n t o s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n i n t h i s w a y .

T h e r e i s a p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e d u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e f o r l i b e r a t i o n

throu gh guida nce . From career theory, Super notes the develop-

mental concept, during adolescence, of an exploration stage for

v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e . 6 5 From personality theory, Erikson has desig-

n a t e d t h i s s t a g e a s t h e a d o l e s c e n t i d e n t i t y c r i s i s , a p e r i o d o f i n n e r

e x a m i n a t i o n o f n o t o n l y w h o o n e i s b u t w h a t o n e s t a n d s f o r ( i d e n -

t i t y a n d f i d e l i t y ) . T h e s e t w o s t r a n d s , c a r e e r a n d p e r s o n a l i t y , a r e n o

l o n g e r s e p a r a t e . I n f a c t , E r i k s o n m a k e s p a r t i c u l a r n o t e o f c a r e e r

i d e n t i t y d u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e , " I n g e n e r a l i t i s p r i m a r i l y t h e i n a b i l i t y

t o s e t t l e o n a n o c c u p a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y w h i c h d i s t u r b s y o u n g p e o p l e . "5 6

T h u s , p e r h a p s t h r o u g h b i o l o g i c a l a n d s o c i a l f o r c e s , t h e h i g h - s c h o o l

s t u d e n t i s f a c e d w i t h a p e r i o d c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s e l f - e x p l o r a t i o n a n d

the peremptory aspects of choice . H e m u s t choose . Avoidance of

c h o i c e , p u r p o s e , a n d p l a n e n h a n c e s t h e c h a n c e s o f a n i r r e v e r s i b l e

future and delimits freedom . Learning to choose effectively and

r e s p o n s i b l y p l a c e s t h e p u p i l i n c h a r g e o f h i s o w n l i f e , a p r o c e s s s e t

in motion throug h g uid ance i n e d u c a t i o n . The confrontation with

c h o i c e m a y b e s t b e i l l u s t r a t e d b y a g a i n t u r n i n g t o a b r i e f e x c e r p t

f r o m a c o u n s e l i n g s e s s i o n . A s t u d e n t i s s t r u g g l i n g w i t h t h e r e c o g -

nition of independence .

I l i k e d t o h a v e m y d e c i s i o n s m a d e f o r m e , u h - h a v i n g t h i n g s

s e t u p f o r m e t o f o l l o w t h e p a t h o f o t h e r s r a t h e r t h a n f i n d m y o w n p a t h

i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s . U h , y e t i f I c h o o s e t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p a t h I' l l n e v e r

5 5 .D o n a l d E S u p e r , e t a l . , V o c a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t : A Framework for

R e s e a r c h . New York : B u r e a u o f P u b l i c a t i o n s , T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , C o l u m b i a

U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 5 7 -

5 6. E r i k H. E r i k s o n , " I d e n t i t y a n d t h e L i f e C y c l e , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l I s s u e s , I

( 1 9 5 9 ) , 9 2 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 91/327

8 2 GUIDANCE AND THE PUPIL

b e s e t t l e d d o w n - b u t I n e v e r t h o u g h t o f g o i n g b a c k s o e x p l i c i t l y - i f I

d e c i d e t o m a k e d e c i s i o n s I ' m g o i n g t o h a v e t o d o t h a t a l l t h e t i m e . . .

s e e m s l i k e a p r e t t y s h a b b y a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e o t h e r .

I n d e e d , t o o n e w h o f a c e s c h o i c e f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , i t i s a s h a b b y

a l t e r n a t i v e t o p r e s c r i p t i o n a n d a u t h o r i t a t i v e d i r e c t i o n . T h i s f a c t

r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e a l g u i d a n c e p r o b l e m .

The changes that have occurred in the past decade have been

s u b s t a n t i v e f o r t h e f u t u r e o f g u i d a n c e . I t i s , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , o b -

vious that there will alway s be a discrepancy between the public

e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d t h e k i n d o f p r o f e s s i o n a l p r a c t i c e w e e n v i s a g e . B u t

t h i s i s h a r d l y u n i q u e t o g u i d a n c e . C e r t a i n l y t h e c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r

teacher as professional or journeyman (unionism vs . p r o f e s s i o n a l

a s s o c i a t i o n ) i s s t i l l w i t h u s . The acceptance of guidance as some-

t h i n g o t h e r t h a n a n e f f i c i e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t e c h n i c a l s e l e c t i o n

a n d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r p u p i l s w i l l b e t h e m o s t d i f f i c u l t . For, im-

p l i c i t l y , i t m e a n s t h e s u p p l e m e n t a r y f u n c t i o n s w h i c h g u i d a n c e h a s

comprehended in the past will be shed . 5 7

I f t h e p u p i l i s s e e n a s t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f g u i d a n c e - a s a p e r s o n

who chooses from among alternatives and, hence, directs his own

l i f e - t h e r o l e o f g u i d a n c e , a s f u n c t i o n a l f o r s o c i e t y ' s p r o b l e m s , m u s t

s h i f t t o e m p h a s i z e p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s i s t a n c e f o r e a c h p u p i l . One of the

m o s t p r o m i s i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h i s c o n c e p t m a y

b e t h e f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f p r o f e s s i o n a l t e a c h i n g - t e a m s , i n c l u d -

i n g a g u i d a n c e c o u n s e l o r i n a n i n t e g r a l p o s i t i o n . I n t h e m o r e u s u a l

s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e s e c h a n g e s i m p l y a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e n o r m a l

s t u d e n t - c o u n s e l o r r a t i o s f r o m 5 0 0:i o r 2 5 0

: i to Ioo: I

to permit

g u i d a n c e t o f u n c t i o n a s w e h a v e o u t l i n e d . T h e p r o g r e s s t o w a r d t h i s

goal may be slow, indeed, because of knotty problem s in finance .

Y e t , t h e p r o g r e s s a l r e a d y a c h i e v e d f o r g u i d a n c e c o u n s e l i n g h a s b e e n

remarkable, for example : t h e i n s i s t e n c e u p o n i n d i v i d u a l c o u n s e l i n g

a s t h e m a j o r r o l e , t h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f a t w o - y e a r t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m ,

5 7

. R e c e n t l y t h e L e x i n g t o n ( M a s s a c h u s e t t s ) S c h o o l G u i d a n c e P r o g r a m ,

u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a b l e l e a d e r s h i p , w a s c o m p l e t e l y r e d e f i n ed i n f u n c t i o n

a n d p u r p o s e . A l l o f t h e a n c i l l a r y t a s k s w e r e e l i m i n a t e d f r o m t h e c o u n s e l o r ' s

r o l e - i n c l u d i n g c o u r s e s c h e d u l i n g , p r o c t o r i n g s t u d y h a l l s a n d l u n c h r o o m s ,

s u p er v is i n g d i s ci p l in e , a t t en d a nc e , c o u rs e tr a n sf e r s, e t c . T h i s i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t

t h e s e c h a n g e s a r e p o s s i b l e i n p u b l i c s c h o o l s . T h e c o u n s e l o r n e e d n o t f i l l t h e

r o l e o f s c h o o l " h a n d y m a n , " p a r t i c u l a r l y i f a d i f f e r e n t i a t e d p r o f e s s i o n a l r o l e

c o n t i n u e s t o d e v e l o p .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 92/327

SPRINTHALL AND TIEDEMAN8 3

a n d t h e a d v a n c e s i n c o n c e p t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t . W e e x p e c t d r a m a t i c

c h a n g e s i n s c h o o l p r a c t i c e a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s p r o g r e s s . T h e f o u n d a -

t i o n s f o r t h e f u t u r e o f a n e w g u i d a n c e h a v e b e e n l a i d d o w n . T h e

l i b e r a t i o n o f p u p i l s t h r o u g h g u i d a n c e b e c o m e s p o s s i b l e . T h e c r i t i c a l

d a n g e r i s t h a t t h e a d u l t w o r l d a n d i t s p a r t i c u l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , t h e

s c h o o l , w i l l n o t t r u s t , a l l o w , o r e n h a n c e t h e p u p i l ' s a b i l i t y f o r s e l f -

d i r e c t e d c h o i c e . A s E r i k s o n s o a p t l y n o t e s , t h e l o n g p e r i o d o f c h i l d -

h o o d d e p e n d e n c e e x p o s e s a d u l t s t o t h e t e m p t a t i o n o f c o n t r o l . " W e

h a v e l e a r n e d n o t t o s t u n t a c h i l d ' s b o d y w i t h c h i l d l a b o r ; w e m u s t

n o w l e a r n n o t t o b r e a k h i s g r o w i n g s p i r i t b y m a k i n g h i m v i c t i m o f

o u r a n x i e t i e s . " s s

5 8 . E r i k s o n , o p . c i t . , p . i o o .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 93/327

CHAPTER I V

I n s t r u c t i o n a l R e s o u r c e s

E D G A R D A LE

I n s t r u c t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s a r e a s s u m i n g a s h a r p l y i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i -

cance in the changing American school . T h i s c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s t h e

r o l e o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s i n e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e . I t t r e a t s ( a )

a v a i l a b l e i n s t r u c t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s a n d t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ;

( b ) s o c i a l f o r c e s i n f l u e n c i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s ; ( c ) e x a m p l e s

a n d i s s u e s i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f n e w i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s ; a n d

( d ) t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d u s e o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s .

A v a i l a b l e I n s t r u c t i o n a l R e s o u r c e s a n d

T h e i r S i g n i f i c a n t C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

O n e f r u i t f u l w a y o f l o o k i n g a t i n s t r u c t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s i s t o s e e

t h e m a s r e l a t e d t o t h e m a j o r c a t e g o r i e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n : s p e a k i n g

a n d l i s t e n i n g , v i s u a l i z i n g a n d o b s e r v i n g , w r i t i n g a n d r e a d i n g . W e

c a n a l s o r e g a r d t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s a s r e p r e s e n t i n g i n s t a n c e s o f p r o -

d u c i n g a n d c o n s u m i n g m e s s a g e s . The following table shows that

varied comb inations can b e mad e ; f o r e x a m p l e , r e a d i n g - s p e a k i n g ,

l i s t e n i n g - w r i t i n g , v i s u a l i z i n g - w r i t i n g .

TABLE 1

PRODUCING MESSAGES

W r i t i n gp e a k i n g ( i n c l u d i n g m u s i c )i s u a l i z i n g ( i n c l u d i n g p l a s t i c a r t s )

8 4

R e a d i n g

CONSUMING MESSAGES

L i s t e n i n g

*

O b s e r v i n g

*

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 94/327

DALE 8 5

W h e n i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s a r e c l a s s i f i e d u n d e r t h e f o r e g o i n g

categories, the wide range of instructional media which are now

a v a i l a b l e i s c l e a r l y s e e n .

TABLE 2

S p e a k i n g ( o r R a d i o , l a n g u a g e l a b o r a t o r i e s , t a p e s , r e c o r d -

c o m p o s i n g ) - L i s t e n i n g i n g s

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

V i s u a l i z i n g - O b s e r v i n g T e l e v i s i o n , f i l m s , v i d e o t a p e s , f i l m s t r i p s , 2 X2

s l i d e s , o v e r h e a d t r a n s p a r e n c i e s , p i c t u r e s ,

p h o t o g r a p h s , f l a s h c a r d s , f l i p b o o k s , m a p s ,

p o s t e r s , c h a r t s , d i a g r a m s , b u l l e t i n b o a r d s ,

f l a n n e l g r a p h s , d i o r a m a s , m o d e l s , m o c k - u p s

a n d s i m u l a t i o n d e v i c e s , f i e l d s t u d y

W r i t i n g - R e a d i n g B o o k s , n e w s p a p e r s , m a g a z i n e s , p a m p h l e t s ,

s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l , c h a r t s , d i a g r a m s

C o m p u t e r s a n d s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e v i c e s m a y b e p l a c e d i n m o r e

t h a n o n e o f t h e s e t h r e e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s .

T h e w r i t e r h a s a l s o c l a s s i f i e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s a s a c o n e o f

e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h r a n g e s f r o m d i r e c t , p u r p o s e f u l , s e n s e e x p e r i e n c e s

a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e c o n e t o h i g h l y a b s t r a c t e x p e r i e n c e s a t t h e t o p .

H e h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t e a c h e r s a n d c u r r i c u l u m s p e c i a l i s t s n e e d t o

s e e l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s o n a c o n c r e t e - a b s t r a c t c o n t i n u u m i n o r d e r

t o f i t t h e m m o r e p r e c i s e l y t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e l e a r n e r . '

A s o n e s t u d i e s t h e w i d e r a n g e o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s n o t e d

a b o v e , i t i s c l e a r t h a t a r i c h v a r i e t y o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s f o r

s p e c i f i c l e a r n i n g o u t c o m e s c a n n o w b e p r o v i d e d . Reading and

writing need no longer be the only methods used for communica-

tion, and new approaches to speaking-listening and visualizing-

o b s e r v i n g c a n b e m a d e . I t w o u l d b e i n a c c u r a t e t o s t a t e t h a t t h e

schools have overemphasized reading as the chief method of com-

munication, but they certainly have underemphasized the use of

o t h e r m e d i a w h i c h c a n b r i n g r i c h e x p e r i e n c e s t o a l l l e a r n e r s .

T h e w r i t e r b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e c h a n g i n g s c h o o l i s s e e n i n b e t t e r

i . E d g a r D a l e , Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching, c h a p . i v. New Yor k :

D r y d e n P r e s s , 1 9 5 4 ( r e v i s e d e d i t i o n ) .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 95/327

8 6 I NSTRUCTI ONAL RES O URCES

p e r s p e c t i v e i f i t i s v i e w e d a s r e l a t e d t o a c h a n g i n g a n d m o r e e f f e c -

tive system of co mmunic ation . Further, we can more effectively

c r e a t e a m o d e m s c h o o l i f w e m a k e m o r e t h o u g h t f u l , b e t t e r c o -

ordinated use of the new instruments and channels of commu nica-

t i o n n o t e d a b o v e .

A survey of the key inventions related to commu nication dis-

c l o s e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s :

I . The new media can capture and record any event for later

u s e . T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e c a m e r a , t h e s o u n d r e c o r d e r , t h e v i d e o - t a p e

recorder can be used to duplicate and re-crea te events . T he cy-

c l o p e a n e y e o f t h e s a t e l l i t e c a n b r i n g e n t i r e l y n e w m e s s a g e s t o u s.

The past can be made a realistic and understandable part of the

p r e s e n t . Tape record ing s can also b e used to make a record of

pupil or teacher performa nce which can be played back at will .

T h e r e i s n o l o n g e r n e e d t o d e p e n d o n p r i n t a s t h e c h i e f s o u r c e o f

r e c o r d s o f p a s t e v e n t s .

2 . These records can be amplified or enlarged to make the m

a v a i l a b l e f o r g r o u p u s e . The sound of an insect can be ampl ified

a n d a m o t i o n p i c t u r e o r s t i l l p h o t o g r a p h u s e d t o p u t t h e i n s e c t o n t o

a l a r g e s c r e e n f o r c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s .

3 . Re c o r d s o f h u m a n p e r f o r m a n c e o r o t h e r e v e n t s c a n be

instantly transmitted over long distances to make them available

f o r s t u d y , a s i n t e l e v i s i o n o r r a d i o b r o a d c a s t i n g o r t h e u s e o f c o m -

p u t e r s . T h r o u g h t h e g r o u p t e l e l e c t u r e , w e c a n c o n f e r w i t h s p e c i a l -

ists b y phone from al most anywhere in the worl d . The lang u ag e

laboratory is a reality and methods are now being developed by

w h i c h s t u d e n t s c a n e a s i l y t u n e i n o n o r s e l e c t r e c o r d i n g s b y a s i m p l e

d i a l i n g s y s t e m . A student i n San Francisco ma y be "taught" by a

c o m p u t e r i n Ne w Yo r k C i t y .

4. Many of the new materials, especially those using music,

s p e e c h , a n d p i c t u r e s , g r e a t l y e x t e n d t h e u s e r ' s r a n g e o f u n d e r s t a n d -

i n g . The four-year-old cannot read, but he can u nderstand many

o f t h e t h i n g s h e s e e s o n t e l e v i s i o n . The m usi c over rad io o r b y

r e c o r d i n g c a n r a i s e o r d e b a s e h i s t a s t e s .

T h e c o l o r p h o t o g r a p h o r s k e t c h o f a f l o w e r o r p l a n t h a s a h i g h

point-by-point congruency with the real object . I t s c o n c r e t e n e s s

makes it a good example, an easily understood substitute for the

o r i g i n a l . If such materials were placed on a concrete-to -abstract

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 96/327

D A L E8 7

s c a l e , t h e y w o u l d o f t e n f a l l t o w a r d t h e c o n c r e t e e n d o f t h e s c a l e .

T h e y a r e m u c h e a s i e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a n i s t h e p r i n t e d w o r d .

A p e r c e p t u a l - c o n c e p t u a l p r o b l e m i s f a c e d i n a l l l e a r n i n g -

e s p e c i a l l y i n r e a d i n g . The alphabet furnishes a code by means of

w h i c h s p e e c h c a n b e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o h i g h l y a b s t r a c t s y m b o l s . But

t o l e a r n t o r e a d , t h e c h i l d m u s t " b r e a k t h e c o d e . " T h i s i s a p e r -

c e p t u a l p r o b l e m , a m a t c h i n g o f s o u n d t o l e t t e r a n d s y l l a b l e . But

learning to read also involves a concern with what the words and

sentences mean, the experiences which they conceptualize .

Two conclusions flow from the wide range of experience which

can be secured from new media that do not depend chiefly on the

r e a d i n g l e v e l o f t h e l e a r n e r . F i r s t , t h e r a n g e o f e x p e r i e n c e o p e n t o

a n i n d i v i d u a l o r t o a g r o u p o f f o u r o r f i v e o r o f t w o h u n d r e d c a n b e

greatly extended . The learner is not narrow ly bound to reading

e x p e r i e n c e s . Second, the school mu st show increasing concern for

t h e o u t - o f - s c h o o l e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e l e a r n e r .

Social Forces Influencing Instructional Resources

T h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n p r e s e n t e d a n o v e r v i e w o f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l

materials made available by modern technology . The same f orces

that produced modern technology are still at work and will con -

t i n u e t o b e f a c t o r s i n c h a n g i n g t h e s c h o o l - i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n , c u r -

r i c u l u m , t e a c h e r s , a n d i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t , t h e r e -

f o r e , t h a t w e u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e f o r c e s a n d a s s e s s t h e i r c o n t i n u i n g

i n f l u e n c e o n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s o f t h e s c h o o l . M a n y o f

t h e s e s o c i a l f o r c e s h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d a t l e n g t h e l s e w h e r e i n t h i s

y e a r b o o k a n d a r e r e s t a t e d h e r e o n l y t o e m p h a s i z e t h e i r i n f l u e n c e o n

i n s t r u c t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s .

Certainly, the changes caused by mass production and automa-

t i o n i n f l u e n c e t h e s c h o o l s b o t h d i r e c t l y a n d i n d i r e c t l y . O u r m o r e

than 2 5 0 metropolitan centers, each with a popu lation of over

5 0 , 0 0 0 , a r e a d i r e c t o u t g r o w t h o f i n d u s t r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t . Changes

also come from the dislocation of workers caused by automation

and mass prod uction .

Technological unemployment will increase, not decrease . T h i s

w i l l m a k e f o r j o b u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y , c a u s e i n c r e a s e d m o b i l i t y o f t h e

working force, and call for cont inuing changes in schools and in

a d u l t e d u c a t i o n . A m e a s u r e o f t h i s j o b u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y i s i n d i c a t e d

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 97/327

8 8 I NSTRUCTI ONAL RES O URCES

b y s t a t i s t i c s w h i c h r e v e a l t h a t t h e t y p i c a l w o r k e r w i l l m a k e s i x o r

s e v e n j o b c h a n g e s i n h i s l i f e t i m e , t h e l a s t o n e a t a g e 5 3 2 M o d e r n i z e d

i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m s a n d m a t e r i a l s f o r r e t r a i n i n g a n d f o r c o n t i n u -

i n g e d u c a t i o n a r e a n e c e s s i t y . F u r t h e r , t h e d e m a n d s f o r h i g h - l e v e l

p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d s e m i p r o f e s s i o n a l s k i l l s w i l l i n c r e a s e a n d t h e d e m a n d

f o r l o w - l e v e l s k i l l s w i l l d e c r e a s e .

T h e r e a r e a l s o i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l f o r c e s w h i c h w i l l

i n f l u e n c e i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s . C e r t a i n l y , t h e g e n e r a l l y f a v o r a b l e

attitude towar d the idea of progress has been a factor in social

change in America . T h a t A m e r i c a i s a c o u n t r y i n w h i c h t h e f u t u r e

w i l l b e b e t t e r h a s a l w a y s b e e n a b a s i c p a r t o f o u r n a t i o n a l i d e o l o g y .

W e be l i e v e t h a t c h a n ge a n d i n n o v a t i o n a r e go o d a n d i n t h e

A m e r i c a n t r a d i t i o n .

The democratic tradition that everyone should have an equ al

opportunity, although not always honored, has been our stated,

s o c i a l l y a c c e p t e d p h i l o s o p h y . T h i s h a s a f f e c t e d n o t o n l y t h e n a t u r e

a n d q u a l i t y o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s b u t a l s o t h e i r f i n a n c i n g . For

e x a m p l e , f e d e r a l a i d h a s l o n g b e e n a v a i l a b l e t o p r o v i d e e d u c a t i o n a l

m a t e r i a l s a n d p r o g r a m s i n a g r i c u l t u r e . T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f i n c r e a s e d

a m o u n t s o f f o o d a n d f i b e r w a s a s s u m e d t o b e i n t h e n a t i o n a l i n t e r -

e s t a n d t o m e r i t f e d e r a l f i n a n c i a l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l s u p p o r t . The pub-

l i c a t i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l t u r e h a v e b e e n

o n e o f t h e m a j o r t o o l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n o f s t u d e n t s a n d a d u l t s l i v i n g

o n f a r m s .

H o w e v e r , t h e b e n e f i t s o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n h a v e n o t b e e n a d e -

quately shared by all members of our population . T h e r e a r e g r o s s

i n e q u i t i e s i n e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d f a c i l i t i e s a m o n g t h e v a r i -

o u s s t a t e s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e m a s s i v e u n e m p l o y m e n t i n W e s t V i r g i n i a

c a u s e d b y a u t o m a t i o n i n c o a l m i n i n g h a s d e c r e a s e d t h e s t a t e p o p u l a -

tion, increased the poverty, and was one of the causes of the

i n a u g u r a t i o n o f t h e v a s t A p p a l a c h i a p r o g r a m . I t i s s e e n m o r e c l e a r l y

n o w a s a r e s u l t o f i n c r e a s e d m o b i l i t y t h a t t h e u n d e r e d u c a t e d p e r s o n

f r o m o n e s t a t e m a y b e c o m e a r e l i e f c l i e n t i n a n o t h e r s t a t e . Poor

l o c a l e d u c a t i o n h a s n a t i o n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s .

T o d a y , t h e r e i s a m a j o r n a t i o n a l t h r u s t t o r a i s e a n d e q u a l i z e t h e

2 . M a n p o w e r R e p o r t o f t h e P r e s i d e n t , N o . i o , J u n e , 1 9 6 4 , p . z . W a s h i n g t o n :

U n i t e d S t a t e s P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 6 4 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 98/327

D A L E 8 9

q u a l i t y o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e s , c i t i e s , a n d c o u n t i e s . W e

a l r e a d y e q u a l i z e f a i r l y w e l l t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s w i t h i n c i t y

or county systems but do not do so uniformly throughout a state ;

a m o n g s t a t e s t h e q u a l i t y o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s v a r i e s w i d e l y .

Federal assistance through NDEA funds, through funds available

under the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, and from other

s o u r c e s i s a i m e d t o p r o v i d e e v e r y c h i l d e v e r y w h e r e i n t h e c o u n t r y

w i t h e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y t o u s e t h e b e s t a v a i l a b l e l i b r a r y b o o k s , f i l m s ,

r e c o r d i n g s , t e l e v i s i o n p r o g r a m s , m a t e r i a l s f o r l e a r n i n g f o r e i g n l a n -

g u a g e , a n d t h e l i k e .

W e a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y a s s u m i n g t h a t e x c e l l e n c e i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l

m a t e r i a l s a n d f a c i l i t i e s m u s t b e s h a r e d . S i n c e f e d e r a l a i d i s m o v i n g

i n t o t h e a r e a o f c a t e g o r i c a l a s s i s t a n c e a s w e l l a s g e n e r a l a s s i s t a n c e ,

it may be expected that the improvement and equalization of in-

s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s f o r a l l c h i l d r e n e v e r y w h e r e w i l l b e a n i n c r e a s i n g

r e a l i t y .

T h e r e h a s b e e n m o u n t i n g c o n c e r n f o r t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l l y g i f t e d

a s w e l l a s f o r s l o w l e a r n e r s . S o m e a b l e c r i t i c s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r a c -

t i c e s h a v e d e s c r i b e d o u r i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m s a s t y p i c a l l y a i m e d

a t t h e m i d d l e h a l f o f o u r p u p i l s , w i t h t h e c o n s e q u e n t n e g l e c t o f t h e

upper and lower fourths . I n t h e p a s t d e c a d e , a s h a r p l y i n c r e a s e d

effort has been made to give special guidance to the culturally

d e p r i v e d , t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e d , a n d t h e g i f t e d , w i t h c o n s e q u e n t c h a n g e s

i n t h e k i n d s a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s m a d e a v a i l -

a b l e f o r e a c h . Indeed, one of the arguments advanced for the in-

c r e a s e d u s e o f a u d i o - v i s u a l m a t e r i a l s i s t h a t t h e y p r o v i d e t h e r i c h

and varied concrete and semiconcrete materials for conceptual

d e v e l o p m e n t .

G r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e n a t i o n i s b e i n g g i v e n t o t h e

s y s t e m a t i c , p r o g r e s s i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r . B u t t h e

l e a r n e r c a n n o t s t a r t w i t h t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r i n a h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d

f o r m . Rather, he moves toward an increasing conceptual iz ing ,

i n t e l l e c t u a l i z i n g , a n d r e o r g a n i z i n g o f e x p e r i e n c e i n t o i n t e r r e l a t e d

s y s t e m s o f k n o w l e d g e . V a r i e d m a t e r i a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n f u r n i s h a

background for a unified combination of both the perceptual and

conceptual approaches to l earning . The d evelopment of l earning

s y s t e m s w i l l a f f e c t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s , a s n o t e d

l a t e r i n t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f n e w c o u r s e s i n t h e s c i e n c e s .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 99/327

9 0 INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES

I t i s l i k e l y , t o o , t h a t l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t i e s w i l l d e m a n d m o r e a c t i v e

l e a r n e r i n v o l v e m e n t , n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a s o v e r t p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y b u t ,

r a t h e r , i n t h e s e n s e o f e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n , i n q u i r y , a n d e x p l o r a t i o n .

L e a r n i n g b y d i s c o v e r y w i l l h a v e g r e a t e r p r o m i n e n c e , a n d t h i s m e a n s

t h e p r o v i s i o n o f a r i c h e r v a r i e t y o f m a t e r i a l s a n d p r o b l e m s . Ther e

w i l l b e l e s s p a s s i v e s i t t i n g , l i s t e n i n g , a n d r e a d i n g . Experiences w hich

r e s p o n s i b l y i n v o l v e t h e l e a r n e r w i l l i n c r e a s e i n n u m b e r .

T h e f i n d i n g s o f b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n t i s t s s t u d y i n g c h i l d b e h a v i o r w i l l

a f f e c t t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m o f t h e s c h o o l . T h e r e i s a n a t i o n -

w i d e c o n c e r n f o r d e v e l o p i n g t h e e n t i r e e n v i r o n m e n t o f t h e c h i l d a s

o n e w h i c h e n c o u r a g e s i n q u i r y , e x p l o r a t i o n , a n d l e a r n i n g. The play-

g r o u n d , f o r e x a m p l e , w i l l b e c o m e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e p l a n n e d

instructional program of school and community .

A p e r s i s t e n t a n d g r o w i n g s o c i a l f o r c e r e l a t e s t o t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n

- o r d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e . W e a r e c o n c e r n e d t h a t a l l p e r s o n s

r e a l i z e t h e i r p o t e n t i a l - t h a t t h e y b e a p a r t o f o u r A m e r i c a n d r e a m ,

n o t a p a r t f r o m i t . H o w c a n c h a n g e s i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s b u i l d

the necessary common denominator of ideas and values?

I f c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s d e f i n e d a s t h e s h a r i n g o f i d e a s a n d f e e l i n g s

i n a m o o d o f m u t u a l i t y , i t i s c l e a r t h a t c u r r e n t i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s

a r e n o t u s u a l l y c r e a t e d a n d u s e d t o d e v e l o p t h i s s h a r i n g . C o m m u n i -

c a t i o n a t i t s b e s t i s a n i n t e r a c t i o n , a t r a n s a c t i o n , a s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h

m o d i f i c a t i o n o f o n e ' s o w n i d e a s i s a l o g i c a l a n d o f t e n n e c e s s a r y p a r t

o f t h e p r o c e s s . Some so-called communica tion is manipulative, a

one-way conveying of meanings from the stron g to the weak, from

t h e s u p e r i o r t o t h e i n f e r i o r . The communicator w ants to change the

o t h e r f e l l o w ' s v i e w s , n o t h i s o w n .

C o m m u n i c a t i o n m e a n s g e t t i n g i n t o t h e o t h e r f e l l o w ' s s h o e s , a n d

p e r m i t t i n g h i m t o g e t i n t o o u r s . I t m e a n s a n e m p a t h i c r e l a t i o n s h i p ,

s e n s i n g t h e w a y a g i v e n i d e a o r e x p e r i e n c e a f f e c t s o t h e r p e r s o n s . I n

p o l i t i c a l l i f e i t m e a n s n o t m e r e l y t h e consent of the g overned ( one

m i g h t g e t t h i s i n a d i c t a t o r s h i p ) b u t , r a t h e r , t h e c o n s e n s u s o f t h e

g o v e r n e d . C o m m u n i c a t i o n i s s h a r p l y i n c r e a s e d i n a s c h o o l a n d

community atmosphere which is friendly to the give-and-take of

i d e a s , w h i c h p r o v i d e s s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h t h o s e i n a u t h o r i t y l e a r n

t o " l i s t e n w i t h t h e t h i r d e a r , " i n T h e o d o r e R e i k ' s t r e n c h a n t p h r a s e .

The quality of the associated lives of those within a school or

c o l l e g e i s , t h e r e f o r e , a c r i t i c a l t e s t o f t h e s u c c e s s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 100/327

DALE 91

W h a t s o c i a l f o r c e s w i t h i n t h e s c h o o l w i l l h e l p c r e a t e t h e h i g h

i d e a l h e r e s e t f o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n ? O b v i o u s l y , t h e c o n c e r n w h i c h

t e a c h e r s a n d p u p i l s h a v e f o r t h e i r o w n g r o w t h a n d f u l f i l m e n t a s w e l l

a s f o r t h e g r o w t h a n d f u l f i l m e n t o f o t h e r s i s v i t a l . T o o o f t e n , t h e

a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d a r r a n g e m e n t o f a s c h o o l o r c l a s s r o o m s u g g e s t t h a t

t h e t e a c h e r i s a n a u t h o r i t a r i a n f i g u r e d i s p e n s i n g e x c a t h e d r a j u d g -

m e n t s o n a r i t h m e t i c , s p e l l i n g , g r a m m a r , a n d c u r r e n t e v e n t s . M a n y

t e a c h e r s a s s u m e t h e r o l e o f g u a r d i a n s o f a c o r r e c t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n ,

t h e r e d - i n k s c o u r g e r s o f e r r o r .

T h e m a t e r i a l s a n d m e t h o d s o f i n s t r u c t i o n o f t e n u s e d i n t h e p a s t

t o t e a c h g r a m m a r i l l u s t r a t e t h i s a t t i t u d e . P o o r s c h o l a r s h i p c o v e r e d

i t s e l f w i t h a c l o a k o f a u t h o r i t y ; t h e p r o c e s s w a s a u t h o r i t a r i a n , n o t

a u t h o r i t a t i v e . H o p e f u l l y , n e w m a t e r i a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h i n -

c r e a s i n g l y t e a c h b y h e u r i s t i c m e t h o d s , t h r o u g h l e a r n i n g b y d i s c o v -

e r y , w i l l b e f a c t o r s i n b r e a k i n g d o w n t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n q u a l i t y o f

o n e - w a y c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

E xa m p l e s a n d I s s u e s i n t h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f N e w

I n s t r u c t i o n a l M a t e r i a l s

I M P R O V I NG C L A R I T Y O F E D U C A TI ON AL G O A LS

I n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s h a v e u s u a l l y b e e n r e a d y - m a d e , r a r e l y

t a i l o r - m a d e . I n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s h a v e n o t b e e n d e v e l o p e d t o f i t

t h e g r e a t v a r i e t y o f n e e d s a n d i n t e r e s t s o f l e a r n e r s . I t h a s b e e n

a s s u m e d , e v e n t h o u g h t h e a s s u m p t i o n w a s k n o w n t o b e f a l s e , t h a t

n e a r l y a l l c h i l d r e n l e a r n b e s t f r o m t h e s a m e t e x t b o o k s a n d t h a t

r e a d i n g a n d r e c i t i n g a r e t h e b e s t m e t h o d f o r t e a c h i n g . W e s a l v e d

o u r c o n s c i e n c e b y p e r m i t t i n g s o m e p u p i l s t o p r o g r e s s f a s t e r t h a n

o t h e r s .

I n t h e p a s t , t h e v e x a t i o u s p r o b l e m s t h u s g e n e r a t e d p a r t i a l l y

d i s a p p e a r e d b e c a u s e t h e s t u d e n t s w h o f o u n d t h e c u r r i c u l u m i r r e l e -

v a n t a n d f r u i t l e s s d r o p p e d o u t o r , p e r h a p s m o r e a c c u r a t e l y , w e r e

p u s h e d o u t o f s c h o o l . I n d e e d , e ve n t o d a y , o n e - t h i r d o f t h o s e w h o

e n t e r p u b l i c s c h o o l d o n o t g r a d u a t e f r o m h i g h s c h o o l . A b o u t o n e -

t h i r d o f t h e c o l l e g e F r e s h m a n c l a s s d r o p s o u t o f t h o s e s t a t e - s u p p o r t e d

u n i v e r s i t i e s w h e r e a l l h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s a r e p e r m i t t e d t o e n t e r .

W e h a v e u s u a l l y a s s u m e d t h a t t h e s t u d e n t h a s f a i l e d t h e s c h o o l . A

m o r e c a n d i d a n d d i s c e r n i n g a n a l y s i s w o u l d s h o w t h a t t h e s c h o o l

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 101/327

9 2 INSTRUCTI ONAL RESO URCES

h a s f a i l e d t h e s t u d e n t . T h e g o a l s s e t w e r e n e i t h e r c l e a r n o r r e a l i s t i c ,

n o r w e r e t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s c a r e f u l l y p r o g r a m e d t o a t t a i n

t h e s t a t e d b e h a v i o r a l o b j e c t i v e s .

T h e s i t u a t i o n d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g s e n t e n c e h a s b e e n i m -

p r o v e d b y t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f n e w c u r r i c u l a b y t h e P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e

S t u d y C o m m i t t e e , t h e S c h o o l M a t h e m a t i c s S t u d y G r o u p , t h e

C h e m i c a l E d u c a t i o n M a t e r i a l s S t u d y , t h e B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s C u r -

riculum Study, and others . Curriculum studies supported by the

N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n a n d s t u d i e s i n r e a d i n g , E n g l i s h , a n d

f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s s u p p o r t e d b y f u n d s p r o v i d e d t h r o u g h t h e N a t i o n a l

Defense Education Act are changing the character and quality of

i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s .

T o i m p r o v e t h e m e a n s o f i n s t r u c t i o n , w e m u s t c l a r i f y t h e e n d s

o f i n s t r u c t i o n , r i g o r o u s l y s e t t i n g f o r t h w h a t w e i n t e n d t o d o . P a s t

goals have been either vague and abstract or so narrow and par-

t i c u l a r i s t i c t h a t l i t t l e o r n o g e n e r a l i z i n g k n o w l e d g e w a s c r e a t e d .

I n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s w i l l i n c r e a s i n g l y c h a n g e a n d i m p r o v e b e c a u s e

w e a r e d e l i n e a t i n g m o r e s h a r p l y t h e b e h a v i o r a l o u t c o m e s d e s i r e d a n d

a r e d e v e l o p i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s t o s e c u r e t h e s e s t a t e d b e h a v -

i o r a l g o a l s . P r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n h a s c o n t r i b u t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o

t h i s p r o c e s s .

M a j o r a n a l y s e s o f b e h a v i o r g o a l s i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

T a x o n o m y o f E d u c a t i o n a l O b j e c t i v e s . Ha n dbo o k I : C o g n i t i v e D o -

main . Edited by Benjamin S . B l o o m . New York : Longmans, Green &

Co . , 1 9 5 6 .

D a v i d R. Krathwohl , Benjamin S . Bloom, and Bertram B . M a s i a ,

T a x o n o m y o f E d u c a t i o n a l O b j e c t i v e s . Handbook I I : A f f e c t i v e D o m a i n .

Ne w Yo r k : D a v i d M c K a y Co . , 1 9 6 4 .

W i l l F r e n c h , B e h a v i o r a l G o a l s o f G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n i n H i g h S c h o o l .

Ne w Yo r k : R u s s e l l S a g e F o u n d a t i o n , 1 9 5 7 •

No l a n C . K e a r n e y , Elementary School Objectives . Ne w Yo r k :

R u s s e l l S a g e F o u n d a t i o n , 1 95 3 .

A r t h u r M e l t o n , C a t e g o r i e s o f H u m a n L e a r n i n g . Ne w Yo r k : A c a -

d e m i c P r e s s , 1964 .

L e t u s l o o k a t t h e t h r e e t y p e s o f o b j e c t i v e s d e s c r i b e d b y B l o o m

( H a n d b o o k I ) . T h e s e t y p e s a r e s o d i f f e r e n t i n t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

t h a t m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s a r e r e q u i r e d

t o a c h i e v e t h e m . B l o o m d i v i d e s g o a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n t o t h r e e c l a s s e s :

i n f o r m a t i o n a l - i n t e l l e c t u a l , p e r c e p t u a l - m o t o r , a n d v a l u e s - a t t i t u d e s .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 102/327

D A L E 9 3

T h e i n f o r m a t i o n a l - i n t e l l e c t u a l g o a l s ( w h i c h B l o o m d e s c r i b e s a s

cognitive) range from remembering informatio n to applying and

e v a l u a t i n g i t ; f r o m s i m p l e b e h a v i o r r e q u i r i n g o n l y i m i t a t i v e r e a c t i o n

t o c o m p l e x b e h a v i o r r e q u i r i n g c r e a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n .

B l o o m ' s p e r c e p t u a l - m o t o r s k i l l s r e q u i r e o v e r t p r a c t i c e f o r t h e i r

achievement . Pupils do not learn to play basketball, to prepare

m e a l s , t o d o h a n d w r i t i n g , o r t o o p e r a t e a t y p e w r i t e r b y j u s t r e a d i n g

a b o u t t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s o r t h e s k i l l s i n v o l v e d i n l e a r n i n g t h e m , a n d

the more complicated the skill, the more varied the practice and

supervision which it will require . I n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s m u s t ,

t h e r e f o r e , b e d e v e l o p e d t o m e e t t h e s e p r a c t i c e r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d ,

w h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e , b e m a d e s e l f - t e a c h i n g . T h e s u c c e s s o f p r a c t i c e

l a b o r a t o r i e s f o r l e a r n i n g a u d i o - v i s u a l s k i l l s ( e . g . , t h e o p e r a t i o n o f

p r o j e c t o r s ) s h o w s c l e a r l y t h a t p r e c i o u s t e a c h e r t i m e i s b e i n g w a s t e d

i n s u p e r v i s i n g a s k i l l w h i c h t h e s t u d e n t c a n l e a r n b y h i m s e l f , g i v e n

appropriate equipment and instructions . S e l f - t e a c h i n g p r o c e d u r e s

c a n b e u s e d i n a l l t y p e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n . W e can assu me that the

c u r r i c u l u m o f t h e f u t u r e w i l l b e b a s e d o n r i g o r o u s s t u d i e s o f t h e

t e a c h i n g o f d e s i r e d m o t o r s k i l l s ; t h a t t h r o u g h s u c h s t u d i e s w e c a n

d i s c o v e r t h o s e s k i l l s w h i c h c a n b e t a u g h t e f f i c i e n t l y w i t h t h e u s e o f

l e s s t e a c h e r a n d p u p i l t i m e t h a n i s n o w g i v e n t o t h e m .

B l o o m ' s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f v a l u e s a n d a t t i t u d e s d e a l s w i t h g o a l s

relating to emotion, feeling, taste-the affective domain . T h e

a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h e s e g o a l s m a y r e q u i r e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f i n s t r u c -

t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e f r o m t h o s e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f g o a l s

d e a l i n g c h i e f l y w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n . V a l u e s m a y b e p r e s e n t w h i c h h a v e

n o t b e e n i n t e l l e c t u a l i z e d o r v e r b a l i z e d . I n d e e d , p r e m a t u r e v e r b a l -

i z a t i o n m a y h a v e d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t , a s s u g g e s t e d b y s t u d i e s i n t h e

t e a c h i n g o f m a t h e m a t i c s .

T h e s t u d y b y K r a t h w o h l , B l o o m , a n d M a s i a d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e

n e e d f o r c l a r i f y i n g g o a l s r e l a t i n g t o v a l u e o u t c o m e s . Our schools

have emphasized cognitive goals and neglected goals relating to

emotional d evelopment . A p e r s o n c a n b e i n t e l l e c t u a l l y c o n v i n c e d

o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f d o i n g s o m e t h i n g b u t l a c k t h e w i l l , t h e d r i v e ,

t h e m o t i v a t i o n t o d o i t . M a n y s t u d e n t s h a v e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t g r e a t

l i t e r a t u r e b u t n o t a s t e f o r i t . T h e y c a n r e a d , b u t t h e y d o n o t d o s o .

O n e o t h e r p o i n t s h o u l d b e m a d e a b o u t c l a r i t y o f g o a l s . F l a n d e r s

makes clear that ambiguous goals increase the dependence of the

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 103/327

94 INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES

l e a r n e r u p o n t h e t e a c h e r a n d t h a t , g i v e n s u c h g o a l s , " e x i s t i n g d e -

p e n d e n c y o n a n y a u t h o r i t y f i g u r e s w i l l b e h i g h . " 3 When there is

adequate teacher-pupil planning, w hen goals become c l e a r , t h e n

" s t u d e n t s a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o i n i t i a t e t h e i r o w n p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g p r o -

c e d u r e s a n d s e t t h e i r o w n c r i t e r i a o f ` r i g h t ' o r ` w r o n g ' a c t i o n . " 4

C l e a r g o a l s a r e , t h e r e f o r e , a n e c e s s i t y i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e i n d e p e n d -

e n t l e a r n e r . C l a r i t y o f g o a l s i s a m a j o r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e t e a c h e r .

H o w e v e r , s t u d e n t s m u s t a l s o l e a r n h o w t o c l a r i f y a m b i g u o u s g o a l s

s i n c e t h e y w i l l n o t a l w a y s h a v e a t e a c h e r a t h a n d t o c l a r i f y t h e m .

I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t i f c l e a r - c u t g o a l s a r e t o b e m a t c h e d w i t h l e a r n -

i n g r e s o u r c e s , m u c h m o r e v a r i e d m a t e r i a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n w i l l b e

r e q u i r e d t h a n a r e n o w a v a i l a b l e . A n d i f w e w i s h t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e

k i n d s o f m a t e r i a l s u s e d t o f i t t y p e s o f o b j e c t i v e s - i n t e l l e c t u a l -

i n f o r m a t i o n a l , p e r c e p t u a l - m o t o r , a n d a f f e c t i v e - a b a s i c c h a n g e i s

n e e d e d i n t h e w a y l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s f o r s t u d e n t s a r e a r r a n g e d .

T HE I SSU E O F E D U CAT I ON AND T RA I NIN G

I n a n u n p r e d i c t a b l e w o r l d , t h e c u r r i c u l u m m u s t p r o v i d e e x p e r i -

e n c e s w h i c h e n a b l e a n i n d i v i d u a l t o d e a l f l e x i b l y w i t h n e w p r o b l e m s .

I n s h o r t , h e m u s t b e a b l e t o t h i n k c r i t i c a l l y . I n a p r e d i c t a b l e , i m -

p e r c e p t i b l y c h a n g i n g w o r l d , t r a i n i n g i n d i v i d u a l s f o r t h e i r " s t a t i o n "

i n l i f e h a s s u f f i c e d . B u t i n a d e m o c r a t i c , c h a n g i n g , u n p r e d i c t a b l e

w o r l d , e d u c a t i o n ( n o t t r a i n i n g ) i s a n e c e s s i t y . What does this

m e a n i n r e l a t i o n t o l e a r n i n g r e s o u r c e s ?

T h e a i m o f d e v e l o p i n g t h e e d u c a t e d c i t i z e n i s b e i n g r e f l e c t e d

s p e c i f i c a l l y i n i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e r n f o r c r i t i c a l r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g ,

s p e a k i n g a n d l i s t e n i n g , v i e w i n g a n d o b s e r v i n g . M a r g a r e t F u l l e r , t h e

t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t , o n c e r e l u c t a n t l y a g r e e d t h a t s h e w o u l d a c c e p t t h e

u n i v e r s e . C a r l y l e i s a l l e g e d t o h a v e s a i d , " G a d , s h e ' d b e t t e r n o t . "

T h e t r a i n e d p e r s o n a c c e p t s t h i n g s a s t h e y a r e ; t h e e d u c a t e d p e r s o n

d o e s a c c e p t t h e u n i v e r s e , b u t u s u a l l y w i t h s o m e h a u n t i n g d o u b t s ,

a m e n d m e n t s , o r r e s e r v a t i o n s .

3 . Ned A . F l a n d e r s , " D i a g n o s i n g S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e s , " i n T h e D y n a m i c s o f

I n s t u c t i o n a l G r o u p s , p . 2 0 7 . F i f t y - n i n t h Y e a r b o o k o f t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r

t h e S t u d y o f E d u c a t i o n , P a r t I I . C h i c a g o : D i s t r i b u t e d b y t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f

C h i c a g o P r e s s , i 9 6 o .

4 . I b i d .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 104/327

D A L E 9 5

I n t h e f u t u r e , w e w i l l i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n s i d e r t h e e f f e c t o f a l l

t e a c h i n g a n d i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s o n d e v e l o p i n g t r a n s f e r a b l e p r i n -

c i p l e s . T h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e n o t e s d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t r a i n i n g a n d

e d u c a t i o n , a n d t h e r e a d e r c a n d r a w c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e d i f f e r -

e n c e s i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e t w o t y p e s o f l e a r n -

i n g .

TABLE 3

T r a i n i n g e m p h a s i z e s : E d u c a t i o n e m p h a s i z e s :

1 . I m i t a t i v e r e a c t i o n 1 . C r e a t i v e , i m a g i n a t i v e ,

r e f l e c t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n

2 . S h o r t - r a n g e , l i m i t e d g o a l s - ~ 2 . L o n g - r a n g e , b r o a d g o a l s

w i t h f l e x i b l e c e i l i n g s

3 . F i x e d e n d s a n d m e a n s - - > 3 . F l e x i b l e a n d c h a n g i n g

ends and means

4 . P a s s i v e , u n c r i t i c a l m e m o r i z a t i o n - - - - * 4 . T h o u g h t f u l e v a l u a t i o n

a n d a p p l i c a t i o n

5 . U n t h i n k i n g c o n f o r m i t y - > 5 . T h o u g h t f u l c o n f o r m i t y

a n d n o n - c o n f o r m i t y

W e m u s t n o t f a l l i n t o t h e e r r o r o f t h i n k i n g o f t r a i n i n g a n d e d u -

c a t i o n a s n e a t a n d e x a c t o p p o s i t e s , a s r e p r e s e n t i n g a k i n d o f b l a c k -

a n d - w h i t e , e i t h e r - o r p r o p o s i t i o n . N o r s h o u l d w e c o n c l u d e t h a t a l l

t r a i n i n g i s b a d . T h e a r r o w s s u g g e s t t h e w i s d o m o f m o v i n g t r a i n i n g

t o w a r d t h e " e d u c a t i o n " e n d o f t h e s c a l e . I n d e e d , t h e r e i s a p l a c e

f o r s o m e t r a i n i n g w h i c h i n c l u d e s i m i t a t i v e r e a c t i o n . T h i s i s h o w a l l

o f u s l e a r n e d t o s p e a k , t o w r i t e , t o r i d e a b i c y c l e , o r t o o p e r a t e a

m o t i o n - p i c t u r e p r o j e c t o r . But what is recom mended here is an

i n c r e a s i n g l y t h o u g h t f u l a t t i t u d e t o w a r d a l l m e r e l y i m i t a t i v e e x p e r i -

e n c e s . G r e a t a r t i s t s , s u c h a s V a n G o g h , h a v e a t s o m e p o i n t i n t h e i r

c a r e e r s i m i t a t e d t h e p a i n t i n g s o f e a r l i e r g r e a t a r t i s t s . Their aim was

n o t t o p a i n t l i k e t h e e a r l i e r m e n b u t , r a t h e r , t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h o s e

m e n g o t t h e e f f e c t s t h e y d i d i n t h e i r p a i n t i n g . T h e y w a n t e d t o s e e

w h a t i t w a s l i k e t o p a i n t l i k e t h e o l d m a s t e r s a n d t o e x p e r i m e n t w i t h

m a t e r i a l s a n d t e c h n i q u e s w h i c h c h a l l e n g e d a n d e x c i t e d t h e m.

F u r t h e r , s t u d y o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o c e s s e s o f r e a d i n g a n d

w r i t i n g , s p e a k i n g a n d l i s t e n i n g , v i s u a l i z i n g a n d o b s e r v i n g r e v e a l s t h a t

w e h a v e p u t h e a v y e m p h a s i s i n o u r t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s o n p a s s i v e ,

u n c r i t i c a l r e a d i n g a n d l i s t e n i n g a n d o n r e c i t i n g . I n d e e d , i t i s f a i r

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 105/327

9 6 INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES

to say that training has been the chief method of instru ction for

a l l t y p e s a n d l e v e l s o f l e a r n i n g . Today, as the mass media f lood u s

w i t h p r i n t e d , s p o k e n , a n d v i s u a l i z e d m a t e r i a l , i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s

are needed which help the student become a discriminating reader,

l i s t e n e r , a n d v i e w e r . Not only are new ins tructional m aterials nec-

essary to meet changing objectives but also the w a y s of using such

m a t e r i a l s m u s t c h a n g e . Discriminating, critical evaluation by the

l e a r n e r i s a n e c e s s i t y .

Efforts to provide guidance in discri minating cons u m ption are

described by Je wett who notes that :

. . . t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e c o u r s e s o f s t u d y a n d g u i d e s i n c l u d e s u g g e s t i o n s

f o r t e a c h i n g a b o u t m a g a z i n e s , n e w s p a p e r s , r a d i o a n d t e l e v i s i o n . The

c h i e f a i m s o f s u c h i n s t r u c t i o n a r e t o h e l p p u p i l s b e c o m e d i s c r i m i n a t i n g

i n t h e i r s e l e c t i o n o f m a s s m e d i a , t o e v a l u a t e w h a t t h e y r e a d a n d h e a r ,

and to appreciate and enjoy worthwhile programs based on well-known

l i t e r a t u r e .

A l m o s t h a l f o f t h e c o u r s e s c o v e r i n g g r a d e s7

through 1 2 have one

or more units on mass media . A f e w c o u r s e s o f f e r u n i t s a t s u c c e s s i v e

g r a d e l e v e l s . For example, the Minnesota G u i d e f o r I n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e

Language Arts i n c l u d e s t h e s e u n i t s : " C h o o s i n g B o o k s a n d M o v i e s "

( g r a d e 9 ) ; " R a d i o a n d T e l e v i s i o n " ( g r a d e i o ) ; " T h e Ro l e o f t h e P r e s s "

( g r a d e i i ) ; and "Motion Pictures" (grade 1 2 ) . B e s i d e s h a v i n g s e p a r a t e

u n i t s o n m a s s m e d i a , c o u r s e s o f s t u d y s u g g e s t m a n y a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o

n e w s p a p e r s , m a g a z i n e s , m o v i e s , a n d t e l e v i s i o n i n o t h e r u n i t s w h i c h a r e

l i t e r a t u r e - o r l a n g u a g e - c e n t e r e d .

U n i t s o n t e l e v i s i o n i n r e c e n t c o u r s e s o f s t u d y o f t e n i n c l u d e t h e f o l -

l o w i n g t o p i c s f o r s t u d y : ( 1 ) sources of information about programs ;

( 2 ) c r i t e r i a f o r j u d g i n g q u a l i t y o f p r o g r a m s , e s p e c i a l l y n e w s c a s t s , p a n e l s ,

a n d v a r i e t y s h o w s ; ( 3 ) t h e n a t u r e o f a d v e r t i s i n g ; ( 4 ) t h e e f f e c t o f l a n -

guage ; a n d ( 5 ) t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t e l e v i s i o n o n p e o p l e . 5

T H E T E X T B O O K A S A L E A RNI N G T O O L

The textbook has been and is the chief instructional tool of the

school and college . I t h a s l o n g b e e n u n d e r c r i t i c i s m a s i n f l e x i b l e , a s

_ p r o m o t i n g u n c r i t i c a l m e m o r i z a t i o n , a s o u t o f d a t e . T o o o f t e n , h o w -

ever, criticisms of the textbook have been ineffective because they

5 . A r n o J e w e t t , " E n g l i s h L a n g u a g e - A r t s i n A m e r i c a n H i g h S c h o o l s , " i n

U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h , E d u c a t i o n , a n d W e l f a r e , O f f i c e o f E d u c a -

t io n B ul le ti n 1 9 5 8 , N o .1 3 , p

. 9 4 . Washington : U n i t e d S t a t e s G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t -

i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 5 8 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 106/327

D A L E 9 7

w e r e t o o g e n e r a l , l a c k i n g i n d e p t h and p r e c i s i o n o f a n a l y s i s .

F u r t h e r , n o a d e q u a t e s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e t e x t b o o k h a d b e e n p r o v i d e d .

T h e t h o u g h t f u l c r i t i c s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s u s u a l l y h a v e

n o t a t t a c k e d t h e t e x t b o o k a s s u c h . T h e i r c h i e f c r i t i c i s m i s t h a t t o o

o f t e n i t p r o v i d e d a s t u d e n t w i t h a l e s s o n t o b e l e a r n e d w h i c h h a d

l i m i t e d r e l e va n c e t o h i s k e y c o n c e r n s . T h e e m p h a s i s w a s o n t r a i n i n g ,

a n d i r r e l e v a n t t r a i n i n g a t t h a t . D e w e y ' s c r i t i c i s m w a s o f " a c a d e m i c

a n d a l o o f k n o w l e d g e , "6 a n d h e c a l l e d f o r m a t e r i a l s w h i c h " a t t h e

o u t s e t f a l l w i t h i n t h e s c o p e o f o r d i n a r y e x p e r i e n c e . " B u t D e w e y ,

c o n t r a r y t o w h a t u n i n f o r m e d c r i t i c s b e l i e v e , w a s d e e p l y c o n c e r n e d

a b o u t t h e " o r d e r l y d e v e l o p m e n t t o w a r d e x p a n s i o n a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n

o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r t h r o u g h g r o w t h o f e x p e r i e n c e " and noted the

i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e " p r i n c i p l e o f c o n t i n u i t y o f e d u c a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e , "

t h e " c o n s c i o u s a r t i c u l a t i o n o f f a c t s a n d i d e a s . "

D e w e y w a s c r i t i c a l o f t h e k i n d o f p r o g r e s s i v e e d u c a t i o n t h a t

f a i l e d t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e p r o b l e m o f s e l e c t i o n a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n

o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r f o r s t u d y a n d l e a r n i n g i s f u n d a m e n t a l . He be-

l i e v e d i n i m p r o v i s i n g a s a w a y t o k e e p t e a c h i n g a l i v e , b u t h e p o i n t e d

o u t t h a t " t h e b a s i c m a t e r i a l o f s t u d y c a n n o t b e p i c k e d u p i n a

cursory manner . " 7

Dewey's concern was the unthinking memorizing of organized

k n o w l e d g e w h i c h d e p r i v e d t h e s t u d e n t o f e x p e r i e n c e i n o r g a n i z i n g

t h a t m a t e r i a l h i m s e l f . Dewey was an advocate of "an expanding

w o r l d o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , a s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f f a c t s o r i n f o r m a t i o n

a n d o f i d e a s . "

A s l o n g a s t h e r e a r e c o h e r e n t b o d i e s o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r w h i c h

c a n b e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y s t a t e d a n d p r e s e n t e d , t h e r e w i l l b e t e x t b o o k s .

I t m u s t b e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t a n y b o d y o f i n f o r m a t i o n , h o w e v e r p r e -

s e n t e d , c a n b e u n c r i t i c a l l y m e m o r i z e d , i s i n f l e x i b l e , a n d c a n g o o u t

o f d a t e . B u t i s t h e r e s o m e t h i n g i n h e r e n t i n t h e n a t u r e a n d m a k e - u p

o f t h e t e x t b o o k i t s e l f w h i c h a c c o u n t s f o r i t s w e a k n e s s e s a s a n i n -

s t r u c t i o n a l r e s o u r c e ?

Certainly the cost of producing and buying such books may

6 . J o h n D e w e y , D e m o c r a c y a n d E d u c a t i o n : A n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e P h i l o s o -

p h y o f E d u c a t i o n , p . 1 6 z . N e w Y o r k : M a c m i l l a n C o . , 2 9 3 1 .

7 . I b i d .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 107/327

9 8 INSTRUCTI ONAL RESO URCES

p r e v e n t f r e q u e n t r e v i s i o n s . Less expensive met hods of production

can b e d eveloped . I t i s a l s o t r u e t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l s p r e s e n t e d i n a

t e x t b o o k m a y n o t b e v e r y e x c i t i n g , i n t e r e s t i n g , o r f r u i t f u l . Thes e

w e a k n e s s e s a r e n o t i n h e r e n t i n t e x t b o o k s n o r i n t h e i r b a s i c s u b j e c t

m a t t e r b u t , r a t h e r , i n t h e i n e p t n e s s o f t h o s e w h o w r i t e , e d i t , a n d

p u b l i s h t e x t b o o k s . Further, the excellent text book can develop a

s p i r i t o f i n q u i r y , a c o n c e r n f o r p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g .

H o w e v e r , p l a c i n g a s i n g l e t e x t b o o k i n t h e h a n d s o f e v e r y p u p i l

w h o t h e n u s e s i t a s h i s s o l e s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n a n d i d e a s i s n o t

a c c e p t a b l e a s a m e t h o d o f l e a r n i n g . B u t p u b l i s h e r s r e c o g n i z e t h i s ,

t o o , a n d a r e s u p p l e m e n t i n g t e x t b o o k s w i t h a v a r i e t y o f a d d i t i o n a l

materials and are developing an integration of various types of

i n s t r u c t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s

W e m a y c o n c l u d e t h a t w h e r e v e r t h e r e a r e u n i f i e d b o d i e s o f

s u b j e c t m a t t e r t h e r e w i l l b e a t e x t b o o k ( p e r h a p s r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t

f r o m p r e s e n t o n e s ) t o a s s i s t t h e s t u d e n t i n b e c o m i n g a w a r e o f t h e

s t r u c t u r e o f t h e f i e l d . Some device is necessary to present t his

structur e, which then can be further amplif ied and integrated by

o t h e r r e l a t e d m a t e r i a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n .

A m a j o r i m p r o v e m e n t i n a l l t e x t b o o k s , p a m p h l e t s , e n c y c l o p e d i a s ,

a n d o t h e r r e f e r e n c e m a t e r i a l s w i l l c o m e f r o m g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n t o

r e a d a b i l i t y l e v e l s . I n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s , a b e t t e r m a t c h i s

n e e d e d b e t w e e n t h e r e a d i n g l e v e l o f t h e l e a r n e r a n d t h e r e a d a b i l i t y

l e v e l o f t h e p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l p r e p a r e d f o r h i m . A s n o t e d e a r l i e r , o u r

curricu l u m materials have b een typical ly read y- mad e, with one

g a r m e n t t o f i t a l l c h i l d r e n , o n e t e x t b o o k f o r a l l p u p i l s i n t h e s a m e

g r a d e . Several approach es have been made to develop or select

m a t e r i a l s w h i c h b e t t e r f i t t h e l e a r n e r . T h e r e a d a b i l i t y f o r m u l a i s

b e i n g u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o n c e p t u a l l e v e l o f t h e m a t e r i a l s u n d e r

study . Early formulas have included those of Washburne, Vogel,

Lewerenz, Gray, Leary, Lorge, and Dale an d Tyler . Recently de-

v e l o p e d f o r m u l a s a r e t h o s e o f D a l e a n d C h a l l , F l e s c h , T a y l o r , a n d

Spache . 8

The formulas have been used to designate the level of readin g

8 . S e e J e a n n e C h a l l , R e a d a b i l i t y a n d A p p r a i s a l o f R e s e a r c h a n d A p p l i c a t i o n

( B u r e a u o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h a n d S e r v i c e , O h i o S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , M o n o -

grap h No. 3 4 , 1 9 5 7 ) ; and George R . K l a r e , T h e M e a s u r e m e n t o f R e a d a b i l i t y

(Ames, Iowa : I o w a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 3 ) .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 108/327

DALE 9 9

of books in the booklists of th e American Library Association .

Thus, the teacher can more intelligently recomm end such books

t o c h i l d r e n o f v a r i o u s r e a d i n g l e v e l s . Publishers have used the

f o r m u l a s t o e v a l u a t e r e a d i n g g r a d e - l e v e l s o f m a n u s c r i p t s a n d a s a

b a s i s f o r m a k i n g n e e d e d c h a n g e s . Ne c e s s a r y " h a r d " w o r d s a r e

explained either directly in the text or through context clue s .

D o u b l e - t r a c k r e a d e r s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d f o r a s i n g l e g r a d e , w i t h

o n e r e a d e r i n t e n d e d f o r t h e u p p e r h a l f o f t h e c l a s s , t h e o t h e r f o r

t h e l o w e r h a l f .

S o m e p u b l i s h e r s f i e l d - t e s t t h e i r m a t e r i a l s t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r

they are clear to students of the intended grade levels and to

d i s c o v e r t h o s e p h a s e s o f t h e s u b j e c t w h i c h h a v e h i g h o r l o w a p p e a l

t o t h e s t u d e n t s . It is increasingly common for new-type instruc -

t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s t o b e g i v e n e x p e r i m e n t a l t r y o u t s i n t h e s c h o o l s a n d

f o r w e a k n e s s e s t o b e r e m e d i e d a s a r e s u l t . This approach has been

used with new physics, chemistry, biology, and mathematics mate-

r i a l s .

R e a d a b i l i t y s t u d i e s h a v e s o m e t i m e s r a i s e d t h e i s s u e o f c o n t r o l l e d

vocabulary, and some critics have questioned the wisdom of such

c o n t r o l . I f u n d e r s t a n d a b i l i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l s i s a n e c e s s i t y - a n d i t

is-our only choice is between skilful control of vocabulary and

i n e p t c o n t r o l . The aim of vocab u lary control is to insure the

g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e a m o u n t o f l e a r n i n g . I f v o c a b u l a r y i s a p p r o p r i a t e l y

c o n t r o l l e d , t h e s t u d e n t w i l l b e c h a l l e n g e d a n d n o t f r u s t r a t e d. Writ-

ing can be simple without being simple-minded .

INDIV I D UAL AND GRO UP INSTRUCTION

The developm ent of interest in self-instruction as well as a

concern for the dynamics of groups has led to concern about the

specialize d characteristics of individual and group instruction .

L e a r n i n g r e s u l t s f r o m t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f a n i n d i v i d u a l a n d a s t i m u l u s .

T h e s t i m u l u s m a y b e t h a t o f r e a d i n g a b o o k , l o o k i n g a t a t e l e v i s i o n

p r o g r a m , l i s t e n i n g t o a r e c o r d i n g , e x p e r i m e n t i n g i n a l a b o r a t o r y , o r

talking to a more know led g eab le person. The stim u l us may also

come from a g roup, of which one is a part . I n s t r u c t i o n a n d i n -

s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s , t h e r e f o r e , c a n b e p r e p a r e d f o r a n i n d i v i d u a l

or for a group . When should the approach be to individuals, to

groups, or to some combination of the tw o? The reader will find

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 109/327

1 0 0 INSTRUCTIONAL R E S O U R C E S

many suggestions for answering this problem in The Dynamics of

I n s t r u c t i o n a l G r o u p s . 9

O n e p o i n t t o b e m a d e i s t h a t a p h y s i c a l g r o u p m a y b e e i t h e r a n

aggregation of separate individuals or a "congregation" mad e up

o f p e r s o n s w i t h s i m i l a r p u r p o s e s a n d p o i n t s o f v i e w . I f a l e c t u r e r

i s i n r e a l i t y s p e a k i n g t o a n a g g r e g a t e o f s e p a r a t e i n d i v i d u a l s a n d

t h e r e i s n o c l a s s i n t e r a c t i o n , t h e s t u d e n t m i g h t j u s t a s w e l l r e c e i v e

t h e m a t e r i a l o v e r t h e p h o n e o r b y t e l e v i s i o n o r i n a l e a r n i n g b o o t h .

S o m e l e a r n i n g , h o w e v e r , r e q u i r e s a g r o u p s i t u a t i o n , i n t e r a c t i o n

a n d d i s c u s s i o n . Few people wil l continue to read serious b ooks

u n l e s s t h e r e i s s o m e o n e w i t h w h o m t o s h a r e n e w i d e a s o r c r i t i c a l

r e a c t i o n s. F u r t h e r m o r e , a l t h o u g h w e c a n i n d i v i d u a l i z e c e r t a i n p h a s e s

o f l a n g u a g e i n s t r u c t i o n b y u s e o f l a n g u a g e l a b o r a t o r i e s , t h e e s s e n t i a l

s o c i a l n a t u r e o f l a n g u a g e s u g g e s t s i n t e r p e r s o n a l d i s c u s s i o n i f e f f e c -

t i v e s p e e c h i s a n a i m o f l a n g u a g e i n s t r u c t i o n . I n d i v i d u a l i z i n g i n -

struction, whether b y formal- prog ram method s or more informal

o n e s , i s l i k e l y t o b o g d o w n u n l e s s s o m e k i n d o f g r o u p i n t e r a c t i o n

i s i n v o l v e d .

T h e r e h a s b e e n m u c h d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i d e a s a n d

i n f o r m a t i o n t o l a r g e g r o u p s b y s u c h m e a n s a s t e l e v i s i o n , f i l m , o r

o v e r h e a d p r o j e c t i o n . S o m e o f t h e s e p r e s e n t a t i o n s c a n a l s o b e m a d e

w i t h i n s e l f - c o n t a i n e d c l a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f f i l m s t r i p s , t a p e a n d

d i s c r e c o r d i n g s , a n d m o t i o n p i c t u r e s .

T h e s e r e c o r d e d m a t e r i a l s a r e a l s o i n c r e a s i n g l y a v a i l a b l e t o i n -

d i v i d u a l s . Edison first saw his newl y invented motion pictu re as

a d e v i c e f o r i n d i v i d u a l v i e w i n g . P r o j e c t i o n o n a s c r e e n f o r g r o u p

viewing was a later d evelopment . Today, with the 8-millimeter

sound proj ector and the sing le- concept fil m , we may return to

t h e u s e o f t h e m o t i o n p i c t u r e a s a n i n d i v i d u a l i z e d l e a r n i n g t o o l . An

i n d i v i d u a l i z e d a p p r o a c h h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e w i t h t h e f i l m s t r i p

and the recording .

I n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s o f t h e f u t u r e m a y b e i n c r e a s i n g l y s e l e c t e d

i n t e r m s o f t h e i n t e n s i t y a n d t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t e d e x -

p e r i e n c e s . T h u s , g r o u p e x p e r i e n c e s m a y b e p r o v i d e d , n o t p r i m a r i l y

q . T h e D y n a m i c s o f I n s t r u c t i o n a l G r o u p s . F i f t y - n i n t h Y e a r b o o k o f t h e

N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r t h e S t u d y o f E d u c a t i o n , P a r t I I . C h i c a g o : D i s t r i b u t e d

b y t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , i 9 6 o .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 110/327

DALE 1 0 1

a s a m e t h o d o f s a v i n g t e a c h e r t i m e b u t a s a w a y o f i n t e n s i f y i n g t h e

d e s i r e d i m p r e s s i o n s , o f d e v e l o p i n g a p p r o p r i a t e s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s . For

t h i s , g r o u p i n t e r a c t i o n i s a n e c e s s i t y . S c h o o l s m u s t s e t u p l e a r n i n g

e x p e r i e n c e s i n w h i c h s t u d e n t s d o i m p o r t a n t t h i n g s t o g e t h e r t o g e t

t h e f e e l i n g o f w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e a p a r t o f s o m e t h i n g l a r g e r t h a n

o n e ' s s e l f .

W h a t p r e d i c t i o n c a n o n e m a k e a b o u t t h e s h a r e o f t i m e t h a t w i l l

b e d e v o t e d i n t h e f u t u r e t o i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s w h i c h e m p h a s i z e

individual as contrasted with group learning? The best answer,

a n d p e r h a p s a n i n a d e q u a t e o n e , i s t h a t t h e d i v i s i o n o f t i m e w i l l b e

d e t e r m i n e d b y o u r e f f o r t s t o m o r e s h a r p l y d e f i n e t h o s e e x p e r i e n c e s

which can read ily b e learned alone, those which req uire g roup

e x p e r i e n c e , a n d t h o s e w h i c h c o m b i n e t h e t w o . Further, many

e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h n o w r e q u i r e g r o u p p r e s e n t a t i o n m a y b e p r e s e n t e d

t o i n d i v i d u a l s t h r o u g h r e c o r d e d m a t e r i a l s .

If we can develop superior presentations which are recorded

a n d a v a i l a b l e , t h e t e a c h e r n e e d n o t u s e h i s t i m e o n t h e t a s k s i n v o l v e d

i n p r e s e n t a t i o n . H e c a n s p e n d t h e t i m e s a v e d i n c o u n s e l i n g , g u i d i n g

and motivating students . I n s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , i f s t u d e n t s c a n l e a r n

m a n y o f t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s a s i n d i v i d u a l s , t h e y c a n t h e n b r i n g t o t h e

group a background of rich experiences and begin discussi on at a

much higher level .

O l s o n h a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t " t h e s o b e r t r u t h i s p r o b a b l y t h a t t h e

i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g c h i l d r e n a r e s o g r e a t t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t

to detect the persistent effect of anythi ng which is so gross in

c h a r a c t e r a s t h e s i z e o f a g r o u p o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r

t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f e x p e r i e n c e . If a plan for grouping introduces

d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s , t h e e f f e c t s c a n b e d e m o n -

s t r a t e d . . . . " 1 0

I n a l l i n s t r u c t i o n t h e c l o s e , p e r s o n - t o - p e r s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e

l i k e l y t o b e n e g l e c t e d . Hundreds of college Seniors and teachers

q u e s t i o n e d b y t h e w r i t e r r e p o r t v e r y l i m i t e d p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s

w i t h t e a c h e r s . S o m e f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o r e m e m b e r e v e n t w o o r t h r e e

s i t u a t i o n s i n t h e i r e n t i r e s c h o o l a n d c o l l e g e c a r e e r i n w h i c h t h e r e

w a s p e r s o n - t o - p e r s o n d i s c u s s i o n w i t h a t e a c h e r o n a p l a n e o f

" e q u a l i t y . " Y e t , t h i s k i n d o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s s t r o n g l y d e s i r e d b y

i o . I b i d . , p . 2 7 5 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 111/327

1 0 2 INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES

l e a r n e r s a n d i s r e p o r t e d b y t h e m t o h a v e g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d t h e i r

a t t i t u d e t o w a r d a t e a c h e r a n d a f i e l d o f s t u d y .

T H E M UL TI M E D I A A P P R O A C H

An example of a m u ltimed ia approach to improve the science

c u r r i c u l u m i n t h e h i g h s c h o o l i s t h e w o r k o f t h e P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e

Stud y Com mittee ( PSSC) estab lished und er a grant from the Na-

t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n . Th e P S S C u n d e r t o o k a c o m p r e h e n s i v e

project of curriculum improvement in school physics by producing

a v a r i e t y o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s i n t e g r a t e d w i t h a t e x t b o o k b a s e d

o n n e w l y d e f i n e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s o f h i g h - s c h o o l p h y s i c s .

Similar approaches have been used in biology, chemistry, ma the-

matics, and English . Th e P S S C t e x t b o o k ,t b o o k , r e v i s e d i n 1 9 6 5 , h a s a

companion booklet of laboratory exercises . Integrated with the

t e x t b o o k - t o a m p l i f y c e r t a i n t o p i c s a n d t o p r e s e n t s p e c i a l i n s i g h t s -

are S3 physics films covering topics from T i m e a n d C l o c k s , t o

V e c t o r K i n e m a t i c s , P h o t o n s , an d M a t t e r W a v e s .

T h e P S SC h a s g o n e e v e n f u r t h e r . F o r s t u d e n t s s t i m u l a t e d b y

t h i s n e w s c i e n c e c o u r s e a n d d e s i r o u s o f f o l l o w i n g u p t h e i r i n t e r e s t s ,

a series of thirty or more paperbacks on the world of science in

its broad aspects was commissioned from the country's foremost

e x p e r t s . T h e S c i e n c e S t u d y S e r i e s monographs cover many interest-

i n g t o p i c s s u g g e s t e d b y t h e c o u r s e . " E v a l u a t i o n a i d s h a v e a l s o b e e n

p r e p a r e d , a n d s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t s a r e m a d e a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h a n a t i o n -

w i d e t e s t i n g s e r v i c e .1 2

T h e C o m m i t t e e ( P S S C ) s t a t e s t h e e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y u n d e r l y i n g

a w i d e r v a r i e t y o f s t u d e n t e x p e r i e n c e s i n s c i e n c e a s f o l l o w s :

. . . b e c a u s e l e a r n i n g i s b y i t s v e r y n a t u r e s o d i f f i c u l t , t h e C o m m i t t e e

s e e k s t o b r o a d e n a l l t h e r o a d s t o l e a r n i n g t h a t m a y b e u n r o l l e d b e f o r e

t h e s t u d e n t . A l l h i s s e n s e s s h o u l d b e a p p e a l e d t o : h i s e y e s , h i s e a r s , h i s

s e n s e o f t o u c h , h i s s e n s e s o f m u s c u l a r d i s p l a c e m e n t , a n d w h e r e i t i s a p -

p r o p r i a t e h i s s e n s e o f t a s t e a n d s m e l l . T e x t b o o k s a r e n o t e n o u g h . T h e

i i . F o r e x a m p l e , s e e T h e P h y s i c s o f T e l e v i s i o n , T h e R e s t l e s s A t o m , H o w

O l d I s t h e E a r t h ? T h e s e a n d o t h e r s a r e a v a i l a b l e f r o m D o u b l e d a y & C o . , I n c . ,

G a r d e n C i t y , N e w Y o r k .

1 2 . C o o p e r a t i v e T e s t D i v i s i o n , E d u c a t i o n a l T e s t i n g S e r v i c e , I n c . , P . O . B o x

5 8 9 , P r i n c e t o n , N e w J e r s e y .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 112/327

DALE 1 0 3

stu dent m u st be offered the best in fil m s, the best in l aboratory w ork .

I f inventions are cal l ed for, they m u st be m ade .1 3

O b v i o u s l y t h e m u l t i m e d i a a p p r o a c h n e e d s t o b e c l o s e l y l i n k e d

to intended behavioral outcomes which are sufficiently specific to

make possible the matching of learning e xperiences with o utco mes .

I n s o m e o f t h e n a t i o n a l s t u d i e s t h e r e h a s b e e n a v a g u e l i n k i n g w i t h

"structures," but the varied content of different courses based on

the sa me str uct ure s uggests the need for more detai led behaviora l

a n a l y s i s .

S I M U LA T I O N AS AN IN ST RUCT I ONAL T O OL

Another educational resource likely to experience sharp growth

is the use of si m u l ation as a techni q u e of instr uction . W e b s t e r

defines a simul ator as "a device in a laboratory that enables the

o p e r a t o r t o r e p r o d u c e u n d e r t e s t c o n d i t i o n s p h e n o m e n a l i k e l y t o

occ ur in act ua l perfor mance ." Sim u l ators, of cou rse, are fou nd ou t-

s i d e t h e l a b o r a t o r y a s w e l l . Teacher-edu cation is making increased

u s e o f s i m u l a t i o n d e v i c e s .

To si m u l a t e is , in part , to i m i t ate , b u t it is so m e t hing m o r e . A

m e r e i m i t a t i o n o f a d e v i c e w i t h a c h a n g e o f s c a l e i s c a l l e d a m o d e l :

Bu t when the task to be fina l l y perfor med is changed or a mp lified

a t k e y p o i n t s t o m a k e i t m o r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e , t h e p r o c e s s i s t e r m e d

` . ` s i m u l a t i o n . " S i m u l a t o r s h a v e b e e n u s e d m o s t w i d e l y i n m i l i t a r y

a c t i v i t i e s ; for e xa mp le, the d evices no w being deve loped to land on

t h e m o o n . Their u s e f u l n e s s as teaching d e vices in a n u m b er of areas

suggests that they have an u nreal ized potential for al l teaching .

For teaching p urposes, an entire business may be si m u l ated, as

in "b u siness g a m e s ." Sim u lation can be u sed in the teaching of social

studies, as noted by Cherryholmes . 1 4 Aspects of administra tion may

b e si m u l a t e d , a s in the w i d e l y u s e d " I n- B a sket" si m u l a t i on d e ve l o p e d

b y t h e Un i v e r s i t y C o u n c i l o n E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .1 5

1 3 . P h y s i c s . F i r s t A n n u a l R e p o r t o f t h e P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e S t u d y C o m m i t t e e ,

( p r e l i m i n a r y e d i t i o n ) , V o l . 1 , p . 1 5 , J a n u a r y , 1 9 5 8 -

1 4 ,C l e o C h e r r y h o l m e s , " D e v e l o p m e n t s i n S i m u l a t i o n o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a -

t i o n s i n H i g h - S c h o o l T e a c h i n g , " P h i D e l t a K a p p a n , X L V I ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 6 5 ) ,

2 2 7 - 3 1 .

1 5 . U n i v e r s i t y C o u n c i l o n E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , O h i o S t a t e U n i -

v e r s i t y , C o l u m b u s , O h i o .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 113/327

104 INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES

W e s i m u l a t e t h o s e s i t u a t i o n s a n d o p e r a t i o n s w h i c h s i m p l i f y t h e

t e a c h i n g p r o c e s s a n d g i v e m o r e p r a c t i c e a t l e s s e x p e n s e t h a n w o u l d

be the case if "the real thing" were used . Simulation can give

" o n - t h e - j o b" t r a i n i n g t o p e r s o n s w h o w o u l d o t h e r w i s e h a v e t o

l e a r n b y l e s s e f f e c t i v e , m o r e a b s t r a c t m e t h o d s .

P R O G R A M E D I NS T R U C T I O N

A new instructio nal resource develope d in the past few years

h a s b e e n t i t l e d p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n , a u t o m a t e d i n s t r u c t i o n , a u t o -

d i d a c t i c i n s t r u c t i o n , s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n , a n d t h e t e a c h i n g m a c h i n e . The

w r i t e r s e e s " p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n " a s a s u b s y s t e m u n d e r t h e p r o -

g r a m i n g o f i n s t r u c t i o n . I n d e e d , t h e p r o b l e m s i n p r e p a r i n g u n i t s o f

p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n a r e t h o s e o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m s p e c i a l i s t s . For

e x a m p l e : ( a ) W h a t t e r m i n a l b e h a v i o r i s s o u g h t ? ( b ) W hat experi-

ences must be undergone to reach this behavior? (c) How are the

l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s b e s t o r g a n i z e d ? ( d ) H o w c a n w e c h e c k t o

d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e t e r m i n a l b e h a v i o r h a s b e e n r e a l i z e d ?

P r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n i s a m e t h o d o f s e l f - c o r r e c t i n g , s e l f - i n s t r u c -

t i o n w h i c h h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :

( a ) I t h a s d e v e l o p e d c h i e f l y i n t h o s e f i e l d s o f l e a r n i n g w h e r e t h e

e l e m e n t s o f l e a r n i n g a r e b a s i c , s y s t e m a t i c , a n d p r e d i c t a b l e .

(b) The learning experiences are organized into steps called

f r a m e s . T h e m o s t d e s i r a b l e s i z e o f t h e s e s t e p s i s d e b a t e d b y l e a r n i n g

t h e o r i s t s . E a r l y w r i t e r s i n t h e f i e l d e m p h a s i z e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f

s m a l l s t e p s . T h e w r i t e r , h o w e v e r , s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s t e p s s h o u l d b e

a s l a r g e a s t h e l e a r n e r i s a b l e t o u n d e r s t a n d . Th e r e h a s b e e n a

t e n d e n c y t o a s s u m e t h a t i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e t a k e n c a r e o f b y

o f f e r i n g a s m a l l o r a l a r g e s p o o n f u l o f t h e s a m e m a t e r i a l . H o w -

e v e r , m e r e l y c h a n g i n g t h e s i z e o f t h e s t e p s o r t h e i r n u m b e r i s n o t

a n a d e q u a t e s o l u t i o n t o t h i s p r o b l e m .

( c ) A t p r e s e n t t h e p r o g r a m e d l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s h a v e c h i e f l y

involved readin g, but there is no reason to confine them to this

sing le method of com m unication . F u r t h e r , m o s t e m p h a s i s h a s b e e n

u p o n i n d i v i d u a l , s e l f - p a c e d i n s t r u c t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e

t h a t g r o u p i n s t r u c t i o n t h r o u g h f i l m s o r o t h e r m e d i a i s a l s o s u c c e s s f u l .

( d ) The student checks the accuracy of his replies and mov es

f o r w a r d e i t h e r s t e p - b y - s t e p o r b y b r a n c h i n g w h e n b a s i c w e a k n e s s e s

a r e e x p o s e d .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 114/327

D A L E 1 0 5

Some kinds of learning do not lend themsel ves to the neat and

s p e c i f i c s t e p - b y - s t e p a p p r o a c h t o l e a r n i n g . An d s i n c e m o s t p r o -

g r a m i n g h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h v e r b a l b e h a v i o r , i t i s p o s s i b l e

t h a t t h e s a m e s u p e r f i c i a l l e a r n i n g w i l l r e s u l t f r o m u s i n g p r o g r a m e d

m a t e r i a l t h a t h a s r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e u s e o f t e x t b o o k s w h i c h e m p h a -

s i z e d u n c r i t i c a l m e m o r i z i n g . Programed instruction must make ex-

p l i c i t p r o v i s i o n f o r l e a r n i n g b y d o i n g .

We also face the problem of transferability of p rogramed in-

s t r u c t i o n t o l i f e p r o b l e m s . S o m e e n t h u s i a s t s o f p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n

v i s u a l i z e t h e p r o g r a m i n g o f e n t i r e c o u r s e s , b u t t h e w r i t e r b e l i e v e s

this development an unlikely one . W e a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o h a v e

a d j u n c t p r o g r a m s w h i c h r e l a t e c l o s e l y t o o t h e r f o r m s o f i n s t r u c t i o n .

P r o g r a m e d t e a c h i n g m a y w e l l b e p a r t o f a u n i t o f i n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h

follows rich and varied experience . T h e p r o g r a m i n g p h a s e m a y

t h e n p r e s e n t i n c i s i v e , t h o u g h t - c o m p e l l i n g q u e s t i o n s o n t h e s e e x p e r i -

ences or may review and distill concepts only partly developed .

T he t e a c h er c o n t r o l s t h e p r o gr a m i n g ; t h e p r o g r a m i n g d o e s n o t

c o n t r o l t h e t e a c h e r . The writer's own experience with program ed

instruction in the systematic development of vocabulary suggests

s t r o n g l y t h e n e e d f o r c o n s i d e r i n g c a r e f u l l y t h e i m p o r t a n t r o l e o f

t h e t e a c h e r i n t h e e n t i r e p r o c e s s .

S o m e h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t w e c a n r e s e r v e p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n

f o r d r i l l a n d r o t e l e a r n i n g . T o d o s o i s h a z a r d o u s a n d l a b e l s p r o -

g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n a s i n f e r i o r - a s t r a i n i n g , n o t e d u c a t i o n . M a n y

students are bored by the mechanized, rote approach to lear ning

found in some prog ramed instruction. S u c h l e a r n i n g i s n o t " s u f -

fused with suggestibility," a provocative phrase of philosopher

A l f r e d No r t h W h i t e h e a d .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n s p i t e o f w e a k n e s s e s e v i d e n t i n p r e s e n t p r o g r a m e d

i n s t r u c t i o n , t h e w r i t e r b e l i e v e s t h a t i t h a s a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e t o p l a y

a s a m e t h o d o f i n s t r u c t i o n . I t w i l l b e w i d e l y u s e d i n b u s i n e s s a n d

elsewhere where short programs of instruction are needed . T h e

r e s p o n s e t o p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n i s n e i t h e r r e j e c t i o n n o r u n b r i d l e d

e n t h u s i a s m . What is required is a "hard-nosed" but creative ap-

p r o a c h t o t h i s n e w m e t h o d o f i n s t r u c t i o n . When developed accord-

i n g t o g o o d c u r r i c u l u m p r a c t i c e s , i t f a c i l i t a t e s t h e m o v e m e n t t o w a r d

adequate description of terminal behaviors and, if thoughtfully

d e v e l o p e d , c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e i r a t t a i n m e n t .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 115/327

I o 6 I NSTRUCTI ONAL RESO URCES

T h e O r g a n i z a t i o n a n d U s e o f I n s t r u c t i o n a l R e s o u r c e s

The writer has described the various learning resources now

a v a i l a b l e t o s c h o o l s a n d h a s d e l i n e a t e d t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

H e h a s n o t e d t h e p e r s i s t e n t a n d e m e r g i n g s o c i a l f o r c e s w h i c h h a v e

i n f l u e n c e d t h e k i n d a n d a m o u n t o f l e a r n i n g r e s o u r c e s a n d h a s

d e s c r i b e d s o m e s p e c i f i c d e v e l o p m e n t s i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s . The

q u e s t i o n n o w a r i s e s : H o w c a n t h e s e m a t e r i a l s b e b e s t o r g a n i z e d a n d

u s e d t o i n s u r e t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f g r e a t e s t e d u c a t i o n a l v a l u e ?

If curricul um objectives are set up on a detailed behavioral

b a s i s , m o r e s p e c i f i c a n d m o r e v a r i e d m a t e r i a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n m u s t

b e s e l e c t e d a n d u s e d t o r e a c h t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h e

n e e d f o r s h a r p l y i m p r o v e d d i a g n o s e s o f i n d i v i d u a l a n d g r o u p n e e d s

a n d t h e s e l e c t i o n o f l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l s t o f i t a p r e s c r i p t i o n . F u r t h e r ,

p r o g r a m s o f c o n t i n u i n g e v a l u t i o n a r e i m p e r a t i v e i f c o n t i n u o u s p u p i l

p r o g r e s s i s a m a j o r o b j e c t i v e . T e s t s w i l l b e u s e d b e f o r e a n d a f t e r

i n s t r u c t i o n . W h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e , t h e y s h o u l d b e s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r i n g

d e v i c e s . P r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n w i l l m a k e a n i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n

i n a n i n t e g r a t e d p l a n o f i n s t r u c t i o n .

W i t h c l e a r a n d r e l e v a n t r e a d i n g m a t e r i a l s , w i t h e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e

concrete and semiconcrete learning experiences , with better pro-

g r a m i n g o f i n s t r u c t i o n , a n d w i t h s u g g e s t e d g u i d e l i n e s f o r i n d i v i d u a l

s t u d y , c o n t i n u o u s p u p i l p r o g r e s s b e c o m e s a r e a l i t y . There will be

n o n e e d t o c o n t i n u e u n s u c c e s s f u l e f f o r t s t o m e e t i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r -

e n c e s b y a w a t e r e d - d o w n c u r r i c u l u m f o r t h e l e s s - a b l e s t u d e n t s a n d

nebulous, ill-defined , more-of-the-same-thing enrichment for the

h i g h l y g i f t e d .

A s d e s i r e d b e h a v i o r a l o u t c o m e s a r e b e t t e r d e f i n e d a n d r e f i n e d ,

a s s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s a r e u s e d w h e r e t h e y a r e a p p r o p r i a t e ,

a n d a s s e l f - t e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e s a r e a r r a n g e d , m a n y m o r e p u p i l s w i l l

a c h i e v e a h i g h e r l e v e l o f c o m p e t e n c y . This higher achievem ent may

o c c u r i n s u b j e c t s l i k e a r i t h m e t i c , i n w h i c h p r e s e n t l y t h e r e i s l e s s

s p r e a d o f c om p e t e n c e t ha n i n r e a d i ng . W e s ha l l h a v e t o f a c e ,

therefore, the likelihood of even greater differences among the

p u p i l s o f a s i n g l e g r a d e . I t w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o t r e a t g r o u p s o f

c h i l d r e n a s a f a m i l y w h o s e a g e l i k e n e s s e s m a s k s h a r p d i f f e r e n c e s i n

a b i l i t i e s a n d c o n c e r n s. I t b e c o m e s g l a r i n g l y e v i d e n t t h a t t o h a v e a l l

s t u d e n t s i n a s i n g l e g r a d e s t u d y t h e s a m e t o p i c s a t t h e s a m e t i m e i s

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 116/327

DALE 1 07

a n i m p o s s i b i l i t y . C e r t a i n l y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n g e n u i t y a n d c u r r i c u l a r

i n v e n t i v e n e s s o f a h i g h o r d e r , a s d e s c r i b e d e l s e w h e r e i n t h i s v o l u m e ,

a r e r e q u i r e d .

F u r t h e r , i n c r e a s i n g l y v a r i e d g o a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n , c o u p l e d w i t h

g r e a t e r v a r i e t y i n m a t e r i a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n , w i l l r e q u i r e m o r e f l e x i b l e

a p p r o a c h e s t o l e a r n i n g s t y l e s o r t e c h n i q u e s . Because a child can

l e a r n w e l l b y r e a d i n g d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t h e w i l l a l s o l e a r n w e l l

b y o b s e r v i n g o r l i s t e n i n g . Even though learning competencies may

b e c o r r e l a t e d , s o m e s t u d e n t s m a y b e a t t h e t o p o f t h e c l a s s i n o n e

a s p e c t o f l e a r n i n g a n d o n l y a v e r a g e i n a n o t h e r . T h e c h a n g i n g s c h o o l

w i l l m a k e u s e n o t o n l y o f n e w m a t e r i a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n b u t a l s o o f

new methods of learning .

S t i l l a n o t h e r c o m p l i c a t i n g f a c t o r m u s t b e f a c e d i n o r g a n i z i n g

a n d u s i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s . T h e l e a r n i n g t h a t g o e s o n o u t s i d e

t h e s c h o o l m u s t b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . T h i s m e a n s a c l o s e r l i n k i n g

o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y , t h e h o m e , a n d t h e

s c h o o l . As the education of parents increase s, they will become

b e t t e r a b l e t o t a k e m o r e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h e f o r m a l a s w e l l a s t h e

i n f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n .

Not only will par ents work with the schoo l increasingly on

" f o r m a l " e d u c a t i o n - a s t h e y d o n o w i n h e l p i n g c h i l d r e n w i t h h o m e -

work-but there will be more planned informal education aimed at

building background for the more systematic experiences of the

s c h o o l . F o r e x a m p l e , n a t i o n a l , s t a t e , a n d l o c a l p a r k s a r e t a k i n g o n

a n e d u c a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n . L i f e a n d b u i l d i n g s o f t h e p a s t h a v e b e e n

reconstructed at such places as Mystic, Connecticut ; G r e e n f i e l d ,

M i c h i g a n ; C o o p e r s t o w n , Ne w Yo r k ; a n d W i l l i a m s b u r g , V i r g i n i a .

P a r e n t s a r e t r a v e l i n g m o r e a n d f a r t h e r w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n . An d

t h e u r g e t o h a v e t h e i r c h i l d r e n g e t e d u c a t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e f r o m t h e s e

t r i p s i s g r e a t , o f t e n t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n t h e f a m i l y f o r " e x p e n s i v e "

v a c a t i o n s . Today, compensatory education fo r the culturall y de-

p r i v e d c l o s e l y r e l a t e s t h e s c h o o l a n d t h e h o m e , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e

e a r l i e r , m o r e f o r m a t i v e y e a r s .

A C AF ET ER I A O F LEARNIN G M AT ER I ALS

W e h a v e u s u a l l y t h o u g h t o f b o o k s a s t h e o n l y s o u r c e o f e x c e l l e n t

i d e a s . Literacy has been regarded as s ynonymous with ability to

read . I t h a s b e e n h e l d t h a t t h e b e s t i d e a s i n t h e w o r l d a r e t o b e

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 117/327

i o 8 INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES

f o u n d i n t h e b o o k s o f t h e l i b r a r y . Now we real ize that the m odern

l i b r a r y w i l l i n c l u d e e x c e l l e n c e i n v a r i e d m e d i a , n o t p r i n t a l o n e . W e

r e a l i z e , t o o , t h a t t h e r e i s f i l m l i t e r a c y , l i t e r a c y i n t h e r e a d i n g o f

p h o t o g r a p h s , l i t e r a c y i n e v a l u a t i n g g r e a t d r a m a , l i t e r a c y i n c r i t i c a l

l i s t e n i n g .

W h a t d o e s t h i s m e a n f o r t h e s c h o o l ? I t m u s t s e l e c t , c a t a l o g u e ,

d i s t r i b u t e , a n d s u p e r v i s e t h e u s e o f m a n y t y p e s o f m a t e r i a l s a n d

m a k e t h e m a v a i l a b l e i n a l e a r n i n g - r e s o u r c e s c e n t e r . T h e c e n t e r w i l l

i n c l u d e f i l m s a n d f i l m s t r i p s , r e c o r d i n g s t h a t w i l l r a n g e f r o m t h e

b e s t i n m u s i c t o t h o s e d e s i g n e d t o t e a c h c r i t i c a l l i s t e n i n g . T h e r e w i l l

b e p a c k e t s o f p r o g r a m e d m a t e r i a l s r e l a t e d t o t h e v a r i o u s u n i t s t a u g h t

i n t h e s c h o o l . T h e s e w i l l i n c l u d e p a m p h l e t s , r e a l i a o f v a r i o u s k i n d s ,

t r a n s p a r e n c i e s , r e c o r d i n g s , p h o t o g r a p h s , c h a r t s , p o s t e r s , a n d t h e

like, depending upon the subject to be taught. There wil l be a

c o n c e r n a b o u t i n s t r u c t i o n a l s y s t e m s o f t h e t y p e d e s c r i b e d b y F i n n

and others . 1 6 C o m p u t e r s w i l l b e u s e d i n c r e a s i n g l y i n g u i d i n g t h e

u s e o f m a t e r i a l s a n d i n o t h e r a s p e c t s o f i n s t r u c t i o n .

O b v i o u s l y , t h e s e i n s t r u c t i o n a l s y s t e m s w i l l r e q u i r e a n e w t y p e

o f a p p r o a c h t o a l l i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s . T h e " l i b r a r i a n ' s " c o n c e r n

w i l l b e w i t h t h a t o f b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r a l l m a t e r i a l s n e c e s s a r y f o r

t h e e d u c a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n - t h e b e s t o f r e c o r d e d i d e a s . The teacher

m u s t b e c o m e k e e n l y s e n s i t i v e n o t o n l y t o t h e v a r i e d n e e d s o f c h i l -

d r e n b u t a l s o t o a l l t h e a v a i l a b l e r i c h r e s o u r c e s f o r e d u c a t i o n . An

i n s t r u c t i o n a l - s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h w i l l r e q u i r e c u r r i c u l u m c o - o r d i n a t o r s

t o w o r k w i t h t e a c h e r s a n d a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i n p l a n n i n g n e e d e d e d u c a -

t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s . T h i s w i l l r e q u i r e s p e c i a l i s t s i n b e h a v i o r a l t e c h -

nology to prepare materials, to help arrange for the systematic

i n t e g r a t i o n o f v a r i e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o l e a r n .

D E V E L O P I NG T H E I N D E P EN D EN T LE A RN E R

T h e g o a l o f a l l l e a r n i n g i s t o d e v e l o p t h e i n d e p e n d e n t l e a r n e r -

t h e m a t u r e i n d i v i d u a l w h o n o l o n g e r n e e d s t h e p r o t e c t i v e c o u n s e l

a n d g u i d a n c e o f t h e s c h o o l o r c o l l e g e . We may well ex pect, there-

fore, that instructional materials and methods will be used to

d e c r e a s e d e p e n d e n t l e a r n i n g a n d i n c r e a s e i n d e p e n d e n t l e a r n i n g .

1 6 . J a m e s D . F i n n , " T a k e - o f f t o R e v o l u t i o n , " i n R e v o l u t i o n i n T e a c h i n g :

N e w T h e o r y , T e c h n o l o g y , a n d C u r r i c u l u m , p p . 2 3 - 3 1 . E d i t e d b y A l f r e d d e

G r a z i a a n d D a v i d A . S o h n . N e w Y o r k : B a n t a m B o o k s , 1 9 6 4 ( m a t r i x e d i t i o n ) .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 118/327

D A L E I 0 9

E v e r y i n d i v i d u a l m u s t b e p r e p a r e d t o m e e t n e w d e v e l o p m e n t a l

t a s k s . H e m u s t b e a b l e t o r e a d , l i s t e n , a n d v i e w c r i t i c a l l y and

t h o u g h t f u l l y . H e m u s t b e a b l e t o u s e a l i b r a r y o f b o o k s , f i l m s , a n d

r e c o r d i n g s . He must have methods of study and attitu des which

w i l l e n a b l e h i m t o l e a r n a n d r e l e a r n a t a l l a g e l e v e l s . S e l f - d i r e c t i o n

i s t h e g o a l , a n d i n s t r u c t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d w i t h t h i s

e n d i n v i e w .

I n C o n c l u s i o n

T h e r e v o l u t i o n i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d t e c h n o l o g y h a s p r o d u c e d

i d e a s f a s t e r t h a n w e c a n u s e t h e m . T h e r e i s a l a g b e t w e e n w h a t w e

know how to do and what we have done . We know far more about

c h a n g i n g t h e t o o l s t h a n w e k n o w a b o u t c h a n g i n g t h e w o r k m a n .

I n s t r u c t i o n a l t e c h n o l o g y i s n o e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s r u l e . T h e n e w

t o o l s a r e b e g i n n i n g t o p i l e u p , b u t t h e h i g h l y s k i l l e d c o m p e t e n c e

n e e d e d t o s e l e c t , u s e , a n d e v a l u a t e t h e m i s l a c k i n g . O u r b i g p r o b l e m

i n m a k i n g a c h a n g e o v e r i s n o t , I b e l i e v e , t h a t o f t e a c h e r r e j e c t i o n . I t

i s r a t h e r t h e c o m p l e x i t y i n v o l v e d i n t r y i n g t o t a k e s e r i o u s l y t h e

i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g c h i l d r e n , a n d t o d e v e l o p a s y s t e m a t i c ,

c o - o r d i n a t e d p r o g r a m f o r m e e t i n g t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s . I t i s a t o u g h a n d

c h a l l e n g i n g t a s k , w o r t h y o f o u r b e s t p r o f e s s i o n a l s k i l l a n d e f f o r t .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 119/327

C H A P T E R V

S c h o o l O r g a n i z a t i o n : N o n g r a d i n g , D u a l P r o g r e s s ,

and T ea m T eaching

GLEN HEATHE RS

I n t r o d u c t i o n

E d u c a t o r s d i s a g r e e c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d t h e q u a l i t y o f i n s t r u c -

t i o n . Some contend that a school' s choice of organizational pl an

h a s a m a j o r i n f l u e n c e o n i n s t r u c t i o n a l o u t c o m e s , w h i l e o t h e r s h o l d

t h a t t e a c h e r s d e t e r m i n e w h a t p u p i l s l e a r n a t s c h o o l l a r g e l y w i t h o u t

r e g a r d t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s e t t i n g s i n w h i c h t h e y t e a c h .

Obviously, no ed ucator b elieves that our schools shou l d b e

u n o r g a n i z e d o r d i s o r g a n i z e d . Teachers and pupi ls must be brought

i n t o s t r u c t u r e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t t a k e a c c o u n t o f l e a r n i n g g o a l s ,

t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p u p i l s a s l e a r n e r s , i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e t h o d s , a n d

t e a c h e r s ' k n o w l e d g e a n d s k i l l s . Organizational arrangem ents also

a r e n e c e s s a r y t o m a k e e f f e c t i v e u s e o f s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s a n d l e a r n i n g

m e d i a . F u r t h e r , s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n m u s t t a k e c o g n i z a n c e o f f a c t o r s

a f f e c t i n g s t a f f u t i l i z a t i o n , s t a f f m o r a l e , s c h o o l c o s t s , a n d s c h o o l -

community relations .

T h e i s s u e s c o n c e r n i n g s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n a r i s e m a i n l y f r o m t w o

s o r t s o f d i s a g r e e m e n t . O n e i n v o l v e s d i f f e r i n g c o n c e p t i o n s o f s c h o o l

g o a l s . The organizational requirem ents of a school program that

s t r e s s e s t h e p u p i l s ' p e r s o n a l - s o c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t a r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m

t h o s e o f a p r o g r a m t h a t f o c u s e s o n a c a d e m i c a t t a i n m e n t . T h e o t h e r

type of disagreement involves how and to what extent individual

d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g p u p i l s s h o u l d b e p r o v i d e d f o r i n t h e s c h o o l p r o -

g r a m . As Goodlad points out, a school may set out to teach the

s a m e b o d y o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r t o a l l p u p i l s a n d a t t h e s a m e r a t e ; i t

m a y o f f e r a l l p u p i l s t h e s a m e s u b j e c t m a t t e r b u t p r o v i d e f o r d i f -

f e r e n t r a t e s o f a d v a n c e m e n t ; o r i t m a y v a r y s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o f f e r i n g s

1 10

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 120/327

HEATHERS I I I

f r o m p u p i l t o p u p i l a s w e l l a s m a k e p r o v i s i o n s f o r d i f f e r e n t r a t e s o f

p r o g r e s s . ' T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e t h r e e a p p r o a c h e s

a r e d i f f e r e n t .

P r e s e n t l y , t h e i s s u e s i n v o l v e d i n s u c h d i s a g r e e m e n t s a r e b e i n g

e x a m i n e d a n e w a s c r i t i c s o f t h e s c h o o l s a t t a c k t h e g r a d e s y s t e m a n d

t h e s e l f - c o n t a i n e d c l a s s r o o m , a n d a s i n n o v a t o r s a d v a n c e c o m p e t i n g

p l a n s f o r o r g a n i z i n g i n s t r u c t i o n . T h e s e p l a n s p r o p o s e n e w s o l u t i o n s

t o a n u m b e r o f p e r s i s t e n t p r o b l e m s o f s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n , s u c h a s

pupil advancement, pupil grouping, scheduling, uses of space and

eq uipment, teacher d eployment, and teacher interaction . Thre e

major types of organizational plans have been brought forward :

nongrading, dual progress, and team teaching . P l a n s o f e a c h t y p e

h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g t h e p a s t d e c a d e , h a v e b e e n p u t t o t e s t

i n a v a r i e t y o f s c h o o l s e t t i n g s , a n d h a v e b e e n t h e s u b j e c t o f p i l o t

research studies to determine outcomes .

T h i s c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s t h e s e n e w o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n s i n r e l a t i o n

t o s u c h q u e s t i o n s a s : What are the purposes and features of each

type of plan? What force s and ideas in American society or in

e d u c a t i o n h a v e g i v e n r i s e t o t h e m ? W h a t a r e t h e t h e o r e t i c a l b a s e s

f o r t h e p l a n s ? H o w e x t e n s i v e a n d h o w e f f e c t i v e a r e t h e l o c a l a d o p -

t i o n s ? W h a t a r e t h e p r o s p e c t s t h a t t h e s e p l a n s w i l l c o n t r i b u t e t o

the improvement of American ed ucation?

Purposes and Features o f t h e New O r g a n i z a t i o n a l P l a n s

NONGRAD I NG

T h e t e r m " n o n g r a d i n g " i n d i c a t e s w h a t t h e p l a n i s n o t r a t h e r t h a n

w h a t i t i s . N o n g r a d i n g i s a d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l g r a d e d

s y s t e m f o r o r g a n i z i n g i n s t r u c t i o n . I t r e j e c t s t h e g r a d e - l e v e l c u r -

riculum, and grade-level placement and promotion, on the assump-

t i o n t h a t t h e s e f a i l t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e l y f o r i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s

among pupils .

T h e p u r p o s e s o f n o n g r a d i n g ( o r " c o n t i n u o u s p r o g r e s s " ) a r e i n -

d icated in R ecom mend ation 2 3 o f t h e N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a -

t i o n P r o j e c t o n I n s t r u c t i o n a s f o l l o w s :

i . P l a n n i n g a n d O r g a n i z i n g f o r T e a c h i n g , P r o j e c t o n t h e I n s t r u c t i o n a l

Program of the Public Schools . Written by John I . Goodl ad . Washington :

N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , 1 9 6 3 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 121/327

1 1 2 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION

T h e v e r t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l s h o u l d p r o v i d e f o r t h e c o n -

t i n u o u s , u n b r o k e n , u p w a r d p r o g r e s s i o n o f a l l l e a r n e r s , w i t h d u e r e c o g -

n i t i o n o f t h e w i d e v a r i a b i l i t y a m o n g l e a r n e r s i n e v e r y a s p e c t o f t h e i r

development . T h e s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n s h o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , p r o v i d e f o r

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d r a t e s a n d m e a n s o f p r o g r e s s i o n t o w a r d a c h i e v e m e n t o f

e d u c a t i o n a l g o a l s . 2

G o o d l a d a n d A n d e r s o n s u r v e y e d t h e e v i d e n c e o n i n d i v i d u a l d i f -

ferences among children of a given age or grade group and con-

c l u d e d t h a t t h e g r a d e - l e v e l s y s t e m i s i l l - s u i t e d f o r t a k i n g s u c h d i f -

f e r e n c e s i n t o a c c o u n t . 3 C h i l d r e n o f a n a g e o r g r a d e d i f f e r s o g r e a t l y

i n a c h i e v e m e n t , a b i l i t i e s , a n d i n t e r e s t s t h a t i t i s a b s u r d t o p r e s e n t a l l

o f t h e m w i t h t h e s a m e l e a r n i n g f a r e a n d t o e x p e c t t h e m t o p r o g r e s s

at the same rate . I n t r a i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n a c h i e v e m e n t a n d

a b i l i t y f r o m o n e c u r r i c u l a r a r e a t o a n o t h e r a l s o a r e l a r g e a n d a r e

not provided for in the graded system that moves pupils through

t h e s e v e r a l c u r r i c u l a r a r e a s o n a n e v e n f r o n t .

T h e g r a d e d s y s t e m h o l d s b a c k t h e a d v a n c e d o r r a p i d l e a r n e r a n d

f o r c e s t h e r e t a r d e d o r s l o w l e a r n e r a h e a d , b e y o n d h i s c a p a c i t i e s t o

l e a r n . N o n p r o m o t i o n , t h e d e v i c e e m p l o y e d t o d e a l w i t h t h e f a i l u r e

o f s o m e p u p i l s t o a c h i e v e g r a d e s t a n d a r d s , i s a p o o r s o l u t i o n . I t

f o r c e s t e d i o u s r e p e t i t i o n o f s o m e m a t e r i a l s a l r e a d y l e a r n e d . I t s t i g -

m a t i z e s t h e l e a r n e r b y m a r k i n g h i m a s a f a i l u r e . F u r t h e r , i t d o e s n o t

a c c o m p l i s h i t s p u r p o s e o f f o s t e r i n g p u p i l s ' a c h i e v e m e n t . Researc h

studies have shown that retarded learners, if promoted, usually

a c h i e v e a t l e a s t a s w e l l a s w h e n r e t a i n e d i n g r a d e . 4

Most often, provisions for nongrading occur in s uburban ele-

mentary schools and at the primary level . In the most freque nt

t y p e o f p r o g r a m , p u p i l s m a y t a k e t w o , t h r e e , o r f o u r y e a r s t o a c -

c o m p l i s h t h e l e a r n i n g s t h a t c o n v e n t i o n a l l y a r e i n c l u d e d i n G r a d e s

I - I I I . G r a d e - l e v e l d i v i s i o n s i n t h e c u r r i c u l u m a r e e r a s e d t o a l l o w

for continuous progress . T y p i c a l l y , s e q u e n c e s o f l e v e l s a r e s e t u p

2 . S c h o o l s f o r t h e S i x t i e s , p . 1 3 2 . N E A P r o j e c t o n I n s t r u c t i o n . N e w Y o r k :

McGraw-Hill Book Co . , 1 9 6 3 .

3 . J o h n I . G o o d l a d a n d R o b e r t H . A n d e r s o n , The Nong ra d e d E l e m e n tary

S c h o o l s , c h a p . i . New York : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e & W o r l d , I n c . , 1 9 6 3 ( r e v i s e d

e d i t i o n ) .

4 . D w a i n M . E s t e s a n d H e n r y J . O t t o , " A c c e l e r a t e d a n d R e t a r d e d P r o g r e s s , "

E n c y c l o p e d i a o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , p p . 4 - 1 1 . E d i t e d by C h e s t e rWH a r r i s .

New Yor k : M a c m i l l a n Co . , 1 9 6 o ( t h i r d e d i t i o n ) .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 122/327

H E A T H E R S 1 1 3

i n r e a d i n g a n d a r i t h m e t i c. P u p i l s p r o c e e d u p w a r d i n t h e s e s e q u e n c e s

a t d i f f e r e n t r a t e s a c c o r d i n g t o h o w r e a d i l y t h e y l e a r n t h e s u b j e c t .

T h e r e a r e n o l e a r n i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a t a l l p u p i l s a r e e x p e c t e d t o

s a t i s f y i n a g i v e n p e r i o d o f t i m e . Year-to-year prom otion and no n-

promotion are eliminated .

G r o u p i n g p r a c t i c e s i n n o n g r a d e d p r i m a r y s c h o o l s v a r y . I n s o m e

s c h o o l s , g r o u p s a r e s e t u p o n t h e u s u a l a g e - l e v e l b a s i s w i t h n o n -

graded instruction facilitate d by intraclass grouping . I n o t h e r

s c h o o l s , m u l t i a g e g r o u p i n g o c c u r s w i t h g r o u p s f o r m e d o n t h e b a s i s

o f a c h i e v e m e n t l e v e l . Go o d l a d a n d A n d e r s o n m a k e t h e i m p o r t a n t

p o i n t t h a t g r o u p i n g p r a c t i c e s a r e s e c o n d a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n n o n -

g r a d e d p r o g r a m s . N o n g r a d i n g a p p l i e s s t r i c t l y t o t h e v e r t i c a l pro-

g r e s s i o n o f p u p i l s , w h i l e g r o u p i n g a p p l i e s t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l o r g a n -

i z a t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l t h a t b r i n g s p u p i l s a n d t e a c h e r s i n t o r e l a t i o n .

No pattern of grou ping ensures nongrading, though so me grouping

p r a c t i c e s m a y f a c i l i t a t e i t . 5

S o m e s c h o o l s y s t e m s h a v e n o n g r a d e d t h e e n t i r e e l e m e n t a r y

s c h o o l . The "Continuous Prog ress Plan" used in Appleton, W is-

consin, provides for nongraded advancement in reading, spelling,

a n d a r i t h m e t i c . 6 Nongrading occurs through intracl ass grouping

w i t h i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s e l f - c o n t a i n e d c l a s s r o o m . A p u p i l m a y

t a k e a n a d d i t i o n a l y e a r t o c o m p l e t e t h e e l e m e n t a r y p r o g r a m . Rapid

l e a r n e r s m a y a d v a n c e i n t o t h e j u n i o r h i g h s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m w h i l e

s t i l l i n t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l .

A number of high schools have introduced nongraded programs .

The best-known program was initiated in 1958 at M elbourne,

F l o r i d a .? The program replaces grade groupi ng with a system that

permits continuous, nongraded advancement in mathematics, sci-

e n c e , E n g l i s h , a n d h i s t o r y . W i t h i n e a c h o f t h e s e a r e a s , t h e l e v e l o f

work the student perform s depends on the scores he has obtained

i n n a t i o n a l l y s t a n d a r d i z e d a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t s , w h i l e t h e s e t t i n g i n

w h i c h h e l e a r n s d e p e n d s o n h i s l e a r n i n g s k i l l s .

5 . G o o d l a d a n d A n d e r s o n ,o p

. c i t. , p p . 2 1 4 - 1 6 .

6 . A r t h u r D . M o r s e , S c h o o l s o f T o m o r r o w - T o d a y ! c h a p . i i . A l b a n y : N e w

Y o r k S t a t e E d u c a t i o n D e p a r t m e n t , i 9 6 o . ( A v a i l a b l e a s p a p e r b a c k f r o m D o u b l e -

d a y & C o . , I n c . , G a r d e n C i t y , New Yor k . )

7 . B . F r a n k B r o w n , T h e N o n g r a d e d H i g h S c h o o l . E n g l e w o o d C l i f f s , N e w

J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e H a l l , I n c . , ' 9 6 3 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 123/327

11 4 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION

Nongrading, it shou ld be noted, is not a new phenomenon i n

American ed ucation . Goodlad and Anderson point to the Pueblo ,

B a t a v i a , W i n n e t k a , a n d D a l t o n p l a n s a s p r e c u r s o r s o f t o d a y ' s n o n -

g r a d e d p l a n s a n d r e p o r t t h a t M i l w a u k e e h a s h a d a t y p e o f n o n g r a d e d

p l a n i n o p e r a t i o n s i n c e 1 9 4 2 . 8 Also, it should be noted that many

t e a c h e r s h a v e e m p l o y e d s o m e n o n g r a d e d a p p r o a c h es w i t h i n t h e

g r a d e d s y s t e m , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n r e a d i n g , a s u b j e c t i n w h i c h p u p i l s

i n e v i t a b l y b r e a k t h r o u g h t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e g r a d e s t r u c t u r e .

T HE ST O D DAR D D U AL-P R O G R ESS PLAN

In 19 56, Stod d ard outlined a new semid epartmental plan for

o r g a n i z i n g i n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l t h a t h e l a t e r d e -

s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l i n h i s v o l u m e , T h e D u a l P r o g r e s s P l a n . 9 Stoddard

b e l i e v e s t h a t b o t h t h e g r a d e d s y s t e m a n d t h e s e l f - c o n t a i n e d c l a s s -

r o o m f a i l t o e m p l o y e f f e c t i v e l y w h a t i s k n o w n a b o u t c h i l d d e v e l o p -

m e n t , i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , l e a r n i n g , a n d t e a c h i n g . He believes

a l s o t h a t t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m t h e y c a l l f o r i s n o t i n h a r m o n y

w i t h s o c i e t a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f e d u c a t i o n . T o r e m e d y t h i s s i t u a t i o n ,

h e o f f e r s a p l a n t h a t r e j e c t s o r m o d i f i e s e a c h o f t h e f o u r m a i n f e a -

t u r e s o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l p l a n f o r o r g a n i z i n g t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l

-the grade-level curriculum, grade-level placement and advance-

m e n t , t h e g e n e r a l e l e m e n t a r y t e a c h e r , a n d t h e g e n e r a l - p u r p o s e c l a s s -

r o o m .

I n d e s i g n i n g t h e d u a l - p r o g r e s s p l a n , S t o d d a r d s o u g h t t o i n s u r e

t h a t a l l p u p i l s a c c o m p l i s h t h e f u n d a m e n t a l l e a r n i n g s t h a t a r e r e -

quired for effective mem bership in American society . T h e s e " c u l -

t u r a l i m p e r a t i v e s " - r e a d i n g , w r i t i n g , a n d s p e a k i n g ; and know led g e

o f s o c i a l v a l u e s , i n s t i t u t i o n s , a n d b e h a v i o r - l i e , h e b e l i e v e s , i n t h e

a r e a s o f t h e l a n g u a g e a r t s a n d s o c i a l s t u d i e s . A l s o , S t o d d a r d d e s i r e d

t o g i v e f u l l r e c o g n i t i o n t o i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n a b i l i t i e s a n d i n -

t e r e s t s w i t h i n t h o s e o t h e r a r e a s o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m i n w h i c h s o c i e t y

p e r m i t s a r a n g e o f a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s , d e p e n d i n g o n p u p i l s ' t a l e n t s

a n d p r e f e r e n c e s . T h e s e " c u l t u r a l e l e c t i v e s " h e c o n s i d e r s t o b e m a t h -

8 . G o o d l a d a n d A n d e r s o n , o p . c i t . , pp. 4 9 - 5 3 -

9 . G e o r g e D . S t o d d a r d , " N e w W a y s t o R e a c h t h e M i n d o f t h e C h i l d , " i n

E d u c a t i o n 2000 A . D . , p p . 1 4 1 - 6 4 ( E d i t e d b y C . W . H u n n i c ut t . S y r a c u se , N e w

Y o r k : S y r a c u s e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 6 ) ; T he D u a l P r o g r e s s P l a n ( N e w Y o r k :

H a r p e r & R o w , 1 9 6 1 ) .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 124/327

HEATHERS 115

e m a t i c s ( a s i d e f r o m t h e e s s e n t i a l a r i t h m e t i c s k i l l s ) , s c i e n c e , a r t , a n d

music . Further, Stoddard sought a plan that would provide each

p u p i l i n e a c h c u r r i c u l a r a r e a w i t h a t e a c h e r w h o k n o w s h i s s u b j e c t

w e l l , e n j o y s t e a c h i n g i t , a n d k n o w s h o w t o t e a c h i t t o y o u n g c h i l -

dren . F i n a l l y , h e w i s h e d t o o f f e r t h e p u p i l a n e m o t i o n a l - s o c i a l h o m e

b a s e , a s e t t i n g w h e r e h e r e m a i n s w i t h o n e t e a c h e r a n d o n e g r o u p o f

h i s a g e - m a t e s f o r a m a j o r p a r t o f t h e s c h o o l d a y . T h e p l a n d e v i s e d

by Stoddard to meet these requirements is semidepartm entalized,

employs the g rad ed system with a part of the curricu l u m and a

nongraded system with the remainder, and utilizes full-time spe-

c i a l i s t - t e a c h e r s w i t h i n e a c h c u r r i c u l a r a r e a .

D u a l p r o g r e s s r e f e r s t o t w o d i s t i n c t b a s e s f o r a p u p i l ' s a d v a n c e -

m e n t a t s c h o o l . I n t h e l a n g u a g e a r t s - s o c i a l s t u d i e s c u r r i c u l u m a r e a ,

t h e p l a n c a l l s f o r t e a c h i n g a s i n t h e u s u a l g r a d e d s y s t e m . P u p i l s a r e

a s s i g n e d t o g r a d e - l e v e l g r o u p s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i n t h i s " c o r e " s e g m e n t

of the curriculum and are promoted to the next grade when they

h a v e s a t i s f i e d t h e b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e g r a d e - l e v e l c u r r i c u l u m

i n t h e s e s u b j e c t s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i n t h e a r e a s o f m a t h e m a t i c s ,

s c i e n c e , m u s i c , a n d a r t , p u p i l s a r e t a u g h t o n a n o n g r a d e d b a s i s . For

i n s t r u c t i o n i n e a c h o f t h e s e a r e a s , p u p i l s a r e a s s i g n e d t o g r o u p s o n

t h e b a s e s o f a c h i e v e m e n t a n d a b i l i t y w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o g r a d e l e v e l .

T h e p l a n p r o v i d e s s i x m a j o r c a t e g o r i e s o f s p e c i a l i s t - t e a c h e r s

s e r v i n g t h e a r e a s o f l a n g u a g e a r t s - s o c i a l s t u d i e s , p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n ,

m a t h e m a t i c s , s c i e n c e , a r t , a n d m u s i c . T h e r e m a y b e a d d i t i o n a l s p e -

c i a l i s t - t e a c h e r s o f f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e , r e a d i n g , s p e e c h , a n d i n s t r u m e n -

t a l m u s i c . E a c h t e a c h e r i s p r o v i d e d w i t h a c l a s s r o o m e q u i p p e d a s a

l a b o r a t o r y o r s t u d i o f o r h i s c u r r i c u l a r a r e a .

I n t h e d u a l - p r o g r e s s p l a n , a p u p i l s p e n d s a l m o s t h a l f o f t h e s c h o o l

d a y , m o r n i n g o r a f t e r n o o n , r e c e i v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n i n l a n g u a g e a r t s -

s o c i a l s t u d i e s w i t h o n e s p e c i a l i s t - t e a c h e r . D u r i n g t h e s a m e h a l f d a y ,

h e h a s a p e r i o d o f p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n w i t h t h e t e a c h e r o f t h a t a r e a .

D u r i n g t h e o t h e r h a l f d a y , h e p r o c e e d s f r o m r o o m t o r o o m , c l a s s t o

c l a s s , a n d t e a c h e r t o t e a c h e r f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e n o n g r a d e d s u b -

j e c t s .

T E A M T E A C H ING

D e s c r i b i n g t e a m t e a c h i n g i s m a d e d i f f i c u l t b y t h e f a c t t h a t e d u -

c a t o r s d i s a g r e e o n t h e v a r i e t i e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s t o i n c l u d e

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 125/327

1 1 6 SC HO O L ORG ANIZATI ON

under the term . S h a p l i n ' s d e f i n i t i o n i s a s f o l l o w s : "Team teaching

i s a t y p e o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , i n v o l v i n g t e a c h i n g p e r s o n n e l

and the students assigned to them in whic h two or more teachers

a r e g i v e n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r , f o r a l l o r a s i g n i f i c a n t

p a r t o f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s a m e g r o u p o f s t u d e n t s . " 1 0 G o o d l a d

a n d R e h a g e w o u l d a d d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a t t e a m t e a c h i n g i n v o l v e

h i e r a r c h y o f p e r s o n n e l , d i f f e r e n t i a l s t a f f f u n c t i o n s , a n d f l e x i b l e

grouping . " A n d e r s o n s p e c i f i e s t h a t t e a m t e a c h i n g m u s t i n v o l v e c o -

operation among team members in planning, conducti ng, and eval-

u a t i n g i n s t r u c t i o n . 1 2 W ood ring , however, notes that the actual

t e a c h i n g o r d i n a r i l y i s d o n e b y i n d i v i d u a l t e a c h e r s r a t h e r t h a n b y

t h e t e a m a n d s u g g e s t s t h a t " t e a m o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d p l a n n i n g " w o u l d

b e a b e t t e r d e s c r i p t i v e l a b e l t h a n t e a m t e a c h i n g . 1 3

I n t h e p a g e s t h a t f o l l o w , S h a p l i n ' s g e n e r a l d e f i n i t i o n w i l l b e u s e d .

This definition excludes a common form of teacher collaboration

when two teachers trade of f, each teaching one part of the cur-

r i c u l u m t o b o t h o f t h e i r c l a s s e s . O r d i n a r i l y , t h i s s o r t o f c o l l a b o r a -

t i o n i s a n i n s t a n c e o f d e p a r t m e n t a l i z a t i o n s i n c e e a c h o f t h e t w o

t e a c h e r s r e t a i n s f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s c l a s s a n d j o i n t p l a n n i n g

and evaluation do not occur .

T h e t e a m - t e a c h i n g p l a n s t h a t f a l l u n d e r S h a p l i n ' s d e f i n i t i o n a r e

d i v e r s e a n d r e f l e c t a d i v e r s i t y o f p u r p o s e s . M o s t g e n e r a l l y , t h e p l a n s

a r e i n t e n d e d t o b e n e f i t t h e s c h o o l i n r e l a t i o n t o o n e o r m o r e o f t h e

f o l l o w i n g : t h e a c a d e m i c q u a l i t y o f i n s t r u c t i o n ; t h e i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n

o f i n s t r u c t i o n ; e f f i c i e n c y o r e c o n o m y i n t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f s t a f f ,

l e a r n i n g m a t e r i a l s , s p a c e , a n d e q u i p m e n t ; s t a f f r e c r u i t m e n t a n d r e -

t e n t i o n ; a n d s t a f f m o r a l e .

i o . J u d s o n T . S h a p l i n , " D e s c r i p t i o n a n d D e f i n i t i o n o f T e a m T e a c h i n g , " i n

Tea m Teaching , p . 1 5 . E d ite d b y J u d s o n T . S h a p l i n a n d H e n r y F . O l d s , J r .

Ne w Yo r k : Harper & Row , 1 9 6 4 .

i i . J o h n I . Goodlad and Kenneth Rehage, "Unscrambling the Vocabula ry

o f S c h o o l O r g a n i z a t i o n , " NEA Jou rna l, LI (Novem ber, 1 9 6 2 ) , 3 4 - 3 6 .

1 2 . R o b e r t H . A n d e r s o n , " T e a m T e a c h i n g , " NEA Journa l, L ( M a r c h , 1 9 6 1 ) ,

5 2 - 5 4 .

1 3 . P a u l W o o d r i n g , " R e f o r m M o v e m e n t s f r o m t h e P o i n t o f V i e w o f

P s y c h o l o g i c a l T h e o r y , " i n T h e o r i e s o f L e a r n i n g a n d I n s t r u c t i o n , p . 2 9 2 . S i x t y -

t h i r d Y e a r b o o k o f t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r t h e S t u d y o f E d u c a t i o n , P a r t I .

Chicago : D i s t r i b u t e d b y t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 1 9 6 4 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 126/327

HEATHERS 11 7

I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o o f f e r a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f t e a m - t e a c h i n g

p l a n s t h a t d o e s j u s t i c e t o t h e i r g r e a t v a r i e t y . T h e r e a d e r w h o i s i n -

t e r e s t e d i n d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t s o f t e a m t e a c h i n g s h o u l d t u r n t o t h e

c o n t e n t s a n d b i b l i o g r a p h i e s o f t h e b o o k s w r i t t e n o r e d i t e d b y B e g g s , 1 4

Bair and Woodward, 1 ' a n d S h a p l i n a n d O l d s . 1 6 The present account

i s m e a n t m e r e l y t o h i g h l i g h t f e a t u r e s o f t e a m t e a c h i n g w i t h s p e c i a l

a t t e n t i o n g i v e n t o h i e r a r c h i c a l t e a m s .

T h e p u p i l g r o u p i n t e a m t e a c h i n g n o r m a l l y i s t w o o r m o r e t i m e s

l a r g e r t h a n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l c l a s s g r o u p , r a n g i n g f r o m 5 0 o r 6 o p u -

p i l s t o a s m a n y a s 2 5 0 i n t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l a n d 4 00 i n t h e s e c -

ond ary school . M o s t e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l t e a m s t e a c h a l l t h e p u p i l s

o f o n e g r a d e l e v e l , o r o f t w o o r t h r e e a d j a c e n t g r a d e l e v e l s , a n d

e n c o m p a s s a l l a r e a s o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m . Secondary-school tea ms most

o f t e n i n v o l v e e i t h e r o n e c u r r i c u l u m a r e a o r t w o r e l a t e d a r e a s . At

t h e c o l l e g e l e v e l , a n u m b e r o f p r o g r a m s o r g a n i z e c e r t a i n t e a c h e r -

e d u c a t i o n c o u r s e s u n d e r f a c u l t y t e a m s .

While a team may have only two staff members, most have three

o r m o r e , a n d t h e l a r g e s t t e a m s h a v e a s m a n y a s t e n . Some teams are

c o m p o s e d o f e q u a l - s t a t u s t e a c h e r s p l a y i n g s i m i l a r r o l e s . Many pro-

v i d e a h i e r a r c h y o f p o s i t i o n s a n d a d i v e r s i t y o f r o l e s . I n s o m e s c h o o l

systems-Norwalk, Connecticut, for example-a teacher aide is used

o n a t e a m i n l i e u o f a c e r t i f i e d t e a c h e r a n d t h e s a l a r y s a v i n g i s u s e d

t o p r o v i d e s a l a r y i n c r e m e n t s f o r t h e t e a m l e a d e r a n d t h e " c o - o p e r a t -

i n g t e a c h e r s . "1 7

I n t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l t e a m , s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f r o l e u s u a l l y a p p l i e s t o

a l l m e m b e r s o f t h e t e a m . T h e t e a m l e a d e r a s s u m e s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r

co-ordinating team functions in planning and conducting instruc-

t i o n , f o r p r i n c i p a l - t e a m l i a i s o n , a n d f o r t e a c h e r - e d u c a t i o n f u n c t i o n s

w i t h i n t h e t e a m . H e m a y b e r e l i e v e d o f p a r t o f t h e n o r m a l t e a c h i n g

1 4 . Team Teaching-Bold Ne w V e n t u r e . E d i t e d b y D a v i d WB e g g s .

I n d i a n a p o l i s , I n d i a n a : U n i f i e d C o l l e g e P r e s s , I n c . , 1 9 6 4 .

1 5 . M e d i l l B a i r an d R ichar d G . Woodwar d, T e a m T e a c h i n g i n A c t i o n .

B o s t o n : H o u g h t o n M i f f l i n C o . , 1 9 6 4 .

1 6 . T e a m T e a c h i n g . E d ite d b y J u d s o n T . S h a p l i n a n d H e n r y F . O l d s , J r .

Ne w Yo r k : Harper & Row, 1 9 6 4 .

1 7 . T h e N o r w a l k P l a n o f T e a m T e a c h i n g , T h i r d R e p o r t , p . 3 6 . Norwal k ,

C o n n e c t i c u t : N o r w a l k B o a r d o f E d u c a t i o n , 1 9 6 1 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 127/327

1 1 8 SC HO OL O RG ANI ZATI O N

l o a d t o p r o v i d e t i m e f o r h i s s p e c i a l d u t i e s . Teachers on t he team

u s u a l l y s p e c i a l i z e i n o n e a r e a o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m . At the seco ndary

l e v e l , t e a c h e r s m a y d e v e l o p s p e c i a l t i e s w i t h i n o n e s u b j e c t , s u c h a s

E n g l i s h o r h i s t o r y . T e a c h e r s a l s o m a y s p e c i a l i z e i n l a r g e - g r o u p i n -

s t r u c t i o n , t e l e v i s i o n l e c t u r i n g , o r t e a c h i n g w i t h p r o g r a m e d m a t e r i -

a l s . T e a c h e r a i d e s o r c l e r k s r e l i e v e t e a c h e r s o f s u c h n o n p r o f e s s i o n a l

d u t i e s a s t a k i n g a t t e n d a n c e , s u p e r v i s i n g s t u d y g r o u p s , p r e p a r i n g m a -

t e r i a l s a n d e q u i p m e n t , k e e p i n g r e c o r d s , t y p i n g r e p o r t s , a n d s o o n .

S o m e t e a m - t e a c h i n g p r o g r a m s m a k e e x t e n s i v e u s e o f t e a c h e r

i n t e r n s . Th e W i s c o n s i n I m p r o v e m e n t P r o g r a m , f o r e x a m p l e , e m -

p l o y s o n e o r m o r e i n t e r n s - i n - t r a i n i n g e a c h s e m e s t e r a s a s s i s t a n t s t o

team teachers . T h e i n t e r n s r e c e i v e a p p r o x i m a t e l y h a l f - s a l a r y . The

i n t e r n s h i p i s p a r t o f a p r o g r a m a t t h e m a s t e r ' s l e v e l a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y

of Wisconsin .1 8

A s a l i e n t f e a t u r e o f m a n y t e a m - t e a c h i n g p r o g r a m s i s f l e x i b i l i t y

i n g r o u p i n g , i n s c h e d u l i n g , a n d i n t h e u s e s m a d e o f s p a c e a n d e q u i p -

m e n t . In both elementa ry and secondary school s, group size is

changed from very large to very smal l, depending on the subject

m a t t e r b e i n g p r e s e n t e d a n d t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p u p i l s a s l e a r n e r s .

Teachers may also work with individual students . In some team-

t e a c h i n g p r o g r a m s , s t r e s s i s p l a c e d o n i n d e p e n d e n t s t u d y , p e r h a p s

w i t h t h e u s e o f p r o g r a m e d m a t e r i a l s , t a p e s , o r f i l m s t r i p s . I n c r e a s -

ingly, nongrading accompanies team teaching . Many teams include

p u p i l s d r a w n f r o m m o r e t h a n o n e g r a d e o r a g e l e v e l . F l e x i b l e

g r o u p i n g f a c i l i t a t e s s e t t i n g u p m u l t i a g e g r o u p s f o r n o n g r a d e d i n -

s t r u c t i o n .

L a r g e - g r o u p i n s t r u c t i o n , i t s h o u l d b e n o t e d , c o n t r i b u t e s i n a

major way to program flexibility . D u r i n g p e r i o d s i n w h i c h o n e

teacher instruct s a large group, other team members are freed to

w o r k w i t h s m a l l g r o u p s o r w i t h i n d i v i d u a l p u p i l s , o r f o r p l a n n i n g

o r c o n f e r e n c e s . T e a c h e r s m a y b e m a d e a v a i l a b l e f o r s u c h a c t i v i t i e s

also when pupils study independently or under the supervision of

t e a c h e r a i d e s .

I n s o m e t e a m - t e a c h i n g p r o g r a m s , i n s t r u c t i o n a l t i m e p e r s u b j e c t

i 8 . Making Teaching and Learning Bett er : T h e W i s c o n s i n I m p r o v e m e n t

P r o g r a m , 1 9 5 9 - 1 9 6 1 . M a d i s on , W i s consin : W i s consin I m p r o ve m e n t Prog ra m ,

1 9 6 2 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 128/327

H E A T H E R S 1 1 9

i s v a r i e d t o m e e t t h e l e a r n i n g n e e d s o f d i f f e r e n t p u p i l s . Trump rec-

o m m e n d s t h a t a s m u c h a s o n e - t h i r d o f t h e h i g h - s c h o o l p u p i l ' s t i m e

s h o u l d b e f l e x i b l e , t o p e r m i t i t s u s e f o r t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s t h a t b e s t s u i t

h i s i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n i n g n e e d s a n d i n t e r e s t s . 1 9

A h i g h l y v i s i b l e a s p e c t o f m a n y t e a m - t e a c h i n g p r o g r a m s i s t h e i r

departure from the usual "egg-crate" arrangem ent of school space

i n t o s t a n d a r d - s i z e d c l a s s r o o m s . S c h o o l s d e s i g n e d o r m o d i f i e d t o a c -

c o m m o d a t e t e a m t e a c h i n g p r o v i d e " l e a r n i n g s p a c e " f o r l a r g e - g r o u p ,

s m a l l - g r o u p , a n d i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n i n g , i n p a r t t h r o u g h s l i d i n g o r f o l d -

i n g p a r t i t i o n s t h a t m a k e t h e u s e o f s p a c e f l e x i b l e . 2 0

T eam teaching involves team work in planning and cond ucting

i n s t r u c t i o n . The amount and types of team work vary greatly fro m

one team project to another . M o s t t e a m w o r k o c c u r s i n p l a n n i n g

r a t h e r t h a n i n c o n d u c t i n g i n s t r u c t i o n . T h e b u l k o f t e a c h i n g i s p e r -

formed by individual teachers . F u r t h e r , m o s t p l a n n i n g o f i n s t r u c -

t i o n i n a g i v e n c u r r i c u l u m a r e a i s d o n e b y t h e o n e o r t w o t e a c h e r s

w h o s p e c i a l i z e i n t h a t a r e a . W h o l e - t e a m p l a n n i n g i s m a i n l y a m a t t e r

o f s e t t i n g u p t h e o v e r - a l l t e a m s c h e d u l e , s h a r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t

pupils needed for diagnosis and lesson planning, and making the

needed arrangements for uses of space, equipment, and learning

m a t e r i a l s .

F o r c e s a n d I d e a s R e s h a p i n g S c h o o l O r g a n i z a t i o n

The development and reception of new pla ns for organizing the

s c h o o l s a r e i n p a r t o u t g r o w t h s o f g r e a t s o c i e t a l f o r c e s t h a t a r e i m -

p o s i n g c h a n g e s o n a l l o u r i n s t i t u t i o n s , n o t a b l y s u c h f o r c e s a s c h a n g e s

i n j o b r e q u i r e m e n t s , m o u n t i n g u n e m p l o y m e n t , r a p i d p o p u l a t i o n

g r o w t h , a n d t h e c i v i l - r i g h t s r e v o l u t i o n . Th e r o u t e s a l o n g w h i c h

t h e s e f o r c e s h a v e c o m e t o b e a r o n s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t e n a r e i n -

d i r e c t , a n d a t t e m p t s t o t r a c e t h e m a r e b a s e d , n e c e s s a r i l y , o n c o n -

s i d e r a b l e s p e c u l a t i o n .

T h e n a t i o n ' s c o n c e r n s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e f u l l u t i l i z a t i o n o f t a l e n t

h a v e a b e a r i n g o n s c h o o l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n . T o i m p r o v e a n d h a s t e n t h e

i q . J . Ll o y d T r u m p a n d D o r s e y B a y n h a m , Focus on Change : Gu ide to

B e t t e r S c h o o l s , p p .5 3 - 5 7 .

Chicago : Rand McNally & Co . , 1 9 6 1 .

z o . C y r i l G . S a r g e n t , " T h e O r g a n i z a t i o n o f S p a c e , " i n Team Teaching,

o p . c i t . , chap . v i i .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 129/327

1 2 0 S C H O O L O R G AN IZAT I ON

education of talented young people, advanced placement programs

h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t e n a b l e g i f t e d h i g h - s c h o o l s t u d e n t s t o u n -

d e r t a k e c o l l e g e - l e v e l w o r k . These programs im pose strains on the

c o n v e n t i o n a l p a t t e r n s o f h i g h - s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n , s i n c e t h e y c a l l

for nongrading and provisions for independent study .

C o n c e r n s a b o u t t h e e d u c a t i o n a l l y d i s a d v a n t a g e d , l i k e w i s e , a r e

i n f l u e n c e s t o w a r d s c h o o l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n . Programs, such as New

Yo r k C i t y ' s H i g h e r H o r i z o n s a n d v a r i o u s p r o g r a m s d e s i g n e d t o

reduce the number of high-school dropouts, are challenging con-

v e n t i o n a l p l a n s o f s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t m a k e l i m i t e d p r o v i s i o n s

f o r d e a l i n g w i t h s p e c i a l g r o u p s o f s t u d e n t s . Th e g r e a t m o v e m e n t

t o i n t e g r a t e t h e n a t i o n ' s s c h o o l s p r o b a b l y w i l l i n f l u e n c e s c h o o l o r -

g a n i z a t i o n . The problem which this m ovement poses to those wh o

organize the schools is how to teach both the privileged and the

disadvantaged in the same school without d e f a c t o s e g r e g a t i o n i n

g r o u p i n g f o r i n s t r u c t i o n a n d o n t h e b a s i s o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r t a u g h t .

S o c i e t a l f o r c e s a r e h a v i n g a n i n d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e o n s c h o o l r e o r -

g a n i z a t i o n b y l e a d i n g t o a n e w f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e e s s e n t i a l g o a l s o f

e d u c a t i o n . Reform spokesm en have developed a conce ption of the

e d u c a t i o n t h a t i s n e e d e d t o p r e p a r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l f o r e f f e c t i v e m e m -

b e r s h i p i n a s o c i e t y c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y r a p i d a n d u n p r e d i c t a b l e c h a n g e .

T h e n e e d i s f o r e d u c a t i o n f o r a d a p t a b i l i t y , t h a t p l a c e s i t s e m p h a s e s

o n s t u d e n t s l e a r n i n g t h e t h e o r i e s o f t h e a c a d e m i c d i s c i p l i n e s , o n

p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g t h i n k i n g , a n d o n d e v e l o p i n g s k i l l s o f i n d e p e n d e n t

study .

T h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e n e w c o n c e p t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n o n s c h o o l o r -

ganization is being mediated by the development of new curricu la

in mathematics and science . T h e s e c u r r i c u l a r e q u i r e t h a t t e a c h e r s

u n d e r s t a n d , a n d b e a b l e t o t e a c h , t h e o r y a n d m e t h o d s o f i n q u i r y i n

t h e s e d i s c i p l i n e s . S i n c e m a n y o f t o d a y ' s t e a c h e r s d o n o t m e e t s u c h

r e q u i r e m e n t s , n e w p a t t e r n s f o r d e p l o y i n g t e a c h e r s a r e b e i n g r e s o r t e d

t o a s o n e w a y o f i m p r o v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e t w o s u b j e c t s .

S o c i e t a l f o r c e s a r e h a v i n g a r e l a t i v e l y d i r e c t i m p a c t o n s c h o o l

o r g a n i z a t i o n i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e n e w m e d i a o f i n s t r u c t i o n . S c i -

e n t i f i c a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l a d v a n c e s t h a t p r o d u c e d t e l e v i s i o n , m a g n e t i c

t a p e s , a n d e l e c t r o n i c c o m p u t e r s a r e l e a d i n g t o e d u c a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n ,

l e s s o n s o n t a p e s , a n d c o m p u t e r - b a s e d i n s t r u c t i o n . T h e s e m e d i a , i n

t u r n , a r e s t i m u l a t i n g c e r t a i n c h a n g e s i n s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t i n -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 130/327

H E A T H E R S 1 2 1

v o l v e t h e r e d e p l o y m e n t o f p u p i l s a n d t e a c h e r s . O t h e r t e c h n o l o g i c a l

a d v a n c e s w i t h i n e d u c a t i o n t h a t a r e a f f e c t i n g s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e

p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n t h a t c a l l s f o r s e t t i n g s f o r i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n -

ing and new designs for school buildings to accommodate schedule

modifications, such as those employed in the Trump Plan for the

h i g h s c h o o l .

S o m e o f t h e i n f l u e n c e s l e a d i n g t o s c h o o l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n a r i s e

f r o m d e v e l o p m e n t s i n b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e . I n o f f e r i n g a r a t i o n a l e f o r

n o n g r a d i n g , G o o d l a d a n d A n d e r s o n r e f e r t o f i n d i n g s f r o m i n v e s t i g a -

t i o n s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s , l e a r n i n g , a n d p e r s o n a l i t y d e v e l o p m e n t

that support the nongraded concept .2 1

B r u n e r ' s b o o k , The Process

o f E d u c a t i o n , r e p o r t s t h e d e l i b e r a t i o n s o f a c o n f e r e n c e t h a t e x a m -

i n e d p r i n c i p l e s o f b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e i n t h e i r r e l e v a n c e t o e d u c a t i o n a l

p r a c t i c e . 2 2 W h i l e t h i s r e p o r t i s m o r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o c u r r i c u l u m ,

i t h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r s u c h o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s a s n o n g r a d i n g

a n d s p e c i a l i s t t e a c h i n g .

Certain developments within education during the past two or

t h r e e d e c a d e s h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o a r e a d i n e s s i n t h e s c h o o l s f o r o r -

g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a n g e . Goodlad and Anderson present evidence that

indicates that, by 1950, many elementar y educators were becoming

discouraged about the prospect of taking proper account of pupil

d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n t h e g r a d e d s y s t e m . 2 3 H u n d r e d s o f r e s e a r c h s t u d -

i e s h a d f a i l e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e e f f e c t i v e w a y s o f a c c o m m o d a t i n g t h e s e

d i f f e r e n c e s t h r o u g h s u c h d e v i c e s a s w i t h i n - g r a d e g r o u p i n g a n d p r o -

m o t i o n o r n o n p r o m o t i o n . 2 4 A l s o , t h e r e h a v e b e e n s i g n s o f a g r o w -

i n g d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e s e l f - c o n t a i n e d c l a s s r o o m . For exampl e,

A c ke r l u n d r e p o r t e d i n1959 that most elementary teachers of

Grades III-VI in one large urban school system were opposed to

t h e s e l f - c o n t a i n e d c l a s s r o o m . M a n y o f t h e s e t e a c h e r s r e p o r t e d t h a t

t h e y d i s l i k e d t e a c h i n g c e r t a i n s u b j e c t s , a n d t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e m

2 r . G o o d l a d a n d An d e r s o n , o p . c i t . , chaps . i i i a n d v .

2 2 . Jerome S . B r u n e r , T he P r o c e s s o f Education . Cambridge, Massachusetts :

H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 1 .

2 3 . Goodlad and Anderson, o p . C i t . , p .2 0 5 -

24 -

I b i d . , p p . 3 4 - 3 9 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 131/327

1 2 2 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION

f e l t t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t w e l l p r e p a r e d t o t e a c h r e a d i n g , h i s t o r y ,

g e o g r a p h y , s c i e n c e , a r t , a n d m u s i c . 2 5

The rapid growth of the school populati on, together with a

n a t i o n a l s h o r t a g e o f w e l l - t r a i n e d t e a c h e r s , i s a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n

the growing receptivity of school leaders to new organizational

p l a n s . Many school ad ministrators, b eset with prob lem s of the

b u d g e t a n d o f s t a f f i n g t h e i r s c h o o l s , a r e a t t r a c t e d t o p l a n s t h a t

p r o m i s e t o a i d i n t e a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t a n d r e t e n t i o n , o r t h a t p r o m i s e

t o u t i l i z e t e a c h e r s ' s k i l l s m o r e e f f i c i e n t l y .

We turn now to examine the relations that the three types of

n e w o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n s b e a r t o t h e f o r c e s a n d i d e a s o u t l i n e d i n t h e

foregoing paragraphs . It appears that the movement to nongrade

t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l h a s a r i s e n m o r e f r o m e v e n t s o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n

e d u c a t i o n , l e s s f r o m s o c i e t a l c h a n g e s o u t s i d e e d u c a t i o n , t h a n h a s

b e e n t h e c a s e w i t h t h e d u a l - p r o g r e s s p l a n o r t e a m t e a c h i n g . To a

m a r k e d e x t e n t , t h e t r e n d t o w a r d n o n g r a d i n g r e s u l t s f r o m e d u c a t o r s '

f a i l u r e s t o s o l v e p r o b l e m s r a i s e d b y i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n

the graded system .

T h r o u g h i t s p r o v i s i o n s f o r d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e s o f p r o g r e s s , n o n -

grading can help meet the special educational needs of talented

s t u d e n t s , s l o w l e a r n e r s , a n d t h e e d u c a t i o n a l l y d i s a d v a n t a g e d . B y

f r e e i n g t a l e n t e d s t u d e n t s f r o m t h e s h a c k l e s o f t h e g r a d e d s y s t e m ,

n o n g r a d i n g a l l o w s t h e m t o p r o g r e s s m o r e r a p i d l y t o w a r d a c h i e v i n g

t h e i r p o t e n t i a l . Through removing grade labels and through elim-

inating annual promotio n or nonpromoti on, a nongraded program

l e s s o f t e n s t i g m a t i z e s t h e r e t a r d e d o r s l o w l e a r n e r . I t s e e m s l i k e l y

t h a t n o n g r a d i n g w i l l b e r e s o r t e d t o i n c r e a s i n g l y i n r a c i a l l y i n t e -

grated schools as a means of dealing with the incre ased range of

i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a n d w i t h t h e e m o t i o n a l - s o c i a l a s p e c t s o f i n t e -

g r a t e d s c h o o l i n g .

O n e i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t t h a t n o n g r a d i n g c a n h a v e o n t h e q u a l i t y o f

l e a r n i n g i s t o i n s u r e t h a t a l l l e a r n e r s a c h i e v e t h e e s s e n t i a l g o a l s o f

e a c h u n i t o f s t u d y b e f o r e a d v a n c i n g t o t h e n e x t . T h i s w o u l d b e e x -

p e c t e d t o r e d u c e p u p i l s ' e x p e r i e n c e s o f f a i l u r e a t s c h o o l , i n s u r e

r e a d i n e s s f o r h i g h e r l e v e l s o f w o r k , a n d m i n i m i z e t h e n e e d f o r r e m e -

2 5 . G e o r g e A c k e r l u n d , " S o m e T e a c h e r V i e w s o n t h e S e l f - c o n t a i n e d C l a s s -

r o o m , " P h i D e l t a K a p p an , XL( A p r i l , 1 9 5 9 ) , 2 8 3 - 8 5 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 132/327

HEATHERS 1 2 3

d i a l i n s t r u c t i o n . I n o r d e r t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e s e p u r p o s e s o f n o n g r a d e d

p r o g r a m s , i n c r e a s e d a t t e n t i o n t o d i a g n o s i n g s t u d e n t s ' l e a r n i n g n e e d s

a n d a b i l i t i e s i s r e q u i r e d .

At Melbourne High School (Florida), according to Brow n's re-

p o r t , i n d e p e n d e n t l e a r n i n g i s s t r e s s e d , a n d s y s t e m a t i c e f f o r t s a r e

m a d e t o i m p r o v e s t u d e n t s ' c o m p e t e n c i e s i n s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n . 2 6 This

e m p h a s i s o n i n d e p e n d e n t l e a r n i n g i s c l e a r l y r e l a t e d t o t h e n e w c o n -

c e p t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n f o r a d a p t a b i l i t y . A l s o , i m p r o v e d s e l f - i n s t r u c -

t i o n l e a d s t o u t i l i z i n g t e a c h e r s m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y s i n c e , w h e n s t u d e n t s

l e a r n i n d e p e n d e n t l y , t e a c h e r s m a y u s e t h e i r t i m e f o r p l a n n i n g , f o r

c o n f e r e n c e s , o r f o r g u i d i n g t h e l e a r n i n g o f s t u d e n t s e i t h e r i n d i v i d -

u a l l y o r i n s m a l l g r o u p s .

T h e d u a l - p r o g r e s s p l a n r e p r e s e n t s a d e l i b e r a t e a t t e m p t t o g e a r

t h e s c h o o l ' s p r o g r a m t o s o c i e t a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o r e x p e c t a t i o n s o f e d -

u c a t i o n . T h u s , t h e g r a d e d s y s t e m i s u s e d w i t h t h e c u l t u r a l i m p e r a -

t i v e s t o e n s u r e t h a t a l l p u p i l s m a s t e r t h e r e q u i r e d l e a r n i n g s i n l a n -

g u a g e a r t s a n d s o c i a l s t u d i e s . S t o d d a r d r e c o g n i z e s t h a t m a t h e m a t i c s

a n d s c i e n c e a r e b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y v i t a l i n o u r s o c i e t y . T h e d u a l -

progress plan, by placing mathem atics and science on a nongraded

b a s i s , g i v e s t a l e n t e d p u p i l s f u l l e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o d e v e l o p t h e i r c a -

p a b i l i t i e s i n t h e s e s u b j e c t s w h i l e f r e e i n g l e s s c a p a b l e p u p i l s o f t h e

r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t t h e y s t u d y t h e s e s u b j e c t s a t a d v a n c e d l e v e l s .

T o s t r e n g t h e n i n s t r u c t i o n i n b o t h i m p e r a t i v e s a n d e l e c t i v e s , t h e

d u a l - p r o g r e s s p l a n p r o v i d e s s p e c i a l i s t - t e a c h e r s o f e a c h c u r r i c u l a r

a r e a . T h i s f e a t u r e o f t h e p l a n i s o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e

t e a c h i n g o f m a t h e m a t i c s a n d s c i e n c e , a r e a s i n w h i c h m o s t g e n e r a l

e l e m e n t a r y t e a c h e r s h a v e l i t t l e p r e p a r a t i o n o r s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t .

S t o d d a r d b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e p l a n o f u s i n g s p e c i a l i s t - t e a c h e r s i n t h e

e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l w i l l h e l p d e a l w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e n a t i o n a l

s h o r t a g e o f t e a c h e r s . F o r o n e t h i n g , i t m a y u t i l i z e t e a c h e r s ' s t r e n g t h s

m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y t h a n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l p l a n . F o r a n o t h e r , t h e p r o -

p o s e d p l a n m a y o f f e r e l e m e n t a r y t e a c h e r s m o r e d e s i r a b l e c a r e e r s ,

t h e r e b y a t t r a c t i n g a b l e r p e o p l e i n t o e l e m e n t a r y t e a c h i n g a n d h o l d -

i n g s u p e r i o r t e a c h e r s l o n g e r .

T e a m - t e a c h i n g p l a n s h a v e t h e i r m o s t e v i d e n t r e l a t i o n s t o s o c i e t a l

z 6 . B r o w n , o p . c i t . , c h a p . v .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 133/327

1 2 4 S C H O O L O R G AN IZAT I ON

f o r c e s t h r o u g h t h e p r o v i s i o n s t h e y m a k e f o r d e a l i n g w i t h t h e n a -

t i o n a l s h o r t a g e o f w e l l - q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r s . T h e s e p r o v i s i o n s a r e d e -

s i g n e d t o m a k e m o r e e f f e c t i v e u s e o f t o d a y ' s t e a c h e r s , t o o f f e r t e a c h -

e r s m o r e a t t r a c t i v e c a r e e r s , a n d t o i m p r o v e t h e i n - s e r v i c e e d u c a t i o n

o f t e a c h e r s . T h e f e a t u r e s o f t e a m - t e a c h i n g p l a n s t h a t a r e m e a n t t o

i m p r o v e t e a c h e r u t i l i z a t i o n a r e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n c u r r i c u l a r a r e a s a n d

i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l s e t t i n g s ; t h e e m p l o y m e n t o f t e a c h e r a i d e s a n d c l e r k s

t o r e l i e v e t e a c h e r s o f n o n p r o f e s s i o n a l c h o r e s ; t h e u s e o f t e c h n o l o g i -

c a l a i d s s u c h a s T V , p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n , t a p e s , a n d o v e r h e a d

p r o j e c t o r s ; a n d t h e i n c r e a s e d e m p l o y m e n t o f p a r t - t i m e t e a c h e r s .

T h e s e a l l a r e w a y s o f s t r e t c h i n g o r f o c u s i n g t e a c h e r t a l e n t s t h a t a r e

i n s h o r t s u p p l y .

N e w c a r e e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t e a c h e r s i n c l u d e t h e r o l e s o f t e a m

l e a d e r a n d m a s t e r t e a c h e r . S a l a r y i n c r e m e n t s t h a t s o m e t e a m p l a n s

o f f e r a r e a d d e d a t t r a c t i o n s . T h e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f t h e t e a c h e r ' s p o s i -

t i o n i s e n h a n c e d a l s o b y t h e u s e o f n o n p r o f e s s i o n a l a i d e s , b y e n a b -

l i n g t e a c h e r s t o s p e c i a l i z e , a n d b y g i v i n g t e a c h e r s o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r

i n d i v i d u a l o r t e a m p l a n n i n g d u r i n g t h e s c h o o l d a y . P r o p o n e n t s o f

t e a m t e a c h i n g b e l i e v e t h a t t h e t e a m o f f e r s a s u p e r i o r s e t t i n g f o r t h e

i n - s e r v i c e e d u c a t i o n o f s t u d e n t t e a c h e r s a n d n e w l y c e r t i f i e d t e a c h e r s .

I f s o , t h i s m e a n s t h a t t e a m t e a c h i n g i s a w a y o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e

n a t i o n ' s c o m p l e m e n t o f b e g i n n i n g t e a c h e r s .

T e a m - t e a c h i n g p l a n s o f f e r e x c e p t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o p r o v i d e

f o r i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e a r n e r s t h r o u g h f l e x i b l e g r o u p i n g a n d

f l e x i b l e u s e s o f t e a c h e r s a n d o f l e a r n i n g r e s o u r c e s . W h e n n o n g r a d -

i n g i s e m p l o y e d w i t h i n a t e a m - t e a c h i n g p r o g r a m , p r o v i s i o n s f o r

a c c o m m o d a t i n g p u p i l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e e n h a n c e d .

M o r e t h a n o t h e r t y p e s o f n e w o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n s , t e a m t e a c h -

i n g h a s i n c o r p o r a t e d t h e n e w e d u c a t i o n a l t e c h n o l o g y . N u m e r o u s

s c h o o l s w i t h t e a m t e a c h i n g m a k e e x t e n s i v e u s e o f e d u c a t i o n a l T V ,

t a p e s , f i l m s t r i p s , a n d p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n .

I n d e v e l o p i n g , t e s t i n g , a n d i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e n e w o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

p l a n s , t h e s c h o o l - u n i v e r s i t y p a r t n e r s h i p h a s b e e n a m a j o r c o n t r i b -

u t o r . P a r t i c u l a r l y h a s t h i s b e e n t h e c a s e w i t h t h e d u a l - p r o g r e s s p l a n

a n d t e a m t e a c h i n g . S c h o o l - u n i v e r s i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n v o l v i n g t h e

E x p e r i m e n t a l T e a c h i n g C e n t e r a t N e w Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y h a v e b e e n

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 134/327

HEATHERS 125l a r g e l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r w o r k o n t h e d u a l - p r o g r e s s p l a n . 2 7 I n c o n -

n e c t i o n w i t h t e a m t e a c h i n g , H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f

W i s c o n s i n , C l a r e m o n t G r a d u a t e S c h o o l , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f H a w a i i ,

t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M a i n e , t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f O r e g o n , a n d o t h e r i n s t i -

t u t i o n s o f h i g h e r l e a r n i n g h a v e w o r k e d w i t h t h e s c h o o l s i n t h e i r

r e g i o n s . A p r o m i n e n t f e a t u r e o f p r o j e c t s t o d e v e l o p t h e d u a l - p r o g -

r e s s p l a n a n d t e a m t e a c h i n g h a s b e e n t h a t t e a c h e r - e d u c a t i o n p r o -

g r a m s c o n d u c t e d b y t h e p a r t i c i p a t i n g u n i v e r s i t i e s have prepared

t e a c h e r s f o r t h e i r r o l e s i n t h e p l a n s .

T o s u m u p , w e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e n e w o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n s b e a r

i m p o r t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o s o m e o f t h e s o c i e t a l f o r c e s a n d i d e a s t h a t

a r e r e s h a p i n g A m e r i c a n e d u c a t i o n . T h e c l e a r e s t r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e t o

t h e i n f l u e n c e s c a l l i n g f o r b e t t e r w a y s o f d e a l i n g w i t h d i f f e r e n c e s

a m o n g l e a r n e r s , f o r i m p r o v i n g t h e t e a c h i n g o f s c i e n c e a n d m a t h -

e m a t i c s , a n d f o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e e f f i c i e n c y w i t h w h i c h o u r s h o r t

s u p p l y o f w e l l - q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r s i s b e i n g e m p l o y e d .

I t i s e s s e n t i a l t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t n o n e o f t h e n e w p l a n s b e a r s d i -

r e c t l y o n i m p r o v i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f i n s t r u c t i o n t h r o u g h d e v e l o p m e n t

o f t e a c h i n g t h e o r y , p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g t h i n k i n g , a n d s k i l l s i n s e l f -

i n s t r u c t i o n . The primary routes toward such improvem ents a r e

t h r o u g h i n n o v a t i o n s i n c u r r i c u l u m a n d t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n . A t m o s t ,

a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n c a n p r o v i d e b e t t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r e m p l o y -

i n g c u r r i c u l a a n d t e a c h e r ' s c o m p e t e n c i e s t o g o o d e f f e c t . 2 8 P r o v i -

s i o n s o f p l a n s t h a t p r o v i d e f o r n o n g r a d i n g , f l e x i b l e s c h e d u l i n g a n d

g r o u p i n g , t h e u s e o f n e w l e a r n i n g m e d i a , t e a c h e r s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , a n d

t e a m w o r k , a l l c o n t r i b u t e t o w a r d t h a t e n d .

Theoretical Foundations o f t h e Ne w P l a n s

I n d e s c r i b i n g t h e t h r e e t y p e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n s , t h e i r p u r -

p o s e s w e r e i n d i c a t e d a n d t h e i r f e a t u r e s o u t l i n e d . P u r p o s e s s h o u l d

n o t b e c o n f u s e d w i t h t h e o r y . T h e t h e o r y u n d e r l y i n g a p l a n s h o u l d

b e a s y s t e m a t i c s e t o f a s s u m p t i o n s o r p r i n c i p l e s l i n k i n g t h e f e a t u r e s

2 7 . " T h r e e - Y e a r R e p o r t o f t h e E x p e r i m e n t a l T e a c h i n g C e n t e r , 1 9 5 8 - 6 1 . "

New York : E x p e r i m e n t a l T e a c h i n g C e n t e r , N e w Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y , N o v e m b e r

1 , 1 9 6 1 ( m i m e o g r a p h e d ) .

2 8 . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s m a t t e r a s r e l a t ed t o t e a m t e a c h i n g , s e e G l e n

H e a t h e r s , " T e a m T e a c h i n g a n d t h e E d u c a t i o n a l R e f o r m M o v e m e n t , " i n TeamT e a c h i n g , o p . c i t . , p p . 3 4 7 - 5 2 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 135/327

1 2 6 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION

o f t h e p l a n w i t h i t s i n t e n d e d o u t c o m e s . J u d g e d a g a i n s t t h i s c r i t e r i o n ,

n o n e o f t h e p l a n s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s b l e s s e d w i t h a n a d e q u a t e

b a s i s i n w e l l - f o r m u l a t e d t h e o r y . T h i s l a c k o f a f o u n d a t i o n i n t e s t e d

t h e o r y c h a r a c t e r i z e s e d u c a t i o n a l c h a n g e g e n e r a l l y . T h u s , c u r r i c u -

l u m t h e o r y a n d t h e o r y o f t e a c h i n g a r e i n e a r l y s t a g e s o f d e v e l o p -

m e n t .

T o s a y t h a t t h e n e w o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n s l a c k s y s t e m a t i c b a s e s

i n t h e o r y i s n o t t o s a y t h a t t h e y a r e d e v o i d o f t h e o r y . I n f a c t , e a c h

of the plans rests on a number of theoretical assumptions, often

i m p l i e d r a t h e r t h a n s t a t e d . T h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s m e r i t s

examination .

The basic assumption s underlying nongrading are that learning

e f f e c t i v e n e s s , m o t i v a t i o n t o l e a r n , a n d m e n t a l h e a l t h a l l w i l l b e e n -

h a n c e d i f t h e s t u d e n t ' s r a t e o f a d v a n c e m e n t i n e a c h c u r r i c u l u m a r e a

i s g e a r e d t o h i s c a p a c i t i e s . N o n g r a d i n g , i t i s a s s u m e d , w i l l r e d u c e

s t u d e n t s ' e x p e r i e n c e s o f f a i l u r e a n d r e j e c t i o n b e c a u s e t h e p a c e i s t o o

f a s t , o r o f b o r e d o m a n d c h e a p s u c c e s s b e c a u s e t h e p a c e i s t o o s l o w .

F o r t h e e n h a n c e m e n t o f l e a r n i n g e f f e c t i v e n e s s , m o t i v a t i o n t o l e a r n ,

a n d m e n t a l h e a l t h , n o n g r a d e d p l a n s a s s u m e t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n a d a p t e d

t o i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s w i l l r e s u l t f r o m e r a s i n g g r a d e - l e v e l b o u n d -

aries, setting up nongraded curricular sequences, and empl oying

s u c h p r a c t i c e s a s m u l t i a g e o r a c h i e v e m e n t - l e v e l g r o u p i n g . T h e r a -

tionales of nongraded plans wou ld be strengthened if they added

assumptio ns about teachers' motivation to conduct nongraded work

a n d t h e i r s k i l l s i n i n d i v i d u a l i z i n g i n s t r u c t i o n , s i n c e t e a c h e r s m u s t b e

depended upon to carry nongrading from plan into reality .

W o o d r i n g c i t e s t h e d u a l - p r o g r e s s p l a n a s b e i n g " c l o s e l y r e l a t e d

t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s . " 2 9 T h i s i s t r u e f o r s o m e o f t h e f e a t u r e s

o f t h e p l a n , s u c h a s t h e p r o v i s i o n s f o r a n e m o t i o n a l - s o c i a l h o m e b a s e

i n t h e l a n g u a g e a r t s - s o c i a l s t u d i e s c l a s s , f o r d i f f e r e n t l e a r n i n g e x -

p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e " b r i g h t " a n d t h e " d u l l , " a n d f o r s p e c i a l i s t - t e a c h e r s

w h o k n o w a n d l i k e t h e s u b j e c t s t h e y a r e a s s i g n e d t o t e a c h . H c . v -

e v e r , i n c o m m o n w i t h o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n s , t h e d u a l - p r o g r e s s

p l a n l a c k s a t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n t h a t t a k e s a d e q u a t e a c c o u n t o f

2 9 . P a u l W o o d r i n g , " R e f o r m M o v e m e n t s f r o m t h e P o i n t o f V i e w o f

P s y c h o l o g i c a l T h e o r y , " i n T h e o r i e s o f L e a r n i n g a n d I n s t r u c t i o n , o p . c i t . ,

P . 3 0 3 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 136/327

HEATHERS 12 7

t h e c o m p l e x o f v a r i a b l e s i n v o l v e d i n a c h i e v i n g d e s i r e d l e a r n i n g o u t -

comes in graded and nongraded subjects . True, in his volu me on

the plan, Stoddard devoted chapters to the developments in cur-

riculum and teacher education that are needed to implem ent the

p l a n . 3 0 B u t h e h a s n o t o f f e r e d a s y s t e m a t i c r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e p l a n

t h a t a r t i c u l a t e s h i s i d e a s a b o u t s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n , c u r r i c u l u m , a n d

t e a c h i n g a s t h e y b e a r o n i n t e n d e d o u t c o m e s o f t h e p l a n .

The volume on team teaching edited by Shaplin and Olds rep-

r e s e n t s t h e m o s t s y s t e m a t i c a t t e m p t t h a t h a s b e e n m a d e t o d e v e l o p

a r a t i o n a l e f o r t h i s t y p e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n . S h a p l i n p r e s e n t s a

chapter entitl ed "Toward a Theoretical Rationale for Team Teach-

ing," while other chapters in the book consider the taxonomy of

t e a m t e a c h i n g , t e a m t e a c h i n g a n d t h e c u r r i c u l u m w i t h s p e c i a l r e f -

e r e n c e t o l a r g e - g r o u p i n s t r u c t i o n , t h e r o l e o f t h e t e a c h e r , a n d p r o b -

l e m s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e a u t h o r s o f t h e s e v e r a l

c h a p t e r s h a v e l o o k e d t o t h e t h e o r y o f b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e f o r m o d e l s

t h a t c a n b e a p p l i e d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a r a t i o n a l e f o r t e a m t e a c h -

i n g . But the theory of behavioral s c i e n c e r e l a t i n g t o g r o u p s a n d

o r g a n i z a t i o n s i s n o t w e l l d e v e l o p e d , a s B r a y h a s noted . 3 1 A l s o , t h e

t a s k o f a d a p t i n g s u c h p r i n c i p l e s a s h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d i n b e h a v -

i o r a l s c i e n c e t o t h e v a r i a b l e s a n d c o n d i t i o n s o f t e a m t e a c h i n g i s a

d i f f i c u l t o n e t h a t h a s n o t y e t b e e n s o l v e d .

S c h o o l R e o r g a n i z a t i o n T o d a y : I t s E x t e n t a n d S i g n i f i c a n c e

Today's movement to reorganize the schools has developed al-

m o s t e n t i r e l y s i n c e 1957, t h o u g h a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f n o n -

g r a d e d p r o g r a m s i n e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d e a r l i e r . I n

1957, t h e f i r s t m a j o r t e a m - t e a c h i n g p r o j e c t s w e r e l a u n c h e d . I n 1958,

t h e d u a l - p r o g r e s s p l a n w a s f i r s t p l a c e d i n o p e r a t i o n a n d t h e f i r s t

nong rad ed hig h- school prog ram was introd uced .

Data on the number of schools employing the new plans of or-

g a n i z a t i o n a r e s c a n t y a n d u n r e l i a b l e . T h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e d a t a c o m e

f r o m a 1961 survey con ducted by the NEA Project on Inst ruction

i n w h i c h a s t r a t i f i e d s a m p l e o f t h e n a t i o n ' s e l e m e n t a r y - a n d s e c o n d -

3 0 . S t o d d a r d , T h e D u a l P r o g r e s s P l a n , o p . c i t . , c h a p s . , v i i i a n d i x .

3 1 . C h a r l e s W . B r a y , " T o w a r d a T e c h n o l o g y o f H u m a n B e h a v i o r f o r

D e f e n s e U s e , " A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t , X V I I ( A u g u s t , 1 9 6 2 ) , 5 3 4 - 3 6 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 137/327

1 2 8 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION

a r y - s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l s r e s p o n d e d t o a q u e s t i o n n a i r e o n p r a c t i c e s i n

t h e i r s c h o o l s . 3 2 T h e p r i n c i p a l s r e p o r t e d l o c a l p r a c t i c e s a s o f 1 9 5 6

a n d 1961 a n d p r e d i c t e d w h a t t h e p r a c t i c e s w o u l d b e i n 1 9 6 6 .

According to the NEA survey, some nongrading existed in 6

p e r c e n t o f e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s i n 1 9 5 6 , i n 1 2 p e r c e n t i n 1961 . The

i n c i d e n c e e s t i m a t e d f o r 1 9 6 6 w a s 2 6 p e r c e n t . 3 3 No c o m p a r a bl e

s u r v e y d a t a w e r e o b t a i n e d o n n o n g r a d i n g i n t h e h i g h s c h o o l . How-ever, the Advanced Placement Program was credited with an im-

p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e o n h i g h - s c h o o l i n s t r u c t i o n b y 1 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e

s e c o n d a r y p r i n c i p a l s a n d w i t h a s l i g h t i n f l u e n c e b y a n a d d i t i o n a l

4 4p e r c e n t . 3 4 T h e s e s u r v e y f i n d i n g s o n t h e i n c i d e n c e o f n o n g r a d -

i n g g i v e a f a l s e i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e e x t e n t o f t h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e

g r a d e d s y s t e m . G o o d l a d a n d A n d e r s o n f o u n d i n t h e i r 1 9 6 o s u r v e y

that many schools calling themselves nongraded were c o n f u s i n g

homogeneous grouping with continuous progress . 3 5 A l s o , m o s t o f

t h e n o n g r a d e d p r o g r a m s t h a t e x i s t a r e c o n f i n e d t o t h e p r i m a r y l e v e l

a n d p r o v i d e f o r c o n t i n u o u s p r o g r e s s o n l y i n t h e s k i l l s s e q u e n c e s o f

r e a d i n g a n d a r i t h m e t i c .

T h e d u a l - p r o g r e s s p l a n , a s o f 1 9 6 5 , i s i n o p e r a t i o n i n a b o u t o n e

d o z e n c o m m u n i t i e s , m a i n l y i n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e g r a d e s o f t h e e l e -

mentary school . I t a p p e a r s t h a t a n u m b e r o f s c h o o l s y s t e m s h a s

a d o p t e d t h e p l a n b e c a u s e i t p r o v i d e s s p e c i a l i s t - t e a c h e r s i n t h e a r e a s

o f m a t h e m a t i c s a n d s c i e n c e . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , f i n d i n g s o f t h e N E A

s u r v e y o n t h e e x t e n t o f d e p a r t m e n t a l i z a t i o n i n t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l

a r e o f i n t e r e s t , s i n c e s p e c i a l i s t t e a c h i n g a n d d e p a r t m e n t a l i z a t i o n

u s u a l l y g o h a n d i n h a n d . E v i d e n t l y t h e r e i s a t r e n d t o w a r d d e p a r t -

m e n t a l i z a t i o n i n t h e u p p e r g r a d e s o f t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l , s i n c e

z o p e r c e n t o f e l e m e n t a r y p r i n c i p a l s r e p o r t e d t h a t s o m e d e p a r t -

m e n t a l i z a t i o n e x i s t e d i n t h e i r s c h o o l s i n 1 9 5 6 , 3 6 p e r c e n t r e p o r t e d

s o m e i n 1 9 6 1 , and 4 9 p e r c e n t p r e d i c t e d t h a t s o m e w o u l d b e p r e s e n t

3 2 . T h e P r i n c i p a l s L o o k a t t h e S c h o o l s : A St a t u s S t u d y o f S e l e c t e d I n s t r u c -

t i o n a l P r a c t i c e s . N E A P r o je c t o n t h e I n s t r u c t i o n a l P r o g r a m o f t h e P u b l i c

S c h o o l s . W a s h i n g t o n : N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , A p r i l , 1 9 6 2 .

3 3 .I b i d . ,

P P - 3 9 - 4 0 -

3 4 - I b i d . , p . 2 6 .

3 5 .J o h n I . G o o d l a d a n d R o b e r t H . A n d e r s o n , " E d u c a t i o n a l P r a c t i c e s i n

N o n g r a d e d S c h o o l s : A S u r v e y o f P e r c e p t i o n s , " E l e m e n t a r y S c h o o l J o u r n a l ,

L X I II ( O c t o b e r , 1 9 6 2 ) , 3 8 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 138/327

HEATHERS 1 2 9

i n 1 9 6 6 . 3 6 A d o p t i o n s o f t h e d u a l - p r o g r e s s p l a n a l s o a r e c o n s i s t e n t

w i t h t h e t r e n d t o w a r d n o n g r a d i n g , s i n c e n o n g r a d e d g r o u p i n g a n d

a d v a n c e m e n t a r e f e a t u r e s o f t h e p l a n .

With regard to the proportion of elementary schools having

s o m e t e a m t e a c h i n g , t h e N E A s u r v e y r e p o r t e d 5p e r c e n t f o r 1 9 5 6 ,

1 5 p e r c e n t f o r 1 9 6 1 , a n d 3 0p e r c e n t ( e s t i m a t e d ) f o r 1 9 6 6 . A t t h e

s e c o n d a r y l e v e l , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p e r c e n t s w e r e 5 , 1 2 , a n d 3 1. 3 7

A s i s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e s u r v e y d a t a o n n o n g r a d i n g , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t

t h e s e p e r c e n t s o v e r e s t i m a t e t h e i n c i d e n c e o f t e a m t e a c h i n g i n t h e

n a t i o n ' s s c h o o l s . P r o b a b l y m a n y p r i n c i p a l s l a b e l e d any type of

t e a c h e r c o l l a b o r a t i o n a s t e a m t e a c h i n g . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , i t m a y

b e n o t e d t h a t 5 p e r c e n t o f e l e m e n t a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y p r i n c i p a l s

r e p o r t e d s o m e t e a m t e a c h i n g i n t h e i r s c h o o l s a s o f 1 9 5 6 - o n e y e a r

b e f o r e t h e f i r s t m a j o r p r o j e c t s i n t e a m t e a c h i n g w e r e l a u n c h e d .

A l s o , t h e N E A s u r v e y f o u n d t h a t , i n s c h o o l s r e p o r t i n g t e a m t e a c h -

i n g , t h e p r a c t i c e u s u a l l y i n v o l v e d o n l y a s m a l l f r a c t i o n o f p u p i l s

a n d t e a c h e r s .

I t i s h a z a r d o u s t o p r e d i c t t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e n e w o r g a n i z a -

t i o n a l p l a n s w i l l g a i n a c c e p t a n c e i n A m e r i c a ' s s c h o o l s . C e r t a i n l y

t h e r e a r e g o o d r e a s o n s f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h a t t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l g r a d e d

s y s t e m w i l l n o t s u r v i v e t h e c u r r e n t t i d e o f c h a n g e i n s c h o o l o r g a n -

i z a t i o n . W i t h r e s p e c t t o v e r t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , G o o d l a d a n d A n d e r -

s o n s t a t e t h a t " t h e r e a r e p r o b a b l y n o t v e r y m a n y s c h o o l s i n t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s w h i c h h a v e n o t b e e n m o v i n g ( c o n s c i o u s l y o r o t h e r -

w i s e ) i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a n o n g r a d e d p r o g r a m . " I n s u p p o r t o f t h i s

p o s i t i o n , t h e y w r i t e : " W i t n e s s t h e a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l i n t e r e s t i n r e p o r t

c a r d r e f o r m , i n t h e q u e s t i o n o f p r o m o t i o n v s . nonpromotion, in

p r o v i s i o n s f o r i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , i n p r o v i d i n g f o r t h e n e e d s o f

a t y p i c a l c h i l d r e n , a n d i n t h e a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m t o n e e d s

o f t h e c h i l d . " 3 3

T h e r e a r e s t r o n g r e a s o n s f o r p r e d i c t i n g a l s o t h a t t h e s e l f - c o n -

t a i n e d c l a s s r o o m w i l l b e r e p l a c e d w i t h o t h e r p a t t e r n s o f h o r i z o n t a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n. T h e t r e n d s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n i n v o l v e

3 6 . T h e P r i n c i p a l s L o o k a t t h e S c h o o l s . . . , o p . c i t . , p . 1 3 -

3 7 - I b i d . , p . i 8 .

3 8 . G o o d l a d a n d A n d e r s o n , The Nong ra d e d E l e m e n ta ry S choo l , o p . c i t . ,

p . 1 7 8 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 139/327

1 3 0 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION

p r o v i s i o n s f o r n e w p a t t e r n s o f s t a f f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ; f o r g r e a t e r f l e x i -

b i l i t y i n t h e u s e s o f p e r s o n n e l , t i m e , s p a c e , a n d e q u i p m e n t ; a n d f o r

g r e a t e r t e a c h e r c o - o p e r a t i o n i n p l a n n i n g a n d c o n d u c t i n g i n s t r u c t i o n .

A p p r a i s i n g t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t o d a y ' s m o v e m e n t t o r e o r g a n i z e

t h e s c h o o l s c a l l s f o r a n s w e r i n g t h r e e r e l a t e d q u e s t i o n s : Are the

p l a n s w e l l d e s i g n e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r i n t e n d e d e d u c a t i o n a l o u t -

comes? How fully are the plans being implemented in local pro-

g r a m s ? W h a t e v i d e n c e i s t h e r e t h a t t h e p l a n s c o n t r i b u t e t o w a r d t h e

e f f e c t i v e n e s s o r t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f i n s t r u c t i o n ?

E v i d e n c e t h a t t h e p l a n s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n h a v e n o t b e e n

a d e q u a t e l y d e s i g n e d w a s o f f e r e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n , w h e r e i t

w a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t n o n e o f t h e p l a n s h a s a f u l l y - d e v e l o p e d r a t i o n a l e

t h a t l i n k s i t s f e a t u r e s w i t h i n t e n d e d o u t c o m e s . I n t h e e a r l i e r s e c t i o n

r e l a t i n g t h e p l a n s t o s o c i e t a l f o r c e s a n d i d e a s , i t w a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t

t h e p l a n s b e a r m a i n l y i n d i r e c t a n d t e n u o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e

emergent conception of education for adaptability . Perhaps the

m o s t s e r i o u s w e a k n e s s i n t h e d e s i g n o f t h e p l a n s i s t h a t t h e y d e s c r i b e

s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s w i t h o u t s p e c i f y i n g t h e p r o c e s s e s w h e r e b y t h o s e

f e a t u r e s a r e t o b e b r o u g h t t o l i f e i n t h e c o n d u c t o f i n s t r u c t i o n . T h i s

s h o r t c o m i n g i n t e a m - t e a c h i n g p l a n s h a s b e e n a n a l y z e d i n s o m e d e t a i l

b y t h e w r i t e r .3 9

The bulk of the current literature on school reorganization

w o u l d l e a d t h e o u t s i d e r t o b e l i e v e t h a t s u c c e s s f u l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f

n o n g r a d i n g , d u a l p r o g r e s s , a n d t e a m - t e a c h i n g p l a n s i s t h e r u l e i n

schools that have introduced them . C e r t a i n l y i t i s t r u e t h a t m a n y

schools have placed the main structural features of the plans in

o p e r a t i o n a n d w i t h s o m e s u c c e s s i n t h a t t h e p l a n s u s u a l l y h a v e b e e n

r e t a i n e d i n t h e s c h o o l s t h a t t r i e d t h e m . Al s o , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , t e a c h e r s ,

p u p i l s , a n d p a r e h t s i n v o l v e d i n t h e t r y o u t s o f t h e p l a n s h a v e u s u a l l y

b e c o m e a n d r e m a i n e d f a v o r a b l y d i s p o s e d t o w a r d t h e m . Despite

t h e s e p o s i t i v e i n d i c a t i o n s , t h e e v i d e n t f a c t i s t h a t s e l d o m , i f e v e r ,

h a s o n e o f t h e p l a n s b e e n p l a c e d i n f u l l a n d e f f e c t i v e o p e r a t i o n .

E v e n i n l o c a l p r o j e c t s r e c e i v i n g t h e b e n e f i t s o f s c h o o l - u n i v e r s i t y

c o l l a b o r a t i o n a n d h e a v y f o u n d a t i o n s u p p o r t , t h e p r o b l e m s o f i m p l e -

m e n t a t i o n h a v e b e e n o n l y p a r t i a l l y s o l v e d .

; 9 . Heathers, "Team Teaching and the Educational Refor m Move ment,"

O P . c i t . , P P . 3 5 7 - 6 2 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 140/327

HEATHERS 1 3 1

I m p l e m e n t i n g a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n t h a t i s i n t e n d e d t o i m p r o v e

the quality or efficien cy of instruction inevitably goes beyond

s t r i c t l y o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m a t t e r s t o i n v o l v e p r o b l e m s o f c u r r i c u l u m

c o n t e n t a n d s t r u c t u r e , p u p i l d i a g n o s i s a n d e v a l u a t i o n , a n d t e a c h e r

e d u c a t i o n . T h e a t t e m p t t o i m p l e m e n t t h e p l a n , i t p r o v e s , c a n n o t b e

s u c c e s s f u l u n t i l a l l e s s e n t i a l c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m , a s

s y s t e m , h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t i n t o e f f e c t i v e f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

Have the new plans been shown to contribute to the quality of

i n s t r u c t i o n ? T h e g r e a t b u l k o f t h e r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s t h a t h a v e b e e n

p u b l i s h e d h a v e r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e p l a n u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a d n o

s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o n p u p i l a c h i e v e m e n t a s m e a s u r e d b y n a t i o n a l l y

s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t s . O n l y a s c a t t e r i n g o f s t u d i e s o f n o n g r a d i n g , d u a l

p r o g r e s s , o r t e a m t e a c h i n g h a v e y i e l d e d s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n

pupil achievement that favored the new plans . 4 0 A n u m b e r o f

r e p o r t s o f t e s t s o f t h e n e w p l a n s h a v e c l a i m e d t h a t t h e p l a n s h a v e

i m p r o v e d i n s t r u c t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o s u c h a i m s a s t e a c h i n g p r o b l e m -

s o l v i n g t h i n k i n g a n d i n d e p e n d e n t s t u d y . H o w e v e r , t h e s e c l a i m s h a v e

n o t b e e n s u b s t a n t i a t e d s i n c e t h e a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t s u s e d - t h e S t a n -

ford , Iowa, California, Metropolitan, and the like- stress the

m e a s u r e m e n t o f t e r m s , t o o l s k i l l s , a n d i n f o r m a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n t h e

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e o r y , p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g t h i n k i n g , o r s e l f - d i r e c t e d

l e a r n i n g . The general failure of the new pla ns to increase pupil

achievement may wel l be due to the fact that they have not been

e f f e c t i v e l y i m p l e m e n t e d . Implem enting the structural features of

a p l a n i s n o t l i k e l y t o a f f e c t i n s t r u c t i o n a l o u t c o m e s u n t i l t h e c o n t e n t

and methods of instruction have been adapted to th e purposes of

t h e p l a n .

O n e f i n d i n g w i t h a l l t h r e e t y p e s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n s i s t h a t

they are not deleterious to pupils' personal-social development .

Many defenders of the self-contained classroom have warned that

elementary-school pupil s would be harmed by plans that required

them to move from class to class, room to room, and teacher to

4 0 . G l e n H e a t h e r s , " R e s e a r c h o n T e a m T e a c h i n g , " i nTeam Teaching, op .

c i t . , p p . 3 2 6 - 3 1 ; P h i l i p L a m b e r t e t . a l . , C l a s s r o o m I n t e r a c t i o n , P u p i l A c h i e v e -

m e n t a n d A d j u s t m e n t i n T e a m T e a c h i n g a s C o m p a r e d w i t h t h e S e l f - c o n t a i n e d

Classroom ( M a d i s o n , W i s c o n s i n : U n i v e r s i t y o f W i s c o n s i n , 1 9 6 4 ) ; Three- Year

R e p o r t o f t h e E x p e r i m e n t a l T e a c h i n g C e n t e r , 1 9 5 8 - 6 1 , o p . c i t . , p p . 8 - 1 4 ; R o b e r t

F . C a r b o n e , "A C o m p a r i s o n o f G r a d e d a n d N o n - g r a d e d E l e m e n t a r y S c h o o l s , "

E l e m e n t a r y S c h o o l J o u r n a l , L X I I ( N o v e m b e r , 1 9 6 1 ) , 8 2 - 8 8 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 141/327

1 3 2 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION

t e a c h e r . The weight of the evidence, however, is that the great

m a j o r i t y o f p u p i l s l i k e t h e n e w p l a n s , e n j o y c h a n g i n g c l a s s e s a n d

t e a c h e r s , a n d a d j u s t w e l l t o t h e v a r i e t y o f l e a r n i n g s e t t i n g s t h e p l a n s

provide . 4 1

I m p o r t a n t p u r p o s e s o f t h e d u a l - p r o g r e s s p l a n a n d t e a m - t e a c h i n g

p l a n s a r e t o i m p r o v e t h e e f f i c i e n c y w i t h w h i c h o u r l i m i t e d s u p p l y

o f w e l l - q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r s i s u s e d , a s w e l l a s t o p r o v i d e n e w c a r e e r

o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h a t a t t r a c t a n d h o l d s u p e r i o r t e a c h e r s . How effective

t h e p l a n s h a v e b e e n i n t h e s e r e s p e c t s c a n o n l y b e g u e s s e d a t , s i n c e

r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s p r o v i d e s c a r c e l y a n y i n f o r m a t i o n a s t o t h e e f f e c t s

o f t h e p l a n s o n t e a c h e r r e c r u i t m e n t a n d r e t e n t i o n o r o n t h e c o s t s o f

i n s t r u c t i o n . T h u s , i n h i s r e v i e w o f r e s e a r c h o n t e a m t e a c h i n g a s o f

1 9 6 2 , t h e w r i t e r f o u n d v i r t u a l l y n o r e p o r t s b e a r i n g o n t h e s e p o i n t s . 4 2

The findings reported in the preceding paragraphs should be

c o n s i d e r e d a s o n l y p r e l i m i n a r y i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e o u t c o m e s t o b e

expected from the new organizational plans. Most of the research

studies on which these findings are based were poorly designed .

F e w o f t h e s t u d i e s i n c l u d e d m e a s u r e s o f t h e f e a t u r e s o f t h e p l a n s

being compared as implemented. M o s t o f t h e s t u d i e s l a c k e d a d e q u a t e

c o n t r o l s o f p u p i l , t e a c h e r , a n d g e n e r a l s i t u a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s . For

i l l u s t r a t i v e e v i d e n c e o n t h e s e p o i n t s , t h e r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o t h e

w r i t e r ' s r e v i e w o f r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s o n t e a m t e a c h i n g . 4 3

T h e P r o s p e c t s f o r S t r e n g t h e n in g E d u c a t i o n

b y Sc h o o l R e o r g a n i z a t i o n

T o d a t e , t h e m o v e m e n t t o r e o r g a n i z e t h e s c h o o l s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d

more by quantity than by quality . M o s t o f t h e t h o u s a n d s o f l o c a l

p r o g r a m s t h a t e m p l o y t h e n e w p l a n s i n v o l v e a h a s t y a n d s u p e r f i c i a l

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s o f a p l a n w i t h o u t m a k i n g

a d e q u a t e p r o v i s i o n s f o r t h e n e e d e d c h a n g e s i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s

and procedures and without providing for the required staff re-

t r a i n i n g . As a result, we have num erous nongraded sch ools that

4 1 . H e a t h e r s , " R e s e a r c h o n T e a m T e a c h i n g , " o p . c i t . , p p . 3 3 1 - 3 5 ; T h r e e -

Y e a r R e p o r t o f t h e E xp e r i m e n t a l T e a c h i n g C e n t e r , 1 9 5 8 - 1 9 6 1 , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 4 - z o ;

C a r b o n e , o p . c i t .

4 2 . H e a t h e r s , " R e s e a r c h o n T e a m T e a c h i n g , " o p . c i t . , p p . 3 3 9 - 4 1 -

4 3 - ] b i d . , P P . 3 2 2 - 4 1 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 142/327

H E A T H E R S 1 3 3

e r a s e g r a d e l a b e l s b u t f a i l t o p r o v i d e n o n g r a d e d i n s t r u c t i o n , d u a l -

progress-plan schools in which pupils are grouped in graded and

nongraded classes under specialist-teac hers but with few changes

i n i n s t r u c t i o n , a n d s c h o o l s w i t h t e a m t e a c h i n g t h a t e m p l o y l i t t l e

team work in planning and make few changes in procedures of

g r o u p i n g a n d t e a c h i n g f r o m t h o s e o f t h e s e l f - c o n t a i n e d c l a s s r o o m .

E v e n t h e m a j o r r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s o n t h e n e w o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n s ,

d e s p i t e l e a d e r s h i p f r o m t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d l a r g e f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t ,

h a v e s e r i o u s w e a k n e s s e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o a c c o m p l i s h i n g t h e d e s i g n ,

implementation, and evaluation of the plans under study . Q u i t e a

number of these school-universi ty projects are staffed with able

l e a d e r s i n b o t h t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d t h e c o - o p e r a t i n g s c h o o l s . The

s h o r t c o m i n g s o f t h e s e p r o j e c t s i n d i c a t e t h a t e d u c a t o r s d o n o t y e t

know how to design and conduct effective programs of organiza-

t i o n a l c h a n g e .

A very recent development in education that may help remedy

t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f r e g i o n a l E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h

and D evelopment Centers und er the financial sponsorship of the

United States Office of Education . A c t i v i t i e s o f t h e c e n t e r s w i l l

proceed from behavioral-science theory and research throu gh ap-

p l i e d r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t t o t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f t h e m a t e r i -

a l s , e q u i p m e n t , p r o c e d u r e s , o r p r o g r a m s w h i c h t h e y h a v e d e v e l o p e d

a n d t e s t e d . I f t h e r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t c e n t e r s a r e s u c c e s s f u l ,

e d u c a t i o n w i l l h a v e , f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , a b a s i s f o r a c c o m p l i s h i n g

f u n d a m e n t a l r e f o r m s o n a t r u l y p r o f e s s i o n a l l e v e l .

Research and d evelopment centers that focus on prob lems of

s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n m u s t t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h e f a c t t h a t s u c c e s s f u l

s c h o o l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f e f f e c t i v e f u n c -

t i o n a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g a l l o f t h e m a j o r c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e

school as a d ynamic system . This means that the centers shoul d

e n c o m p a s s i n t h e i r w o r k , a l o n g s i d e n e w o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s a n d

procedures, modifications in curriculum , in pupil diagnosis and

e v a l u a t i o n , a n d i n t h e t r a i n i n g o f l o c a l s c h o o l l e a d e r s a n d t e a c h e r s .

A k e y f u n c t i o n o f t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s s h o u l d b e t o p r o v i d e t r a i n i n g

programs for school leaders that will prepare them to plan and

conduct local improvement projects . T h e w e a k n e s s e s i n t h e d e s i g n

a n d e x e c u t i o n o f m o s t l o c a l p r o j e c t s i n s c h o o l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n a t t e s t

t o t h e f a c t t h a t s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a n d p r i n c i p a l s g e n e r a l l y l a c k

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 143/327

1 3 4 S C H O O L O R G AN IZAT I ON

t h e t r a i n i n g n e e d e d f o r e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s h i p i n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a n g e .

A c h a l l e n g i n g t a s k f o r u n i v e r s i t y r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t c e n t e r s

i s t o d e s i g n a n d c o n d u c t a d e q u a t e p r e s e r v i c e a n d i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g

p r o g r a m s f o r l o c a l s c h o o l l e a d e r s i n t h e i r r o l e s a s a g e n t s o f c h a n g e.

A l e s s o n l e a r n e d b y l e a d e r s o f p r o j e c t s d e s i g n e d t o t e s t t h e n e w

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n s i s t h a t m o s t t e a c h e r s h a v e h a d v e r y l i t t l e t r a i n -

i n g i n h o w t o d i r e c t t h e i r i n s t r u c t i o n t o w a r d s u c h l e a r n i n g g o a l s

a s p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g t h i n k i n g a n d s e l f - d i r e c t e d l e a r n i n g , o r h o w t o

i n d i v i d u a l i z e i n s t r u c t i o n . I n c o n s e q u e n c e , p r o j e c t l e a d e r s f i n d t h a t

t e a c h e r s a r e u n a b l e t o a c h i e v e t h e e s s e n t i a l p u r p o s e s o f t h e n e w

p l a n s i n t h e c o n d u c t o f i n s t r u c t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , t e a c h e r s w h o d i d

a n i n a d e q u a t e j o b o f i n d i v i d u a l i z i n g i n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e s e l f - c o n t a i n e d

c l a s s r o o m a r e i l l - p r e p a r e d t o i n d i v i d u a l i z e i n s t r u c t i o n i n a n o n g r a d e d

s c h o o l . B e f o r e t h e n e w o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n s c a n b e i m p l e m e n t e d

s u c c e s s f u l l y , s u c h s h o r t c o m i n g s i n t e a c h e r s ' p r e p a r a t i o n m u s t b e

r e m e d i e d t h r o u g h r a d i c a l l y n e w p r o g r a m s o f p r e s e r v i c e a n d i n -

s e r v i c e t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n .

T h e p r o s p e c t t h a t t h e n e w a p p r o a c h e s t o s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n w i l l

i m p r o v e e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s i n t h i s c o u n t r y d e p e n d s g r e a t l y o n

w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s a c h i e v e a h i g h p r o f e s s i o n a l l e v e l i n

t h e c o n d u c t o f t h e i r r e s e a r c h , d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d t r a i n i n g f u n c t i o n s .

T h e p u r p o s e s a n d f e a t u r e s o f t h e t h r e e t y p e s o f p l a n s u n d e r c o n -

s i d e r a t i o n b e a r i m p o r t a n t r e l a t i o n s t o s o c i e t a l f o r c e s c a l l i n g f o r

e d u c a t i o n a l c h a n g e , t o d e v e l o p m e n t s i n b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e t h a t c a n

c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e c o n d u c t o f i n s t r u c t i o n , a n d t o p r e s s u r e s t o w a r d

r e f o r m a r i s i n g w i t h i n e d u c a t i o n . A c r o s s t h e c o u n t r y , s c h o o l a d m i n -

i s t r a t o r s a n d t e a c h e r s , a s w e l l a s c o m m u n i t y l e a d e r s , a r e s h o w i n g a

r e a d i n e s s t o r e o r g a n i z e t h e s c h o o l s i n t e r m s o f n o n g r a d i n g , s c h e d u l e

m o d i f i c a t i o n s , n e w p a t t e r n s o f s t a f f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , a n d t e a c h e r t e a m -

w o r k . I t i s t h e t a s k o f t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s , w o r k i n g i n c l o s e c o - o p e r a t i o n

w i t h l o c a l s c h o o l s y s t e m s , t o p r o v i d e e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s h i p i n t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t , e v a l u a t i o n , a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f s u c h c h a n g e s i n

s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 144/327

CHAPTER V I

S c h o o l h o u s e i n T r a n s i t i o n

HAROLD B . G ORES

Schoolhouses are the most numerous of all public buildings-

t h e r e a r e m o r e t h a n i o o , o o o s c a t t e r e d a c r o s s t h e l a n d . And of a ll

p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s , t h e s c h o o l h o u s e i s t h e o n e w h i c h m o r e p e o p l e c a r e

ab out and arg ue ab out than any other pu b lic b uild ing . H o w i t

s h o u l d s e r v e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , w h a t i t s h o u l d b e , i s t o d a y a l i v e l y i s s u e .

T h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h i s i s s u e m a y c o m e a s a s u r p r i s e t o t h e r e a d e r s

o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f e d u c a t i o n , w h i c h d e a l s l a r g e l y w i t h c h a n g e i n

s u b j e c t m a t t e r a n d h o w t e a c h e r s a n d c h i l d r e n s h o u l d r e l a t e t o e a c h

o t h e r . T h i s i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . After all, not mu ch was happening

t o t h e s c h o o l h o u s e u n t i l r e c e n t l y . And because teachers an d chil-

d r e n a r e m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n a n y t h i n g e l s e a b o u t a s c h o o l , c o n c e r n

a b o u t t h e b u i l d i n g s , t h e e q u i p m e n t , a n d t h e t o t a l e n v i r o n m e n t h a s

o f t e n b e e n l e f t t o a r c h i t e c t s a n d o f f i c i a l s " i n c h a r g e o f s c h o o l p l a n t . "

T h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s , t h e p u n d i t s , a n d m a n y p r a c t i c i n g e d u c a t o r s h a v e

i g n o r e d t h e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t o f e d u c a t i o n , b e l i e v i n g i t t o b e

-without having looked to see-mostly a matter of nuts and bolts .

T h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l n e g l e c t o f t h e A m e r i c a n s c h o o l h o u s e h a s r e s u l t e d

i n t h e f o r c i n g o f e d u c a t i o n t o f i t t h o u s a n d s o f P r o c r u s t e a n b e d s .

B u t t h e r e i s m o v e m e n t n o w i n a n e w d i r e c t i o n . S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ,

h e a d m a s t e r s , p r i n c i p a l s , a n d t e a c h e r s , t h o s e c h a r g e d w i t h e d u c a t i n g

t h e y o u n g , h a v e c o m e t o r e a l i z e i t i s p r o p e r a n d n e c e s s a r y t o s p e n d

t i m e a n d t h o u g h t o n h o w t h e p e r s o n s i n v o l v e d i n a n d t h e p r o c e s s e s

o f e d u c a t i o n m a y b e s t b e s h e l t e r e d a n d s e r v e d . E v e n t h e m a n i n t h e

s t r e e t k n o w s t h a t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s c h o o l h o u s e a f f e c t s h i s c h i l d r e n ' s

learning and, wanting the most for his money, will vote-if given

t h e f a c t s - f o r s c h o o l s t h a t s e r v e t h e i r p r o p e r f u n c t i o n .

Happily for our nation, the day is gone when the schoolhouse

w a s r e g a r d e d p r i m a r i l y a s a n a n t i s e p t i c , i n d e s t r u c t i b l e c o n t a i n e r f o r

1 3 5

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 145/327

1 3 6 SCHOOLHOUSE IN TRANSITION

g r a d e s a n d c l a s s e s , a c e r a m i c e g g - c r a t e o f u n i f o r m b o x e s . T h e

a n c i e n t ( c i r c a 1 9 5 7 ) c r i t e r i a f o r j u d g i n g t h e e x c e l l e n c e o f b u i l d i n g s

n o l o n g e r s u f f i c e : t h e l i f e e x p e c t a n c y o f c o n c r e t e f l o o r s , t h e n u m b e r

o f g e n e r a t i o n s o f s e r v i c e g i v e n b y a n i r o n c h a i r , c h e a p n e s s o f

m a i n t e n a n c e , a n d , l o o m i n g o v e r a l l , t h e i n i t i a l c o s t p e r s q u a r e f o o t ,

p e r h e a d , o r p e r s e a t .

F o r t u n a t e l y , m o r e c o m m u n i t i e s n o w c a r e m o r e a b o u t p e r f o r m -

ance than permanence, more about economy in the long run than

c h e a p n e s s i n f i r s t c o s t . And many commu nities care more deepl y

a b o u t t h e w a s t e o f u n f u l f i l l e d p o t e n t i a l i n t h e s c h o o l h o u s e t h a t d o e s

n o t s u p p o r t l e a r n i n g t h a n a b o u t t h e c o s t o f o n e w h i c h d o e s .

T h e c h a n g e i n t o d a y ' s s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s d e r i v e s , a s i t s h o u l d ,

f r o m t h e c h a n g e i n e d u c a t i o n i t s e l f . T e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s a r e

meeting in a changing educational atmosphere . The student is

l e a r n i n g n e w w a y s t o l e a r n , t o s e a r c h o u t i n f o r m a t i o n o n h i s o w n ,

t o u s e n e w t o o l s . M a j o r r e v i s i o n s i n c o n t e n t , i m p r o v e d k n o w l e d g e

a b o u t l e a r n i n g , a n d a d v a n c e s i n t e a c h i n g t e c h n o l o g y a r e a f f e c t i n g

t h e f o r m a n d s t r u c t u r e o f e d u c a t i o n . T h e s e , i n t u r n , a r e a f f e c t i n g

t h e f o r m a n d s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s c h o o l h o u s e .

T h e f a c t s b e h i n d t h i s n e w v i t a l i t y a r e e n d l e s s l y e x p o u n d e d i n

o u r d a i l y n e w s p a p e r s a n d o t h e r m e d i a : u r b a n i z a t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a -

t i o n w i t h i t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f l a r g e n u m b e r s o f c h i l d r e n i n s i n g l e

s c h o o l s y s t e m s ; m o r e c h i l d r e n a n d y o u t h o f s c h o o l a g e a n d m o r e o f

t h e m a t t e n d i n g s c h o o l ( 9 o p e r c e n t o f t h e y o u t h o f h i g h - s c h o o l a g e

i n s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s t o d a y c o m p a r e d t o I I p e r c e n t i n I g o o ) ; t h e

y ea r s of s c ho ol i ng e x te n de d d o wn w ar d f ro m k in d er g ar te n a nd

u p w a r d f r o m t h e c o l l e g e ; a l a c k o f q u a l i f i e d p e o p l e t o t e a c h t h e m -

t h e u n m e t c u r r e n t s h o r t a g e s o a r i n g i n t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d o f o v e r

50,000 a b l e t e a c h e r s ; a n d t h e r e s t l e s s , r a p i d g r o w t h i n t h e b o d y o f

knowledge, with an accumulation of facts and information un-

d r e a m e d o f a b r i e f t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s a g o a n d a l r e a d y t o o g r e a t t o

b e c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e f o r m a l a l l o t m e n t o f s c h o o l y e a r s . T h e

p r o b l e m s g r o w i n g o u t o f t h e s e f a c t s a n d t h e n e w i d e a s a b o u t h o w

t o d e a l w i t h t h e m a r e t h e f o r c e s c r e a t i n g t h e p r e s e n t f e r m e n t i n

e d u c a t i o n .

More than one hundred years ago, the ferm ent of ideas and

n e e d s o f t h a t t i m e g a v e r i s e t o a n e w t y p e o f s c h o o l b u i l d i n g - t h e

g r a d e d c l a s s r o o m b u i l d i n g . T h e f i r s t s u c h b u i l d i n g , p u t i n t o u s e

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 146/327

CORES 1 3 7

i n B o s t o n ( Q u i n c y S c h o o l ) i n 1 8 4 8 , s e t t h e p a t t e r n f o r s c h o o l h o u s e s

f o r t h e c e n t u r y t h a t f o l l o w e d . I t s b a s i c u n i t w a s a b o x - a r o o m o f

m o r e o r l e s s f i x e d s i z e a n d s h a p e . W i t h i n t h e r o o m , o n e t e a c h e r

w a s a l l t h i n g s t o a s e t n u m b e r o f s t u d e n t s , g r o u p e d b y a g e r a t h e r

t h a n b y a b i l i t y , a l l o f t h e m l e a r n i n g t h e s a m e t h i n g a t t h e s a m e

t i m e a n d a l l t a k i n g p r e s c r i b e d s u b j e c t s d u r i n g p r e s c r i b e d y e a r s . T h e

c l a s s m i g h t b e l a r g e r o r s m a l l e r , t h e s t u d e n t s m i g h t b e s u b d i v i d e d

i n t o m o r e m a n a g e a b l e g r o u p s , o r t h e y m i g h t b e s h i f t e d f r o m r o o m

t o r o o m a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s . Th e r o o m s t h e m s e l v e s c o u l d be

a r r a n g e d i n s q u a r e s , s t r u n g o u t i n r o w s , p i l e d o n e o n t o p o f a n o t h e r ,

but they remained boxes . A n d a s t h e y m u l t i p l i e d , m o r e s o l i t a r y

b o x e s a c c o m m o d a t e d m o r e s o l i t a r y t e a c h e r s , e a c h w i t h a s e t n u m b e r

o f c h a r g e s .

A n d s o t h e p a t t e r n c o n t i n u e d - n o t f u n d a m e n t a l l y m o d i f i e d b u t

o f t e n q u e s t i o n e d - u n t i l t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y .

T h e n s u d d e n l y i t b e c a m e p o s s i b l e f o r e i g h t - y e a r - o l d s t o u s e e l e c -

t r o n i c d e v i c e s t o l e a r n a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e . H i g h - s c h o o l s t u d e n t s

c o u l d b u i l d n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s , g e t t i n g u p - t o - t h e - m i n u t e t e l e v i s e d

i n s t r u c t i o n f r o m p r a c t i c i n g s c i e n t i s t s r a t h e r t h a n f r o m t e x t s t h a t

had become obsolete by the time they appea red in print . W i t h

i n c r e a s e d w a y s o f g e t t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e c h i l d , w h e t h e r by

b o o k , t a p e , d i s c , s l i d e , o r s h a d o w s o n a t u b e , t e a c h e r s c o u l d b e c o m e

c a t a l y s t s o f i d e a s r a t h e r t h a n d i s p e n s e r s o f f a c t s .

T h e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e s , c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e u r g e n c i e s o f t h e d a y ,

h a v e l e d e d u c a t o r s t o a n e w a p p r a i s a l o f t h e o l d a r r a n g e m e n t s . And

f r o m t h a t a p p r a i s a l c o m e s t h e n o n g r a d e d s c h o o l ( n o t t h e u n g r a d e d

s c h o o l t h a t p r e c e d e d t h e g r a d e d s c h o o l ) , t h e t e a c h e r t e a m , l a r g e -

g r o u p l e c t u r e s , s m a l l - g r o u p s e m i n a r s , i n d e p e n d e n t s t u d y , a d v a n c e d

s t a n d i n g , h o n o r s c l a s s e s , p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n , e d u c a t i o n a l t e l e -

vision, and other innovations, some unheard of and o t h e r s n o t

c o m m o n b e l o w t h e c o l l e g i a t e l e v e l u n t i l b a r e l y a d o z e n y e a r s a g o .

B u t t h e m o t i o n i n t o w h i c h t h e l o n g - i n e r t b o d y o f e d u c a t i o n h a s

f i n a l l y b e e n p r o d d e d i s s t o p p e d b y t h e t y r a n n i c a l c l a s s r o o m b o x . To

d e p l o y p e o p l e a n d t h i n g s i n a n e w w a y r e q u i r e s s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s

w i t h n e w k i n d s o f s p a c e t h a t c a n a d a p t t o c h a n g e .

T h e s t o r y o f h o w o u r s c h o o l s a r e r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s e n e e d s i s

t o l d b y t h e e v o l v i n g s h a p e o f t h e A m e r i c a n s c h o o l h o u s e . H e r e a r e

s o m e o f t h e f e a t u r e s o f t h a t s t o r y .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 147/327

1 3 8 SC HO OLHOUSE IN TRANS ITI ON

T h e S i z e o f S c h o o l s

T h e a g e - o l d f o r m u l a s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s i z e o f a " g o o d

school," timeworn yet revered, have persisted until recently. In

t h e 1 9 2 0 ' s t h e p r e v a i l i n g m y s t i q u e f o r h i g h s c h o o l s w a s " n o t l e s s

t h a n 7 5 0 p u p i l s t o b e e f f i c i e n t , a n d n o t o v e r 1 , 2 5 0 t o b e s e n s i t i v e . "

The small school, it was held, could not offer a broad range of

s t u d i e s w i t h o p e r a t i n g e c o n o m y , a n d i n t h e l a r g e s c h o o l t h e i n d i -

v i d u a l w o u l d b e l o s t . A s v i e w e d t o d a y , b o t h l i m i t s a r e u n t e n a b l e .

T he lower limit assu med that the school wou l d stand alone,

u n c o n n e c t e d w i t h o t h e r s c h o o l s a n d w i t h o t h e r s o u r c e s o f i n s t r u c -

t i o n , a n d t h a t a s t u d e n t c o u l d n o t h a v e a c c e s s t o s y s t e m a t i c i n s t r u c -

t i o n u n l e s s a g r o u p c o u l d b e f o r m e d . B u t t o d a y i t i s p o s s i b l e ,

through such activit ies as those initiated by the Western States

S m a l l S c h o o l s P r o j e c t , t h e C a t s k i l l A r e a P r o j e c t , a n d o t h e r c o - o p e r a -

t i v e e n t e r p r i s e s , f o r m o r e a n d m o r e s m a l l s c h o o l s t o j o i n f u n c t i o n a l l y

w i t h n e i g h b o r i n g s c h o o l s a n d c o l l e g e s . W o r k i n g t o g e t h e r , t h e y a r e

a b l e t o s h a r e t h e s e r v i c e s o f s p e c i a l i z e d t e a c h e r s , t o p r o v i d e a d v a n c e d

work for able students, and to expand the curriculum through the

u s e o f t e l e v i s i o n , t a p e s , a n d f i l m .

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e u p p e r l i m i t a s s u m e d t h a t l a r g e s c h o o l s

wou l d b e org aniz ed for a monolithic ad ministration- one ad min-

istrative hierarch y and one faculty of teachers-as admired by

Horace Mann more than a century ago in his observations on

P r u s s i a n s c h o o l s . B ut ag ain, with new org aniz ational patterns-

house plans and schools-within-schools-a school can be as good

a n d y e t a s l a r g e a s i t n e e d s t o b e . I f , r e g a r d l e s s o f i t s s i z e , a s c h o o l

i s o p e r a t e d a s t h o u g h i t w e r e s m a l l , z o n e d i n t o s e p a r a t e s u b s c h o o l s

o r h o u s e s i n s u c h m a n n e r t h a t t h e p u p i l i d e n t i f i e s h i m s e l f w i t h s o m e

r e c o g n i z a b l e u n i t o f , s a y , 4 0 0 p u p i l s , w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s " h i s o w n

school" and in which he is known and k n o w s h e i s k n o w n b y s o m e -

one responsible for him, the traditional rules no longer apply .

G i v e n d e c e n t r a l i z e d r a t h e r t h a n m o n o l i t h i c o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e p r i m a r y

c r i t e r i o n f o r s c h o o l s i z e b e c o m e s a m a t t e r o f l o g i s t i c s : h o w m a n y

children can safely and economical ly be gathered together in one

p l a c e f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f a t t e n d i n g s c h o o l .

R e l a t e d t o t h e s i z e o f t h e s c h o o l i s t h e s i z e o f i t s s i t e . A g a i n t h e

old formul as, based on the suburban school image and calling for

" 2 o acres plus an acre for each hundred pupils," are outmoded .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 148/327

GORES 1 3 9

I n d e e d , t o a p p l y t h e o l d f o r m u l a s i n s o m e s e c t i o n s o f o u r b i g c i t i e s

today would result in wiping out the homes of the student body .

With the steady urbanization of America's population, new w ays

of providing playing fields (and parking) have to be found, and

are being found . F i e l d s o n t h e r o o f a r e a l r e a d y b e i n g d e v e l o p e d ,

a n d s o o n , t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f a r t i f i c i a l t u r f a n d m e m b r a n e e n c l o s u r e s ,

a n a c r e o f p l a y i n g f i e l d w i l l d o t h e w o r k o f s e v e r a l a c r e s o f n a t u r e ' s

u n c e r t a i n g r a s s . A n d b e s t o f a l l , b l a c k a s p h a l t , t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l

s u b s t i t u t e f o r g r a s s , w i l l h a v e g i v e n w a y t o r e s i l i e n t , s h o c k - a b s o r b -

i n g , e s t h e t i c a l l y p l e a s i n g p l a s t i c s . This type of play sp ace may jar

t h e s e n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h o s e w h o y e a r n f o r p r o g r e s s w i t h o u t c h a n g e ,

b u t t h e a l t e r n a t i v e f o r t h e c h i l d a t p l a y i s t o d a y ' s h a r s h a n d a b r a s i v e

s u r f a c e .

T h e C l a s s r o o m

While the basic design of the classroom box has gone unc hal-

l e n g e d f o r a h u n d r e d y e a r s , s o m e o f i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a v e b e e n

s u b j e c t e d t o q u e s t i o n . Mostly, the questi ons debated were whether

i t s h o u l d b e s q u a r e o r r e c t a n g u l a r , a n d h o w b i g . Again, formu las

developed-e . g . , t h o u g h w e n e v e r w e r e s u r e h o w l a r g e a c l a s s r o o m

s h o u l d b e , a k i n d e r g a r t e n , i t w a s b e l i e v e d , s h o u l d a l w a y s b e o n e a n d

a h a l f t i m e s a s l a r g e . I n d e e d , m a n y s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s ( n o t t o m e n t i o n

the Air Force Academy) del iberately specified s m a l l c l a s s r o o m s i n

o r d e r t o p r e v e n t l a t e r i n c r e a s e s i n c l a s s s i z e . This gambit was e m-

ployed in the belief that overcrowding woul d be obvious to the

l a t e r a u t h o r i t i e s .

B u t t o d a y ' s c l a s s r o o m , s m a l l o r l a r g e , i s b r e a k i n g u p . I n i t s

p l a c e i s e m e r g i n g z o n e s o f s p a c e , t h o u s a n d s o f s q u a r e f e e t i n a r e a ,

t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f f o u r o r f i v e c l a s s r o o m s , g r e a t b o d i e s o f m u t a b l e ,

m a l l e a b l e , u n i v e r s a l l o f t s p a c e . T h e s e g r e a t s p a c e s , e a s i l y d i v i d e d

i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h w h a t t h e t e a c h e r s a n d t h e c h i l d r e n h a v e p l a n n e d

to do together at any particular time, serve the individual in

independent study, the seminar group when a teacher and a dozen

c h i l d r e n d i s c u s s i m p o r t a n t m a t t e r s t o g e t h e r , t h e s t a n d a r d c l a s s ,

a n d t h e l a r g e r g r o u p s a s s e m b l e d f o r a c o m m o n e x p e r i e n c e - a d e m o n -

s t r a t i o n , a f i l m , a t a l k o r o t h e r c o n t r i b u t i o n b y a s e l e c t e d v i s i t o r .

This is universal space ; schools , w i t h o u t w a l l s . . , It ends the

a n c i e n t c u s t o m o f e n c l o s i n g a t e a c h e r a n d z 5 o r 3 5 c h i l d r e n i n 7 8 o

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 149/327

1 4 0 SC HO OLHOUSE IN TRANS ITI ON

s q u a r e f e e t o f s p a c e f r o m S e p t e m b e r t o J u n e , t h e r e t o w o r k o u t

i n s o l i t u d e a y e a r ' s e d u c a t i o n . T h e p r o v i s i o n o f t h e z o n e o f s p a c e

i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h o u g h t f u l s c h o o l s a r e r e v e r s i n g t h e h a l l o w e d a r r a n g e -

m e n t o f i s o l a t e d t e a c h e r s a n d g r o u p e d c h i l d r e n . T h e e m e r g i n g

a r r a n g e m e n t u n g r o u p s t h e c h i l d r e n a n d g r o u p s t h e t e a c h e r s .

S u c h d i s p o s i t i o n s o f p e o p l e a n d s p a c e a r e m o r e t h a n s t r a w s i n

the wind . C a l i f o r n i a ' s R e e d a n d C u p e r t i n o s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s a r e a l -

r e a d y d e s i g n i n g s p a c e f o r e a c h h u n d r e d p u p i l s , b e l i e v i n g t h i s w i l l

b e m o r e s e n s i t i v e t h a n t h e c u s t o m a r y s p a c e a l l o t t e d t o f o u r t e a c h e r s ,

e a c h w o r k i n g a l o n e . I n d e e d , z o p e r c e n t o f a l l t h e s c h o o l s n o w o n

t h e d r a w i n g b o a r d s i n t h a t s t a t e a r e d e s i g n e d o n t h e s o - c a l l e d " o p e n

p l a n . " N e w Y o r k C i t y w i l l s h o r t l y o p e n a s c h o o l f o r t h e " e a r l y

c h i l d h o o d c y c l e ." The kindergarten and Grades I a n d I I w i l l

o c c u p y 7 , 8 5 0 s q u a r e f e e t o f u n i n t e r r u p t e d f r e e w h e e l i n g s p a c e f o r

1 5 0 f r e e w h e e l i n g y o u n g s t e r s . A s p e n , C o l o r a d o , i s p l a n n i n g a h i g h

s c h o o l i n w h i c h5 0

p e r c e n t o f a c a d e m i c s p a c e w i l l b e l i b r a r y - t y p e .

A l l o f t h e s e a r e s c h o o l s w i t h a v i s i o n o f t h e s e l f - e d u c a t i n g c h i l d

e s c a p i n g h i s i n d e n t u r e t o t h e g r o u p . T e a c h e r s w i l l b e m e m b e r s o f a

t e a m , a n d t h e y w i l l p l o t a n d s m o o t h t h e a c a d e m i c p a t h s o f i n d i v i d u a l

s t u d e n t s . T h e s c h o o l s w i l l b e t h e g a t h e r i n g p l a c e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s p r o -

c e e d i n g a t t h e i r o w n r a t e s .

A n d j u s t a s t h e i n d i v i d u a l c l a s s r o o m s a r e m e l t i n g i n t o a l a r g e r

z o n e o f s p a c e , s o a r e o t h e r s p e c i a l a r e a s o f t h e s c h o o l m o v i n g t o w a r d

g e n e r a l i z e d s p a c e .

T h e L i b r a r y

M o r e o f t e n t h a n n o t a s c h o o l l i b r a r y h a s b e e n s o m e m u l t i p l e

o f a c l a s s r o o m - t h a t i s , i f t h e r e w a s a l i b r a r y . I n 1 9 6 5 , t e n m i l l i o n

c h i l d r e n w e r e a t t e n d i n g s c h o o l s t h a t c o n t a i n e d n o l i b r a r y a t a l l , a n d

6 o p e r c e n t o f a l l e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s w e r e b a r e o f a n y t h i n g t h a t

e v e n r e s e m b l e d a c e n t r a l l i b r a r y . W h e r e a l i b r a r y d i d e x i s t , m o s t

o f t e n i t w a s t u c k e d a w a y i n a d u s t y c o r n e r o f t h e b u i l d i n g w h e r e i t

w o u l d n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e o r d e r l y d a y - t o - d a y o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e

s c h o o l . O r , i n t h e f e w e r b u t m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d c e n t e r s , w h e r e

s c h o o l m e n h e l d w i t h t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e l i b r a r y s h o u l d b e " t h e

h e a r t o f t h e s c h o o l , " i t w a s l i t e r a l l y b u r i e d i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e

s c h o o l - i n i t s v e r y c e n t e r . A n d t h i s w a s t h e l o g i c a l p l a c e f o r i t i n

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 150/327

GORES 1 4 1

t h e s i m p l e r d a y s w h e n t h e s c h o o l l i b r a r y w a s t o s e r v e o n l y d u r i n g

t h e a c a d e m i c d a y .

B u t n o w , t h i s i s c h a n g i n g . I n P a r m a , O h i o , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e

h i g h - s c h o o l l i b r a r y i s p l a c e d o n t h e p e r i p h e r y o f t h e b u i l d i n g . I t i s

p r a c t i c a l l y o n i t s f r o n t l a w n , t h e r e t o b e m o s t a c c e s s i b l e t o s t u d e n t s

w h o d e s i r e a c c e s s i n t h e e v e n i n g , o n w e e k e n d s , a n d d u r i n g s c h o o l

v a c a t i o n s . I n C l a r k s v i l l e , T e n n e s s e e , t h e l i b r a r y i s a multiarmed

o r g a n i s m , e a c h a r m e x t e n d i n g i n t o a n a m o e b a - s h a p e d z o n e o f c l a s s -

room space . T h u s , i n t h e p l a c e s w h e r e w o r k i s c a r r i e d o n , b e i t i n

s c i e n c e - m a t h e m a t i c s , i n t h e h u m a n i t i e s , o r i n t h e l a n g u a g e a r t s , t h e

r e l e v a n t l i b r a r y r e s o u r c e s a r e o n h a n d , a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e a c t i v i -

t i e s i n t h a t s u b j e c t . I f a c c e s s t o m a t e r i a l s i s t h e c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e

l o c a t i o n o f a s c h o o l l i b r a r y , P a r m a a n d C l a r k s v i l l e h a v e t a k e n a s t e p

i n t h e r i g h t d i r e c t i o n , a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l p r a c t i c e i s w r o n g .

A n t i c i p a t i n g t h a t t h e n e e d f o r l i b r a r y s e r v i c e s w i l l gr o w a s

s c h o o l s ( a n d c o l l e g e s ) d e c r e a s e t h e n u m b e r o f g r o u p - c o n t a c t h o u r s

a n d f r e e t h e i r m o r e a v i d s c h o l a r s f o r i n d e p e n d e n t s t u d y , s c h o o l s

t o d a y a r e p l a c i n g t h e l i b r a r y s o i t m a y a b s o r b s u r r o u n d i n g c l a s s -

r o o m s a s i t g r o w s t h r o u g h t h e y e a r s . I f d e s i g n e r s p o s s e s s a s e n s e

o f t r u s t e e s h i p , r e a l i z i n g t h a t t h e b u i l d i n g e r e c t e d t o d a y w i l l b e o n l y

a t m i d - l i f e i n t h e y e a r 2 0 0 0 , t h e y w i l l c o n t r i v e t o h e l p t h e l i b r a r y

g r o w o r g a n i c a l l y b y a b s o r b i n g s u r r o u n d i n g c e l l s . T h e y w i l l a n t i c i -

p a t e a n i n c r e a s i n g e x p a n s i o n o f t h e b o d y o f m a t e r i a l s f o r l e a r n i n g

a n d t h e c o n t i n u a l r e f i n e m e n t o f t h e d i f f e r e n t c a r r i e r s o f i n f o r m a t i o n ;

t h e l i b r a r y w i l l b e p l a n n e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h i s a n t i c i p a t i o n .

T h e G y m n a s i u m

U n t i l v e r y r e c e n t l y , t h e A m e r i c a n g y m n a s i u m w a s a r e c t a n g u l a r

b o x w h o s e d i m e n s i o n s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e r u l e s o f b a s k e t b a l l .

T h e b a s k e t b a l l b o x h a s s e r v e d e d u c a t i o n w e l l . Though it hardly

accommodated the physical activities which would p e r s i s t i n t o

a d u l t h o o d , i t w a s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , a u s e f u l s h e l t e r i n t h e y e a r s w h e n

s c h o o l s p o s s e s s e d n o y e a r - r o u n d , o u t d o o r p l a y s p a c e .

T h o u g h t h e A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e r e q u i r e s t h e p l a y i n g o f b a s k e t b a l l ,

many schools today, as in Wayland (Massachusetts) and Holland

( M i c h i g a n ) a r e p r o v i d i n g s p a c e i n t h e . i j n j . T a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f

t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a r c h n e v e r s l e e p s , t h a t g e o m e t r y i s t h e c h e a p e s t

w a y t o f i g h t g r a v i t y , g r e a t d o n N s o f f i e l d h o u s e s p a c e a r e r e p l a c i n g

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 151/327

1 4 2 SCHOOLHOUSE IN TRANSITION

t h e gy m n a s i u m bo x . The virtues are obvious : not only is money

saved, but the dome requires no interior supports, no posts to

o b s t r u c t b o t h m o t i o n a n d v i s i o n . A n d e s t h e t i c a l l y , t h e r e a r e t h o s e

who feel that a physical-education facility with a scoop of the

sky somehow b ring s visual relief from the otherwi se Cartesian

g e o m e t r y o f o u r s k y l i n e s .

T h e A u d i t o r i u m

Even the aud itoriu m is not what it once was . H i s t o r i c a l l y , i t

h a s b e e n a g r e a t c o f f i n - s h a p e d h a l l o c c u p i e d o n F r i d a y m o r n i n g s f o r

a s s e m b l i e s a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y i n t h e e v e n i n g f o r p u b l i c p e r f o r m a n c e s .

For the remaining go per cent of the time, it stood idle or was

misused . In reaction to this conspicuous consumption of space,

e c o n o m y - m i n d e d s c h o o l s d e s i g n e d i t a s a m u l t i - u s e f a c i l i t y : a u d i -

t o r i u m c u m g y m n a s i u m c u m c a f e t e r i a c u m t o w n h a l l - a s o l u t i o n

w h i c h w a s a l l u r i n g e n o u g h b u t i n e f f i c i e n t , i f n o t h a z a r d o u s . The

c o s t i n s t a f f t i m e t h r o u g h o u t t h e l i f e o f t h e b u i l d i n g i n s e t t i n g u p

t h e r o o m a n e w f o r e a c h d i f f e r e n t u s e w a s c o n s i d e r a b l e , a n d a l u n c h -

t i m e g r e a s e s p o t o n t h e f l o o r c o u l d c a u s e a b r o k e n l e g a t g y m t i m e .

N o r d i d t h e s p a c e s e r v e i t s s e p a r a t e p u r p o s e s w e l l , s i n c e t h e c o m -

b i n a t i o n i n e v i t a b l y i n v o l v e d c o m p r o m i s e s i n a c o u s t i c s , f l o o r s h a p e ,

r o o m s h a p e , a n d o t h e r d e t a i l s .

Today, there is a new, _sensible way for auditorium s to earn

t h e i r k e e p : t h a t i s , a s i n s t r u c t i o n a l s p a c e . Owing to the development

of operable partititions which can immedia tely divide space into

a c o u s t i c a l l y p r i v a t e s u b s p a c e s , a t h o u s a n d - s e a t a u d i t o r i u m c a n b e ,

a t a n y t i m e i n t h e d a y , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a l i t t l e t h e a t e r a n d s e v e r a l

s t u d i o - d e m o n s t r a t i o n - l e c t u r e r o o m s f o r s m a l l e r g r o u p s . T h u s , d i v i s i -

b i l i t y h a s s a v e d t h e a u d i t o r i u m , r e s t o r i n g i t f r o m i t s w h i t e - e l e p h a n t

s t a t u s a n d i t s e v e r y t h i n g - n o t h i n g d i s r e p u t e b y r e n d e r i n g i t u s e f u l

f o r i n s t r u c t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e s c h o o l d a y .

C l a s s r o o m s , l i b r a r i e s , g y m n a s i u m s , a n d a u d i t o r i u m s a r e t h e m a j o r

spaces whose sizes and shapes are responding most sensitively to

e d u c a t i o n a l c h a n g e . I n e a c h c a s e , n e w d e m a n d s o n t h e f a c i l i t y h a v e

prompted the development of new ways to meet them .

O n e o f t h e s e w a y s i s t o p r o v i d e f l e x i b i l i t y - t h e a b i l i t y o f a s p a c e

t o c h a n g e i t s s i z e , s h a p e , a n d u s e . F o r y e a r s f l e x i b i l i t y h a s b e e n

s o u g h t a n d a c h i e v e d i n c o m m e r c i a l o f f i c e b u i l d i n g s a n d t h e r e s e a r c h

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 152/327

GORES 1 4 3

l a b o r a t o r i e s o f i n d u s t r y . I t i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t b u s i n e s s a n d i n -

d u s t r y , b e i n g u n s u r e o f f u t u r e p r o d u c t s a n d p r o c e s s e s , w o u l d s e e k

t o m i n i m i z e t h e c o s t o f a l t e r i n g f a c i l i t i e s t o a c c o m m o d a t e u n k n o w n

b u t c e r t a i n c h a n g e .

B y contrast, ed ucation has assu med until recently that the

c e n t u r y - o l d , u n i f o r m t e a c h e r - t a u g h t g r o u p s w o u l d p r e v a i l t h r o u g h -

o u t t h e l i f e o f t h e b u i l d i n g a n d t h a t w h a t e v e r c h a n g e o c c u r r e d i n

e d u c a t i o n w o u l d b e c o n f i n e d t o i t s c o n t e n t a n d n o t i t s a r r a n g e m e n t .

F o r t h e l a s t d o z e n y e a r s , e d u c a t i o n h a s b e e n l e s s s u r e o f i t s f u t u r e

practices, and that uncertainty has resulted in the demand for

f l e x i b i l i t y o f s p a c e . No longer do we s ee new scho ols design ed as

a chambered nautilus with immovable calcium partitions dictating

how teachers and children shall ever after meet each other, and

w i t h t h e c h a n g e o f i n t e r i o r d e p e n d e n t o n t h e d i s t r i c t ' s w i l l i n g n e s s

t o d e s t r o y t h e w a l l s .

L i k e n a t u r e , t h e f r e e e n t e r p r i s e s y s t e m a b h o r s a v a c u u m . W h e n

e d u c a t i o n , i n t h e l a t e 1 9 5 o ' s , a s k e d f o r f l e x i b i l i t y , i n d u s t r y r e s p o n d e d ;

t o d a y , t h e s c h o o l d e s i g n e r h a s a c c e s s t o s e v e r a l k i n d s o f r e l a t i v e l y

i n e x p e n s i v e a n d r e a s o n a b l y s o u n d - t i g h t p a r t i t i o n s , w h i c h a r e e i t h e r

movable as a panel or, indeed, immediately operable if the space

h a s t o b e d i v i d e d q u i c k l y a n d f r e q u e n t l y .

N o t o n l y a r e t h e s h a p e s o f r o o m s c o m i n g t o b e e a s i l y a l t e r a b l e ,

b u t t h e t o n e , t h e s p i r i t , t h e c o m f o r t a n d a m e n i t y o f t h e r o o m s a r e

c h a n g i n g .

C o m f o r t w i t h o u t G u i l t

S c h o o l s a r e j u s t n o w c o m i n g o u t o f t h e e r a o f d e s i g n f o r

i n d e s t r u c t i b i l i t y . W i t h a p r e m i u m p l a c e d o n h o w w e l l t h e s c h o o l

p e r f o r m s i t s t a s k o f h e l p i n g c h i l d r e n l e a r n , a n d a c k n o w l e d g i n g a t

l o n g l a s t w h a t b u s i n e s s a n d i n d u s t r y h a v e k n o w n f o r a g e n e r a t i o n -

t h a t q u a l i t y o f e n v i r o n m e n t i n f l u e n c e s p r o d u c t i v i t y - e d u c a t o r s a n d

t h e i r a r c h i t e c t s a r e s p e c i f y i n g s u r f a c e s a n d m a t e r i a l s w h i c h i n c r e a s e

t h e c h a n c e s t h a t t h e c h i l d w i l l l e a r n .

Q u i e t i n g t h e s c h o o l . - E v e r y o n e h a s a l w a y s k n o w n t h a t l e a r n i n g

is impeded if one does not hear well . Yet, we have th ousand s of

s c h o o l s w h o s e i n t e r i o r s a r e m a d e o f n o i s e - v e n t i n g m a t e r i a l s - h a r d ,

r e v e r b e r a t i v e f l o o r s ; s t e e l a n d p l a s t i c f u r n i t u r e ; p l a s t e r o r p a i n t e d

cement-block wall s ; w i t h o n l y t o k e n r e l i e f i n t h i s e c h o i n g c h a m b e r

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 153/327

1 4 4 S C H O O LH OUS E IN T RANS I T I ON

s u p p l i e d b y a c o u s t i c t i l e i n t h e c e i l i n g . As the day wears on a mid

rising ambient noise, communication among children and teachers

b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y s t r a i n e d a s v o i c e s r i s e t o o v e r c o m e t h e r i s i n g

sound . A d d t o t h i s t h e s t e a d y h u m o f v e n t i l a t o r f a n s , a n d t h e s u m

t o t a l i s n o i s e .

Schools today are seeking quiet . The scraping of chair s and

the reverberation from the floo r are being subdued by carpeting .

Because house hold carpeting has been sold to the American public

as a status symbol-indeed, anything wall-to-wall smacks of the

g o o d l i f e - t h e r e h a s b e e n r e s i s t a n c e i n s o m e q u a r t e r s t o t h e u s e o f

c a r p i n g - f o r _ _ q u i e t i t i g t h e s c h o o l . Y e t s c h o o l l i b r a r i e s c a n n o w b e

carpeted without reprisal at the polls, and the floors of other

e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t a r e a s o f t h e s c h o o l a r e g r a d u a l l y r e c e i v i n g a c o u s t i c

t r e a t m e n t - f r e q u e n t l y a f t e r n o i s y p u b l i c b a t t l e .

C o o l i n g t h e s c h o o l .-As l o n g a s s c h o o l s s e r v e d a n a g r a r i a n c a l e n -

d a r , t h e t h e r m a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f d e s i g n w e r e s i m p l e : s u p p l y h e a t .

I n a p r i m i t i v e s o r t o f w a y t h i s d e a l t w i t h f u n d a m e n t a l s - a c h i l d ' s

n a t u r a l r i g h t n o t t o b e c o l d .

A c h i l d ' s n a t u r a l r i g h t n o t t o b e h o t w a s l e s s c l e a r , e s p e c i a l l y i f

e v e r y o n e e l s e w a s a l s o " s u f f e r i n g f r o m t h e h e a t ." If the warm days

o f e a r l y f a l l o r l a t e s p r i n g r a i s e d t h e c l a s s r o o m ' s t e m p e r a t u r e i n t o

t h e q o ' s , t h o u g h t f u l a r c h i t e c t s h a d a r r a n g e d t h e w i n d o w s t o c a p t u r e

any vagrant breeze . And in more recent times there has been me-

c h a n i c a l v e n t i l a t i o n t o s t i r a n d m i x t h e a i r . A s l o n g a s s c h o o l s w e r e

closed d uring Ju ly and Aug ust, this worked reasonably wel l in

northern latitudes, but not so well in the warmer and more humid

z o n e s o f t h e S o u t h .

B u t w i t h t h e c o m i n g o f s u m m e r s c h o o l s , t h e b r e e z e s o f J u l y a n d

A u g u s t w e r e f o u n d w a n t i n g , e v e n w h e n a s s i s t e d b y m e c h a n i c a l

v e n t i l a t i o n . S t r a n g e l y e n o u g h t h e v e r y o l d e s t b u i l d i n g s , t h e f o r t r e s s -

l i k e s t r u c t u r e s l e f t o v e r f r o m t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t u r n e d o u t t o

be best for su m mer use . T h e i r t h i c k m a s o n r y w a l l s , s t i l l h o l d i n g

the cold of the winter and cooled by the summer night, were ex-

c e l l e n t i n s u l a t o r s w h i c h h e l p e d p r e v e n t s u d d e n c h a n g e s i n t e m p e r a -

t u r e a n d k e p t t h e r o o m s r e a s o n a b l y c o o l u n t i l t h e w a l l s w e r e t h o r -

o u g h l y w a r m e d t h r o u g h b y t h e s u m m e r ' s s u n . L e a s t e f f e c t i v e

a g a i n s t t h e s u n ' s h e a t a r e t h e r e l a t i v e l y n e w g l a s s b o x s c h o o l s w h o s e

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 154/327

GORES 1 4 5

g r e e n h o u s e e f f e c t o n a h o t s u m m e r ' s d a y m a k e t e a c h i n g o r l e a r n i n g

a d i f f i c u l t e x p e r i e n c e .

Though the rapidly mounting acceptance of air conditioning is

a t t r i b u t a b l e p r i n c i p a l l y t o t h e d e s i r e t o r u n s c h o o l s t h r o u g h o u t t h e

e n t i r e y e a r , t h e r e i s a m p l e r e a s o n i n m o s t c o m m u n i t i e s t o c o o l a s

w e l l a s t o h e a t t h e s c h o o l . E v e n i n w i n t e r , s c h o o l s a r e g e n e r a l l y

too hot . T h e b o i l e r i s s t o k e d t o w a r m t h e s c h o o l f o r t h e c h i l d r e n ' s

a r r i v a l , b u t b y 1 0 : 0 0 A .M . on many win try mornings in th e North,

a n d o n m o s t i n t h e S o u t h , t h e t h e r m a l p r o b l e m h a s r e v e r s e d i t s e l f .

T h e c l a s s r o o m s n e e d t o b e c o o l e d t o o f f s e t t h e h e a t o f t h e s u n a n d

t h e h e a t f r o m t h e c h i l d r e n t h e m s e l v e s , e a c h g i v i n g o f f t h e h e a t o f a

l o o - w a t t b u l b . T h e n e e d f o r c o o l i n g i n t h e w i n t e r t i m e i n t h e d e n s e l y

occupied schoolhou se is not rare ; i t i s f r e q u e n t . T o a i r - c o n d i t i o n

b e c a u s e o f a n t i c i p a t e d s u m m e r t i m e u s e i s t o a r r i v e a t t h e r i g h t a n -

s w e r , b u t f o r t h e l e s s e r r e a s o n .

I f e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a l l c h i l d r e n i s t o b e m a x i m i z e d ,

c o m f o r t i s a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n . I f t h e c h i l d ( a n d h i s t e a c h e r ) i s

forced to expend energy to protect himself against environmental

i r r i t a t i o n s , w h e t h e r t h e r m a l , s o n i c , v i s u a l , o l f a c t o r y , o r e s t h e t i c ,

h i s t o t a l c a p a c i t y t o r e s p o n d i s l e s s e n e d . B u s i n e s s a n d i n d u s t r y k n o w

t h i s ; e d u c a t i o n i s l e a r n i n g i t .

In many communities today, clim ate control in new schools is

p r e s c r i b e d . T h e c o o l i n g o f o l d e r s c h o o l s a w a i t s t h e r i s i n g c o n s c i o u s -

n e s s o f t h e p u b l i c t h a t t h e s e t o o s h o u l d b e m a d e e f f i c i e n t . I n t h e

m e a n t i m e , t h e a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g i n d u s t r y c o u l d s p e e d t h e p r o c e s s b y

displaying the same enthusiasm for economically cooling existing

schoolhouses that it has shown for cooling those on the planning

b o a r d s .

A n d i t i s n o t i n c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t s o m e d a y , i n o u r i n d u s t r i a l c i t i e s ,

t h e c a s e f o r c l i m a t e c o n t r o l w i l l r e s t a s m u c h o n c l e a n i n g t h e a i r t h e

c h i l d b r e a t h e s a s o n c o n t r o l l i n g t e m p e r a t u r e a n d h u m i d i t y .

F o r t h e F u t u r e

H i s t o r i c a l l y , t h e s c h o o l b u i l d i n g h a s n o t l o o m e d l a r g e i n t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n f i e l d , w h i l e h o m e - b u i l d i n g , c o m m e r c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n ,

a n d r o a d s h a v e o f f e r e d m u l t i b i l l i o n - d o l l a r m a r k e t s . B u t n o w t h e

b u r g e o n i n g s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n h a s s e t o f f a s c h o o l a n d c o l l e g e b u i l d -

i n g b o o m o f t h e o r d e r o f $ 6 b i l l i o n a n n u a l l y f o r a t l e a s t t h e n e x t

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 155/327

1 4 6 SC HO OLHOUSE IN TRANS ITI ON

_ t e n y e a r s . T h i s i s n o t a n i n c o n s i d e r a b l e m a r k e t , a n d b u s i n e s s a n d

i n d u s t r y h a v e d i s c o v e r e d i t . Poverty, as some wag has asserted,

may be the new growth industry, but a serious case can be made

t h a t e d u c a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g i t s c a p i t a l o u t l a y s , m a y w e l l b e t h e d y -

n a m i c w h i c h w i l l e n e r g i z e t h e A m e r i c a n e c o n o m y o f t h e 1 9 6 o ' s .

L i k e t h e a u t o m o b i l e i n t h e 1 9 2 o ' s , r e l i e f i n t h e ' 3 o ' s , w a r i n t h e ' 4 0 ' s ,

and the backlog of demand for consum er goods in the ' 5 0 ' s , t h e e x -

p a n s i o n o f e d u c a t i o n w i l l p r o v i d e t h e f o c u s f o r t h i s d e c a d e ' s e c o n -

omy. L i k e t h e a u t o m o b i l e i n t h e ' 2 o ' s , e d u c a t i o n i s t o d a y s o m e t h i n g

t h a t a l o t o f p e o p l e w a n t a n d t h a t t a k e s a l o t o f p e o p l e t o p r o v i d e .

A m o n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s j u s t n o w e m e r g i n g , t h e C a l i f o r n i a

S c h o o l C o n s t r u c t i o n S y s t e m s D e v e l o p m e n t , d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f o l l o w -

i n g p a r a g r a p h s , i s r e l e v a n t .

C o - o p e r a t i v e B u i l d i n g s

America has 3 0 , 0 0 0 s c h o o l b o a r d s . I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e y

h a v e p r o b l e m s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . E a c h p r i z e s i t s a u t o n o m y , a s i t

s h o u l d , a n d s e e s t h e e x e r c i s e o f i t s i n d e p e n d e n c e a s t h e b e s t g u a r a n -

t e e t h a t t h e n a t i o n w i l l n o t s o m e d a y h a v e a c e n t r a l i z e d , m o n o l i t h i c ,

f e d e r a l l y c o n t r o l l e d s c h o o l s y s t e m . Anyone thin ks twice b efore

s u g g e s t i n g t h a t 3 0 , 0 0 0 u n i t s , r a n g i n g i n s i z e f r o m t h o s e w i t h p r a c -

t i c a l l y n o c h i l d r e n u n d e r t h e i r g o v e r n a n c e t o a d i s t r i c t e n c o m p a s s i n g

m o r e t h a n a m i l l i o n c h i l d r e n , r e p r e s e n t s o m e t h i n g l e s s t h a n a p e r -

f e c t a r r a n g e m e n t f o r s o l v i n g a c o m m o n p r o b l e m . However, the

American school board is one of the unique aspects of American

government, has a first-rate record of civic accomplishment, and

seems to have attracted thro ugh the years a higher proportion of

dedicated people and fewer rascals than any other of the larger

o f f i c e s o f p u b l i c s e r v i c e .

Nevertheless com m unication is not g ood . B i g c i t i e s s p e a k t o

b i g c i t i e s ; t h e s u b u r b s s p e a k t o t h e i r f e l l o w - B r a h m i n s ; a n d t h e r u r a l

d i s t r i c t s c o m m u n e w i t h t h e i r s t a t e d e p a r t m e n t s o f e d u c a t i o n . C o m -

m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n c o n t i g u o u s s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e y

d i f f e r i n s i z e a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s , i s s o m e t i m e s n o n e x i s t e n t . Un d e r

these circumstances it is u nderstandable that the building of a

s c h o o l h o u s e b e c o m e s a p u r e l y l o c a l p r o j e c t a n d t a k e s b u t s m a l l a d -

v a n t a g e o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e s c h o o l h o u s e

i s a s s e m b l e d t y p i c a l l y f r o m t h e b i t s a n d p i e c e s l y i n g o n t h e i n d u s -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 156/327

GORES 1 4 7

t r i a l s h e l f , a n d f i n a l a s s e m b l y r e q u i r e s a n i m m e n s e a m o u n t o f h a n d -

c r a f t i n g .

U n d e r t h i s o n e - a t - a - t i m e s y s t e m o f b u i l d i n g , a s c h o o l i s i n e v i t a b l y

a s m a l l p r o j e c t . E v e n a $ 5 m i l l i o n s c h o o l i s h a r d l y w o r t h s p e c i a l a t -

t e n t i o n f r o m t h e i n d u s t r i e s w h i c h m a k e i t s p a r t s a n d p i e c e s . S c h o o l s

a r e b o u g h t o n e a t a t i m e a n d a t r e t a i l p r i c e .

J u s t e m e r g i n g n o w i n t h e f i e l d o f s c h o o l d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n

i s t h e c o n s o r t i u m o f n e i g h b o r i n g d i s t r i c t s , e a c h m a i n t a i n i n g i t s r i g h t -

f u l a n d p r e c i o u s a u t o n o m y , y e t p o o l i n g i t s r e q u i r e m e n t s t o s e c u r e

t h e b e n e f i t s o f v o l u m e - p u r c h a s e .

T h e f i r s t A m e r i c a n c o n s o r t i u m t o c o n s t r u c t s c h o o l s - $ 3 o m i l l i o n

w o r t h - i s i n C a l i f o r n i a , w h e r e 1 3 s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s n e e d i n g 2 2 s c h o o l s

a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e t i m e h a v e p l a n n e d t o g e t h e r , b i d t o g e t h e r ,

a n d w i l l n o w c o n s t r u c t t o g e t h e r . T h e s c h o o l s t o b e c o n s t r u c t e d a r e

n o t s t o c k - p l a n s c h o o l s , a n d n o t w o o f t h e m w i l l l o o k a l i k e . Only

5 4 p e r c e n t o f e a c h b u i l d i n g w i l l c o n s i s t o f t h e m o d u l a r c o m p o n e n t s

c r e a t e d b y i n d u s t r y t o m e e t t h e p e r f o r m a n c e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s i m p o s e d

b y t h e 1 3 s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s a n d t h e i r c o - o p e r a t i n g a r c h i t e c t s .

The components-a structural system, heating-ventilating-air-

c o n d i t i o n i n g s y s t e m , c e i l i n g - l i g h t i n g s y s t e m , d e m o u n t a b l e p a r t i t i o n s ,

and two types of operable walls-may be pieced together to meet

a n y s e t o f f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s . And they provid e freed om of

e x t e r i o r d e s i g n b r o a d e n o u g h t o s a t i s f y a n y b o d y ' s a e s t h e t i c . The

sleek, machine-age interio r workings can be sheathed in anything

f r o m V i c t o r i a n g i n g e r b r e a d t o G r e e k r e v i v a l t o t h e p r i s t i n e p r e c i -

sion of a Mies Van der Rohe .

O n c e p i e c e d t o g e t h e r , t h e i n t e r i o r s p a c e s c a n b e r e a r r a n g e d a t

minim u m effort and expense . The walls can be moved by the cus-

t o d i a l s t a f f o v e r n i g h t , b e t w e e n t e r m s , o r b e t w e e n c l a s s e s , b e c a u s e

no major overhaul of the lighting . _ a n a l _ a i r - h a n d l i n g , s y s t e m s i s r e -

q u i r e d . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e c o m p o n e n t s p r o v i d e a l e v e l o f i n t e r i o r

f l e x i b i l i t y o r m u t a b i l i t y o f s p a c e h i t h e r t o u n o b t a i n a b l e .

T h i s a d a p t a b i l i t y i s p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e t h e s t r u c t u r a l s y s t e m p e r -

m i t s c l e a r s p a n s o f l o f t s p a c e u p t o 7 5 f e e t b y 3 0 f e e t w i t h o u t o b -

s t r u c t i n g w a l l s o r c o l u m n s , a n d b e c a u s e a l l o f t h e c o m p o n e n t s a r e

d e s i g n e d t o b e c o m p a t i b l e a n d t o p e r m i t r e a r r a n g e m e n t s o f p a r t i -

t i o n s o n a f o u r - i n c h m o d u l e .

The system, developed by the School Construction Systems De-

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 157/327

1 4 8 SC HO O LHOUSE IN TRANS ITI ON

velopment Project (SCSD) with financial support from the Educa-

t i o n a l F a c i l i t i e s L a b o r a t o r i e s , m a k e s p o s s i b l e s p e e d i e r e r e c t i o n o f t h e

s c h o o l . A n d i t m e a n s t h a t b e t t e r e d u c a t i o n a l s p a c e c a n b e c r e a t e d

a t c o s t s e q u a l t o a n d o f t e n l o w e r t h a n t h o s e o b t a i n a b l e u n d e r c o n -

v e n t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d s .

A l t h o u g h t h e f i r s t C a l i f o r n i a c o n s o r t i u m i n v o l v e s o n l y1 3

s c h o o l

d i s t r i c t s , i t i s a p r o m i s i n g m o v e t o w a r d c o - o p e r a t i v e p l a n n i n g a m o n g

s c h o o l b o a r d s g e n e r a l l y . J u s t a s t h e s h a r i n g o f p e r s o n n e l a n d f a c i l i -

t i e s a c r o s s p o l i t i c a l b o u n d a r i e s i s g a i n i n g a c c e p t a n c e , s o c a n t h e s a m e

p r i n c i p l e b e a p p l i e d n o w t o t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s n e e d f o r s c h o o l b u i l d -

i n g s . B e n e f i t s o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a p r o j e c t h a v e a l r e a d y s t a r t e d t o f l o w

t o o t h e r s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s . B a r r i n g t o n , I l l i n o i s , h a s a d a p t e d t h e S C S D

s y s t e m t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f i t s n e w m i d d l e s c h o o l , a n d t h e C l a r k

County, Nevada, school syste m is constructing a new school u sing

a c o m p a n i o n s y s t e m d e v e l o p e d i n t h e c o m p e t i t i o n s p o n s o r e d b y t h e

C a l i f o r n i a p r o j e c t .

I n t h e l o n g r u n , i t m a y b e t h a t t h e e n d u r i n g v a l u e o f t h e c o n -

sortium, as has been demonstrated in England, is the stimulation

given private industry to develop better products for the school

m a r k e t , n o w t h a t t h e s i z e o f t h e o r d e r - t h e v o l u m e - i s s u f f i c i e n t t o

j u s t i f y t h e c o s t o f r e s e a r c h . I t m a y w e l l r e v e r s e t h e f l o w o f i n v e n -

t i o n , w h i c h h e r e t o f o r e h a s a l w a y s b e e n f r o m b u s i n e s s a n d i n d u s t r y

toward education . Indeed, someday the school market may provide

t h e n e w i d e a s a n d i n v e n t i o n s w h i c h t h e c o m m e r c i a l w o r l d w i l l s e i z e

u p o n , a n d t o i t s b e n e f i t .

T h e U r b a n S c h o o l

S c h o o l s a r e c a u g h t i n a c r o s s - r i p o f p o p u l a t i o n m o v e m e n t . Back

w h e r e t h e c r e e k s f o r k , t h e r u r a l s c h o o l i s b e i n g a b a n d o n e d o r b e i n g

merged with its neighbor-one-room schools have declined in num-

ber to about io,ooo from nearly zoo,ooo a half-centu ry ago . The

burgeoning suburbs and exurbs are building schools-freque ntly

very g ood ones .

I t i s t h e g r e a t c e n t r a l c i t y s c h o o l t h a t i s m o s t i n a g o n y . The

f l i g h t o f m i d d l e - c l a s s l e a d e r s h i p t o t h e s u b u r b s , a r c h a i c r e g u l a t i o n s

d i c t a t i n g d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n ( m a n y o f w h i c h a r e t o b e f o u n d

i n t h e s c h o o l b o a r d ' s o w n e n c r u s t e d r u l e s , i f n o t i n t h o s e o f t h e c i t y

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 158/327

GORES1 4 9

h a l l ) , t h e e r o s i o n o f t h e t a x b a s e , a n d t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f d e c i s i o n -

m a k i n g - a l l t h e s e f r u s t r a t e t h e b u i l d i n g o f f i r s t - r a t e s c h o o l s . ~

W i t h f e w e x c e p t i o n s -t h e Ne w Ha v e n p r o gr a m i s c o n s p i c u -

ously an exception-urban-renewal programs have focused on about

e v e r y v i t a l a r t e r y o f c i t y l i f e - h o u s i n g , h i g h w a y s , a n d t h e m a r k e t -

p l a c e - b u t h a v e l e f t t h e s c h o o l h o u s e " b y t h e r o a d , a r a g g e d b e g g a r

sunnin g ." Only now is the schoolhouse (the chief determinant of

w h e r e m i d d l e - c l a s s f a m i l i e s w i t h c h i l d r e n w i l l c h o o s e t o l i v e o r c o n -

t i n u e t o l i v e ) b e i n g r e c o g n i z e d a s t h e p r i n c i p a l c o u n t e r v a i l i n g f o r c e

f o r f a m i l i e s w h i c h e n j o y t h e l u x u r y o f m o b i l i t y . The importan ce of

t h e s c h o o l h o u s e t o t h e s t a b i l i t y a n d e q u a n i m i t y o f c i t y l i f e w a s w e l l

stated to New York City in 1 9 5 9 ` 7

I n t h e n e c e s s a r y a n d c o n t i n u a l q u e s t i o n i n g o f m u n i c i p a l o p e r a t i o n s ,

t h e n a t u r e a n d w o r t h o f a s c h o o l h o u s e d e f y s i m p l e a n a l y s i s . T h o u g h i t

l o o m s a s t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y c r e a t e d o f a l l c l a s s e s o f m u n i c i p a l s t r u c -

t u r e s , a n d t h e r e f o r e i n t h e a g g r e g a t e i s t h e m o s t e x p e n s i v e i t e m o f c a p i -

t a l o u t l a y , i t i s b u r d e n e d b y h a v i n g t o p e r f o r m m o r e t h a n t h e c o m m o n l y

r e c o g n i z e d f u n c t i o n o f s e r v i n g w e l l t h e i n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e y o u n g . I f t h e

s c h o o l h o u s e i s t o p r o d u c e t o t h e m a x i m u m , i t m u s t a l s o p e r f o r m t h e l e s s

c o m m o n l y r e c o g n i z e d , b u t n o n e t h e l e s s v i t a l , f u n c t i o n o f l e a d i n g t h e c i t y

t o w a r d a b e t t e r a n d h i g h e r p l a n e o f l i v i n g .

T h e s c h o o l h o u s e t h a t i s o n l y a p l a c e w h e r e c h i l d r e n a r e t a u g h t d u r -

i n g t h e d a y f u l f i l l s i t s p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n . M a n y c i t i e s a r e s a t i s f i e d w i t h

this much and only this much . B u t t h e r e a r e t h o s e w h o e x p e c t t h e

s c h o o l h o u s e t o s e r v e i t s c i t y i n a d d i t i o n a l w a y s : i t m u s t s e r v e t o

s t r e n g t h e n t h e w h o l e f a b r i c o f c i t y l i f e b y s e r v i n g i t s w h o l e c o m m u n i t y ;

i t s a r c h i t e c t u r e s h o u l d l e a d t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d o n t o i t s o w n r e n e w a l ;

a n d i t m u s t h e l p t o a n c h o r t h o s e f a m i l i e s w h o a r e n e e d e d t o k e e p a c i t y

i n b a l a n c e c u l t u r a l l y a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y , a n d w h o a r e e n c o u r a g e d t o

d e s e r t t o t h e s u b u r b s i f t h e c i t y ' s s c h o o l s a r e d r e a r y a n d c h e e r l e s s .

C i t i e s a r e o r g a n i c ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e y m u s t c o n t i n u a l l y r e n e w t h e m s e l v e s .

T h e i r g r o w t h a n d g r e a t n e s s m a y h a v e c o m e a b o u t b y a c c i d e n t o r g o o d

f o r t u n e ; b u t t h e i r d e c l i n e c a n b e f o r e s t a l l e d o n l y b y d e s i g n . O f a l l

m u n i c i p a l s t r u c t u r e s , t h e s c h o o l h o u s e , b e i n g t h e m o s t n u m e r o u s , h o l d s

t h e k e y t o a c i t y ' s p h y s i c a l a n d , i n d e e d , s o c i o l o g i c a l f u t u r e .

C e r t a i n l y o n e c o u l d n e v e r c l a i m t h a t g o o d s c h o o l h o u s e s a l o n e a r e

t h e a n s w e r t o t h e c o u n t r y ' s o r t o t h e c i t y ' s e d u c a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s . B u t

t h e s p i r i t l e s s s c h o o l h o u s e c a n m a k e a l l t h e p r o b l e m s m o r e d i f f i c u l t .

T h e n a t u r e a n d c o n d i t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l h o u s e s u g g e s t t o t h e c o m -

m u n i t y a n d t o t h e c h i l d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e e n t e r p r i s e f o r w h i c h i t

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 159/327

1 5 0 S C H O O LH OUS E IN T RANS I T I ON

w a s b u i l t . T h e b u i l d i n g s a y s t o t h e m w h a t P l a t o s a i d t o a l l o f u s : "What

i s h o n o r e d i n a c o u n t r y w i l l b e c u l t i v a t e d t h e r e . " 1

G r a n t e d t h a t t e a c h e r s a r e m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s ,

t h e f a c t r e m a i n s t h a t t h e w o r n - o u t s c h o o l h o u s e w h i c h d o t s t h e c i t y -

s c a p e i n s c a n d a l o u s n u m b e r s c a n d i m i n i s h t h e t e a c h e r ' s c a p a c i t y t o

t e a c h , u n d e r m i n e n e i g h b o r h o o d m o r a l e , d e p r e c i a t e r e a l - e s t a t e v a l u e s

and speed the mobile families on their way . I f t o t h e g e n e r a l d e -

pression of the environment is added the new threat of physical

d a n g e r i n t h e s t r e e t s , t h e b a s i c f o r c e s a r e p r e s e n t f o r e v e n t u a l l y

e m p t y i n g t h e c i t y o f i t s y o u n g f a m i l i e s .

The neglect of the city schoolhouse has hastened the day of

f e d e r a l r e l i e f , a n d m a n y c i t i e s a r e n o w i m p e l l e d t o s e e k n e w s o l u -

tions outside the conventional one of hastily replacing the old

s c h o o l s , o n e b y o n e . New forms and n ew arrangeme nts are erupt-

i n g : New Haven (Connecticut) convert ed to the4 - 4 - 4

o r g a n i z a t i o n ,

and a special com mission has recom mend ed it to New York City ;

E a s t O r a n g e (Ne w J e r s e y ) i s c o n s i d e r i n g a n " e d u c a t i o n p l a z a "

w h i c h w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y c o n s o l i d a t e o n o n e s i t e t h e t h i r t e e n s c h o o l

b u i l d i n g s i t n o w o p e r a t e s . P i t t s b u r g h ( P e n n s y l v a n i a ) i s s t u d y i n g t h e

" e d u c a t i o n p a r k " f o r a m a j o r d i s t r i c t o f t h e c i t y . Broward County

( F l o r i d a ) i s g a t h e r i n g t h o u s a n d s o f s t u d e n t s o n a f o r m e r A i r F o r c e

base and will someday enrol Grades K-XX under a mixtu re of pub-

l i c a n d p r i v a t e a u s p i c e s . T i t l e I I I o f t h e E d u c a t i o n A c t o f 1 9 6 5 p r o -

v i d e s $ i o o m i l l i o n o f f e d e r a l a s s i s t a n c e f o r " S u p p l e m e n t a r y E d u c a -

t i o n a l C e n t e r s " - a n e w a g e n c y c a l c u l a t e d t o s t r e n g t h e n i n s t r u c t i o n

i n c o n v e n t i o n a l s c h o o l s b y c r e a t i n g c e n t e r s , s a t u r a t e d w i t h t a l e n t

a n d t o o l s , t o w h i c h c h i l d r e n f r o m b o t h p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e s c h o o l s

can be brought . A t t h i s t i m e o f w r i t i n g , C l e v e l a n d ( O h i o ) a p p e a r s

t o b e t h e f i r s t c i t y t o e s t a b l i s h a m a j o r s u p p l e m e n t a r y c e n t e r f o r t h e

s c h o o l y e a r 1 9 6 5 - 6 6 - i n a c o m m e r c i a l b u i l d i n g c o n v e r t e d t o s c h o o l

u s e .

T h e S u p p l e m e n t a r y E d u c a t i o n a l C e n t e r r e p r e s e n t s a m a j o r e f f o r t

in the search for new forms . I t a t t e m p t s t o d o f o r a c l u s t e r o f

s c h o o l s w h a t n o o n e s c h o o l c a n d o f o r i t s e l f . A n d , i n m a n y i n s t a n c e s ,

i . School Const ructi on in New York City . R e p o r t o f t h e S t a t e E d u c a t i o n

C o m m i s s i o n e r ' s C o m m i t t e e o n I n qu i r y i n t o C h a r g e s o f W a s t e a n d E x t r a v a g a n c e

i n t h e C o n s t r u c t i o n o f S c h o o l B u i l d i n g s i n N e w Y o r k C i t y , M a y , 1 9 5 9 . A l b a n y :

U n i v e r s i t y o f t h e S t a t e o f N e w Y o r k , 1 9 5 9 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 160/327

GORES 1 5 1

w h i l e i m p r o v i n g e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y , i t c a n , b e c a u s e i t e n l a r g e s

t h e a t t e n d a n c e d i s t r i c t , p r o v i d e a h e t e r o g e n e o u s s t u d e n t b o d y i n

r a c i a l l y i m b a l a n c e d n e i g h b o r h o o d s .

I n S u m

A f t e r a h u n d r e d y e a r s o f e s s e n t i a l l y s t a n d a r d d e s i g n , d i c t a t e d b y

s t a n d a r d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , t h e s c h o o l h o u s e h a s b r o k e n o u t o f i t s b o x e s .

E d u c a t i o n a l c h a n g e h a s b r o u g h t a r c h i t e c t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . I n d e -

s t r u c t i b i l i t y , a n t i s e p s i s , a n d c h e a p n e s s a r e n o l o n g e r t h e f i r s t c o n d i -

t i o n s o f d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n .

M a n y p e r s o n s s e n s e t h e c h a n g e a n d , i n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r , h a v e

c o m e t o e x p e c t a n d t o b e w i l l i n g t o p a y f o r f u n c t i o n a n d b e a u t y .

F o r t h e f i r s t t i m e w e a r e c o n n e c t i n g t h e n a t i o n ' s f u t u r e p r o s p e r i t y

w i t h t h e p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n o f t h e l o c a l s c h o o l h o u s e a n d n o w g i v e

c o n s e n t f o r b u i l d i n g s c h o o l s w h i c h p r o v i d e c o m f o r t a n d a m e n i t y .

T h e n e w s c h o o l p r o p o s e s t o n o u r i s h t h e c h i l d ' s s p i r i t a n d d i g n i t y .

W e a r e c o m i n g t o a c c e p t t h e s c h o o l h o u s e a s m o r e t h a n s h e l t e r f o r

the young ; i t i s a f a c i l i t y f o r l i v i n g a n d f o r l e a r n i n g h o w t o l i v e .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 161/327

S E C TI O N I I

FO RCES AND I DEAS HOLDI NG PO TENTIAL FOR

INFLUENCI NG TH E SC HO OLS

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 162/327

I n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h e W r i t e r s

J O HN I . G O O D L A D

Y o u a r e t o i d e n t i f y , d e s c r i b e , a n d a n a l y z e t h o s e c e n t r a l s o c i a l ,

e c o n o m i c , a n d p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s o r m a j o r i d e a s f r o m t h e b e h a v i o r a l

s c i e n c e s , f r o m r e s e a r c h o n i n s t r u c t i o n , a n d f r o m p h i l o s o p h i c a l i n -

q u i r y t o w h i c h s c h o o l s m i g h t ( o r e v e n s h o u l d ) h a v e b e e n e x p e c t e d

to respond since World War I I . You need not specify what the

s c h o o l s ' r e s p o n s e s h o u l d h a v e b e e n , b u t y o u m u s t c l a r i f y y o u r r e a -

s o n s f o r e x p e c t i n g a r e s p o n s e f r o m t h e s c h o o l s . T h i s m a y n e c e s s i t a t e

t h e u s e o f s p e c i f i c s c h o o l p r a c t i c e s t o c l a r i f y y o u r p o s i t i o n . T h e

n a t u r e o f y o u r t a s k w i l l d e m a n d , n o d o u b t , a n a l y s e s o f f o r c e s o r

i d e a s t h a t g o b a c k m u c h f a r t h e r t h a n W o r l d W a r I I . N o n e t h e l e s s ,

y o u s h o u l d c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e p a s t t w o d e c a d e s , d r a w i n g o n t h e

m o r e d i s t a n t p a s t o n l y t o i l l u m i n a t e t h i s m o r e r e c e n t p e r i o d .

C H A P T E R S E V E N

W i t h r e s p e c t t o s o m e o f t h e m o s t d i f f i c u l t s c h o o l p r o b l e m s , e d -

ucation has become almost inextricably entwined w i t h c o m p l e x

s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , a n d e c o n o m i c f a c t o r s . T h e s c h o o l i n t e g r a t i o n p r o b -

l e m o f t h e S o u t h a n d o f t h e b i g c i t i e s i s a s t r i k i n g c a s e i n p o i n t . Y o u r

t a s k i s t o p u l l o u t a n d m a k e e x p l i c i t t h o s e s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , a n d e c o -

n o m i c f o r c e s t h a t a p p e a r t o h a v e a b e a r i n g , a c t u a l l y o r p o t e n t i a l l y ,

o n w h a t s c h o o l s d o o r s h o u l d d o .

I t p r o b a b l y w i l l b e d e s i r a b l e t o b e g i n w i t h s o m e o b s e r v a t i o n s o f

r e a l i t y ( s o m e f a c t s o f o u r s o c i e t y ) : p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h , u r b a n i z a -

tion, automation, oversupply and undersupply of manpower, t h e

s u r g e o f d i s a d v a n t a g e d g r o u p s f o r r i g h t s a n d r e c o g n i t i o n , i n c r e a s e d

c o s t s o f e d u c a t i o n , c o n f l i c t i n g e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e s c h o o l s , r a p i d

e x p a n s i o n o f k n o w l e d g e i n s o m e f i e l d s , a n d s o o n . T o b e a d e q u a t e l y

1 5 5

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 163/327

s e l e c t i v e , w i t h t h e r o l e o f t h e s c h o o l s i n m i n d , i s a d i f f i c u l t t a s k . B u t

t o s t a n d b a c k f r o m t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s i n o r d e r t o f i n d i n t h e m a

c e n t r a l f o c u s a n d s i g n i f i c a n t p a t t e r n s t h a t s h o u l d h a v e i m p l i c a t i o n s

f o r t h e s c h o o l s ' r o l e i s d o u b l y d i f f i c u l t . L i m i t a t i o n s i n s p a c e n e c e s -

s i t a t e c h o i c e a n d t h e r i g o r o u s d e v e l o p m e n t o f c r i t e r i a f o r c h o i c e .

C H A P T E R E I G H T

T h e b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s g i v e u s i n s i g h t i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f m a n

a n d h o w h e b e h a v e s i n s m a l l g r o u p s , a s w e l l a s i n t o t h o s e l a r g e r s o -

c i a l f o r c e s i n f l u e n c i n g o u r l i v e s ( c h a p . v i i ) . S i g n i f i c a n t i d e a s h a v e

come from biology, biochemistr y, psychiatry, psychoanalysis, and

p s y c h o l o g y , t o n a m e o n l y a f e w f i e l d s . And schools have re sponded

t o s o m e o f t h e s e i d e a s , a t l e a s t i n p a r t , i n t h e i r d a i l y a c t i v i t i e s o f

g r o u p i n g s t u d e n t s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n , d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g a s s i g n m e n t s , m o t i -

v a t i n g l e a r n i n g a n d r e w a r d i n g r e s p o n s e s , s e l e c t i n g p e d a g o g i c a l p r o -

c e d u r e s , a n d s o o n . Undoubtedly, how ever, there is a gap between

p r e s e n t s c h o o l p r a c t i c e a n d w h a t p r a c t i c e m i g h t b e w e r e i t t o r e f l e c t

present knowledge adequately .

What are some of the key ideas from the behavioral sciences

(ideas not already covered in chapter vii) to which the schools

should have responded?

C H A P T E R N I NE

Advances in our understanding of the theory and practice of

i n s t r u c t i o n a p p e a r t o b e o f h i g h r e l e v a n c e t o t h e c e n t r a l f u n c t i o n s

o f s c h o o l s . W h a t a r e t h e e m e r g i n g t h r u s t s i n t h i s i m p o r t a n t f i e l d ?

Help us to get a better understanding of the research work now

underway, research which already should have influenced school

p r a c t i c e o r w h i c h s h o u l d i n f l u e n c e i t i n t h e f u t u r e .

CHAPTER TEN

F e w e d u c a t o r s q u e s t i o n t h e r e l e v a n c e o f t h e b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s ,

e s p e c i a l l y p s y c h o l o g y , f o r s c h o o l i n g . They are less rea dy to ac-

k n o w l e d g e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f p h i l o s o p h y . A n d y e t , t h e q u e s t i o n s

t o w h i c h p h i l o s o p h e r s a d d r e s s t h e m s e l v e s a r e f u n d a m e n t a l t o q u e s -

t i o n s o f w h a t t h e s c h o o l s a r e f o r , w h a t i s w o r t h k n o w i n g , a n d h o w

w e k n o w . F u r t h e r , b r a n c h e s o f p h i l o s o p h y p r o v i d e t h e t o o l s f o r

1 5 6

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 164/327

d e t e r m i n i n g t h e l o g i c a l n a t u r e o f o u r d e d u c t i o n s a n d t h e v a l u e s i m -

p l i c i t i n o u r d i s c u s s i o n s .

No p h i l o s o p h e r o r p h i l o s o p h y s i n c e D e w e y h a s b e e n c h a r g e d

w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c i n g t h e s c h o o l s . And yet, philos ophers

h a v e b e e n a t w o r k a n d t h e i r r e c e n t i n q u i r y s u r e l y h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s

f o r s c h o o l i n g . W h a t a s p e c t s o f t h e i r t h i n k i n g a r e r e l e v a n t t o s c h o o l -

ing? To what trends of philosophical thought might the schools

have respond ed since W orld W ar I I ?

1 5 7

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 165/327

CHAPTER V I I

E c o n o m i c , S o c i a l , a n d P o l i t i c a l F o r c e s

J . STEELE c o w , J R .

BURKART HOLZNER, a n d WILLIAM C . P E ND L E T O N

I n t r o d u c t i o n

S u p p o s e t h a t o u r e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m k e p t p e r f e c t l y a t t u n e d t o

o u r c u l t u r e a n d t h a t t h e s c h o o l s r e s p o n d e d c r i s p l y t o o u r d y n a m i c

s o c i e t y ' s n e w n e e d s a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s. W o u l d t h e e d u c a t i o n a l e n -

t e r p r i s e l o o k a s i t d o e s ? W o u l d w e b e m a k i n g t h e c h a n g e s i n i t t h a t

w e a r e m a k i n g ? W o u l d t h e a l t e r a t i o n s a n d i n n o v a t i o n s d i s c u s s e d

e l s e w h e r e i n t h i s v o l u m e b e t h e k i n d t o r e c e i v e p r i o r i t y a t t e n t i o n ?

E v e n t o b e g i n e x p l o r i n g f o r a n s w e r s t o s u c h q u e s t i o n s , w e f i r s t

o u g h t t o s t e p o u t o f t h e f i e l d o f e d u c a t i o n i t s e l f f o r o t h e r p e r s p e c -

t i v e s o n t h e c h a r a c t e r o f s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s t h a t h a v e b e e n o c c u r -

r i n g i n o u r c u l t u r e a n d s o c i e t y , T h i s c h a p t e r a t t e m p t s t o t a k e t h a t

f i r s t s t e p , b e g i n n i n g w i t h a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f s o m e c u l t u r a l t h e m e s

a n d s o c i a l f o r c e s t h a t s e e m t o u s t o b e r e l e v a n t t o t h e p r o c e s s o f

c h a n g e i n t h e s c h o o l s . T h e n t h e t h r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s o f e c o n o m i c s ,

s o c i o l o g y , a n d p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e a r e e m p l o y e d s e p a r a t e l y , and the

c h a p t e r c o n c l u d e s w i t h s o m e o b s e r v a t i o n s o n w h a t t h o s e p e r s p e c -

t i v e s s e e m t o r e v e a l a b o u t t h e s c h o o l s ' r o l e i n s h a p i n g s o c i e t a l

change .

C u l t u r a l T h e m e s a n d S o c i a l F o r c e s

THE EMERGENCE OF A NEW CULTURE

A m e r i c a n c i v i l i z a t i o n , d u r i n g t h e l a s t f e w d e c a d e s , h a s b e c o m e

t h e l e a d i n g f o r c e i n m a n y s p h e r e s o f W e s t e r n c u l t u r e . A m e r i c a n

i n t e l l e c t u a l s , i n a d i a l o g u e o f i n c r e a s i n g i n t e n s i t y w i t h t h e i n t e l l e c -

t u a l s o f E u r o p e a n d o f o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d , h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d

g r e a t l y t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f a n e w p a t t e r n o f c u l t u r e . T h i s c u l t u r e o f

1 5 9

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 166/327

16o S O C I A L, P O L I T I C A L, A ND E C O N O M I C F O R C E S

t h e m o d e r n a g e b u i l d s , t o b e s u r e , u p o n t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e p a s t

a n d p r e s e r v e s i m p o r t a n t c o n t i n u i t i e s , b u t t h e t o t a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s

n e w a n d d i s t i n c t i v e . M o d e r n c u l t u r e h o l d s o u t n e w p r o m i s e s a n d

p o s e s n e w p r o b l e m s w h i c h a f f e c t n o t o n l y t h e f e w , h i g h l y e d u c a t e d ,

creative men who work a t t h e e d g e o f c u l t u r a l g r o w t h b u t a l l o f

s o c i e t y . W h i l e t h i s n e w c u l t u r a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s t i l l i s e m e r g i n g a n d

i s n o t n e a r l y i n a f i n i s h e d s t a t e , w e c a n r e c o g n i z e c e r t a i n o f i t s s a l i -

e n t f e a t u r e s .

A new and pervasive v i e w o f t h e w o r l d h a s d e v e l o p e d , o n e

w h i c h c o n t r a s t s s h a r p l y w i t h t h e a c c u s t o m e d p a t t e r n s o f t h o u g h t

found in Europe and America i n p r i o r p e r i o d s . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e

i m a g e s o f s o c i e t y a n d o f t h e w o r l d a s f i x e d s t r u c t u r e s , s o c h a r a c -

t e r i s t i c o f e a r l i e r p h i l o s o p h y a n d t h e o l o g y , a r e b e i n g a b a n d o n e d .

A l s o , t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f a p r o c e s s o f i n e v i t a b l e e v o l u t i o n t o w a r d a n

e v e r g re a t e r s o c i e t y , t h e i d e a o f p r o g r e s s , h a s b e e n f o u n d m i s l e a d i n g .

H o w e v e r , t h e e a r l i e r r e a c t i o n s t o n a i v e p r o g r e s s i v i s m , t h e g r e a t

p e s s i m i s m a n d c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s m o f t h e p e r i o d o f t h e g r e a t w a r s ,

h a v e p r o v e d t h e i r f a i l u r e a s w e l l .

T h e m o d e r n i n t e l l e c t u a l s e e s h i m s e l f c o n c e r n e d w i t h s e t s o f

e v e n t s , n o t w i t h f i x e d a n d i m m u t a b l e s t r u c t u r e s n o r w i t h p r o c e s s e s

t h e d i r e c t i o n o f w h i c h i s p r e d e t e r m i n e d a n d u n c h a n g i n g . H e o r i -

e n t s h i m s e l f t o p r o b a b i l i t i e s , n o t c e r t a i n t i e s , t h u s f a c i n g u p t o t h e

f a c t t h a t m a n i s c o m p e l l e d t o m a k e r e s p o n s i b l e d e c i s i o n s i n t h e f a c e

o f u n c e r t a i n t y . H e r e c o g n i z e s t h a t c e r t a i n t y i s u n a t t a i n a b l e i n a n y

f i e l d o f h u m a n k n o w l e d g e o r o f b e l i e f . Modern man, b e i n g o p e n i n

h i s o r i e n t a t i o n t o t h e w o r l d , i s a w a r e o f t h e v a s t r a n g e o f t h e u n -

f o r e s e e a b l e a n d h a s l e a r n e d t o a c c e p t c h a n g e a s t h e r u l e r a t h e r t h a n

t h e e x c e p t i o n . T h e m o d e r n p o l i c y - m a k e r i s e x p l i c i t l y a w a r e t h a t h i s

d e c i s i o n s a r e b a s e d o n t h e w e i g h i n g o f p r o b a b i l i t i e s a n d d e s i r a b i l i t i e s .

H e r e l i e s l e s s o n e s t a b l i s h e d p r e s c r i p t i o n s w h i c h d e t e r m i n e t h e r i g h t

c o u r s e o f a c t i o n a t a l l t i m e s , a n d m o r e o n r a t i o n a l a n d w o r k e d - o u t

m e t h o d s f o r s o l v i n g t h e a c t i o n p r o b l e m s h e c o n f r o n t s .

T h u s , m o d e r n m a n f e e l s t h a t p r o g r e s s , i f i t i s t o o c c u r , h a s t o b e

f a s h i o n e d - a n d t h a t i t i s , a t b e s t , p r e c a r i o u s . H e r e c o g n i z e s t h e

s e v e r e p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e m a n d s m a d e u p o n h i m b y h i s s t a n c e t o w a r d

s o c i e t y a n d t h e w o r l d . H e r e q u i r e s a h i g h l e v e l o f t o l e r a n c e f o r u n -

c e r t a i n t y a n d t h e a b i l i t y t o o v e r c o m e t h r o u g h a c t i o n t h e a n x i e t y

n a t u r a l l y a r i s i n g i n s i t u a t i o n s o f c r i s e s ; a n d h e i s o f t e n f e a r f u l l e s t

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 167/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON 1 6 1

these d emand s prove too m uch for him and his fel low- men . W ith

h i s i n t e n s e l y h u m a n i s t i c i m a g e o f t h e w o r l d , h e r e l i e s a l m o s t a l o n e

upon man and his rationality . Y e t , r e c e n t h i s t o r y h a s t a u g h t h i m

w e l l j u s t h o w f r a g i l e t h i s r a t i o n a l i t y o f f r e e m e n m a y b e , h o w m i l -

l i o n s m a y a b d i c a t e t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w i t h a s i g h o f r e l i e f t o b e -

c o m e s e r v a n t s o f t h e d a r k f o r c e s o f p a s s i o n . T h e s h o c k o f t h e N a z i

c a t a s t r o p h e i n G e r m a n y a n d t h e c o n t i n u i n g c o n f l i c t w i t h t o t a l i t a r i -

a n i s m s h a s d r i v e n t h e A m e r i c a n i n t e l l e c t u a l , l i k e m a n y o f h i s E u r o -

p e a n c o u n t e r p a r t s , t o s t r u g g l e f o r a n e w c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e f r e e a n d

r e s p o n s i b l e m a n i n a n u n c e r t a i n w o r l d .

I n t h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l s t r u g g l e , m a n h i m s e l f h a s b e c o m e a n o b j e c t

o f c l o s e s c r u t i n y . He knows that human ex perience and truth de-

p e n d o n t h e p e r s p e c t i v e s o f t h e o b s e r v e r , t h a t t h e y a f f o r d n o a b s o -

l u t e s i n t h e m s e l v e s . Mod ern American cu lture , m uch like that in

t h e o t h e r n a t i o n s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d W e s t t o d a y , e n c o m p a s s e s a n

unprecedented diversity of views . These clash often enou gh, but

t h e r e e x i s t s a d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n i n t e l l e c t u a l o p p o n e n t s m a d e p o s s i b l e

by the attempt to understand each other' s perspective, as in the

great dialogue between the Christian churches today .

T h e n e w w o r l d - v i e w i s 2 e r v a s i v e a n d a p p e a r s a l r e a d y i n v i r t u a l l y

a l l f i e l d s o f c u l t u r e , i n s c i e n c e a n d a r t , i n p h i l o s o p h y a n d t h e o l o g y .

I t h a s t r a n s f o r m e d t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s , f o r e x a m p l e ,

b y c h a n g i n g t h e p a t t e r n o f s c i e n t i f i c c o n c e p t s . A t l e a s t s i n c e t h e

d evelopment of the new physics, b ased on the work of men like

A l b e r t E i n s t e i n a n d M a x P l a n c k , n a t u r a l s c i e n c e i s o r i e n t e d n o t t o

f i x e d o b j e c t s , a s s u c h , b u t t o e v e n t s r e c o r d e d b y a n o b s e r v e r w h o s e

p o s i t i o n a n d m e t h o d o f r e c o r d i n g p r o f o u n d l y i n f l u e n c e h i s r e s u l t s .

M o d e r n a r t , w i t h i t s e a g e r n e s s t o e x p e r i m e n t a n d w i t h i t s m u l t i p l i c -

i t y o f p e r s p e c t i v e s , i l l u s t r a t e s t h e s a m e p o i n t : f i x e d a n d s t a n d a r d

f o r m s , a s s u c h , a r e n o t a c c e p t a b l e , b u t , i n s t e a d , t h e r e i s a c o n s t a n t

struggle to find more and more adequate media for the expression

of the ever changing range of human experienc es . M o s t e x p l i c i t l y

t h e n e w v i e w i s f o u n d i n p h i l o s o p h y , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e m o v e m e n t o f

e x i s t e n t i a l i s m , w h i c h u n d e r l i n e s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n

a s t h a t o f t h e a g e n t w h o c o n f r o n t s p r o b l e m s o f r e s p o n s i b l e d e c i s i o n

i n t h e f a c e o f u n c e r t a i n t y . I t i s f o u n d , t o o , i n t h e o l o g y w i t h i t s i n -

creased openness and renunciation of dogmatism in favor of the

c e n t r a l r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e , t h e c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i t h

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 168/327

1 6 2 S O C I A L, P O L I T I C A L, A ND E C O N O M I C F O R C E S

h i s G o d . M o d e r n r e l i g i o n , l i k e s c i e n c e a n d l i t e r a t u r e , i s a w a r e o f

t h e m a n y p o s s i b l e p e r s p e c t i v e s i n w h i c h t h i s c e n t r a l e x p e r i e n c e m a y

b e d e s c r i b e d a n d e x p r e s s e d . T h i s a w a r e n e s s m a k e s i t s t h e o l o g y m o r e

complex than the dogmatisms which it replaces, but it also makes

f o r f l e x i b i l i t y a n d s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

A s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i s n e w h u m a n i s m , t h e c u l t u r a l p o s i t i o n o f

m o d e r n m a n h a s b e c o m e m u c h m o r e p r o b l e m a t i c t h a n i t e v e r w a s

b e f o r e . Exposed to an unprecedented r ange of cultural diversit y

and unable to rely on the guideposts of a now largely irrelevant

t r a d i t i o n , m a n i s s e a r c h i n g f o r n e w , m o r e r e l i a b l e c r i t e r i a o f j u d g -

ment and is reflecting more and more upon himself .e l f . Indeed, mod-

e r n c u l t u r e i s r e f l e c t i v e i n t h e e x t r e m e. T h i s i s e x p r e s s e d a l s o i n t h e

t r e m e n d o u s i m p a c t o f b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y p s y c h o l o g y a n d

sociology, on modern culture . T h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l

a n d s o c i a l f o r c e s g o e s d e e p e r a n d d e e p e r . I t s r e s u l t s a r e b e i n g a b -

s o r b e d , o f t e n i n d i s t o r t e d f o r m , i n t o p o p u l a r c u l t u r e . T o d a y , a l e v e l

o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n i s t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d i n p u b l i c d i s c u s -

sion, which would have been quite unthinkable only a few decades

a g o . The many-faceted nature of hum an motivation and action is

read ily acknow led g ed ; rarely is a motive or an action accepted

p u r e l y a t f a c e v a l u e , a n d c o m p l e x a n d d e v i o u s a t t e m p t s a t m a n i p u -

l a t i n g h u m a n m o t i v a t i o n h a v e b e c o m e c o m m o n p l a c e . The new r e-

f l e c t i v e n e s s o f m o d e r n c u l t u r e t a k e s i t f o r g r a n t e d t h a t h u m a n b e -

havior and motivation can be and mu st be interpreted on several

l e v e l s a t o n c e .

T h i s a w a r e n e s s o f t h e m a n y l a y e r s o f t h e h u m a n p r o b l e m h a s l e d

t o a n e w r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e s c i e n c e s o f m a n ,

ranging from the medical fields through psycholo gy to the social

s c i e n c e s , a n d o f t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f e a c h a p p r o a c h a s w e l l a s o f i t s

c o n t r i b u t i o n s. T h e a w a r e n e s s h a s b e e n h e i g h t e n e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t

in the last few decades the sciences of man have acquired a high

r e l e v a n c e i n a l l p r a c t i c a l m a t t e r s o f p r i v a t e d e c i s i o n s a n d p u b l i c

p o l i c y . It has b ecome a matter of com mon routine, and of g reat

p u b l i c i n t e r e s t , t o t a k e t h e p u l s e o f s o c i a l l i f e n o t m e r e l y t h r o u g h

t h e k e e p i n g o f v i t a l s t a t i s t i c s b u t t h r o u g h t h e d e t a i l e d a n d o f t e n

s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n a l y s i s a n d m o n i t o r i n g o f s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c -

e s s e s , s u c h a s c h a n g e s i n a t t i t u d e s o r m o t i v a t i o n s . E v e n t h e p r e d i c -

- t i o n o f t h e b e h a v i o r o f l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n s h a s b e c o m e p o s s i b l e w i t h

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 169/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON 1 6 3

an amazing degree of accuracy . T h u s , a s p e c t s o f s o c i a l l i f e h a v e b e -

come matters of pub lic, empirical know led g e, which in previous

p e r i o d s w e r e e n t i r e l y h i d d e n f r o m v i e w , o r a t b e s t w e r e o b j e c t s o f

c l o u d y , m o r a l i s t i c s p e c u l a t i o n . T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t i l l u s t r a t e s b e s t t h e

dilemmas of our reflective, self-analyzing culture, in which man

k n o w s h i m s e l f a s t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g a g e n t , w h o t h i n k s o f h i m s e l f

a s f r e e , a n d r e c o g n i z e s a s w e l l t h a t h e i s a n o b j e c t o f s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y

a n d p r e d i c t i o n . T h e m o r a l i s s u e s o f s u c h a s i t u a t i o n c a n n o t b e s o l v e d

b y r e f e r e n c e t o t h e m o r a l i t y o f t h e p a s t . These problem s are new

a n d t h e i r s o l u t i o n i s a t a s k w h i c h o n l y m o d e r n m a n h a s f a c e d .

T h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , e x p r e s s i o n s o r i g i n a l l y o f m a n ' s s e l f - a w a r e n e s s

a n d r e f l e c t i o n u p o n h i m s e l f , a l s o h a v e b e c o m e t o o l s o f m a n i p u l a t i o n

and may be used unscrupulousl y to deprive many of their reflec-

t i v i t y a n d a b i l i t y t o t h i n k f o r t h e m s e l v e s . On the whole, how ever,

t h e i m p a c t h a s b e e n l e s s t o c r e a t e " a n a t i o n o f s h e e p " t h a n t o m a k e

r o o m f o r a r e a l i s t i c a p p r a i s a l o f s o c i a l l i f e a n d i t s f o r c e s a n d h a s p r o -

v i d e d t h e c l i m a t e i n w h i c h c o n c e r t e d e f f o r t s a t s o c i a l p l a n n i n g a n d

s o c i a l r e f o r m h a v e b e e n c a r r i e d o u t a n d a r e b e i n g d r i v e n f o r w a r d .

C o n t r a r y t o t h e p e s s i m i s t i c a p p r a i s a l s g i v e n b y s o m e o b s e r v e r s o f

t h e A m e r i c a n s c e n e , i t i s n o w a w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d f a c t t h a t , t h r o u g h

t h e r i s e o f t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , t h e A m e r i c a n i n t e l l e c t u a l i n p a r t i c u l a r

h a s c o m e i n t o h i s o w n . H e , i n t u r n , h a s u s e d s o c i a l s c i e n c e a s a f i g h t -

i n g w e a p o n , o f t e n e n d a n g e r i n g i t s c l a i m t o s c i e n t i f i c o b j e c t i v i t y , i n

building his new view of ma n and society, in the defense of his

v a l u e s o f e q u a l i t a r i a n i s m a n d l i b e r t y , a g a i n s t d o g m a t i s m a n d p r e j u -

d i c e , a n d i n t h e s h a p i n g o f p u b l i c p o l i c y . Th e m o d e r n A m e r i c a n

i n t e l l e c t u a l i s a l l t o o a w a r e o f t h e d a n g e r s o f i r r a t i o n a l i s m , n o t o n l y

in Nazi Germany and contemporary total itarianisms but also here

a t h o m e , a n d h e h o p e s t o d e f e n d h i s c o m m i t m e n t t o r a t i o n a l i t y a n d

l i b e r t y w i t h t o o l s p r o v i d e d b y s o c i a l s c i e n c e .

T h e i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n r e c e n t y e a r s

h a s r e a c h e d e v e r i n c r e a s i n g c i r c l e s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . N o t t h a t i t

has become general, or even included most Americans ; i t h a s n o t .

B u t i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s c u s s i o n i s n o l o n g e r c o n f i n e d t o t h e n a r r o w c i r -

cles of the highly educated few . T h e r i s i n g e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l o f

A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l , a n d t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e p a p e r b a c k s ,

bookclubs, and other innovations, includi ng even the mass media,

l o w a s t h e i r i n t e l l e c t u a l l e v e l i s m o s t o f t h e t i m e , h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 170/327

1 6 4 SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC FORCES

t o t h e i n c l u s i o n o f l a r g e n u m b e r s i n t h e c i r c l e o f t h o s e c o n c e r n e d

w i t h t h e d i s c u s s i o n t h a t d r i v e s c u l t u r a l g r o w t h o n w a r d .

There has emerged a new working conception of the individua l

i n t h e c o n t e x t o f h i s s o c i e t y , a c o n c e p t i o n n o t n a i v e l y c o n f i d e n t l i k e

t h a t o f t h e " r u g g e d i n d i v i d u a l i s m " o f t h e h i g h c a p i t a l i s t p e r i o d i n

which American industry wa s being built . T h e n , t h e s t a t e a n d p o l i t -

i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a n y k i n d w e r e v i e w e d n e g a t i v e l y - a s t h r e a t s t o

i n d i v i d u a l i n i t i a t i v e . T h e t r u e " i n d i v i d u a l i s t " w a s t h e m a n w h o c o u l d

s u c c e s s f u l l y f i g h t h i s w a y t o t h e t o p t h r o u g h h i s e n e r g y a n d , o f t e n ,

h i s r u t h l e s s n e s s . The new ind ivid ual ism has emerg ed throu g h the

c o n c e r n f o r t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f s o c i e t y t o i t s m e m b e r s a n d o f t h e

c i t i z e n t o h i s s t a t e . I t i s b a s e d o n t h e h u m a n i s t i c w o r l d - v i e w d i s -

c u s s e d e a r l i e r a n d o n t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s . T h i s

v i e w o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e m o v e m e n t t o p r o v i d e e q u a l

o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r a l l c h i l d r e n , t o o v e r c o m e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , a n d t o

b u i l d a n e w c o n c e p t i o n o r t h e s t a t e a s t h e p r o t e c t o r o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l .

C o u n t e r c u r r e n t s t o t h e s e g r e a t t r e n d s e x i s t , a s i s w e l l k n o w n .

T h e y a r e s t r o n g a n d s i g n i f i c a n t . However, their very natu re docu-

m e n t s t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c e n t r a l t r e n d o f c u l t u r a l g r o w t h i n t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s , f o r t h e y a r e r e a c t i o n s t o t h e m o v e m e n t j u s t d e s c r i b e d

a n d d o n o t s h o w n e w d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e i r o w n . T h e t r e n d t o t h e n e w

i n d i v i d u a l i s m a n d t o t h e n e w c u l t u r e o f w h i c h i t i s a p a r t i s t h e r e ,

a n d i t s e e m s u n l i k e l y t h a t i t w i l l b e r e v e r s e d i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e .

Modern culture has become enormously diversified . S c i e n c e , a s

a p a r t o f c u l t u r e , i s s o e x t e n d e d a n d s p e c i a l i z e d t h a t i t i s i m p o s s i b l e

f o r t h e e d u c a t e d t o c o m p r e h e n d m o r e t h a n a f e w o f i t s m a j o r p r i n -

c i p l e s a n d r e s u l t s . M u c h t h e s a m e h o l d s t r u e f o r o t h e r a r e a s o f c u l -

t u r a l a c t i v i t y e v e n t h o u g h n o t a l l o f t h e m h a v e d e v e l o p e d w i t h e q u a l

v i g o r .

S p e c i a l i z a t i o n h a s b e e n a c c o m p a n i e d b y a s t a r t l i n g i n c r e a s e i n

our power of symb oliz ation and symb ol manipu lation . The most

o b v i o u s e x a m p l e i s t h e i n v e n t i o n , r e f i n e m e n t , a n d w i d e s p r e a d u s e o f

t h e c o m p u t e r . I t m a k e s p o s s i b l e c o m p l e x m a t h e m a t i c a l a n d l o g i c a l

operations which would have been impracticable even a few years

a g o . T h e s e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f t h e c o m p u t e r a l r e a d y h a v e e x t e n d e d t h e

r e a l m o f t e c h n i c a l c o n t r o l b e y o n d t h e m o s t f a n t a s t i c s p e c u l a t i o n s o f

e a r l i e r y e a r s a n d , s i m i l a r l y , h a v e e x t e n d e d o u r r a n g e o f s c i e n t i f i c

understanding . The computer is but one result of scientific and

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 171/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON 1 6 5

mathematical developments made possible because of increased so-

p h i s t i c a t i o n i n t h e u s e o f a n a l y t i c a l t o o l s w h i c h w e n o w p o s s e s s .

M a t h e m a t i c s h a s m a d e g r e a t s t r i d e s a n d h a s d e v e l o p e d e n t i r e l y n e w

t o o l s f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f s e r i e s o f e v e n t s a n d o f s t r u c t u r e s , e x t e n d i n g

t h e r a n g e o f r i g o r o u s a n a l y s i s i n t o r e a l m s p r e v i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d t o

b e i n a c c e s s i b l e t o a n a l y s i s. Modern philosop hy has made contribu-

t i o n s w h i c h m a y b e a s i m p o r t a n t a s t h o s e o f m a t h e m a t i c s , e s p e c i a l l y

t h r o u g h i t s c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f l a n g u a g e a n d o f l o g i c a l s y s t e m s . I n a n -

o t h e r r e a l m , m o d e r n a r t h a s c r e a t e d n e w m e d i a o f s y m b o l i c e x p r e s -

s i o n i n p a i n t i n g , i n s c u l p t u r e , i n m u s i c , a n d e v e n i n l i t e r a t u r e . T h e r e

i s , t h e n , a g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e r a n g e o f s y m b o l i c s y s t e m s , c o n -

c e p t u a l t o o l s , o r e x p r e s s i v e m e d i a a v a i l a b l e t o u s . Through them , our

p o w e r s o f a n a l y s i s a n d r e f l e c t i o n h a v e m u l t i p l i e d m a n y t i m e s .

T h e a w a r e n e s s o f t h e i n t r i c a c i e s o f s y m b o l i z a t i o n a n d o f a n a l y s i s

b y m e a n s o f s y m b o l s w a s p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t c o n s e q u e n c e

o f t h e g e n e r a l t u r n i n g a w a y i n p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h o u g h t f r o m c o n c e r n s

w i t h s u b s t a n t i v e m e t a p h y s i c s t o t h e e m p h a s i s o n m e t h o d o l o g i e s . T h e

consequences of this shift can be observed both in the somewhat

e s o t e r i c r e a l m j u s t d i s c u s s e d a n d i n t h e g e n e r a l l i f e o f s o c i e t y . S u b -

s t a n t i v e p r e s c r i p t i o n s a n d n o r m s h a v e g i v e n w a y t o r e f l e c t i o n a b o u t

methods for the solving of problems . T h e p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r t h a s

r i s e n i n s t a t u s . He is consult ed nowadays in a great m any areas of

s o c i a l l i f e i n w h i c h t r a d i t i o n a l m o r a l i t y p r e v i o u s l y w a s t h e o n l y

g u i d e . E x p e r t i s e i t s e l f h a s c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y t o m e a n n o t o n l y t h e

a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e " s o l u t i o n s " b u t a l s o t h e a b i l i t y t o o f f e r m e t h o d s

f o r t h e s t u d y o f t h e p r o b l e m u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , w h i c h a f f o r d t h e

person concerned with the information needed for rational deci-

s i o n s .

W e h a v e p u t f o r t h , i n t h i s o v e r v i e w , o u r c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e r e

i s e m e r g i n g a n e w c u l t u r a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n , a n e w v i e w o f m a n a n d o f

society, and a new range of "languages" or sy mbolic systems for

a n a l y s i s a n d e x p r e s s i o n . T h i s n e w c u l t u r e h a s l i t t l e p l a c e f o r d o g m a -

t i s m s a n d c e r t a i n t i e s . I t i s b u i l t o n t h e c o n v i c t i o n o f t h e c e n t r a l i t y

o f m a n a c t i n g i n u n c e r t a i n t y , a n d i t i s c r e a t i n g m e t h o d o l o g i e s r a t h e r

than metaphysics . I t i s i n t r i g u i n g , i n d e e d , t h a t t h i s g r e a t t r a n s f o r m a -

t i o n c a n b e s e e n s o c l e a r l y i n v i r t u a l l y a l l a r e a s o f c u l t u r a l e n d e a v o r

that we may speak of the emergence of a new culture .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 172/327

1 6 6 SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC FORCES

THE DEV ELOPME NT OF A NEW SOCI AL STRUCTURE

The change in Western, and especially American, culture has

h a d a n i n t e n s i v e a n d p e r v a s i v e i m p a c t o n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f A m e r i c a n

s o c i e t y , j u s t a s p r o f o u n d s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s h a v e l e f t t h e i r i m p r i n t o n

c u l t u r a l c r e a t i v i t y . American social stru cture has changed during

t h e l a s t t w e n t y - f i v e o r t h i r t y y e a r s i n w a y s t h a t c a n b e c o m p a r e d i n

h i s t o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e b u i l d i n g o f i n d u s t r i a l i s m w h i c h t r a n s -

f o r m e d a g r i c u l t u r a l A m e r i c a i n t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l g i a n t w e k n o w . I t

was brought about by the dynamics of technological and econom ic

development, which in turn were made possible by the high rate

o f d i s c o v e r y i n s c i e n c e , b y t h e c h a n g e d r o l e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n

w o r l d p o l i t i c s a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e W o r l d W a r s a n d o f t h e C o l d

War, and by the forces of population growth and the dynamics of

m i g r a t i o n .

Just how fundamental the change of American social structure

h a s b e e n i s r a r e l y r e c o g n i z e d i n f u l l . T h i s u n a w a r e n e s s i s , i n i t s e l f ,

a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t w h i c h m a y b e c o m e d a n g e r o u s i n t h e f u t u r e .

S o c i a l c h a n g e i s n o t m e r e l y s t i l l o c c u r r i n g b u t , i n f a c t , i s a c c e l e r -

a t i n g e v e n t h o u g h t h e p e r i o d o f t r a n s i t i o n s e e m s t o h a v e p a s s e d a n d

t h e o u t l i n e s o f t h e n e w s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e h a v e b e c o m e c l e a r l y v i s i b l e .

N o t t o s e e t h i s , o r t o i n t e r p r e t t h e p r e s e n t a n d t h e r e c e n t p a s t i n

t e r m s o f i d e a s t h a t w e r e a d e q u a t e o n l y p r i o r t o t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n -

t u r y , l e a d s i n t o s e r i o u s e r r o r a n d p o s s i b l y i n t o g r i e v o u s m i s t a k e s

i n p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , o r e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i o n .

W h i l e t h e m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s d a n g e r o u s i n s o m e r e s p e c t s , i t h a s

its own advantages . As we will show , change has been so drastic

t h a t i t m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d a n a c c o m p l i s h m e n t t o p r e s e r v e c u l t u r a l

continuity and identity, a sense of sameness between present and

p a s t , e v e n t h o u g h i t m a y , i n p a r t , b e i l l u s o r y . Th r o u g h o u t A m e r i c a n

history we find major value themes which have been used as im-

p o r t a n t c r i t e r i a f o r s o c i a l e v a l u a t i o n a n d s e l f - i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . They

have become fused with a very stable image of American society

w h i c h o f t e n e n o u g h h a s c l a s h e d w i t h t h e f a c t s , b u t w h i c h i s t e n a -

c i o u s l y u p h e l d . Much of this image is myth, but values and myths

a r e n o t s i m p l y i r r e l e v a n t ; t h e y a r e t h e m s e l v e s m a j o r s o c i a l f o r c e s .

A m o n g o u r e n d u r i n g v a l u e s a r e t h o s e o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m a n d p e r s o n a l

a c c o m p l i s h m e n t , o f f r e e d o m f r o m s t a t e i n t e r f e r e n c e a n d r e s t r i c t i o n s ,

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 173/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON 1 6 7

o f l o c a l i s m , o f e q u a l i t a r i a n i s m a n d c o - o p e r a t i o n . T h e s e v a l u e t h e m e s

c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e m a j o r p o l i t i c a l d o c u m e n t s o f A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y .

They can be found in the popular ideology . T h e y h a v e i n s p i r e d

m u c h o f A m e r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e .

T o b e s u r e , t h e v a l u e t h e m e s , i f c a r e f u l l y a n a l y z e d , c a n b e s h o w n

t o b e i n c o n f l i c t w i t h e a c h o t h e r . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e y a r e s i g n i f i c a n t

a n d h a v e h e l p e d t o i n s p i r e t h e p o p u l a r m y t h o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a s

a s o c i e t y i n w h i c h t h e s e v a l u e s a r e r e a l i z e d , w h e r e u n l i m i t e d o p p o r -

t u n i t i e s a r e o p e n t o a l l , w h e r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a n u n f o l d h i s c a p a c i -

t i e s t o t h e u t m o s t t h r o u g h f r e e e n t e r p r i s e a n d p r i v a t e i n i t i a t i v e

w h i c h l e a d t o t h e b u i l d i n g o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y . T h i s m y t h , o r i d e o l -

o g y i f y o u w i s h , d e v e l o p e d i n a n e a r l i e r A m e r i c a w h i c h w a s d o m i -

n a t e d b y a s o c i e t y o f i n d e p e n d e n t f a r m e r s a n d p r i v a t e e n t r e p r e n e u r s .

T h a t e v e n t h e n s e r v i l e m i n o r i t i e s - s l a v e s a n d recent immigrant

g r o u p s - w e r e i g n o r e d i n t h e m y t h - m a k i n g d i d n o t w e a k e n t h e m y t h

w h i c h , t o t h i s d a y , h a s p r o v i d e d t h e c o n t i n u i n g s o u r c e o f s o c i a l s e l f -

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f A m e r i c a n s .

T h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e m y t h h a s l e d t o a c u r i o u s s p l i t b e t w e e n s o -

c i a l r e a l i t y a n d i t s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h u s , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d a y f o r t h e

p u b l i c t o d e b a t e w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d a i d

e d u c a t i o n w h e n i n f a c t , a l b e i t s o m e w h a t d i s g u i s e d i n v a r i o u s p r o j -

e c t s , t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t i s s p e n d i n g m o r e t h a n t w o a n d a h a l f

b i l l i o n d o l l a r s a y e a r i n a i d t o e d u c a t i o n . I t i s p o s s i b l e f o r t h e r e p r e -

s e n t a t i v e s o f l a r g e c o r p o r a t i o n s , d o i n g m o s t a n d s o m e t i m e s a l l o f

t h e i r b u s i n e s s w i t h t h e g o v e r n m e n t s o t h a t t h e y a r e v i r t u a l l y p u b l i c

i n s t i t u t i o n s , t o p r a i s e t h e s y s t e m o f p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y a n d e n t e r p r i s e

a n d t o d e m a n d t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t l i m i t i t s e c o n o m i c r o l e . T h e o l d

i m a g e s o f A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y a r e b e i n g a p p l i e d t o t h e p r e s e n t s c e n e

b y m a n y a n d , w h i l e t h e r e s u l t i n g d i s t o r t i o n s h a v e s e r i o u s l y h a m -

p e r e d i n t e l l i g e n t a d j u s t m e n t s o r r a t i o n a l a n t i c i p a t i o n s o f s o c i a l

c h a n g e , t h e y h a v e p r o v i d e d a s e n s e o f c o n t i n u i t y a n d c u l t u r a l i d e n -

t i t y , w h i c h i s o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e i n d e e d .

T h e r e e x i s t , o f c o u r s e , c o u n t e r - i d e o l o g i e s w h i c h d i s p u t e t h e

d o m i n a n t p a t t e r n o f t h o u g h t . W e h e a r s o c i a l i s t - i n s p i r e d c o n c e p t i o n s

o f s o c i e t y a s a v a s t b a t t l e f i e l d o f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t g r o u p s a n d s o c i a l

c l a s s e s , b u t t h e s e c o n c e p t s o r i g i n a t e d a l s o i n a d i f f e r e n t , e a r l i e r a g e .

T h e y , t o o , a r e o f n o p a r t i c u l a r a i d t o d a y . A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y , a n d

t h i s c a n b e s h o w n w i t h a n y d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y r e q u i r e d , d o e s n o t

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 174/327

1 6 8 SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC FORCES

f i t t h e m o d e l o f M a r x i a n c l a s s a n a l y s i s , n o r t h e m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d

derivations thereof which we encounter today . The confusion of

i d e o l o g i e s h a s r e s u l t e d i n a g r e a t m a n y d e b a t e s i n w h i c h s e m a n t i c s

b e c l o u d t h e p i c t u r e a n d p r e v e n t a r e a l i s t i c g r a s p o f s o c i a l c h a n g e .

T h e c e n t r a l d i f f i c u l t y i s j u s t t h i s : What we are dealing with is a

p r o c e s s o f f u n d a m e n t a l , s t r u c t u r a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w h i c h , w h i l e i t

p r e s e r v e s i m p o r t a n t h i s t o r i c a l c o n t i n u i t i e s , h a s i n t r o d u c e d a n e w

pattern of social life w hich cannot be grasped with the concepts

o f t h e p a s t .

W h a t , t h e n , i s t h e t r e n d o f s o c i a l c h a n g e i n t h e r e c e n t p a s t a n d

i n t h e p r e s e n t ? I t i s b e s t d e s c r i b e d a s t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e

e c o n o m y o f t h e o p e n m a r k e t a n d t h e c l a s s s o c i e t y o f i n d u s t r i a l i s m

i n t h e s t e a m a n d i r o n a g e t o t h e h i g h l y r e g u l a t e d e c o n o m y a n d t h e

organizational socie ty of the age of automation . Of course, the

transformation is not complete, and the older structures survive

v i g o r o u s l y i n s o m e a r e a s ; b u t i t i s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , p r o f o u n d a n d c l e a r l y

d i s c e r n i b l e . W e m u s t n o w r e c o g n i z e t h a t d i f f e r e n t s y s t e m s o f s o c i a l

s t r u c t u r e c o - e x i s t w i t h e a c h o t h e r i n t h e s a m e s o c i e t y , s o t o s p e a k -

t h e o l d a s t h e s e d i m e n t s o f s o c i a l h i s t o r y a l o n g w i t h t h e n e w . The

social structure of rural, small-town America did not yield com-

p l e t e l y t o t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e r i s i n g i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y w i t h

i t s n e w c l a s s e s o f l a b o r a n d e n t r e p r e n e u r s a n d i t s e t h n i c s t r a t a , a n d

t h i s , i n t u r n , h a s n o t y i e l d e d c o m p l e t e l y t o t h e n e w s t r u c t u r e o f

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i e t y . I n E u r o p e , t h e s a m e p r o c e s s e x i s t s w i t h c h a r -

a c t e r i s t i c d i f f e r e n c e s : t h e o p e n - c l a s s s y s t e m o f i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y

s u p e r s e d e d o n l y p a r t i a l l y t h e s t a t u s - g r o u p s y s t e m o f f e u d a l s o c i e t y

a n d i s t o d a y , l i k e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , y i e l d i n g t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i e t y . Th e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n E u r o p e a n d t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s r e m a i n a s r e s u l t s o f t h e i r d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i e s a n d v a l u e s ,

b u t t h e p r i n c i p l e o f s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e i s t h e s a m e .

I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , t h e t r a n s i t i o n i n v o l v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g a s -

p e c t s : continued urbanization, with the growth of mammoth metro-

p o l i t a n a g g l o m e r a t i o n s a n d c h a n g e s i n t h e n a t u r e o f c i t y l i f e ; t h e

g r o w t h o f c o m p l e x , a n d i n t e r l o c k i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n t h e p u b l i c a n d

p r i v a t e d o m a i n s , a c c o m p a n i e d b y i n c r e a s i n g l y o r g a n i z e d r e g u l a t i o n

o f s o c i a l l i f e ; g r e a t e r h o m o g e n e i t y o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h r o u g h a r e -

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w e a l t h , t h e r e l a t i v e d e c l i n e o f e t h n i c s t r a t i f i c a t i o n ,

a n d a d e c l i n e i n t h e p o l a r i za t i o n o f t h e s o c i a l c l a s s e s ; i n c r e a s i n g s i m -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 175/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON 1 6 9

ilarity between the great regions of America and an enormous in-

c r e a s e i n t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e w h o l e n a t i o n i n t h e p o l i t i c a l ,

e c o n o m i c , a n d c u l t u r a l f i e l d s . A l l o f t h i s h a s r e s u l t e d i n t h e d e v e l o p -

m e n t o f n e w p a t t e r n s o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n w h i c h d e t e r m i n e t h e

l i f e c h a n c e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s a n d r e q u i r e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f s k i l l s f o r

s u c c e s s f u l p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e s o c i e t y , t h u s a f f e c t i n g d i r e c t l y e v e r y

person .

Urban ism t o m e t r o p o l i t a n i s m . - S i n c e1 9 4 0 ,

t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e

United States has grown from about 1 3 2 m i l l i o n p e r s o n s t o u p w a r d

o f 19o m i l l i o n . T h e n e t i n c r e a s e i s l a r g e r t h a n t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f

some of the great nations of Europe . T h e p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e h a s

r e s u l t e d , o f c o u r s e , i n a d e n s e r i n h a b i t a t i o n o f t h e l a n d m a s s o f t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s . B y i t s e l f , t h i s i s n o t a s s i g n i f i c a n t a s t h e c h a n g i n g

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . I n1 9 4 0 ,

a b o u t 5 6 per cent of the

American population lived in places which the census defined as

u r b a n . I n 1 9 6 4 , about 7 0 p e r c e n t l i v e d i n s u c h p l a c e s . M o s t o f t h e

i n c r e a s e i n t h e u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n w a s i n t h e s u b u r b s o u t s i d e t h e c e n -

t r a l c i t i e s o f t h e b i g m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s . F r o m 1 9 5 0 t o 1 9 6 0 a l o n e ,

t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e c e n t r a l c i t i e s i n c r e a s e d b y 1 0 . 7 p e r c e n t , b u t

t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e s t a n d a r d m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s o u t s i d e t h e c e n t r a l

c i t i e s i n c r e a s e d b y 4 8 . 6 p e r c e n t .

T h e s e f i g u r e s s h o w a c h a n g e i n t h e A m e r i c a n p a t t e r n o f l i v i n g .

B u t , i n f a c t , t h e y o n l y h i n t a t t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e c h a n g e . W e n o

longer can deal with the simple juxtaposition of urban and rural

p l a c e s , b e c a u s e t h e u r b a n w a y o f l i f e h a s i n v a d e d m a n y o f t h e r u r a l

areas and in itself is more complex, more influenced by national

f o r c e s . The great growth of the American suburbs, made possible

b y t h e a u t o m o b i l e - u s u a l l y a t t h e e x p e n s e o f u r b a n t r a n s i t s y s t e m s

-and fostered by large-scale developments on a commercial basis,

h a s s u p p o r t e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h i s n e w u r b a n s t y l e o f l i f e w h i c h

c a r r i e s u r b a n i s m i n t o t h e c o u n t r y .

S u b u r b a n i t e s , g e n e r a l l y d e p e n d e n t f o r t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d s o n t h e

c e n t r a l c i t y , o f t e n w e r e n o t s o m u c h l u r e d b y t h e s u b u r b a s r e p e l l e d

by the economic and educational problems which the central city

f a c e d . The suburb offered, for m any, an opportunity to create a

s a t i s f y i n g c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n t h e i d e a l s o f i n d i v i d u a l h o m e o w n e r -

s h i p o r " r o o t e d n e s s i n t h e l a n d " t h a t c a m e f r o m t h e p a s t a n d a c c e s s

t o t h e c e n t r a l c i t y . Often, however, suburbanism has accentuated

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 176/327

1 7 0 S O C I A L, P O L I T I C A L , AND E C O N O M I C F O R C E S

t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e c e n t r a l c i t y . T h e p o l i t i c a l p a t t e r n s o f c o m m u -

n i t y o r g a n i z a t i o n c o u l d n o t k e e p p a c e w i t h t h e r a t e o f g r o w t h , s o

t h a t m a n y u r b a n a r e a s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o a " c r a z y q u i l t " o f c i t i e s , v i l -

l a g e s , t o w n s h i p s , b o r o u g h s , a l l o f w h i c h c o n t i n u e t o g o v e r n t h e m -

s e l v e s a s t h e y d i d i n a n e a r l i e r a g e , i n t e n s i f y i n g p r o b l e m s o f m e t r o -

p o l i t a n p l a n n i n g . T h i s i s a n o b v i o u s p r o b l e m i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f

e d u c a t i o n . O f t e n t h e c e n t r a l c i t y , b e c a u s e o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p o p -

u l a t i o n i n i t a n d b e c a u s e o f t h e p a u c i t y o f i t s t a x r e v e n u e s , i s l e f t

w i t h t h e m o s t s e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s . A t t i m e s , i t e v e n s e e m e d a s t h o u g h

A m e r i c a n c i t i e s m i g h t d i s s o l v e u n d e r t h e p r e s s u r e s o f t h e s u b u r b a n

d e v e l o p m e n t a n d n o l o n g e r b e r e c o g n i z a b l e e n t i t i e s o f t h e i r o w n b u t

b e c o m e , i n s t e a d , s p r a w l i n g m a s s e s o f d e n s e s e t t l e m e n t s w i t h o u t a

v i t a l c e n t e r . M o r e r e c e n t l y , s t r o n g e f f o r t s h a v e b e e n m a d e t h r o u g h

u r b a n r e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d m e t r o p o l i t a n p l a n n i n g t o a r r e s t a n d r e -

v e r s e t h i s t r e n d .

T h e o f t e n a n t i q u a t e d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a n d p o l i t i c a l f r a g m e n t a t i o n

o f t h e l a r g e u r b a n c e n t e r s o f A m e r i c a i s t h e m o r e s u r p r i s i n g s i n c e

c o m p l e x o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f b o t h t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e k i n d h a v e d e -

v e l o p e d a p e r v a s i v e n e t w o r k o f i n t e r l o c k i n g r e g u l a t i o n s t h a t l e a v e

l i t t l e o f s o c i a l l i f e t o c h a n c e .

I n t e r l o c k i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s .-In t h e b u s i n e s s w o r l d , t h e t r e n d t o

b i g n e s s i n c o r p o r a t e e n t e r p r i s e h a s n o t , a s m a n y f e a r e d , s p e l l e d t h e

e n d o f t h e s m a l l e n t r e p r e n e u r a n d s m a l l b u s i n e s s , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e

f e w s m a l l b u s i n e s s e s t h a t a r e n o t d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d b y t h e l a r g e b u s i -

n e s s o r g a n i z a t i o n s. T h e r e a r e m a n y w h i c h a r e c o n s i d e r e d " s m a l l e n -

t e r p r i s e s " a n d a r e s u c h i n n a m e o n l y b e c a u s e t h e y a r e a f f i l i a t e d w i t h

l a r g e c h a i n s , a n d o t h e r s w h i c h e x i s t o n l y b e c a u s e t h e y a r e s u p p l i e r s

o f l a r g e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s . T h e A m e r i c a n e c o n o m i c s c e n e i s d e f i n i t e l y

and strongly influenced by the growth and development of the

l a r g e c o r p o r a t i o n s a n d i s p r o f o u n d l y a f f e c t e d b y t h e s t r u c t u r e o f

t h e s e c o m p l e x o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

In the public sphere, government agencies have grown e v e n

m o r e t h a n t h e p o p u l a t i o n . I n ' 9 4 o , t h e r e w e r e 4 . 2 m i l l i o n n o n m i l i -

t a r y g o v e r n m e n t e m p l o y e e s a t t h e f e d e r a l , s t a t e , a n d l o c a l l e v e l s a s

c o m p a r e d w i t h m o r e t h a n n i n e m i l l i o n i n 1 9 6 4 . T h e i n c r e a s e o f g o v

e r n m e n t a c t i v i t y i n m a n y a r e a s o f s o c i a l l i f e a l s o i s d o c u m e n t e d b y

t h e g r o w t h o f t a x a t i o n . S i n c e t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r I I , t h e a m o u n t

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 177/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON 1 7 1

o f f e d e r a l t a x e s c o l l e c t e d h a s d o u b l e d , w h i l e s t a t e a n d l o c a l t a x e s

h a v e i n c r e a s e d s i x f o l d .

A l t h o u g h i t w o u l d b e a n e x a g g e r a t i o n t o s a y t h a t e v e r y A m e r i -

c a n t o d a y i s i n v o l v e d i n s o m e b u r e a u c r a c y , i t i s t r u e t h a t a l m o s t a l l

A m e r i c a n s a r e d e p e n d e n t o n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n t h e m o s t s p e -

c i f i c w a y s . O n e i m p o r t a n t a r e a i n w h i c h t h e t r e n d t o w a r d t h e e l a b -

o r a t i o n a n d g r o w t h o f c o m p l e x o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a s b e e n p a r t i c u l a r l y

p r o n o u n c e d i s t h e a r e a o f e d u c a t i o n a n d , m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h a t o f

h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n . I n 1 9 3 8 , i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h i g h e r l e a r n i n g o p e r a t e d

p l a n t s o f t h e t o t a l v a l u e o f z . 6 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s . I n 1 9 5 8 , h o w e v e r , t h e

t o t a l p l a n t v a l u e o f t h o s e i n s t i t u t i o n s w a s 1 2 . 1 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s . T h i s

g r o w t h i s e v e n m o r e d r a m a t i c a l l y e x p r e s s e d i n t h e i n c r e a s e i n o p e r -

a t i n g c o s t s o f c o l l e g e s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s . C u r r e n t o p e r a t i o n s i n 1 9 3 8

r e q u i r e d a n e x p e n d i t u r e o f 4 7 5 m i l l i o n d o l l a r s b y c o l l e g e s a n d u n i -

v e r s i t i e s , w h i l e i n 1 9 5 8 , t h e y i n v o l v e d a n e x p e n d i t u r e o f 4 . 5 b i l l i o n

d o l l a r s . T h e g r o w t h o f c o l l e g e e n r o l m e n t i s a f a m i l i a r s t o r y , a s i s

t h e g r o w t h o f f a c u l t i e s .

T h e A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t i e s h a v e t h u s e m e r g e d a s m a j o r f o r c e s ,

n o t o n l y i n t e r m s o f t h e i r i n t e l l e c t u a l w e i g h t b u t a l s o i n t e r m s o f

t h e i r s h e e r s i z e . A n d t h e y h a v e n o t b e e n e x e m p t f r o m t h e t r e n d o f

b u r e a u c r a t i z a t i o n . T h e y h a v e , i n f a c t , e v o l v e d a n e w f o r m o f u n i -

v e r s i t y o r g a n i z a t i o n , w h i c h n o l o n g e r r e s e m b l e s t h e o l d e r m o d e l s o f

t h e c l a s s i c E u r o p e a n p a t t e r n . The modem American un iversity is

e n g a g e d i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f l a r g e n u m b e r s o f s t u d e n t s , a l o n g w i t h

c o m p l e x r e s e a r c h a n d c o n s u l t i n g a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h r e l a t e i t t o g o v e r n -

m e n t a n d i n d u s t r y a t a l l l e v e l s a n d w h i c h o f t e n m a k e i t a m a j o r

f o r c e i n t h e e c o n o m y o f a r e g i o n o r e v e n t h e n a t i o n , a s K e r r 1 h a s

d o c u m e n t e d .

T h e c o n t i n u e d g r o w t h o f f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d b u r e a u c r a -

c i e s a t a l l l e v e l s o f p u b l i c l i f e a n d i n m a n y p r i v a t e s p h e r e s h a s i n -

c r e a s e d t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y . M a n y m a t t e r s

w h i c h f o r m e r l y w e r e c o n s i d e r e d i s s u e s o f p u r e l y i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e r n

a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y b e c o m i n g s u b j e c t s o f o r g a n i z e d p l a n n i n g a n d r e g u -

l a t i o n . T h e g r o w i n g w e i g h t o f g o v e r n m e n t i n t h e s e a f f a i r s i s c l e a r .

z . C l a r k K e r r , T h e Uses o f t h e Uni v e r s i t y . C a mbr i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s :

H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 96 3 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 178/327

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 179/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON1 7 3

T h e O t h e r A m e r i c a 2 N o w e v e n o u r s o - c a l l e d " h i d d e n " p o v e r t y ,

a f t e r t o o l o n g n e g l e c t , h a s c o m e u n d e r c o n c e r t e d a t t a c k b y a s o c i e t y

t h a t r e a l i z e s t h e p o v e r t y c y c l e n o l o n g e r n e e d b e t o l e r a t e d a s t h e

i n e v i t a b l e l o t o f a n y o f i t s p e o p l e . O n t h e w h o l e , t h e g e n e r a l r i s e

i n t h e l e v e l o f i n c o m e s h a s m a d e i n c o m e d i f f e r e n t i a l s w i t h i n t h e v a s t

m i d d l e r a n g e l e s s n o t i c e a b l e t h a n t h e y u s e d t o b e . Th e g r o w t h o f

a n e n o r m o u s m a s s m a r k e t a n d n e w p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s h a v e

b r o u g h t f o r m e r p r e s t i g e i t e m s , s u c h a s t h e a u t o m o b i l e a n d t h e f a m -

i l y h o m e , i n t o t h e r e a c h o f a g r e a t m a n y m o r e f a m i l i e s , s o t h a t s o c i a l

d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b y c o n s u m p t i o n p a t t e r n s , w h i l e s t i l l o b v i o u s , i s f a r

l e s s p r o n o u n c e d t h a n i t w a s i n t h e p e r i o d p r e c e d i n g W o r l d W a r I I ,

d u r i n g w h i c h , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e l a r g e i n d u s t r i a l c e n t e r s , a h u g e

w o r k i n g c l a s s l i v e d i n c o n s p i c u o u s l y d i f f e r e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s f r o m

the then much narrower middle and upper class es . I n t h i s s e n s e , i t

i s p o s s i b l e t o s p e a k o f t h e g r o w t h o f t h e m i d d l e c l a s s .

We must note, however , that the large majority of Americans,

w h o b y i n c o m e c r i t e r i a m u s t b e c l a s s i f i e d a s " m i d d l e c l a s s , " a r e d i f -

f e r e n t i a t e d i n t e r m s o f d i s t i n c t c r i t e r i a o f s o c i a l s t a t u s s u c h a s o c c u -

p a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e a n d e d u c a t i o n . I n f a c t , t h e e m p h a s i s o n s t a t u s h i e r -

archies has certainly increased, often using nonmonetary rewards

a s s t a t u s s y m b o l s .

E t h n i c d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , b y c o n t r a s t , h a s d e c r e a s e d i n i m p o r t a n c e

o v e r t h e y e a r s . T h i s i s s i m p l y t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s o f a s s i m i -

l a t i o n a n d o f t h e h i s t o r y o f i m m i g r a t i o n t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The

l a r g e m a s s e s o f i m m i g r a n t s w h o c a m e t o t h i s c o u n t r y e a r l y i n t h i s

century are assimilated and the new immigration is much sm aller .

A t t h e p e a k o f i m m i g r a t i o n , i n t h e f i v e y e a r s o f 1 9 0 6 - 1 0 , a l m o s t f i v e

m i l l i o n i m m i g r a n t s c a m e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I n t h e f i v e y e a r s f r o m

1 9 3 6 - 4 0 , however, there were only 3 0 8 , 0 0 0 im mig rants . I n t h e l a s t

s e v e r a l y e a r s , i m m i g r a t i o n h a s i n c r e a s e d a l i t t l e , b u t t h e s o c i a l c o m -

p o s i t i o n o f i m m i g r a n t s h a s c h a n g e d s o m e w h a t i n t h a t i t n o w i s m o r e

s i m i l a r t o t h e s o c i a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a s a w h o l e .

I n 1 9 4 0 , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e u r b a n c e n t e r s , t h e r e w e r e l a r g e n u m b e r s

o f f o r e i g n - b o r n a n d f i r s t - g e n e r a t i o n c i t i z e n s . They formed coh esive

2 . M i c h a e l H a r r i ng t o n , T h e O t h e r A m e r i c a : P o v e r t y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

N e w Y o r k : M a c m i l l a n C o . , 1 9 6 2 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 180/327

1 7 4 SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC FORCES

s o c i a l s t r a t a , o f t e n u n i t e d b y d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e m f r o m t h e

o u t s i d e a n d b y t h e h a r d s t r u g g l e t o e s t a b l i s h t h e m s e l v e s i n a n e w

s o c i e t y . W h i l e e t h n i c i d e n t i t i e s t e n d t o r e m a i n i n e x i s t e n c e e v e n t o -

d a y i n s o m e f a s h i o n , o n t h e w h o l e t h e y n o l o n g e r r e p r e s e n t s h a r p l y

d i s t i n c t s u b c u l t u r e s .

O n e c o n s p i c u o u s e x e m p t i o n f r o m t h i s p r o c e s s o f a s s i m i l a t i o n u n -

t i l r e c e n t l y w a s t h e l a r g e A m e r i c a n N e g r o p o p u l a t i o n . I n t h e s i x t i e s ,

t h e s t r u g g l e f o r e q u a l i t y , o n t h e p a r t o f t h e N e g r o a n d h i s o r g a n i z a -

t i o n s , h a s r e a c h e d a c l i m a x o f i n t e n s i t y a n d h a s s c o r e d c o n s p i c u o u s

successes which, however, have not yet overcome the pattern of

d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t t h i s g r o u p .

T he Negro's now powerfu l movement tow ard eq uitab le partic-

i p a t i o n i n t h e A m e r i c a n w a y o f l i f e i s n o t t o b e c a t e g o r i z e d w i t h t h e

s u c c e s s i v e a s s i m i l a t i o n s o f e t h n i c g r o u p s i n t h e p a s t . F o r o n e t h i n g ,

the Negro is no newcomer among us as w ere those in the waves of

i m m i g r a t i o n , s o t h a t h e h a s a l o n g , b i t t e r m e m o r y o f s u b j u g a t i o n i n

o u r l a n d . F o r a n o t h e r , h e h a s h a d t o s t o r m h i s w a y i n t o t h e r a n k s o f

t h e e q u a l a n d h a s d e v i s e d h i s o w n p a r t i c u l a r s t r a t e g i e s f o r d o i n g s o .

T h e r e a r e s i g n s t h a t o t h e r s o f t h e d i s s a t i s f i e d a m o n g u s a r e a d o p t i n g

s i m i l a r s t r a t e g i e s , a n d t h i s m a y h a v e g r e a t c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r o u r s o c i -

ety and its schools . At present, however, the racia l integration

" p r o b l e m " o u t r a n k s a l l o t h e r s f o r s e r i o u s n e s s i n t h e m i n d s o f m o s t

s c h o o l o f f i c i a l s .

D e c r e a s e i n r e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s . - T h e trend toward increased

homogeneity of American society is also expr essed in the gradual

d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f s o m e o f t h e m o s t c o n s p i c u o u s d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n

t h e m a j o r r e g i o n s . W e m u s t q u a l i f y t h i s s t a t e m e n t b e c a u s e r e g i o n a l -

i s m , b o t h p o l i t i c a l l y a n d e c o n o m i c a l l y , s t i l l p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e .

Nevertheles s, the American popul ation, which was earlier concen-

t r a t e d i n t h e E a s t , h a s s p r e a d t o t h e W e s t . T h e P a c i f i c r e g i o n h a s

experienced recently the most dramatic population growth . I n t h e

years from 1 9 4 0 - 5 0 , the populati on in the Pacific region grew by

4 7 . 8 per cent and in the years from I 9 5 o - 6 o , b y 4 0 . 2 p e r c e n t -

a b o u t t w i c e t h e f i g u r e f o r t h e n a t i o n a s a w h o l e .

T h e i n c o m e l e v e l s i n t h e d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s h a v e , o n t h e w h o l e ,

become more similar, with the relatively low-income areas of the

South experiencing significant improve ment over the last decade .

T h e s t a t e o f M i s s i s s i p p i , f o r i n s t a n c e , h a d t h e h i g h e s t p e r c e n t i n -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 181/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON 1 7 5

crease in the median income in the years from 1949-59, namely,

1 3 4 .9 p e r c e n t . S i m i l a r l y h i g h a r e t h e i n c r e a s e s i n G e o r g i a , A r k a n s a s ,

A l a b a m a , a n d o t h e r s o u t h e r n s t a t e s .

On the whole, the United States has become a highly interde-

p e n d e n t s o c i e t y w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s o n e v a s t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t a n d

one vast integrated market . One consequ ence of this, often be-

m o a n e d b y o b s e r v e r s , i s t h a t o f s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n i n t h e p a t t e r n s o f

l i f e . Those American regions, which have been conspic uously ex -

empt from this over-all trend and have remained or become "pock-

e t s o f p o v e r t y , " n o w a r e t h e o b j e c t o f p u b l i c l y p l a n n e d e f f o r t s t o

h e l p t h e m c a t c h u p w i t h t h e r e s t o f t h e n a t i o n. T h e r e i s n o d o u b t

t h a t t h e s e e f f o r t s w i l l r e s u l t i n a n e v e n i n c r e a s e d h o m o g e n e i t y i n

t h e s t a n d a r d s a n d p a t t e r n s o f l i f e t h r o u g h o u t t h e n a t i o n .

S h i f t i n s o c i a l m o b i l i t y c h a n n e l s .-As a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e

changes in the American economy and techno logy and in the ex-

t e n t o f f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n l i f e , t h e r e h a v e o c c u r r e d

m a j o r c h a n g e s i n t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n

system of the country . I t i s i n t h i s a r e a t h a t t h e i m p a c t o f f o r m a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f l i v i n g a n d w o r k i n g i n a w o r l d

d o m i n a t e d b y f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e l e f t a v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t i m -

p r i n t . T h e s h i f t s i n t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l s y s t e m a r e d i s c u s s e d i n m o r e

d e t a i l l a t e r b u t a r e r e a d i l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f u r -

banization and the more complex technology and the different de-

m a n d s i t m a k e s u p o n t r a i n i n g a n d s k i l l s .

The requirements of a complex technology, coupled with those

o f f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , h a v e r e s u l t e d i n a s i g n i f i c a n t s h i f t o f t h e

c h a n n e l s o f s o c i a l m o b i l i t y . The usual pattern in America only a

few years ago was that achievement in the occupational world and

i n t h e m a r k e t b r o u g h t w i t h i t l a r g e r e w a r d s , e v e n l a t e i n l i f e . E a r l y

f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n w a s o f l e s s s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a n e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e o c -

c u p a t i o n a l w o r l d i t s e l f . Even in the days followin g World War II,

in 1946, older, m ore experienced workers enjoyed somewhat higher

incomes than younger workers with more formal education . T o d a y ,

occupational ad vancement d epend s upon a comb ination of ed uca-

tion and experience, with the emphasis on formal education . Job

e x p e r i e n c e a l o n e c a r r i e s l e s s w e i g h t t h e s e d a y s . I t c a n , i n d e e d b e -

come obsolete overnight due to technological change . O n l y w h e n

experience is backed up with considerable schooling, as in many

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 182/327

1 7 6 SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC FORCES

p r o f e s s i o n s , d o e s t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e l e a d t o s u b s t a n t i a l

i n c r e a s e s i n i n c o m e . In I96I, the average annual income of male

college graduates twen ty-five to thirty years old was $6,640 and

was higher than that of male high-school graduates forty-five to

f i f t y - f o u r y e a r s o l d ( $ 5 , 5 8 9 ) e v e n t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r g r o u p h a d a t

least twenty years of additional work experience . 3 T h e s e f i g u r e s

reveal a very important change in the channels of economic mo-

b i l i t y .

In fact, organizational society now requires for advancement

s k i l l s a n d t y p e s o f p e r f o r m a n c e w h i c h a r e m a r k e d l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m

t h o s e r e q u i r e d i n e a r l i e r i n d u s t r i a l i s m. I n a d d i t i o n t o s p e c i f i c o c c u -

p a t i o n a l s k i l l s , s o c i a l t e c h n i q u e s o f r e l a t i n g t o o t h e r s , o f a d j u s t i n g t o

t h e i m p e r a t i v e s o f l i f e i n f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d b e t w e e n f o r m a l

organizations have become increasingly important . Modem man

m u s t b e a b l e t o p r e s e n t h i m s e l f w e l l , h e m u s t u n d e r s t a n d t h e s u b t l e -

t i e s o f m a n i p u l a t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . While ther e has

b e e n t h i s q u a l i t a t i v e s h i f t i n t h e c h a n n e l s o f s o c i a l m o b i l i t y a n d t h e

social requi rements for success, American society has not become

a c l o s e d s o c i e t y . S o c i a l m o b i l i t y b e t w e e n t h e g e n e r a t i o n s h a s r e -

m a i n e d h i g h , a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e l e v e l w h i c h e x i s t e d i n t h e

United States over man y decades . I t i s t r u e , h o w e v e r , a n d e s p e -

c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t c h a n c e s t o d a y f o r o c c u p a t i o n a l a n d t h e r e b y

social advancement are usually determined early in life by the

amount and quality of formal education received .

W i t h t h e c h a n g e i n t h e c h a n n e l s o f s o c i a l m o b i l i t y a n d i n t h e

p r e r e q u i s i t e s o f h i g h s t a t u s , t h e r e h a s o c c u r r e d a b r o a d e n i n g i n t h e

a c c e s s t o m a n y o f t h e i m p o r t a n t c h a n n e l s o f s o c i a l m o b i l i t y . Today

more children of lower-class parents receive advanced education

t h a n e v e r b e f o r e , a n d s i m i l a r l y , w e f i n d a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e p a r t i c i p a -

t i o n o f e d u c a t e d p e r s o n s f r o m l o w e r - a n d m i d d l e - c l a s s b a c k g r o u n d s

in the powerful decision-making elites of the nation as a whole .

T h e s e m o d e r n e l i t e s a r e , i n f a c t , q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e o f t h e

p a s t . W h i l e i t w a s d e f e n s i b l e t o s p e a k o f a " r u l i n g c l a s s " i n t h e s o -

3 . D e n n i s F . J o h n s t o n , " U p t r e n d s i n W o r k e r s ' E d u c a t i on , " O c c u p a t i o n a l

O u t l o o k Qu a r t e r l y , V o l . V I I , N o . 3 ( S e p t e m b e r , 1 9 6 3 ) .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 183/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON 17 7

c i e t y o f e a r l i e r i n d u s t r i a l i s m , i n w h i c h t h e g r e a t c a p i t a l i s t e n t r e p r e -

n e u r s e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r p o w e r a n d i m p o s e d t h e i r w i l l o f t e n t h r o u g h

p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n , t h e " r u l i n g c l a s s , " t o d a y , i s i n c r e a s i n g l y r e p l a c e d b y

t h e i n f l u e n t i a l " f u n c t i o n a l e l i t e s , " t h a t i s , p e r s o n s w h o , w h i l e t h e m -

s e l v e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y w e a l t h y , o c c u p y p o w e r f u l p o s i t i o n s i n t h e

f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f t h e p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e d o m a i n s .

T h e r o u t e s i n t o t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e e l i t e h a v e a l s o b e c o m e o b v i -

o u s l y d i f f e r e n t , o f t e n i n v o l v i n g c l e a r - c u t c a r e e r c h a n n e l s w i t h f o r -

m a l a g e n c i e s e n g a g e d i n r a t i n g a n d r a n k i n g o f p e r s o n n e l . " G e t t i n g

t h r o u g h " s u c h c h a n n e l s o f t e n r e q u i r e s s o c i a l p o l i s h i n a d d i t i o n t o

t e c h n i c a l c o m p e t e n c e . T h e s k i l l s o f m a n a g i n g s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s

h a v e b e c o m e m o r e s u b t l e a n d s o p h i s t i c a t e d ; t h e r e f o r e , i t i s n o t s u r -

p r i s i n g t h a t t o d a y a d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l t y p e a l t o g e t h e r o c c u p i e s t h e

p o s i t i o n s o f l e a d e r s h i p . R e c e n t s t u d i e s o f t h e A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y

e l i t e s , f o r e x a m p l e , h a v e s h o w n h o w g r e a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e b e -

t w e e n t h e m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s o f t o d a y a n d t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s o f t h e

p a s t w i t h r e s p e c t t o p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , e d u c a t i o n , a n d t e c h -

n i c a l t r a i n i n g . S o m e t h i n g q u i t e s i m i l a r h a s o c c u r r e d i n b o t h t h e

b u s i n e s s w o r l d a n d i n t h e e x p a n d i n g r e a l m o f p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

and government . I t i s t h e s o c i a l t y p e o f t h e h i g h l y e d u c a t e d a n d

t e c h n i c a l l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d p r o f e s s i o n a l w h o e m e r g e s i n c r e a s i n g l y a s

a m e m b e r o f t h e f u n c t i o n a l e l i t e s i n s t e a d o f t h e f o r m e r , o f t e n c o l o r -

f u l a n d f l a m b o y a n t l e a d e r s o f A m e r i c a . H i s p o s i t i o n o f p o w e r t e n d s

t o b e t e m p o r a r y , d e p e n d e n t o n h i s t e n u r e i n t h e o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n .

T h e c h a n g e d s t y l e o f l e a d e r s h i p h a s a l r e a d y a f f e c t e d p r o f o u n d l y t h e

i m a g e w h i c h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p r e s e n t s t o t h e w o r l d .

W e h a v e t r i e d t o s k e t c h , i n t h e f o r e g o i n g , t h e m a j o r c u l t u r a l a n d

s o c i a l c h a n g e s i n A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y o v e r t h e l a s t t w o o r t h r e e d e c -

a d e s . W e h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e s e c h a n g e s w e r e p r o f o u n d e n o u g h t o

p e r m i t u s t o s p e a k o f t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a n e w c u l t u r a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n

a n d a n e w t y p e o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e w h i c h m i g h t b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d

w i t h t h e s l o g a n o f " t h e e m e r g e n c e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i e t y . " B u t

n o w , m o r e m o d e s t l y , l e t u s t r y l o o k i n g t h r o u g h t h e e y e s o f t o d a y ' s

h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d u a t e a t s o m e w a y s i n w h i c h t h e s i t u a t i o n h e c o n -

f r o n t s d i f f e r s s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m w h a t h i s p r e d e c e s s o r o f t w o d e c a d e s

a g o f a c e d . W e s h o u l d b e a l e r t t o i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r c h a n g e i n t h e

s c h o o l s a s w e a d o p t i n o r d e r , t h e e c o n o m i c , t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l , and

t h e p o l i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 184/327

1 7 8SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC FORCES

Examples from Three Perspectives on Change

E C O NO M I C P E R S P E C T I V E

I n t h e I 9 4 0 ' s , w i t h t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n a r e c e n t a n d m i n d s e a r -

i n g m e m o r y , t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r ' s a p p a r e n t l y t e m p o r a r y b o o m

a n d i m p e n d i n g e c o n o m i c c o l l a p s e c o l o r e d a l l p r o s p e c t s . T h e h i g h -

s c h o o l g r a d u a t e o f t h e p e r i o d h a d a m p l e e x c u s e f o r h a r b o r i n g a n x i -

e t i e s a b o u t t h e e c o n o m i c s y s t e m h e w a s e n t e r i n g . S o , t o o , d o e s t o -

d a y ' s h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d u a t e , b u t w h a t a d i f f e r e n t s e t o f a n x i e t i e s h e

h a s . B e h i n d h i m a r e , o n t h e o n e h a n d , t w o d e c a d e s o f m o u n t i n g

p r o s p e r i t y a n d c o n s i s t e n t p r o g r e s s f o r t h e n a t i o n , t a k e n a s a w h o l e ,

a n d , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , b e w i l d e r i n g c h a n g e s i n t h e s t r u c t u r a l p a t -

t e r n o f t h e n a t i o n ' s e c o n o m y w h i c h h a v e i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o s e d on

i t s p a r t i c i p a n t s u n p r e c e d e n t e d d e m a n d s f o r f l e x i b i l i t y a n d a d a p t a -

b i l i t y . T h e d i f f e r e n c e i n a n x i e t i e s , w e c a n a n t i c i p a t e , w i l l b e h i g h l y

s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e s c h o o l s .

T h e e c o n o m y h a d p e r f o r m e d e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y w e l l d u r i n g W o r l d

W a r I I a n d w a s c o n t i n u i n g t o o p e r a t e a t n e a r l y f u l l c a p a c i t y d e s p i t e

m a s s i v e c u t b a c k s i n g o v e r n m e n t s p e n d i n g . J o b s , w h i l e n o t a s p l e n t i -

f u l a s d u r i n g t h e p e a k p r o d u c t i o n y e a r s o f t h e w a r , w e r e n o t h a r d

t o f i n d , a n d t h e h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d u a t e w h o c h o s e ( a n d w a s p e r -

m i t t e d ) t o e n t e r t h e l a b o r f o r c e w a s q u i c k l y a b s o r b e d i n t o t h e

buoyant economy .

B u t t h e t h r i v i n g p r e s e n t d i d l i t t l e t o d i s p e l e x p e c t a t i o n s o f d o o m

i n t h e f u t u r e . E c o n o m i s t s a n d b u s i n e s s m e n a l i k e d o u b t e d t h a t t h e

p r i v a t e e c o n o m y c o u l d r e b o u n d f r o m t h e s t a g g e r i n g r e d u c t i o n i n

w a r t i m e d e m a n d a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y a d j u s t t o t h e n e w p a t t e r n o f

p e a c e t i m e s p e n d i n g . M e m o r i e s o f t h e I 9 3 0 ' s w e r e s t i l l v i v i d ; t h e

e c o n o m i c l o g i c t h a t c o u l d a c c o u n t f o r b o t h t h e1 5

p e r c e n t u n e m -

p l o y m e n t r a t e o f 1 9 4 0 a n d t h e I p e r c e n t r a t e f o u r y e a r s l a t e r w a s

s t i l l b u t d i m l y p e r c e i v e d , a n d n e i t h e r t h e p r o c e s s n o r t h e p r o p r i e t y

o f a f e d e r a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n p o l i c y c o u l d b o a s t m a n y a d v o c a t e s . W e

w e r e w a r n e d t h a t w e m u s t e x p e c t a n e x t e n d e d p e r i o d o f s e r i o u s u n -

e m p l o y m e n t a n d l o w e r e d n a t i o n a l o u t p u t b e f o r e t h e e c o n o m i c s y s -

t e m a d j u s t e d t o a n t i c i p a t e d s l a s h e s i n t h e f e d e r a l b u d g e t a n d t h e

i n v a s i o n o f r e t u r n i n g s e r v i c e m e n l o o k i n g f o r j o b s .

T h e s e d i r e p r e d i c t i o n s p r o v e d t o b e w i d e o f t h e m a r k . W h i l e a

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 185/327

G O W , H O L ZNE R , A ND P E ND L E T O N 1 7 9

s l u m p d i d m a t e r i a l i z e , i t w a s s h o r t , m i l d , a n d s c a r c e l y v i s i b l e t o p e r -

s o n s o t h e r t h a n t h e n a t i o n a l r e c o r d - k e e p e r s . T h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e

e c o n o m y , i n t h e a g g r e g a t e , h a s b e e n h i g h l y s a t i s f a c t o r y , i f n o t s p e c -

t a c u l a r .

S e v e r a l i n d e x e s t e s t i f y t o o v e r - a l l p e r f o r m a n c e d u r i n g t h e p a s t

t w e n t y y e a r s . G r o s s n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t ( m e a s u r e d i n d o l l a r s o f c o n -

s t a n t p u r c h a s i n g p o w e r ) h a s g r o w n m o r e r a p i d l y t h a n o u r e x p l o d -

i n g p o p u l a t i o n , r i s i n g f r o m b e l o w $ 2 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 p e r c a p i t a i n t h e l a t e

f o r t i e s t o n e a r l y $ 2 , 7 0 0 . 0 0 today . T h e n u m b e r o f j o b s , l i k e w i s e , h a s

r a c e d m o r e o r l e s s s u c c e s s f u l l y a g a i n s t a r e l e n t l e s s l y g r o w i n g l a b o r

f o r c e . W h i l e u n e m p l o y m e n t r a t e s h a v e f r e q u e n t l y e x c e e d e d l e v e l s

w e w o u l d p r e f e r , 6 . 8 p e r c e n t i s t h e h i g h e s t a n n u a l r a t e f o r t h e p o s t -

w a r p e r i o d , a n d t h e t w e n t y - y e a r a v e r a g e i s j u s t o v e r 4 . 6 p e r c e n t .

Even the much-maligned rate of growth, although below that of

s e v e r a l n a t i o n s m o r e r a v a g e d b y W o r l d W a r I I , h a s a v e r a g e d a b o u t

3 p e r c e n t a n n u a l l y s i n c e t h e W a r . A d d i t i o n a l d a t a c o u l d b e m a r -

s h a l l e d t o a d d d e t a i l t o t h i s p i c t u r e - h o u r l y w a g e r a t e s i n m a n u f a c -

t u r i n g u p n e a r l y5 0 p e r c e n t , * a n i n c r e a s e i n a v e r a g e p r o d u c t i v i t y

p e r m a n h o u r o f s o m e 6 o p e r c e n t , c o r p o r a t e p r o f i t s r i s i n g t o r e c o r d

h i g h s . A l l a t t e s t t o t h e b a s i c p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e p a s t t w o d e c a d e s .

B u t p r o s p e r i t y d o e s n o t b e n e f i t a l l e q u a l l y . F o r m a n y , i n f a c t ,

i t m a y p o s e p r o b l e m s t h a t a l e s s e b u l l i e n t e c o n o m y m i g h t h a v e p o s t -

p o n e d o r c r e a t e d m o r e s l o w l y . H i g h a n d r i s i n g i n c o m e s g i v e r e i n

t o t h e w h i m s i e s o f p o p u l a r t a s t e s a n d a c c e l e r a t e t h e c h a n g e s i n c o n -

s u m p t i o n t h a t a r e t i e d t o t h e l e v e l o f i n c o m e . A s a r e s u l t , s o m e

i n d u s t r i e s r e a p a r i c h h a r v e s t , w h i l e o t h e r s , b y - p a s s e d , s e e t h e i r

p r o f i t s d w i n d l e a n d e m p l o y m e n t s h r i n k . N e w l y a c q u i r e d a n d w e l l -

f i n a n c e d l e i s u r e h o u r s d e m a n d a p r o c e s s i o n o f m o t o r b o a t s t h a t

could have evacuated Dunkirk one hundred times over . A n e w -

f o u n d t a s t e f o r a l m o s t a n y s o u n d t h a t c a n b e c o m m i t t e d t o t h e w a x

d i s c v i r t u a l l y c r e a t e s a n e w , l a r g e , a n d t h r i v i n g i n d u s t r y . At the

s a m e t i m e , a h o s t o f v e r s a t i l e s y n t h e t i c f i b e r s , u n h e a r d o f b e f o r e

W o r l d W a r I I , m o v e i n t o t h e d o m a i n s o f c o t t o n a n d w o o l , a n d n e w

m e t h o d s o f p r o d u c i n g a n d t r a n s p o r t i n g g a s , f u e l o i l , a n d e l e c t r i c i t y

d r a s t i c a l l y c h a n g e t h e o u t l o o k f o r t h e c o a l i n d u s t r y . Such changes

i n c o n s u m p t i o n c a l l f o r m a s s i v e t r a n s f e r s o f r e s o u r c e s , b o t h h u m a n

and nonhuman-transfers that may be impeded by lethargy, igno-

r a n c e , a n d t h e v e r y r e a l c o s t s o f m o v e m e n t .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 186/327

I S o S O C I A L, P O LI T I C A L, A ND E C O N O M I C F O R C E S

P r o s p e r i t y a l s o e n c o u r a g e s t h e s e a r c h f o r n e w t e c h n i q u e s o f p r o -

d u c t i o n . I t o p e n s n e w m a r k e t s , f r e q u e n t l y r a i s e s t h e c o s t s o f t r a d i -

t i o n a l m e t h o d s o f p r o d u c i n g , a n d p r o v i d e s a r e s e r v o i r o f e a r n i n g s t o

f i n a n c e t h e " g l a m o u r b o y s " o f p o s t w a r i n d u s t r y - r e s e a r c h a n d

d e v e l o p m e n t . Au t o m a t e d p r o d u c t i o n l i n e s , c o m p u t e r - m o n i t o r e d

c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s e s , e l e c t r o n i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d r e c o r d - k e e p i n g , a n d

l e s s d r a m a t i c b u t f u l l y a s s i g n i f i c a n t , m e c h a n i z e d a g r i c u l t u r e - a l l o f

t h e s e c h a n g e s i n t e c h n o l o g y h a v e e m b e d d e d t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e

American productive process duri ng the past two decades . T h e i r

i m p a c t h a s b e e n t o a l t e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e r e l a t i v e c o s t s o f p r o d u c -

tion of a wide range of goods and to change drastical ly employ-

m e n t d e m a n d s .

To these dynamic forces must be added the vagaries of foreign

com merce and the u npred ictable d emand s of the fed eral g overn-

m e n t t h a t d i r e c t l y d e t e r m i n e t h e a l l o c a t i o n o f o n e - s i x t h o f t h e n a -

t i o n a l o u t p u t . Ha v i n g c o m m i t t e d t h e m s e l v e s t o i m p l e m e n t i n g a

policy of freer international trade, recent administrations have

w a r m e d t h e s o u l s o f e c o n o m i s t s w i t h t h e i r s u c c e s s i n l o w e r i n g t a r -

i f f s , a c h i e v i n g f r e e r f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e s , a n d i n c r e a s i n g t h e f l o w o f

g o o d s , s e r v i c e s , a n d c a p i t a l b e t w e e n n a t i o n s . B u t a g a i n , t h e d o m e s -

t i c e c o n o m i c i m p a c t s a r e n o t e q u a l l y s h a r e d . American prod uc ers

must now add to domestic uncertainties the changes in demand and

r e v o l u t i o n s i n t e c h n o l o g y t h a t o c c u r a b r o a d . W hile American man-

u f a c t u r e r s o f c o m p u t e r s f i n d t h e i r m a r k e t s w e l l e d b y E u r o p e a n d e -

m a n d , A m e r i c a n p r o d u c e r s o f s t e e l , g l a s s , a n d p e t r o l e u m h a v e b e e n

made painfully aware of low-cost competition from overseas . The

c h a n g i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s o f n a t i o n a l d e f e n s e h a v e s i m i l a r e f f e c t s . A

f i f t y - b i l l i o n - d o l l a r b u d g e t i n i t s e l f i m p l i e s s u b s t a n t i a l l e v e r a g e , b u t

w h e n i t i s w i e l d e d a t t h e f r o n t i e r s o f t e c h n o l o g y , i t s i m p a c t s r e v e r -

berate throughout the economy .

T h u s , t h e p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e l a s t t w o d e c a d e s , r e i n f o r c e d b y t h e

e x p a n s i o n o f f o r e i g n t r a d e a n d t h e g r o w t h o f f e d e r a l e x p e n d i t u r e s ,

h a s i m p o s e d o n t h e e c o n o m i c s y s t e m u n p r e c e d e n t e d d e m a n d s f o r

change and adjustment to change . C h a n g i n g w a n t s , c h a n g i n g c o s t s ,

a n d c h a n g i n g i n c o m e s s e t i n m o t i o n m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l b u t f r e -

q u e n t l y l e s s o b v i o u s c h a n g e s i n t h e e a r n i n g s , l o c a t i o n , a n d i n d u s t r i a l

o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n ' s p r o d u c t i v e r e s o u r c e s . Capital must be

e a s e d o u t o f c o a l m i n i n g a n d i n t o e l e c t r o n i c s . L a n d m u s t b e t r a n s -

No

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 187/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON 1 8 1

f e r r e d f r o m a g r i c u l t u r e i n t o r e s i d e n t i a l , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , a n d r e c r e a -

t i o n a l u s e s , a n d w o r k e r s m u s t f i n d t h e i r w a y f r o m t h e t e x t i l e m i l l s

o f N e w E n g l a n d i n t o t e a c h i n g , s e l l i n g , o r o n e o f t h e b u r g e o n i n g

p e r s o n a l - s e r v i c e i n d u s t r i e s .

To gauge fully the economic changes since the War, we must

l o o k b e y o n d t h e i m p r e s s i v e n a t i o n a l t o t a l s a n d e x a m i n e s o m e

c h a n g e s i n e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e - t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t h e c o m p o s i -

t i o n o f n a t i o n a l o u t p u t , s h i f t s i n t h e r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f m a j o r

i n d u s t r i a l s e c t o r s , c h a n g e s i n t h e m a k e - u p o f t h e l a b o r f o r c e - a n d

t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e c h a n g e s f o r t h e p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e s e v e r a l

e c o n o m i c r e g i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y . O n l y b y d e l i n e a t i n g c h a n g e s o f

t h i s s o r t c a n w e c o m p r e h e n d t h e e c o n o m y o f t o d a y a n d g r a s p t h e

d i r e c t i o n s o f m o v e m e n t f o r t h e f u t u r e .

A u s e f u l i n d i c a t o r o f r e c e n t c h a n g e s i n e c o n o m i c s t r u c t u r e i s t h e

r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t i n d u s t r i e s t o g r o s s n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t .

T a b l e 2 p r e s e n t s f o r 1 9 4 7 a n d 1 9 6 3 t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t o t a l o u t p u t

accounted for by the eleven major industry groupings comm only

u s e d i n a g g r e g a t i n g e m p l o y m e n t a n d p r o d u c t i o n d a t a . W h i l e m a s -

s i v e a g g r e g a t e s s u c h a s t h e s e m o v e s l o w l y a n d c o n c e a l d r a m a t i c

s h i f t s w i t h i n t h e i r c o m p o n e n t s , t h e c h a n g e s i n r e l a t i v e s h a r e s a r e

m o s t i n s t r u c t i v e . A n d t h e s e i n c r e a s e s a n d d e c r e a s e s a c q u i r e a d d i -

t i o n a l m e a n i n g i n v i e w o f t h e n e a r l y7 5

p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e i n t o t a l

r e a l G N P t h a t t o o k p l a c e d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d . S e v e r a l t r e n d s e m e r g e

c l e a r l y - t r e n d s t h a t w e r e v i s i b l e b e f o r e W o r l d W a r I I , b u t t h a t

h a v e b e e n i m m e a s u r a b l y a c c e l e r a t e d b y t h e p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e p a s t

q u a r t e r - c e n t u r y . O n e i s t h e d e c l i n e o f t h e " e x t r a c t i v e " i n d u s t r i e s ,

a g r i c u l t u r e a n d m i n i n g . N o t o n l y h a v e t h e y f a i l e d t o g r o w a s t h e

e c o n o m y e x p a n d e d b u t n o w r e p r e s e n t a s m a l l e r a b s o l u t e c o n t r i b u -

t i o n t o n a t i o n a l o u t p u t . T h e t w o l a r g e s t s e c t o r s , m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d

t r a d e , w h i l e g r o w i n g , h a v e n o t k e p t u p w i t h t h e r a t e o f a g g r e g a t e

g r o w t h . T h e h e a l t h i e s t i n d u s t r i e s a r e c l e a r l y t h e " s e r v i c e " c a t e g o r i e s

- f i n a n c e a n d r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s , t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s - p u b l i c u t i l i t i e s

c o m p l e x , s e r v i c e s , a n d t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r . A l l h a v e i n c r e a s e d t h e i r

r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e , e x p a n d i n g f a s t e r t h a n t o t a l o u t p u t a n d , t h u s ,

t a k i n g u p s o m e o f t h e s l a c k l e f t b y t h e g o o d s - p r o d u c i n g s e c t o r s .

M u c h t h e s a m e p a t t e r n e m e r g e s - b u t i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r l a b o r -

f o r c e d e m a n d s b e c o m e c l e a r e r - w h e n w e l o o k a t r e c e n t c h a n g e s i n

e m p l o y m e n t b y i n d u s t r y a n d a t s h i f t s i n t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 188/327

1 8 2 SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC FORCES

TABLE 2

INDUSTRIAL COMPOSI TION OF GRO SS NATIONAL PRODUCT, 19 4 7 AND 1 963

I N D U S T R Y

P E R C E N T O F T O T A L

1 9 4 7 1 9 6 3

A g r i c u l t u r e , f o r e s t r y , f i s h e r i e s. 1 4 . 0

M ining. 7 2 . 0

C o n t r a c t C o n s t r u c t i o n. 8 4 . 6

Manufacturing8 . 4 2 7 . 5

W h o l e s a l e a n d R e t a i l T r a d e9 . 8 1 7 . 6

F i n a n c e , I n s u r a n c e , a n d R e a l E s t a t e. 4 1 2 . 3

T r a n s p o r t a t i o n. 9 4 . 2

Co m m u n i c ations. 4 2 . 1

P u b l i c U t i l i t i e s. 7 2 . 6

S e r v i c e s. 1 1 1 . 3

Government. 2 1 1 . 2

Othe r. 3 0 . 5

S o u r c e : U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a r t m e n t o f C o m me r c e , O f f i c e o f B u s i n e s s E c o n o m i c s , S u r v e y o f

Current Business, X L I I , N o . 1 0 ( O c t o b e r , 1 9 6 2 ) , 1 4 ; a n d X L I V , N o . 9 ( S e p t e m b e r ,

1 9 6 4 ) , 2 0 .

o f t h e l a b o r f o r c e . C o m p a r e d w i t h a n 1 8 p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e i n t o t a l

employment between 1947 and 1963, we find that employm ent in

a g r i c u l t u r e f e l l 3 9 p e r c e n t ; mining was down 34 per cent ; and

m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d t r a d e w e r e u p 9 a n d 3 1 p e r c e n t , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

B u t t h e r e a l s t a r s w e r e g o v e r n m e n t , u p 7 3 p e r c e n t ; f i n a n c e , u p 6 2

p e r c e n t ; a n d s e r v i c e s , a l s o u p 6 2 p e r c e n t . P e r h a p s a s t e l l i n g a s a n y

o t h e r i n d i c a t o r w a s t h e d e c l i n e i n t h e " g o o d s " i n d u s t r i e s ' s h a r e o f

e m p l o y m e n t f r o m 4 2 p e r c e n t t o 3 6 p e r c e n t , w i t h " s e r v i c e t y p e "

employment jum ping from 58 to 64 per cent .

S l i c i n g t h e l a b o r f o r c e f r o m a d i f f e r e n t a n g l e - t h a t o f o c c u p a -

t i o n - p e r m i t s u s t o v i e w s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e i n a n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n .

T a b l e 3 s e t s f o r t h t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e c i v i l i a n p o p -

u l a t i o n i n 1 9 5 0 a n d 1 9 6 2 a n d i n d i c a t e s t h e p e r c e n t a g e c h a n g e i n

n u m b e r s d u r i n g t h a t p e r i o d . A g a i n t h e p a t t e r n i s c l e a r . The most

r a p i d l y e x p a n d i n g o c c u p a t i o n s a r e i n t h e w h i t e - c o l l a r g r o u p , w i t h

t h e h i g h l y s k i l l e d , h i g h - i n c o m e , p r o f e s s i o n a l c a t e g o r y s h o w i n g a n

a m a z i n g 7 8 p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e i n t w e l v e y e a r s . M o r e g e n e r a l l y , i t

w a s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f w h i t e - c o l l a r w o r k e r s e x -

c e e d e d t h e b l u e - c o l l a r g r o u p f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n o u r h i s t o r y .

S u c h a r e t h e b r o a d o u t l i n e s o f s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e . B u t t h e p i c t u r e

t h e y p r e s e n t i s i n c o m p l e t e . Details-and very important ones-are

o b s c u r e d b y t h e g e n e r a l i t y o f t h e m e a s u r e s t h a t w e r e u s e d . B e c a u s e

t h e y a r e n a t i o n a l f i g u r e s , t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l i m p a c t o n t h e r e g i o n a l

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 189/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON

TABLE 3

E M PLOY M ENT IN M A JO R O C CU PATI ONS , 1 9 5 0 AND 1 9 6 2

MAJOR OCCUPATION GROUP

T o t a lh i t e C o l l a rr o f e s s i o n a l , t e c h n i c a l , e t ca n a g e r s , o f f i c i a l s , p r o p r i e t o r s

C l e r i c a l , e t ca l e sl u e C o l l a rr a f t s m e n , f o r e m e n , e t cp e r a t i v e s , e t ca b o r e r se r v i c ea r mN U M B E R ( M I L L I O N S )

1 9 5 0

5 9 . 6

2 2 . 4

4 . 5

6 . 4

7 . 6

3 . 8

2 3 . 3

7 . 7

1 2 . 1

3 . 5

6 . 5

7 . 4

1 9 6 2

6 7 . 8

2 9 . 9

8 . 0

7 . 4

1 0 . 1

4 . 3

2 4 . 3

8 . 7

1 2 . 0

3 . 6

8 . 8

4 . 9

PER CENTOF CHANGE

1 9 5 0 - 6 2

+1 4

+3 3

+7 8

+1 6

+3 3

+1 3

+ 4+1 3

- 1

+ 3+3 5

- 3 5

S o u rc e : Na t i on a l In d u st r i al C o nf e r en c e B oa r d , T h e E c o n o m i c A l m a n a c , 1 9 6 4 p p . 4 4 , 4 6 .

" l i t t l e e cono m i e s" is concea l e d . Because the industrial and occupa-

tional categories are so broad, the hardships and spectacular suc-

cesses of m o r e specific g ro u p i ng s ten d to cance l e ach other o u t , a n d

a r e r e f l e c t e d o n l y w e a k l y i n t h e a g g r e g a t e s . For instance , not on l y

d o e s u n e m p l o y m e n t r e s u l t f r o m i n a d e q u a t e a g g r e g a t e d e m a n d , b u t

it m ay al so persist in particu l ar indu stries, occu pations, age grou ps,

a n d r e g i o n s , d e s p i t e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a b a s i c a l l y t h r i v i n g n a t i o n a l

economy . A b r e a k d o w n o f r e c e n t u n e m p l o y m e n t f i g u r e s s u g g e s t s

that j u s t s u c h a str u c t u r a l d i s e q u i l ib ri u m d o e s e x i s t . D u r i n g 1 9 6 3 ,

f o r e x a m p l e , o v e r - a l l u n e m p l o y m e n t a v e r a g e d5 . 7

p e r c e n t . T h e

d i s t r i b u t i o n a m o n g i n d u s t r i e s , h o w e v e r , w a s v e r y u n e q u a l , w i t h

partic u l ar ly high percentages appearing in constr uction, mining,

forestry an d fisheries , an d t ra d e . Lo w e r t h a n a v e r a g e r a t e s w e r e

observed in the service trades, governm ent, finance, and public u til-

i t i e s . With the exception of the construction indu stry, the pattern

corre lates high ly with the longer-ter m , rate-of-growth character-

i s t i c s n o t e d e a r l i e r .

Even more precise is the inverse correlation between une mploy-

ment by o c c u p a t i o n a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l r a t e s o f g r o w t h . Laborers,

operatives, and far m workers disp lay above-average une mp loy ment,

whi le invo l u ntary idleness a mong the professiona l , technica l , and

manageria l gro ups is virt ua l l y unkno wn . P e r h a p s t h e m o s t d i s t u r b -

ing data are the percentages for yo ung workers and non w hites who

are unable to find work . For the first age bracket, fourteen to n ine-

1 8 3

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 190/327

1 8 4 S O C I A L, P O L I T I C A L, A ND E C O N O M I C F O R C E S

t e e n y e a r s o f a g e , t h e a v e r a g e 1 9 6 3 r a t e w a s 1 5 . 6 , n e a r l y t r i p l e t h e

n a t i o n a l a v e r a g e . Am o n g n o n w h i t e s i t w a s 1o9 , more than d oub le

t h e f i g u r e f o r w h i t e w o r k e r s . C l e a r l y , t h e n e w e n t r a n t s t o t h e l a b o r

f o r c e d o n o t d o v e t a i l n e a t l y w i t h j o b o p e n i n g s ; e v e n l e s s d o a v a i l -

able jobs meet the demand of the nonwhite compone nt of the labor

f o r c e f o r t h e m .

A n a d d i t i o n a l b u t c l o s e l y r e l a t e d m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f i m b a l a n c e i s

t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f e x c e s s i v e l y l o w i n c o m e s - t h e p r o b l e m o f p o v e r t y .

E v e n a f t e r m a k i n g a l l o w a n c e f o r t h e i l l , t h e a g e d , a n d o t h e r s o u t s i d e

t h e l a b o r f o r c e , t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f f a m i l y i n c o m e s b e l o w t h e $ 3 , 0 0 0 -

l e v e l i s c l e a r e v i d e n c e o f t h e p o o r f i t b e t w e e n j o b s a n d j o b - s e e k e r s .

The greatest concentration is in farming-the industry under the

g r e a t e s t p r e s s u r e t o c o n t r a c t - i n w h i c h f u l l y h a l f o f a l l f a m i l i e s h a v e

i n c o m e s b e l o w $ 3 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 . I n t h e u r b a n s e t t i n g , p o v e r t y i s i n c r e a s -

i n g l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h r e e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n :

unemploym ent, race, and ed ucation . D ata from the 18 60 census

s h o w c l e a r l y , c e n s u s t r a c t b y c e n s u s t r a c t , h o w t h e l e v e l o f f a m i l y

income varies inversely with the rate of unemployment and w ith

t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h a t i s n o n w h i t e , a n d h o w i t v a r i e s

d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e a v e r a g e n u m b e r o f s c h o o l y e a r s c o m p l e t e d . While

such associations are by no means u nexpected or new, they appear

to have become more consistent during the postwar period .

O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s t h e v e r y c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e a r n -

i n g s a n d e d u c a t i o n . During the past decade economists have been

able to document how education has operated as a major determi-

n a n t o f b o t h p e r s o n a l i n c o m e a n d n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t i o n . T h e e v i d e n c e

i s u n a m b i g u o u s o n t h e a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n i n c o m e b r a c k e t a n d y e a r s

of school completed . M a k i n g g e n e r o u s a l l o w a n c e s f o r t h e c o s t s i n -

curred in acquiring education and holding other determinants of

e a r n i n g s c o n s t a n t , r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e r a t e o f r e t u r n

t o i n v e s t m e n t i n e l e m e n t a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n i s i n t h e n e i g h -

b o r h o o d o f 1 o t o 15 p e r c e n t . W h i l e c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n i s s u b j e c t t o

i n c r e a s i n g c o s t s , t h e n e t r e t u r n h a s s t i l l b e e n c a l c u l a t e d t o b e a b o u t

1 o p e r c e n t . T h e s e e s t i m a t e s u n d e r s c o r e t h e s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e o f

f o r m a l p r e p a r a t i o n i n m e e t i n g t h e n e w s e t o f r e q u i r e m e n t s i m p o s e d

by the economic system on job-seekers . T h e y a l s o p o i n t c l e a r l y t o

e d u c a t i o n a s a m a j o r i n s t r u m e n t f o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e c a p a c i t y f o r a d -

justment in an economy so su bject to change .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 191/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON 1 8 5

I t m a y b e u s e f u l t o s u m m a r i z e b r i e f l y s o m e o f t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s

o f t h e s e e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h e p a s t t w o d e c a d e s . P e r h a p s

m o s t o b v i o u s a r e t h e n e w s k i l l s , a b i l i t i e s , a n d a t t i t u d e s r e q u i r e d o f

t h e l a b o r f o r c e . T e c h n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e - b e s t e x e m p l i f i e d i n r e c e n t

y e a r s b y t h e c o n g e r i e s o f n e w p r o c e s s e s w e t e r m a u t o m a t i o n - b o t h

cuts down the demand for unskilled manual workers and expands

t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r w o r k e r s w i t h s p e c i f i c b u t o f t e n c o s t l y s k i l l s .

L i k e w i s e , t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f t h e s e r v i c e i n d u s t r i e s h a s p l a c e d n e w

d e m a n d s o n t h a t s e g m e n t o f t h e l a b o r f o r c e - n o t l e a s t o f w h i c h a r e

f a r h i g h e r s t a n d a r d s o f l i t e r a c y a n d a r t i c u l a t e n e s s . B u t a t t h e s a m e

t i m e t h e e c o n o m y d e m a n d s n e w a n d e x p e n s i v e s k i l l s , i t w i t h h o l d s

t h e p r o m i s e t h a t w o r k e r s w i l l i n d e f i n i t e l y b e p e r m i t t e d t o e x e r c i s e

t h e m . W e l l b e f o r e t h e s u p p l y o f k e y - p u n c h o p e r a t o r s h a s c a u g h t

u p w i t h t h e d e m a n d , w e a r e w a r n e d t h a t t h e n e x t d e c a d e w i l l r e n d e r

t h i s o c c u p a t i o n o b s o l e t e . T h e p r e m i u m i s , t h e r e f o r e , n o t o n s k i l l s

p e r s e , b u t o n t h e c a p a c i t y t o a c q u i r e s k i l l s , t o m o d i f y t h e m , a n d

p e r h a p s t o b e g i n a g a i n . A d a p t a b i l i t y a n d f l e x i b i l i t y a r e t h e k e y

q u a l i t i e s d e m a n d e d o f t o d a y ' s w o r k e r . A n d t o t h e s e w e s h o u l d a d d

m o b i l i t y - f o r t h e m u l t i p l a n t f i r m , t h e n e w g e o g r a p h i c p a t t e r n s o f

p r o d u c t i o n , a n d t h e e x p a n s i o n o f o v e r s e a s o p e r a t i o n s a l l p o i n t t o t h e

d e m a n d f o r a h i g h l y m o b i l e w o r k i n g p o p u l a t i o n .

A n o t h e r a r e a w h e r e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f e c o n o m i c c h a n g e h a v e

m a d e t h e m s e l v e s f e l t i s t h e o l d p r o b l e m - b u t n e w f i e l d o f s t u d y -

o f r e g i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t . S t a n d a r d a n a l y s e s e m p h a s i z i n g n a t u r a l r e -

s o u r c e s , r i v e r a n d r a i l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , o r c l i m a t i c f a c t o r s f a v o r i n g

s p e c i f i c m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s e s m a y a c c o u n t f o r h i s t o r i c a l p a t t e r n s

o f d e v e l o p m e n t , b u t o t h e r v a r i a b l e s m u s t e n t e r o u r t h e o r i e s a b o u t

t h e l o c a t i o n a l c h a n g e s t h a t a r e n o w t a k i n g p l a c e . T h e g i f t s o f n a t u r e

a r e a d w i n d l i n g s o u r c e o f n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t ; t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i s b o t h

c h e a p e r a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y p e r v a s i v e ; a n d , a s s e r v i c e s c o m e t o d o m i -

n a t e t h e p a t t e r n o f o u t p u t , t r a n s p o r t c o s t s p l a y a n e v e r s m a l l e r r o l e

i n t h e l o c a t i o n o f j o b s .

T h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e n e w d e t e r m i n a n t s o f r e g i o n a l g r o w t h i s n o t

a t a l l c l e a r , b u t s o m e s p e c u l a t i o n s a r e i n o r d e r . A s t h e p h y s i c a l i n -

p u t s t o p r o d u c t i o n d e c l i n e i n i m p o r t a n c e , t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e l a b o r

f o r c e a s s u m e s a n e w a n d e n l a r g e d r o l e . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n

t h e r a p i d l y g r o w i n g r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s e c t o r . Not o n l y

d o e s t h e l e v e l o f s k i l l o f t h e l a b o r f o r c e , i n t h e u s u a l s e n s e , l o o m

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 192/327

1 8 6 SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC FORCES

l a r g e r b u t t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f h i g h l y t r a i n e d p r o f e s s i o n a l c o n s u l t a n t s

a n d f u l l - t i m e e m p l o y e e s i s b e c o m i n g a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r . O n l y i n r e -

c e n t y e a r s h a v e u n i v e r s i t i e s a t t r a c t e d t o t h e m s e l v e s g i a n t i n d u s t r i a l

c o m p l e x e s l i k e t h a t w h i c h h a s c o m e t o t h e e n v i r o n s o f B o s t o n . E v i -

d e n c e i s a l s o a c c u m u l a t i n g t h a t c e r t a i n a m e n i t i e s , b o t h p h y s i c a l a n d

c u l t u r a l , a r e a n e c e s s a r y p r e c o n d i t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l l o c a t i o n . T h e

a v a i l a b i l i t y o f r e c r e a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s , a n a d e q u a t e m e d i c a l c o m p l e x, a n

e f f i c i e n t a n d f o r w a r d - l o o k i n g p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m , a n d e s p e c i a l l y a s u p e -

r i o r p u b l i c s c h o o l s y s t e m - a l l e n t e r i n t o t h e n e w m o d e l o f l o c a t i o n

d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g .

F i n a l l y , t o r e t u r n t o o u r p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e , t h e n a t i o n ' s e c o n -

o m y c a n r e a l i z e i t s f u l l p o t e n t i a l o n l y i f w e a r e m o r e s u c c e s s f u l t h a n

i n t h e p a s t i n d e v i s i n g w a y s t o a c c o m m o d a t e s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e . O n e

a p p r o a c h , o f c o u r s e , h a s b e e n t o f i g h t i t . A g e n e r a t i o n o f a g r i c u l -

t u r a l p r i c e s u p p o r t s a n d a d o z e n v a r i e t i e s o f " f e a t h e r b e d d i n g " e l o -

q u e n t l y t e s t i f y t o o u r r e l u c t a n c e t o f a c e s q u a r e l y t h e n e e d t o a d j u s t .

B u t t h e p r e s s u r e s o f c h a n g i n g d e m a n d s a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l i m p r o v e -

m e n t w i l l n o t b e d e n i e d . F e w c h a l l e n g e s o f f e r a g r e a t e r t e s t o f t h e

v i s i o n a n d i n g e n u i t y o f o u r b u s i n e s s c o m m u n i t y , o u r g o v e r n m e n t ,

a n d , w e m u s t e m p h a s i z e , o u r s c h o o l s .

SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

F o r t h e h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d u a t e o f 1 9 4 0 , h i s d i p l o m a w a s m o r e v a l u -

a b l e i n e n t e r i n g t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l w o r l d t h a n i t i s t o d a y , s i m p l y b e -

c a u s e a t t h a t t i m e t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f c h i l d r e n o f h i g h - s c h o o l a g e

a c t u a l l y e n r o l l e d i n h i g h s c h o o l w a s c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e r t h a n i t i s

t o d a y . ( I t w a s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 7 p e r c e n t , w h i l e t o d a y i t i s o v e r

9 o p e r c e n t . ) B u t h e c o u l d n o t b e c e r t a i n o f f i n d i n g a j o b , a n d a

g o o d d e a l o f a n x i e t y u n d o u b t e d l y c e n t e r e d a r o u n d t h i s q u e s t i o n .

U n e m p l o y m e n t s t i l l r a n h i g h , b e i n g a l m o s t 1 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e l a b o r

f o r c e . T h i s m a d e t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a r t d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e y o u n g .

O n l y a m i n o r i t y o f h i g h - s c h o o l s t u d e n t s w e n t o n t o c o l l e g e , t h e

n u m b e r b e i n g a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f t h e h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s a n d

a b o u t 1 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n e n r o l l e d i n f i f t h g r a d e . T o d a y ,

m o r e t h a n h a l f o f t h e h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s c o n t i n u e t h e i r e d u c a -

t i o n i n c o l l e g e o r ju n i o r c o l l e ge . T h i s r e p r e s e n t s a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f

t h e s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e f i f t h g r a d e .

T h u s , t o a n t i c i p a t e m a n y y e a r s o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n u s e d t o b e a

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 193/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON 1 8 7

s o m e w h a t e x t r a o r d i n a r y t h i n g f o r a h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d u a t e . He was

i n c l i n e d t o s t o p h i s f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n w i t h h i s c o m p l e t i o n o f h i g h

s c h o o l a n d t o b e c o m e a w o r k i n g m e m b e r o f s o c i e t y . T h o s e w h o d i d

g o o n t o c o l l e g e c a m e , m o r e o f t e n t h a n i s t h e c a s e t o d a y , f r o m t h e

m i d d l e a n d h i g h e r s o c i a l c l a s s e s . I n f a c t , t h e s o c i e t y o f t h e f o r t i e s

w a s a h i g h l y s t r a t i f i e d o n e , n o t i n t e r m s o f c o n s c i o u s c l a s s " i d e o l -

o g i e s " b u t i n t e r m s o f p a t t e r n s o f l i v i n g a n d s o c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n s .

I n c o m e a n d o c c u p a t i o n a s w e l l a s e t h n i c b a c k g r o u n d p l a y e d a m a -

j o r r o l e i n p l a c i n g a p e r s o n i n h i s s t a t u s w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y . For

t h e m a j o r i t y , t h e i d e a o f a n o r g a n i z e d c a r e e r w i t h f o r e s e e a b l e f u -

t u r e s a n d d i s t i n c t s t e p s a h e a d w a s a s t r a n g e o n e . O n c e e n t r y i n t o

the occupational world was achieved, one worked one's way up

t h r o u g h e x p e r i e n c e o n t h e j o b a n d t h r o u g h t h e t a k i n g o f o p p o r t u -

n i t i e s w h e n t h e y o c c u r r e d .

W a r n e r , w h o s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e of an

A m e r i c a n c o m m u n i t y r e v e a l e d t h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m o f t h i s p e -

r i o d , d e s c r i b e d s i x c l e a r l y d i s t i n c t s o c i a l c l a s s e s . 4 I n t h e s m a l l c o m -

m u n i t y w h i c h h e d e s c r i b e d i n 1 9 4 1 , t h e r e w a s a v e r y n a r r o w u p p e r

c l a s s , l i t t l e m o r e t h a n i p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n , r e p r e s e n t -

i n g t h e o l d - f a m i l y e l i t e w i t h l o n g t r a d i t i o n s a n d p r i d e i n t h o s e t r a -

d i t i o n s . S o m e w h a t l o w e r i n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , a c c o u n t i n g f o r

a l m o s t 2 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y , w a s t h e l o w e r - u p p e r c l a s s , a

g r o u p u s u a l l y s o m e w h a t r i c h e r t h a n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d f a m i l i e s , b u t

t h e y w e r e p e o p l e w h o h a d a r r i v e d a t t h e i r p o s i t i o n s m o r e r e c e n t l y

s o t h a t t h e y d i d n o t r e p r e s e n t a s o - w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d , c u l t u r e d , and

g e n e r a l l y r e s p e c t e d c l a s s . T h e u p p e r - m i d d l e c l a s s ,w i t h a p p r o x i -

mately 1 o p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , c o n s i s t e d o f s u c c e s s f u l b u s i -

n e s s o r p r o f e s s i o n a l m e n o f s o m e e d u c a t i o n a l a c h i e v e m e n t , w h o h a d

o n t h e w h o l e a r r i v e d i n t h e i r s t a t u s t h r o u g h h a r d w o r k a n d t h e

b u i l d i n g o f a c o m f o r t a b l e l i v i n g . T h e l o w e r - m i d d l e c l a s s , w i t h z 8

p e r c e n t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y , c o m p r i s e d t h e p e t t y b u s i n e s s m e n , s c h o o l

t e a c h e r s , a n d f o r e m e n i n i n d u s t r y . T h e s e w e r e p e o p l e w i t h a n a r r o w

s o c i a l l i f e , d o m i n a t e d b y a P u r i t a n f u n d a m e n t a l i s m , a n d t h e y w e r e

r i g i d l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e s p e c t a b i l i t y . A l m o s t o n e - t h i r d o f t h e p o p -

4 . W . L l o y d W a r n e r a n d P a u l S . L u n d , T h e S o c i a l L i f e o f a Modern Com-

m u n i t y . N e w H a v e n , Co n n e c t i c u t : Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 1 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 194/327

1 8 8 SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC FORCES

u l a t i o n w a s p l a c e d i n t h e u p p e r - l o w e r c l a s s - t h e s o l i d , r e s p e c t a b l e ,

laboring people-wage workers who took some pride in their reli-

ability and looked down upon the lower-lower class of the very

p o o r , a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , o r a b o u t2 5

p e r c e n t .

If our hig h- school g rad uate was b orn into any one of these

c l a s s e s , t h e c h a n c e s w e r e a l i t t l e l e s s t h a n e v e n t h a t h e w o u l d r e -

m a i n i n t h e s o c i a l c l a s s o f h i s f a t h e r . T h i s m e a n s t h a t h e c o u l d , a f t e r

a l l , e x p e c t s o c i a l m o b i l i t y t h r o u g h h i s o w n i n i t i a t i v e a n d a s s e r t i o n ,

t h r o u g h a c c u m u l a t e d e x p e r i e n c e o n h i s j o b , t h r o u g h t h e s k i l f u l t a k -

ing of opportunities when they offered themselves in the market-

p l a c e . I n m a n y i n s t a n c e s t h e s e o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f f e r e d t h e m s e l v e s b e -

cause of technological change, economic expansion, and the fact

t h a t t h e f a m i l i e s a t t h e h i g h e r l e v e l s t e n d e d t o h a v e f e w e r c h i l d r e n

t h a n t h o s e a t t h e l o w e r l e v e l s i n t h e s o c i a l s c a l e .

T h e p r i m a r y b a s i s f o r s o c i a l s t a t u s w a s o c c u p a t i o n a n d i n c o m e ,

with education being of lesser importance . Very often education

was not so much a means of advancement as a symbol of one's par-

e n t ' s s o c i a l p o s i t i o n . The children of families i n the middle and

u p p e r c l a s s e s w e r e t h e n , a s n o w , m o r e l i k e l y t o g o t o c o l l e g e o r t o

a t t a i n p r o f e s s i o n a l d e g r e e s t h a n t h o s e o f l o w e r - c l a s s f a m i l i e s . The

t r e n d s i n c e h a s b e e n t o w a r d t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a l , a s

m o r e a n d m o r e c h i l d r e n o f a l l s o c i a l c l a s s e s a t t e n d s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s

a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h i g h e r l e a r n i n g .

On the whole, our high-school graduate of 1 9 4 0 c o u l d e x p e c t a

h i g h e r i n c o m e o v e r h i s l i f e t i m e t h a n t h e p e r s o n w h o h a d n o t g r a d -

u a t e d f r o m h i g h s c h o o l , a n d h e c o u l d i n c r e a s e h i s e x p e c t e d l i f e e a r n -

i n g s i f h e w e n t o n t o c o l l e g e . However, once h e had entered the

o c c u p a t i o n a l w o r l d w i t h o u t p u r s u i n g f u r t h e r e d u c a t i o n , i t w a s q u i t e

l i k e l y t h a t h i s f i n a l i n c o m e l e v e l w o u l d b e m u c h h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f

t h e c o l l e g e m a n w h o j u s t e n t e r e d h i s f i r s t j o b . Today, howe ver, as

indicated earlier, the beginning income of coll ege graduates is

g r e a t e r t h a n t h e i n c o m e o f h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s a f t e r a s m u c h a s

t w e n t y y e a r s o f e x p e r i e n c e o n t h e i r j o b s .

T h e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e o f A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y a r o u n d I 9 4 o , t h e n , d i d

not emphasize the formal channels of social advancement (such as

f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n a n d d i s t i n c t l y r e g u l a t e d c a r e e r p a t t e r n s ) t o t h e

s a m e e x t e n t a s d i d t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i 9 6 o ' s . T h e t i m e s p a n

f o r w h i c h t h e y o u n g w o r k e r o f t h e f o r t i e s w o u l d p l a n h i s l i f e w a s ,

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 195/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON 1 8 9

a c c o r d i n g l y , s h o r t e r t h a n i t i s t o d a y . As a rule, he would be o r i -

ented to his job and possibly worry about the next one, but only

the minority of the popul ation could be described as thinking of

d i s t i n c t c a r e e r p a t t e r n s .

I n t h e i n t e r v e n i n g p e r i o d , t h e c h a n g e o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l s t r u c -

t u r e a n d t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g p r o c e s s e s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n i n t h e

o c c u p a t i o n s t h a t r e q u i r e s o m e f o r m a l t r a i n i n g a n d i n c r e a s e d f o r m a l

s t r u c t u r i n g o f c a r e e r s t a g e s i n m a n y o t h e r o c c u p a t i o n s h a v e a l t e r e d

t h e p i c t u r e . T h e e f f e c t o f t h e l a b o r u n i o n s i n t h e m a n u a l o c c u p a -

t i o n s m u s t b e m e n t i o n e d a s w e l l . I t h a s i n c r e a s e d j o b s e c u r i t y o v e r

t h e y e a r s , a n d i n t h e s i x t i e s t h e u n i o n s a r e b e g i n n i n g t o c o n c e i v e a

d e g r e e o f l o n g - r a n g e p l a n n i n g a n d r e g u l a t i o n , w h i c h m a k e s i t l i k e l y

t h a t t h e w a g e e a r n e r o f t h e f u t u r e w i l l t h i n k o f h i s o c c u p a t i o n a l l i f e

in terms of a distinct career, supported by the accumulation of

" f r i n g e b e n e f i t s " o v e r t i m e .

M o d e r n o c c u p a t i o n a l l i f e r e q u i r e s , o n t h e w h o l e , t h e a b i l i t y t o

plan ahead, to understand and use to advantage the many regula-

t i o n s , s u p p o r t s , a n d b e n e f i t s b u i l t u p t h r o u g h t h e i n c r e a s e d f o r m a l

organization of many occupations . I t r e q u i r e s , t h e n , c o m p l e x s o c i a l

s k i l l s i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t e c h n i c a l c o m p e t e n c y n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e j o b .

T h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i 9 6 o ' s i s a r r a n g e d s o t h a t i t p l a c e s a p r e -

m i u m o n t h e s o c i a l s k i l l s o f s e l f - p r e s e n t a t i o n , i n d i v i d u a l c a r e e r -

p l a n n i n g , a n d t h e a b i l i t y t o r e l a t e s m o o t h l y t o o t h e r s . I t r e q u i r e s o f

the young person entering this world a much more differentiated

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s o c i e t y a n d a m u c h l a r g e r t i m e p e r s p e c t i v e o n h i s

own future .

I n m a n y i n s t a n c e s , t h e s o c i a l s t a t u s o f a p e r s o n i s n o l o n g e r d e -

f i n e d b y a d i f f u s e p r o c e s s o f p l a c e m e n t i n t h e c o m m u n i t y b u t , r a t h e r ,

t h r o u g h t h e v e r y p r e c i s e a w a r d i n g o f s t a t u s t h r o u g h f o r m a l o r g a n -

i z a t i o n s . T h i s h o l d s t r u e i n t h e c a r e e r l i n e s o f t h e c i v i l s e r v i c e a n d

e s p e c i a l l y , o f c o u r s e , i n t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r l d . The pattern, h ow-

e v e r , i s spreading to occupations which formerly were not at all

s i m i l a r t o t h e e s t a b l i s h e d p r o f e s s i o n s . The proces s has often been

d e s c r i b e d a s t h e s p r e a d i n g o f " p r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n " t o t h e t e c h n i c a l

o c c u p a t i o n s a n d t o t h e o c c u p a t i o n s o f t h e s k i l l e d c r a f t s m a n . B u t t h i s

l a b e l i s s o m e w h a t m i s l e a d i n g b e c a u s e t h e a c a d e m i c a n d s o c i a l p r o -

f e s s i o n s t h e m s e l v e s h a v e c o n t i n u e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r s e p a r a t e i d e n -

t i t y a n d h a v e c o l l e c t i v e l y e v e n e n h a n c e d t h e i r p r e s t i g e a n d i n f l u e n c e

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 196/327

I g o SOCI AL, PO LITI CAL, AND ECONOMIC F ORCES

i n t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . What we are witnessing, more accuratel y,

is simply the adaptation of many occupational groups to the new

work environment in formal organizations, which makes it quite

r e a l i s t i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e m t o p e g t h e i r c l a i m t o s o c i a l p r e s t i g e

a n d s t a t u s a t a p r e c i s e l e v e l . T h e w h i t e c o a t a s a s t a t u s s y m b o l o f

the technician, the elaboration of formal work standards and the

j e a l o u s g u a r d i n g o f t h e s e r u l e s b y t h e u n i o n i z e d c r a f t s m a n , t h e u s e

of official sounding titles for minor occupations-these are not

s i m p l y i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n s b u t a t t e m p t s t o p l a c e a n o r g a n -

i z e d w o r k g r o u p i n t o a c l e a r s t a t u s w i t h i n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l h i e r a r c h i e s .

It is quite important throughou t American society today that,

t h r o u g h f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f c l e a r s t a t u s - h i e r -

archies has become pervasive even in community life . A m e r i c a n

s o c i e t y a s a w h o l e , b y b e c o m i n g m o r e o r g a n i z e d a n d c l e a r l y s t r u c -

tured, has also become more status-consciou s than it was before,

a n d t h e c o n c e r n w i t h s t a t u s e v e n i n m i n o r d i s t i n c t i o n s h a s r e a c h e d

i n t o a l m o s t a l l l e v e l s o f t h e s o c i e t y . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , i t h a s r e t a i n e d

a v e r y h i g h r a t e o f s o c i a l m o b i l i t y , i n d e e d ; b u t i f a h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d -

u a t e o f t h e I g 6 o ' s h o p e s t o a d v a n c e b e y o n d t h e s o c i a l s t a t u s o f h i s

f a t h e r , h e w i l l m o s t p r o b a b l y d o i t t h r o u g h t h e f o r m a l l y s t r u c t u r e d

channels of ad vancement .

However, the organizational-technological complex that is so

c e n t r a l t o m o d e r n s o c i e t y h a s n o t i n c o r p o r a t e d t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n .

P a r t i c i p a t i o n e v e n a t t h e l o w e r l e v e l s m a k e s c o n s i d e r a b l e d e m a n d s

o n a p e r s o n ' s s o c i a l s k i l l a n d r e a l i s m , o n h i s l e v e l o f g e n e r a l e d u c a -

t i o n . A large segment of the population, clust ering in the lower

c l a s s e s a n d i n c l u d i n g t h e d i s c r i m i n a t e d - a g a i n s t e t h n i c a n d r a c i a l

g r o u p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e N e g r o , h a s f o u n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o e n t e r i n t o

t h i s s y s t e m . I n d i c a t i o n s a r e t h a t t h e g a p w i l l n o t n a r r o w b y i t s e l f ,

t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s o f a s s i m i l a t i o n , a s i t d i d i n t h e p a s t , p r i m a r i l y

because modern society demands complex decisions earl y in life,

f o r w h i c h l o w e r - c l a s s f a m i l i e s r a r e l y , i f e v e r , p r e p a r e t h e i r c h i l d r e n .

On the contrary, technological change and organizational growth

p r o c e e d a t a r a p i d p a c e a n d m a k e f o r a n e v e r i n c r e a s i n g c o m p l e x i t y

w i t h i n c r e a s e d s o c i a l d e m a n d s o n t h e p e o p l e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e m .

I f l e f t t o i t s e l f , t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h o s e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e n e w s o c i -

e t y a n d t h o s e l e f t o u t w i l l w i d e n , a s i t a p p e a r s t o h a v e d o n e i n t h e

p h e n o m e n o n w e n o w c a l l " t h e p o v e r t y c y c l e . " T h i s i s a n a r e a i n

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 197/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON 1 9 1

w h i c h t h e A m e r i c a n s c h o o l s h a v e r e c e n t l y r e c o g n i z e d a m a j o r r e -

s p o n s i b i l i t y .

T h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m w h i c h W a r n e r d e s c r i b e d f o r t h e p a s t

c a n s t i l l b e r e c o g n i z e d i n o u r s o c i e t y t o d a y . I n c r e a s i n g l y , h o w e v e r ,

the nature of the lower-upper, upper-middl e, and lower-middle

c l a s s e s c h a n g e t o a d i f f e r e n t f o r m o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n w h i c h i s

b e t t e r c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y " l a d d e r h i e r a r c h i e s " t h a n b y s o c i a l c l a s s e s .

T h e y p r e s e n t , t h e n , a c o n t i n u u m o f s t a t u s g r a d a t i o n s w h i c h , n e v e r -

t h e l e s s , a r e v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n d e e d t o t h e p e o p l e c o n c e r n e d . How-

e v e r , t h e m a j o r g a p l i e s b e t w e e n t h o s e p a r t i c i p a t i n g , n o m a t t e r i n

h o w m i n o r a f o r m , i n t h e b u i l d i n g o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o c i e t y a n d

t h o s e w h o a r e l e f t o u t a l t o g e t h e r .

T h e r e i s h a r d l y a n i n s t i t u t i o n a l s p h e r e o f A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y t h a t

i s m o r e d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d b y r e c e n t s o c i a l c h a n g e t h a n t h e e d u c a -

t i o n a l s y s t e m a t a l l l e v e l s . E a r l i e r , i t w a s a s o c i a l f u n c t i o n o f t h e

p u b l i c s c h o o l s t o c r e a t e a h o m o g e n e o u s n a t i o n o u t o f d i v e r s e e t h n i c

g r o u p s a n d t o p r e p a r e c h i l d r e n f o r l i f e i n a n o p e n s o c i e t y . T o d a y ,

t h i s f u n c t i o n h a s c h a n g e d . T h e s c h o o l s f i n d t h e m s e l v e s i n a s t r a t e g i c

p l a c e i n t h e A m e r i c a n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e b y b e i n g n o t o n l y t h e a g e n -

c i e s t h a t p r o v i d e g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n t o t h e m a s s e s b u t a l s o t h a t s e l e c t

p e r s o n s a n d , a t t h e h i g h e r l e v e l s , e v e n a w a r d s o c i a l s t a t u s t h r o u g h

a c a d e m i c d e g r e e s , w h i c h h a v e a v e r y r e a l m e a n i n g i n m o d e r n s o -

c i e t y. T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t h a s t h r u s t u p o n t h e s c h o o l s , e s p e c i a l l y a t

t h e h i g h e r l e v e l s , t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e b o t h a n e d u c a t i o n f o r

l a r g e n u m b e r s o f s t u d e n t s a n d a r e l i a b l e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e q u a l i f i e d .

T h a t t h e e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m b e a n d r e m a i n d e s i g n e d f o r m a s s e d u -

c a t i o n h a s b e e n m a d e m o r e i m p o r t a n t b y t h e r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s

because only through such a system can the maximum number of

p e r s o n s b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e m a i n s t r e a m o f m o d e r n s o c i e t y .

POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE

A h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d u a t e o f t w o d e c a d e s a g o l o o k e d o u t u p o n a

p o l i t i c a l s c e n e i n w h i c h o u r n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t w a s e x e r c i s i n g

powers and performing functions vastly expanded by the Great

Depression and World War II . A t t h a t t i m e , t h e g r a d u a t e s t i l l r e a -

s o n a b l y c o u l d w o n d e r h o w l a s t i n g w o u l d b e t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t g e n -

e r a t e d b y t w o s u c h e x t r a o r d i n a r y e v e n t s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t o -

d a y ' s h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d u a t e h a s l i t t l e r o o m t o d o u b t t h a t t h e n o w

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 198/327

1 9 2 S O C I A L, P O L I T I C A L, A ND E C O N O M I C F O R C E S

s t i l l g r e a t e r p e r v a s i v e n e s s o f t h e p o w e r s a n d f u n c t i o n s o f t h e n a t i o n a l

g o v e r n m e n t i s h e r e t o s t a y . T h e n a t i o n ' s l e a d e r s h i p r o l e a b r o a d a n d

t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t ' s d i r e c t i o n - s e t t i n g d o m i n a n c e a t h o m e h a v e

b e c o m e e s t a b l i s h e d f a c t s o f l i f e f o r t h o s e g r o w i n g u p i n t h e l a s t t w o

d e c a d e s .

T h e c o n d u c t o f f o r e i g n a f f a i r s b e i n g t h e b u s i n e s s e x c l u s i v e l y o f

t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t , o f c o u r s e , t h e v a s t e x p a n s i o n o f t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s ' l e a d e r s h i p r o l e a b r o a d h a s h a d i t s i m p a c t o n t h e f e d e r a l s y s -

tem at home . M a j o r w a r s i n t h e p a s t h a v e h a d a s i m i l a r e f f e c t , b u t

t h e i r i m p a c t c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d t e m p o r a r y a n d r e v e r s i b l e . No t

t h a t t h e y a c t u a l l y w e r e , b u t t h e y c o u l d r e a s o n a b l y b e c o n s i d e r e d

l i k e l y t o b e s o b y c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . T o d a y ' s h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d u a t e , i n

c o n t r a s t , h a s d i f f i c u l t y i m a g i n i n g a f u t u r e i n w h i c h h i s n a t i o n ' s g o v -

e r n m e n t i s n o t d e e p l y i n v o l v e d a n d h e a v i l y c o m m i t t e d a l l o v e r t h e

w o r l d , a n d h e h a s t o e x p e c t t o l i v e w i t h a g o v e r n m e n t g e a r e d t o

t h e r o l e .

F o r o u r p u r p o s e s , t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e n a t i o n ' s c o n t i n u o u s ,

wide involvement and commitment abroad does not lie alone i n

w h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t d o e s o r s h o u l d m e a n f o r t h e s u b s t a n t i v e c o n -

t e n t o f e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m s i n s c h o o l s - i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s , w o r l d

c u l t u r e s , f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s - i m p o r t a n t a s t h a t m a y b e . T h e c o n s e -

q u e n t m a g n i f i c a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t ' s r o l e h a s s i g n i f i -

c a n c e a l s o f o r t h e s c h o o l s a s c r e a t u r e s o f s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t s i n a

f e d e r a l s y s t e m . F e w o f o u r s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , a n d c e r t a i n l y n o t o u r

s c h o o l s , c a n e s c a p e t h e i m p a c t o f t h i s p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t .

I n d o m e s t i c a f f a i r s , m o s t o f t h e e v i d e n c e o f f u n d a m e n t a l p o l i t i -

c a l c h a n g e i n o u r s y s t e m o f g o v e r n m e n t o v e r t h e l a s t t w o d e c a d e s

i s t o o f a m i l i a r t o r e q u i r e d o c u m e n t a t i o n h e r e . I t i n c l u d e s t h e p r a c -

t i c e , b y n o w w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d , o f t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t m a n i p u -

l a t i n g t h e e c o n o m y t o m a i n t a i n s t a b l e p r o s p e r i t y a n d r a t e o f g r o w t h .

This function of the government now cannot reasonabl y be con-

s i d e r e d a s o n l y a t e m p o r a r y r e s p o n s e t o a c r i t i c a l e m e r g e n c y , a s p e r -

h a p s i t c o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d d u r i n g t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n a n d

t h e e c o n o m i c d i s l o c a t i o n s o f W o r l d W a r I I . N o t s i m p l y r e g u l a t i o n

o f e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y b y g o v e r n m e n t b u t a l s o m a s s i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n

b y g o v e r n m e n t i n t h e e c o n o m i c p r o c e s s , a s b o t h p r o d u c e r a n d c o n -

s u m e r , h a v e b e c o m e f i r m l y e s t a b l i s h e d . Maintenance of a perma-

n e n t l y l a r g e m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t a n d p r o s e c u t i o n o f s p a c e e x p l o r a -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 199/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON 1 9 3

t i o n a n d i t s a t t e n d a n t s c i e n t i f i c a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t h a v e

put the government i n t h e e c o n o m y a s n e v e r b e f o r e , w h i l e s i m u l -

t a n e o u s l y g o v e r n m e n t a l r e g u l a t i o n o f the economy has grown, so

t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s l e v e r a g e f o r m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e e c o n o m y n o w

i s o f a f a r g r e a t e r o r d e r t h a n e v e n t w o d e c a d e s a g o .

M e a n w h i l e , s u c c e s s i v e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s a n d c o n g r e s s e s , w i t h b i -

p a r t i s a n c o n s i s t e n c y i n p r a c t i c e d e s p i t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e o r y , h a v e

f i r m l y r o o t e d i n t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t n o t o n l y p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l

w e l f a r e p r o g r a m s b u t a d o m i n a t i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s e t t i n g t h e

d i r e c t i o n s a n d d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p r i o r i t i e s f o r o u r s o c i a l w e l f a r e i n

g e n e r a l . T h i s m a j o r p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t , w i t h o u t b e n e f i t o f a n y

e c o n o m i c c r i s i s o r w a r e m e r g e n c y , w a s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e 1 9 6 2 S o c i a l

Security amendments and made even more apparent in the 1 9 6 4

Economic Opportunity Act . F o r o u r p u r p o s e s h e r e , t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e

o f b o t h i s t h a t t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t t o o k t h e i n i t i a t i v e , d e c i d e d

t h e p r i o r i t i e s , s e t t h e d i r e c t i o n s , a n d l e f t t h e s t a t e s v e r y l i t t l e t o do

b u t t o g o a l o n g a n d t o l e t t h e i r l o c a l c o m m u n i t i e s f o l l o w t h e l e a d

g i v e n b y t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t .

I n t h e m a t t e r o f i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s , a l s o , t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t

w i t h i n t h e l a s t t w o d e c a d e s h a s e n h a n c e d i t s r o l e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e

s t a t e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n a s e r i e s o f S u p r e m e C o u r t d e c i s i o n s . Examples

a r e t h e G i d e o n a n d E s c o b e d o c a s e s r e d e f i n i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s r i g h t s

b e f o r e s t a t e c o u r t s , t h e s c h o o l - p r a y e r d e c i s i o n , t h e r e v e r s a l o f t h e

" s e p a r a t e b u t e q u a l " d o c t r i n e i n t h e r a c i a l s e g r e g a t i o n i s s u e , a n d t h e

R e y n o l d s ' g r o u p o f c a s e s r e q u i r i n g " o n e m a n , o n e v o t e " r e p r e s e n t a -

t i o n i n s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s . T h e f i r s t a n d l a s t o f t h e s e i m p o s e n a t i o n a l

s t a n d a r d s u p o n t h e j u d i c i a l a n d l e g i s l a t i v e b r a n c h e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , o f

t h e s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t s t h e m s e l v e s . T h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d i n t e r p o s e

n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s b e t w e e n t h e s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t s a n d t h e i r i n s t i t u -

t i o n a l c r e a t u r e s , t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s . W h i l e t h e l a t t e r p a i r h a s t h e

m o r e d i r e c t b e a r i n g o n t h e s c h o o l s , a l l a r e s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e l i n e o f

a n a l y s i s w e a r e p u r s u i n g h e r e . T h a t i s t o s a y , t h e s e a n d n u m e r o u s

o t h e r d e c i s i o n s t h a t m i g h t h a v e b e e n c i t e d h a v e b r o u g h t u s a l o n g

w a y t o w a r d a n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d o f i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s o v e r r i d i n g s t a t e

a n d r e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s .

D o m e s t i c a l l y , t h e r e f o r e , i n r e g a r d t o t h r e e i m p o r t a n t , s a m p l e

a r e a s - e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y , w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s , a n d i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 200/327

1 9 4 SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC FORCES

t h e t r e n d o f p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s h a s b e e n i n t h e s a m e g e n e r a l d i -

r e c t i o n .

I n a s e n s e , t h e 1 9 6 4 n a t i o n a l e l e c t i o n c a m p a i g n c o n f i r m e d w h a t

a p p e a r e d t o b e t h e n e t p r o d u c t o f p o l i t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e p r e v i -

o u s t w o d e c a d e s . N o t o f t e n h a v e c a m p a i g n s b e e n a s c l e a r - c u t a s t h a t

o n e i n s e r v i n g s u c h a p u r p o s e . T h a t c a m p a i g n h e l p e d t o c l a r i f y , f o r

i n s t a n c e , t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e b o d y o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n w h i c h w o u l d

p o s i t s t a t e s r i g h t s a g a i n s t n a t i o n a l s o v e r e i g n t y o n i s s u e s i n v o l v i n g

i n d i v i d u a l c i v i l r i g h t s , w h i c h w o u l d c u t b a c k t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n -

m e n t ' s p o w e r s a n d f u n c t i o n s i n t h e e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l w e l f a r e

r e a l m s , a n d w h i c h w o u l d s i m p l i f y t h e n a t i o n ' s w o r l d - l e a d e r s h i p r o l e

t o t h a t o f i m p o s i n g d e c i s i o n s i n c o n f l i c t s r a t h e r t h a n t h a t o f t e d i o u s

p o l i c i n g o f s t a b i l i t y i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s . P r e v i o u s r e g i o n a l a n d

s o c i a l - c l a s s a l i g n m e n t s w e r e b r e a c h e d b y b o t h p a r t i e s i n t h e p r o c e s s

o f s y n t h e s i z i n g a n e w n a t i o n a l c o n s e n s u s o u t o f t h e w e l t e r o f u n -

p r e c e d e n t e d e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e p o s t - W o r l d W a r I I p e r i o d , f r o m t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f n u c l e a r - p o w e r c a p a c i t y f o r h u m a n d e s t r u c t i o n t o

t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t e c h n i c a l p o t e n t i a l f o r e l i m i n a t i n g h u m a n p o v e r t y .

W h i l e m a n y o f t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s f o r t h e

c h a n g i n g A m e r i c a n s c h o o l m a y b e a p p a r e n t , o u r a n a l y s i s m u s t g o

o n e s t e p f u r t h e r b y e x a m i n i n g t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e t w o s o c i a l

i n s t i t u t i o n s o f g o v e r n m e n t a n d s c h o o l i n r e g a r d t o t h e p r o c e s s o f

p u b l i c p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . P o l i t i c a l f o r c e s o f t h e l a s t t w o d e c -

a d e s h a v e b e e n r e s h a p i n g n o t o n l y t h e t w o i n s t i t u t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s

b u t t h e p a t t e r n s o f t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n a n d i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

T h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n o u r n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e

s c h o o l s h a s n e v e r b e e n e n t i r e l y c l e a r - c u t . O n t h e o n e h a n d , w e h a v e

b e l i e v e d w i t h J e f f e r s o n t h a t e d u c a t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e i s e s s e n t i a l t o

t h e s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n o f o u r f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t , t h a t t h e v i a -

b i l i t y o f t h i s g o v e r n m e n t d e p e n d s u p o n a n i n f o r m e d c i t i z e n r y . Ont h e o t h e r h a n d , o u r f e d e r a l s y s t e m a s s i g n e d t o t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n -

m e n t n o s p e c i f i c p o w e r t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e p u b l i c ' s e d u c a t i o n , r e -

s e r v i ng t h a t f o r t h e s t a t e s . A t t h e s t a t e l e v e l , w e t r a d i t i o n a l l y h a v e

b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e s c h o o l s s h o u l d b e k e p t o u t o f p o l i t i c s , e v e n t o t h e

e x t e n t o f p r o v i d i n g i n m o s t j u r i s d i c t i o n s a g o v e r n a n c e o f t h e s c h o o l s

s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e g e n e r a l g o v e r n m e n t o f l o c a l c o m m u n i t i e s .

F o r a f a r l o n g e r p e r i o d t h a n w e a r e c o n s i d e r i n g i n t h i s c h a p t e r ,

h o w e v e r , t h e s c h o o l s h a v e s e r v e d t h e n a t i o n a l p u r p o s e s . T h e y h a v e

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 201/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON1 9 5

b e e n t h e p r i n c i p a l i n s t r u m e n t o f s o c i e t y f o r a s s i m i l a t i n g t h e d i v e r s e

peoples who now constitute the citiz enry . They have been the

m e a n s f o r d e v e l o p i n g t h e c o m p e t e n c i e s r e q u i r e d a s t h e n a t i o n p r o -

g r e s s e d f r o m a n a g r i c u l t u r a l t o a n i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y . In many ways,

f r o m l a n d g r a n t s f o r c o l l e g e s t o s u p p o r t o f v o c a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n , t h e

n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t l o n g h a s h a d a h a n d i n s h a p i n g o u r e d u c a t i o n a l

s y s t e m a n d , d e s p i t e t h e a b s e n c e o f s p e c i f i c c o n s t i t u t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y

i n t h e f i e l d o f e d u c a t i o n , h a s h a d s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e

s c h o o l s . T w o s u c h b a s i c i n s t i t u t i o n s o f a s o c i e t y c o u l d n o t c o e x i s t

w i t h o u t s o m e i n t e r a c t i o n .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , u n t i l r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t l y , w e c o u l d t h i n k a n d g e n -

e r a l l y h a v e t h o u g h t o f o u r s c h o o l s a s q u i t e i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p o l i t -

i c a l p r o c e s s e s b y w h i c h s p e c i f i c n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s w e r e f o r m u l a t e d

a n d i m p l e m e n t e d . W h i l e s c h o o l s s e r v e d b a s i c n a t i o n a l p u r p o s e s , t h e y

d i d s o l a r g e l y a s p a r a l l e l i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e s a m e s o c i e t y i n w h i c h t h e

political and governmental institutions functioned, pursuing the

same social goals because they reflected the values and aims of

t h e s a m e s o c i e t y .

Whether we reasonably can continue t o think in terms of par-

a l l e l c o e x i s t e n c e i s m u c h l e s s c l e a r n o w a s t h e r e s u l t o f p o l i t i c a l

d e v e l o p m e n t s o f t h e l a s t t w o d e c a d e s . W i t h i n t h i s p e r i o d , w e h a v e

h a d t h e c r e a t i o n o f a n a t i o n a l D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h , E d u c a t i o n , a n d

W e l f a r e a n d s u c h e x p a n s i o n o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n t U n i t e d S t a t e s O f f i c e

o f E d u c a t i o n t h a t t h e r e h a s b e e n s e r i o u s t h o u g h t g i v e n t o t h e e s t a b -

l i s h m e n t o f a s e p a r a t e d e p a r t m e n t o f e d u c a t i o n . T h e v e t e r a n s ' e d u -

c a t i o n p r o g r a m s , t h e N a t i o n a l D e f e n s e E d u c a t i o n A c t , a n d t h e e d u -

c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t a s p e c t s o f t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e

F o u n d a t i o n a n d v a r i o u s o f f i c e s o f t h e D e f e n s e D e p a r t m e n t h a v e e v i -

d e n c e d t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t ' s c h a n g i n g p o s t u r e t o w a r d t h e

s c h o o l s .

What seems to have been happening is not so mu ch a change in

t h e n a t i o n a l i d e o l o g y r e g a r d i n g p a r a l l e l c o e x i s t e n c e o f a n e d u c a -

t i o n a l s y s t e m a n d a p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m a s i t i s a p r a g m a t i c a d j u s t m e n t

t o c e r t a i n f a c t s o f l i f e i n m i d - t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y A m e r i c a . T h e r e i s

l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e p e o p l e b e l i e v e a n y l e s s s t r o n g l y n o w t h a n

b e f o r e t h a t , i n p r i n c i p l e , t h e s c h o o l s s h o u l d b e k e p t o u t o f p o l i t i c s ,

t h a t t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s h a s a n i n t e g r i t y o f i t s o w n t o b e p r e -

s e r v e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d g o v e r n m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 202/327

1 9 6 SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC FORCES

O f c o u r s e t h e r e h a s b e e n t a l k i n t h e l a s t t w o d e c a d e s , a s t h e r e h a s

f o r m a n y d e c a d e s b e f o r e t h a t , o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a t r u l y n a t i o n a l

e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m , s h a p e d a n d d i r e c t e d b y n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t a u -

t h o r i t y. H o w e v e r , n o m a j o r c a n d i d a t e y e t h a s h a d t h e t e m e r i t y t o

r u n o n a n y s u c h p l a t f o r m p l a n k , n o r i s a n y o n e l i k e l y t o d o s o s o o n .

L o c a l i s m a n d i n d e p e n d e n t c o e x i s t e n c e o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m

s e e m s t i l l t o b e f i r m l y e m b e d d e d i n o u r n a t i o n a l i d e o l o g y .

H i s t o r i c a l l y , h o w e v e r , t h e p e o p l e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a v e d e m -

o n s t r a t e d a r e m a r k a b l e c a p a c i t y f o r p r e s e r v i n g i n t a c t i d e o l o g i c p r i n -

c i p l e s w h i l e d e v i s i n g p r a g m a t i c p r a c t i c e s t h a t p e r m i t a d j u s t i n g t o

c h a n g i n g s o c i e t a l f a c t s o f l i f e . T h e r e i s a g o o d d e a l o f e v i d e n c e t h a t

s o m e t h i n g o f t h e s o r t h a s b e e n h a p p e n i n g w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p a t t e r n

o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e s c h o o l s , o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t h e

p o l i t i c a l - g o v e r n m e n t a l s y s t e m , o n t h e o t h e r .

A m o n g t h e r e l e v a n t s o c i e t a l f a c t s o f l i f e i s t h e p r e v i o u s l y d i s -

c u s s e d , v a s t l y i n c r e a s e d p e r v a s i v e n e s s o f t h e p o w e r s a n d f u n c t i o n s

o f t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t , i n b o t h i t s i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d d o m e s t i c

d i m e n s i o n s . T h e p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s e m a n a t i n g f r o m t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t

c a n n o t h e l p b u t i m p i n g e , o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r , u p o n t h e s c h o o l s -

w i t h o r w i t h o u t a n y c h a n g e i n t h e i d e o l o g i c o r f o r m a l i s t i c p a t t e r n

o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p .

T h e n a t i o n ' s i n v o l v e m e n t a n d c o m m i t m e n t i n f a r c o r n e r s o f t h e

w o r l d h a v e r e s u l t e d i n a l m o s t t w o d e c a d e s o f " p e a c e t i m e " d r a f t ,

i n v o l u n t a r y s e r v i c e i n l a r g e s t a n d i n g m i l i t a r y f o r c e s a s a n a l t e r n a t e

c a r e e r c o u r s e , a n d i n t h e P e a c e C o r p s - a l l f a c t s o f l i f e f o r t h e y o u n g

a d u l t s c o m i n g u p t h r o u g h o u r s c h o o l s . I n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m p e t i t i o n i n

s p a c e e x p l o r a t i o n a n d t e c h n o l o g y d e v e l o p m e n t h a v e r a d i c a l l y a l -

t e r e d o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s r a n k i n g s a n d p r i o r i t y a m o n g c o m p e t e n c i e s

n e e d e d t o i m p l e m e n t p u b l i c p o l i c y . S u c h e s s e n t i a l l y p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s

a t t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t l e v e l h a v e d e m a n d e d a p p r o p r i a t e r e -

s p o n s e s f r o m t h e s c h o o l s , r e g a r d l e s s o f a n y i d e o l o g i c o r f o r m a l i s t i c

p a t t e r n o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t c o n t i n u e s t o e x i s t b e t w e e n t h e n a -

t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e s c h o o l s .

D o m e s t i c a l l y , t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t h a s b e g u n t o c o n t e n d ,

a l b e i t b e l a t e d l y , w i t h s o m e o f t h e p r o b l e m s o f a d v a n c e d u r b a n i z a -

t i o n o r m e t r o p o l i t a n i z a t i o n o f o u r s o c i e t y , w i t h a u t o m a t i o n h a r d o n

t h e h e e l s o f m e c h a n i z a t i o n , w i t h t h e p o c k e t s o f s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g

p o v e r t y a n d i n a b i l i t y t o c o p e w i t h l i f e ' s d e m a n d s i n a c o m p l e x s o -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 203/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON 1 9 7

c i e t y , w i t h t h e p r a c t i c a l s u b s t a n c e a s w e l l a s l e g a l i s t i c f o r m s o f r a c i a l

e q u a l i t y . T h e p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s m a r s h a l e d b e h i n d p u b l i c p o l i c i e s r e -

g a r d i n g t h e s e n a t i o n a l i s s u e s p r e s s h a r d u p o n t h e s c h o o l s , a g a i n r e -

g a r d l e s s o f w h a t t h e i d e o l o g i c o r f o r m a l i s t i c p a t t e r n o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n -

ship may continue to be .

T h e f a c t i s t h a t m a s s i v e p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s o f t h e l a s t t w o d e c a d e s

h a v e c a l l e d u p o n t h e s c h o o l s t o s e r v e a s p r i n c i p a l ,hange agents, for

t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l p u b l i c p o l i c i e s . The long-run ning

d e b a t e a s t o w h e t h e r t h e s c h o o l s s h o u l d r e f l e c t o r s h o u l d r e s h a p e

t h e i r s o c i e t y h a s b e c o m e l a r g e l y a c a d e m i c . The schools have been

d r i v e n b y p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s i n t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f s p e a r h e a d i n g s o c i e t a l

c h a n g e a s t h a t c h a n g e i s e m b o d i e d i n p o l i t i c a l l y f o r m u l a t e d p u b l i c

p o l i c y .

As striking an example as any is the way in which the schools

h a v e b e e n d r a f t e d i n t o t h e r o l e o f p r i n c i p a l c h a n g e a g e n t t o e f f e c t

r a c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n . S e g r e g a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n o u r g r e a t m e t r o p o l i t a n

c e n t e r s , h a s b e e n f i r m l y e m b e d d e d i n g h e t t o - h o u s i n g p a t t e r n s . So

f i r m l y e m b e d d e d h a s i t b e e n t h e r e t h a t , w h e n d e s e g r e g a t i o n b e c a m e

a n a c t i v e p u b l i c p o l i c y n a t i o n a l l y , n o t h o u s i n g i t s e l f b u t t h e s c h o o l s

w e r e m a d e t h e l e v e r . P r o g r a m s f o r i n t e g r a t i n g n e i g h b o r h o o d

s c h o o l s , e v e n i f i t m e a n t b u s s i n g c h i l d r e n i n t o a n d o u t o f r a c i a l -

g h e t t o n e i g h b o r h o o d s , h a v e b e e n u s e d a s t h e m e a n s f o r m a n i p u l a t i n g

t h e m o r e d i f f i c u l t p r o b l e m o f a l t e r i n g h o u s i n g p a t t e r n s .

T h e c a s t i n g o f t h e s c h o o l s i n s u c h a r o l e m a y b e d e c r i e d a n d ,

i n d e e d , i t i s d e c r i e d i n m a n y q u a r t e r s w i t h d e e p s i n c e r i t y . M a n y

v e r y r e a l c u l t u r a l v a l u e s o f w h i c h t h e s c h o o l s h a v e b e e n c o n s e r v a -

t o r s a m i d t h e w h i r l a n d c h a n g e a m o n g o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s o f s o c i e t y

may be seriously imperiled as the schools perform this immediate

f u n c t i o n o f i m p l e m e n t i n g p u b l i c p o l i c y . A l o t m o r e t h a n L a t i n a n d

G r e e k c o u l d b e s a c r i f i c e d i n r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e p r e s s u r e o f p o l i t i c a l

f o r c e s g e n e r a t e d i n t h e l a s t t w o d e c a d e s .

T h e p o i n t i n t e n d e d t o b e e m p h a s i z e d i s t h a t , w i t h i n t h e l a s t t w o s

d e c a d e s , t h e s c h o o l s h a v e b e e n c a s t i n t h e r o l e o f a p r i n c i p a l c h a n g e

agent for implementing public policy as . f o r m u l a t e d b y p o l i t i c a l

processes of a pervasive national government . This has occ urred

l a r g e l y w i t h o u t c h a n g e i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i d e o l o g i c o r f o r m a l i s t i c

\ r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t t o t h e s c h o o l s . L o c a l s c h o o l

\ , b o a r d s , e x e r c i s i n g a u t h o r i t y d e l e g a t e d f r o m t h e s t a t e s , s t i l l o p e r a t e

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 204/327

1 9 8 SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC FORCES

t h e s c h o o l s . I n c r e a s i n g l y , h o w e v e r , p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s a c t i n g t h r o u g h

t h e n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t s e t t h e d i r e c t i o n t h e s c h o o l s a r e t o g o .

C o n c l u s i o n

If we glance backward now throu gh the foregoing analysis, in

t h e p r o c e s s o f s u m m a r i z i n g , w e o u g h t t o f i n d o u r s e l v e s i n a p o s i t i o n

t o b e g i n e x p l o r i n g f o r a n s w e r s t o s u c h q u e s t i o n s a s t h o s e p o s e d i n

t h i s c h a p t e r ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n .

F r o m t h e p o l i t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e i n c r e a s i n g p e r -

v a s i v e n e s s o f n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t i n f l u e n c e t h r o u g h o u t o u r w a y o f ' '

l i f e i s h a v i n g t h e e f f e c t o f m a k i n g s c h o o l s t h e p r i n c i p a l a g e n t s o f

c h a n g e f o r i m p l e m e n t i n g p u b l i c p o l i c i e s a r r i v e d a t t h r o u g h p o l i t i c a l l y

p r o c e s s e s . T h i s i s o c c u r r i n g w i t h o u t o p e n r u p t u r e o f o u r t r a d i t i o n a l

i d e o l o g y o f p l u r a l i s t i c s t a t e - l o c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a n d c o n t r o l o f

e d u c a t i o n , b u t i t i s c l e a r l y e v i d e n t i n t h e " l e v e r " r o l e a s s i g n e d t o t h e

s c h o o l s o n s u c h n a t i o n a l p o l i c y m a t t e r s a s r a c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n , w a r o n

poverty, permanent overseas commitments, and scientific conquest

o f s p a c e .

B o t h t h e s o c i o l o g i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c p e r s p e c t i v e s r e v e a l e d u c a t i o n

a n d t h e s c h o o l s s e r v i n g m o r e t h a n e v e r b e f o r e a s s e l e c t o r s i n d e t e r -

m i n i n g t h e s o c i a l s t a t u s a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l r o l e s o f p e r s o n s a n d t h e

p r o s p e c t s f o r p r o g r e s s o f c o m m u n i t i e s a n d r e g i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y .

S t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s i n t h e e c o n o m y a n d i n t h e s o c i e t y g e n e r a l l y a r e

p l a c i n g o n t h e s c h o o l s a m a j o r b u r d e n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r i n c u l c a t -

i n g f l e x i b i l i t y , a d a p t a b i l i t y , a n d a h i g h t o l e r a n c e f o r u n c e r t a i n t y a n d

a m b i g u i t y a m o n g o u r p e o p l e t o e n a b l e t h e m t o c o p e w i t h r a p i d

c h a n g e a s a n i n t e g r a l a s p e c t o f l i f e .

I n t h e n e w s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e t h a t w e a r e d e v e l o p i n g a n d i n t h e

new cultural configu ration that is emerging, the emphasis is on

methodologies rather than metaphysics, on new symbolic systems

f o r a n a l y s i s a n d e x p r e s s i o n r a t h e r t h a n d o g m a t i c " s o l u t i o n s , " a n d

o n t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f m a n a c t i n g i n u n c e r t a i n t y . I n d i v i d u a l i s m a c -

q u i r e s a n e w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n t e r m s o f s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , a n d a

f a r g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e g r o w i n g p o p u l a t i o n p a r t i c i p a t e s i n t h e

p r o c e s s e s o f s o c i e t y a n d i n t h e c u l t u r a l a d v a n c e . Characterized by

m e t r o p o l i t a n i s m , g r e a t i n t e r l o c k i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a h o m o g e n i z i n g

o f p o p u l a t i o n a n d r e g i o n s , a n d n e w c h a n n e l s o f s o c i a l m o b i l i t y , o u r

e m e r g e n t p a t t e r n o f l i v i n g c a l l s f o r c o p i n g s k i l l s o r c o m p e t e n c i e s

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 205/327

GOW, HOLZNER, AND PENDLETON 19 9

that may bear little resemblance to what we have been accustome d

t o a c k n o w l e d g e a s t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n o u r s c h o o l s .

Such, we would contend, is a measure of the social forces to

which our schools are called upon to respond, not simply as con-

s e r v a t o r s a n d t r a n s m i t t e r s b u t a s e x p e d i t e r s a n d s h a p e r s .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 206/327

C H A P T E R V I I I

The Behavioral Sciences and the Schools

RALPH W . TYLER

T h e u s e o f t h e t e r m " b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s " h a s l a r g e l y d e v e l o p e d

w i t h i n t h e l a s t t w e n t y y e a r s a s a l a b e l t o c o v e r m o s t o f t h e s c i e n c e s

that are primarily concerned with the stud y of hu man b ehavior .

T h e y i n c l u d e b i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s , s u c h a s n e u r o p h y s i o l o g y , p s y c h i -

atry, human ecology ; s o c i a l s t u d i e s , s u c h a s a n t h r o p o l o g y , e c o n o m -

i c s , h i s t o r y , p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e , p s y c h o l o g y , s o c i o l o g y ; a n d s o m e s c i -

e n t i f i c s t u d i e s o f b e h a v i o r i n h u m a n i s t i c f i e l d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n a s p e c t s

o f p h i l o s o p h y a n d l i t e r a t u r e . I n i t s n a r r o w e s t u s a g e , t h e t e r m " b e -

h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s " r e f e r s t o a n t h r o p o l o g y , s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y , s o c i o l -

o g y , a n d r e l a t e d i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y f i e l d s . S i n c e t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r

h a s d e a l t w i t h e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l , a n d p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s , t h i s o n e g i v e s

p r i m a r y a t t e n t i o n t o c u r r e n t w o r k i n o t h e r s o c i a l s c i e n c e s . D urin g

t h e p a s t d e c a d e o r t w o , m a j o r d e v e l o p m e n t s h a v e i n c l u d e d n o t o n l y

t h e g r e a t i n c r e a s e i n n u m b e r s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f h u m a n b e h a v i o r

a n d a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e i n f i n d i n g s b u t a l s o t h e e m e r g i n g c o n -

ceptions of the human being, of social organizat ions, and of the

i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s . T h e s e i d e a s a n d t h e n e w d a t a p e r -

t a i n i n g t o t h e m h a v e i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e c o n d u c t o f e d -

u c a t i o n .

The Nature of the Individu al

I n t h e e f f o r t a t t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y t o t r a n s f o r m p s y c h o l o g y

f r o m a s p e c u l a t i v e s t u d y t o a s c i e n c e , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p t s o f

s o u l , s p i r i t , a n d e v e n m i n d w e r e d i s c a r d e d . The hu ma n b eing in-

c r e a s i n g l y w a s r e g a r d e d a s a n o r g a n i s m r e s p o n d i n g t o s t i m u l i r a t h e r

t h a n i n i t i a t i n g e n c o u n t e r s w i t h h i s e n v i r o n m e n t , e x c e p t f o r r e c o g n i -

t i o n o f p h y s i c a l d r i v e s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e i n o t h e r a n i m a l s . T h e d e s i g n

2 0 0

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 207/327

TYL E R 2 0 1

o f most psychological experiments assu med that hu mans were

l a r g e l y i n c a p a b l e o f a u t o n o m o u s a c t i o n ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e i r b e h a v -

i o r c o u l d b e l a r g e l y , i f n o t w h o l l y , u n d e r s t o o d a s r e s p o n s e t o a s p e c t s

of their environment which were outside of their control . I t w a s

a s s u m e d t h a t t h e d r i v e s w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o u l d e a s i l y b e s e t i n

motion b y outsid e manipu lation . I t i s s t i l l r e c o g n i z e d , o f c o u r s e ,

t h a t t h e b i o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n i n g o f a h u m a n o r g a n i s m l a r g e l y g u a r a n -

t e e s d r i v e s t o s a t i s f y i n a d e q u a t e b i o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s . W hen hung ry,

m a n w i l l g e n e r a l l y s e e k f o o d ; i f t h i r s t y , s e e k w a t e r ; i f d e n i e d o p p o r -

t u n i t y f o r s e x u a l e x p r e s s i o n , w i l l s e e k i t . B u t t h e s e b i o l o g i c a l d r i v e s

r e p r e s e n t o n l y a s m a l l p a r t o f h u m a n m o t i v a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r

m e n w h o s e b i o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n i n g i s n o t l i m i t e d b y s h o r t a g e o f f o o d ,

w a t e r , o r o t h e r e s s e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n s .

I n v e s t i g a t i o n s d e s i g n e d t o a s s e s s h u m a n m o t i v a t i o n a n d t h e d i r e c -

t i o n a n d e n e r g y u s e d i n b e h a v i o r i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s a

d y n a m i c o r g a n i s m ; h e b r i n g s t o s i t u a t i o n s i n l i f e a n a c t i v e p e r s o n a l -

i t y d i r e c t e d n o t o n l y b y b a s i c b i o l o g i c a l d r i v e s a n d n e e d s b u t a l s o b y

v a l u e s a n d p u r p o s e s . Values w h i c h a p p e a r t o b e l e a r n e d b e c a u s e t h e y

are developed by the individual over time a r e f o u n d t o f u r n i s h a

major explanation for the direction of human behavior when the

i n d i v i d u a l i s i n s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h t h e b a s i c b i o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s

h a v e b e e n m e t . T h e v a l u e s h e l d b y t h e i n d i v i d u a l a r e n o t a s e a s i l y

m a n i p u l a t e d b y o t h e r s a s a r e t h e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r t h e c o n -

t r o l of the experimenter working -w i t h - a r i l m a I s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e

h u m a n i n d i v i d u a l w h o s e b i o l o g i c a l n e e d s a r e m e t a c t i v e l y e x p l o r e s

h i s e n v i r o n m e n t a n d s e e k s e n c o u n t e r s w i t h i t r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g d i -

r e c t e d c h i e f l y b y e x t e r n a l s t i m u l i .

The picture of the human individual w hich is now emerging is

one of a dynamic organism, acting in ways which help him attain

h i s v a l u e s a s w e l l a s s e e k i n g t o m e e t b a s i c b i o l o g i c a l n e e d s . Although

i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s e t u p c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h h e a c t s a s t h o u g h h e

were simply a pawn of circu mstance, manipu lated b y persons and

f o r c e s o u t s i d e o f h i s c o n t r o l , m u c h o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s b e h a v i o r c a n

b e e x p l a i n e d a s a n a c t i v e e f f o r t o n h i s p a r t t o m a n i p u l a t e h i s e n v i r o n -

m e n t t o a t t a i n h i s v a l u e s . T h i s c o n c e p t i o n h a s l e d t o m a n y new in-

v e s t i g a t i o n s o f p e r c e p t i o n s i n c e t h e w a y s i n w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l

p e r c e i v e s h i m s e l f a n d t h e e x t e r n a l „ e n v i r o n m e n t :t appear to be im-

p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n d i r e c t i n g h i s b e h a v i o r . It has led also to new

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 208/327

2 0 2 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES AND THE SCHOOLS

r e s e a r c h o n p e r s o n a l i t y a n d p e r s o n a l i t y d e v e l o p m e n t i n e f f o r t s t o

u n d e r s t a n d t h e d y n a m i c s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l .

Current Studies o f Perception

What one perceives has traditional ly been thought to be a

s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s o m e o r a l l o f t h e s e n s a t i o n s r e -

c e i v e d f r o m t h e s e n s e o r g a n s . I t w a s c o m m o n l y t h o u g h t t h a t o n e ' s

p e r c e p t i o n o f a c l a s s o f o b j e c t s o r e v e n t s d e v e l o p e d g r a d u a l l y o v e r

a l o n g p e r i o d , b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d a c c u r a t e

a s o n e h a d m o r e a n d m o r e o p p o r t u n i t y t o o b s e r v e t h e p h e n o m e n a .

T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n o f p e r c e p t i o n w a s r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e . M o r e r e c e n t l y ,

h o w e v e r , i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f s e v e r a l k i n d s h a v e g i v e n n e w u n d e r s t a n d -

i n g o f p e r c e p t i o n a n d a n a p p r e c i a t i o n b o t h o f i t s c e n t r a l r o l e i n b e -

h a v i o r a n d o f i t s c o m p l e x i t y .

S t u d i e s i n v i s u a l p e r c e p t i o n d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t p e r c e i v i n g s u c h

b a s i c f a c t o r s a s d i s t a n c e , d e p t h , a n d v e r t i c a l o r h o r i z o n t a l o r i e n t a t i o n

i s l e a r n e d a n d t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a n r e l e a r n s o a s t o i n t e r p r e t a c -

c u r a t e l y e x t e r n a l c o n d i t i o n s w h e n w e a r i n g l e n s e s w h i c h m a r k e d l y

d i s t o r t t h e v i s u a l s t i m u l i r e a c h i n g t h e e y e s . Under such circu m-

s t a n c e s h e l e a r n s t o i n t e r p r e t t h e v i s u a l i m p r e s s i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s

a c t i v e e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , t h a t i s , h e l e a r n s t o s e e t h e

e n v i r o n m e n t i n a w a y t h a t e n a b l e s h i m s u c c e s s f u l l y t o m a k e t h e

m o v e m e n t s h e i s a t t e m p t i n g , i n s p i t e o f i n t e r v e n i n g d i s t o r t i o n s .

A s e c o n d l i n e o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t o n e ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f

o b j e c t s , p e r s o n s , o r e v e n t s t a k e s s h a p e d u r i n g e a r l y c o n t a c t w i t h

t h e m a n d c o m m o n l y r e m a i n s f a i r l y s t a b l e i n s p i t e o f m a n y l a t e r o p -

p o r t u n i t i e s t o c h e c k t h e i n a d e qu a c i e s o f t h e i n i t i a l p e r c e p t i o n . T h u s ,

c h i l d r e n m a y d e v e l o p e a r l y t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e s e a i s b l u e p a r t l y ,

p e r h a p s , f r o m o b s e r v i n g i t w h e n i t w a s b l u e a n d p a r t l y b y t h e s u g -

g e s t i o n s o f o t h e r s , a s i n p a i n t i n g s . I t i s f o u n d t h a t m o s t c h i l d r e n

c o n t i n u e t o " s e e " a b l u e s e a e v e n w h e n a s k e d t o o b s e r v e i t w h e n i t

i s c l e a r l y g r a y , o r b r o w n , o r g r e e n . O r , c h i l d r e n a t a n e a r l y a g e

m a y d e v e l o p t h e n o t i o n o f a j a n i t o r a s a t h i n , s t e r n , a n d c o m p l a i n -

i n g m a n . T h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f t e n c o n t i n u e s t o o p e r a t e e v e n w h e n

a s k e d t o o b s e r v e j a n i t o r s w h o a r e , t o a n o b j e c t i v e o b s e r v e r , f a t a n d

j o l l y . P e r c e p t i o n o f b o t h p h y s i c a l a n d s o c i a l p h e n o m e n a i s q u i t e

l i k e l y t o b e s t e r e o t y p e d , i n s p i t e o f m a n y o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r c o r r e c t -

i n g t h e i n a d e q u a c i e s o f e a r l i e r p e r c e p t i o n s .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 209/327

TYLER 2 0 3

A n o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e o f h u m a n p e r c e p t i o n i s t h e f a c t t h a t

i t c a n b e i n f l u e n c e d b y o t h e r s . S t u d i e s i n s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y d e m o n -

s t r a t e t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r c e p t i o n b o t h o f p h y s i -

c a l a n d s o c i a l p h e n o m e n a i s a f f e c t e d b y t h e w a y i n w h i c h f r i e n d s o r

r e s p e c t e d a s s o c i a t e s p e r c e i v e t h e m . F o r e x a m p l e , i n a t y p i c a l e x p e r i -

m e n t , a n e v e n t i s e n a c t e d b e f o r e a g r o u p . E a c h m e m be r o f t h e

g r o u p i s a s k e d t o w r i t e d o w n t h e s i g n i f i c a n t t h i n g s h e o b s e r v e d . T h e

r e p o r t s d o n o t v a r y g r e a t l y f r o m t h e o b j e c t i v e r e c o r d . O n t h e o t h e r

h a n d , w h e n t h e s a m e e v e n t i s e n a c t e d b e f o r e a g r o u p a n d a n i n f l u -

e n t i a l m e m b e r , w h o i s o n e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r s , r e p o r t s a l o u d c e r -

t a i n f e a t u r e s h e " s a w " w h i c h w e r e n o t a c t u a l l y p r e s e n t , a c o n s i d e r -

a b l e f r a c t i o n o f t h e g r o u p w i l l t h e n r e p o r t t h e s a m e p e r c e p t i o n o f

t h e e v e n t .

T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p e r c e p t i o n l i e s i n

t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l d e a l s w i t h t h e w o r l d a s h e p e r c e i v e s i t .

H e a l s o i s i n f l u e n c e d i n h i s b e h a v i o r b y t h e w a y i n w h i c h h e p e r -

c e i v e s h i m s e l f . H i s e f f e c t i v e n e s s a s a p e r s o n , t h e r e f o r e , i s d e p e n d e n t

t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t u p o n t h e v a l i d i t y a n d a c c u r a c y o f b o t h h i s

s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n a n d h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e e x t e r n a l e n v i r o n m e n t .

V a l i d a n d a c c u r a t e p e r c e p t i o n d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y d e v e l o p t h r o u g h

m a n y o r l o n g - c o n t i n u e d e x p e r i e n c e s . I n i t i a l f a u l t y p e r c e p t i o n s t e n d

t o r e m a i n . F o r t u n a t e l y , m o r e a d e q u a t e w a y s o f p e r c e i v i n g c a n b e

l e a r n e d a n d t h i s s u g g e s t s a r o l e o f e d u c a t i o n i n a s s i s t i n g w i t h t h e

l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s .

Personality Research

I n c r e a s i n g r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n i -

t i a t e s a c t i v i t y a n d a t t e m p t s t o m a n i p u l a t e h i s e n v i r o n m e n t h a s h e i g h t -

e n e d s c h o l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g m o r e a b o u t t h e n a t u r e a n d

o p e r a t i o n o f t h e h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y . C u r r e n t p e r s o n a l i t y r e s e a r c h i s

proceeding on many fronts . O n e , m o s t c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o r e s e a r c h

i n p e r c e p t i o n , i s t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t o f s e l f a n d o f t h e

e n v i r o n m e n t h e l d b y d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s . A n i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e

a m o n g p e o p l e i s t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e y s e e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a s

s o m e t h i n g o u t o f t h e i r c o n t r o l a n d t o w h i c h t h e y m u s t a d j u s t , o r a s

something which they can handle for their own purposes . Even

a m o n g s m a l l c h i l d r e n , d i f f e r e n c e s a r e f o u n d w h i c h a p p e a r t o b e r e -

l a t e d t o t h e i r e a r l y c h i l d h o o d e x p e r i e n c e s . T h i s v i e w o f s e l f a f f e c t s

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 210/327

2 0 4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES AND THE SCHOOLS

t h e a p p r o a c h t h e c h i l d m a k e s t o t h e s c h o o l e x p e r i e n c e , t h a t i s , i n

s e e i n g h i s r o l e a s a c t i v e o r p a s s i v e .

A n o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t d i m e n s i o n o f p e r s o n a l i t y i s t h e d e g r e e o f

f l e x i b i l i t y o r r i g i d i t y e v i d e n c e d i n t h e e a s e w i t h w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l

s h i f t s h i s m e t h o d o f a t t a c k i n g p r o b l e m s w h e n t h e i n i t i a l a t t a c k d o e s

n o t s u c c e e d , o r t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h h e c h a n g e s h i s p e r s p e c t i v e o r

point of view in harmony with new information or to u nderstand

t h e p o i n t s o f v i e w o f o t h e r p e o p l e . R i g i d i t y , a s t h u s a s s e s s e d , i s r e -

l a t e d t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s v i e w o f t h e w o r l d i n t e r m s o f s h a r p l y d e -

f i n e d o p p o s i t e s , s u c h a s b l a c k a n d w h i t e , r i g h t a n d w r o n g , o r c o r r e c t

a n d i n c o r r e c t , a s o p p o s e d t o t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f

the worl d and the chang ing and d eveloping nature of know led g e .

T h e c o l l e g e s t u d e n t , f o r e x a m p l e , w h o i s a s s e s s e d a s r i g i d , t h i n k s o f

l e a r n i n g a s f i n d i n g a n d r e m e m b e r i n g t h e a n s w e r s t o q u e s t i o n s . T h e r e

a r e r i g h t a n s w e r s w h i c h s c h o l a r s h a v e d i s c o v e r e d , a n d t h e s t u d e n t ' s

r o l e i s t o f i n d t h e s e a n s w e r s i n b o o k s , l e c t u r e s , o r i n l a b o r a t o r y e x e r -

cises and to remember them . T h e f l e x i b l e s t u d e n t i s m o r e l i k e l y t o

a p p r o a c h l e a r n i n g a s a t a s k o f c o n s t r u c t i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s o r s o l v i n g

p r o b l e m s a n d t o b e c r e a t i v e a n d i m a g i n a t i v e .

S o m e p e r s o n a l i t y r e s e a r c h i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h s t u d i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l

i n t e r e s t s a n d v a l u e s b e c a u s e t h e s e t h r o w l i g h t o n m o t i v a t i o n a n d t h e

d i r e c t i o n o f b e h a v i o r . P e r s o n s d i f f e r i n t h e e x t e n t o f t h e i r i n t e r e s t s

i n o b j e c t s , p e o p l e , c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s , t h e o r e t i c a l i d e a s , p r a c t i c a l

p r o b l e m s , a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t i e s , a l t r u i s t i c t a s k s , s o c i a l r e c o g n i t i o n , a n d

t h e l i k e . T h e s e i n t e r e s t s a n d t h e v a l u e s i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e m a r e f o u n d

t o b e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h o c c u p a t i o n a l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l c h o i c e s a n d w i t h

t h e k i n d s o f a c h i e v e m e n t r e c o r d e d i n s c h o o l a n d c o l l e g e .

One area of personality research which is currently receiving

m u c h a t t e n t i o n i s t h a t o f i n d i v i d u a l m o t i v a t i o n t o a c h i e v e ; t h a t i s ,

t o b e s u c c e s s f u l i n w h a t o n e u n d e r t a k e s . S t u d i e s o f y o u n g c h i l d r e n

show that some m others withhold immediate gratification of chil-

d r e n ' s n e e d s u n t i l a n a s s i g n e d t a s k h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e d . A s t h e c h i l d

completes the task, he is rewarded with a show of affection and

com ments on how good he is . C h i l d - r e a r i n g p r a c t i c e s o f t h i s s o r t

a r e t h o u g h t t o e x p l a i n t h e g r e a t e r e x t e n t o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n

among children from middle-class homes than amo ng children from

w o r k i n g - c l a s s h o m e s w h e r e s u c h , a r e g i m e n i s l e s s f r e q u e n t l y f o u n d .

B y t h e t i m e c h i l d r e n e n t e r s c h o o l , w i d e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e f o u n d i n t h e

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 211/327

TYLER 2 0 5

d e g r e e o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n , t h e k i n d o f m o t i v a t i o n o n w h i c h

m o s t t e a c h e r s h e a v i l y d e p e n d t o g i v e d i r e c t i o n t o s c h o o l l e a r n i n g .

S t i l l a n o t h e r l i n e o f p e r s o n a l i t y r e s e a r c h i s i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e c h a r -

a c t e r i s t i c w a y s i n w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s u t i l i z e e m o t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s a n d

c h a n n e l t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f f e e l i n g s w h i c h a r e s o c i a l l y u n a c c e p t a b l e

o r u n a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l . S o m e p e r s o n s a r e a b l e t o d r a w o n

their emotions for energy used in thought and action and for the

c o l o r a n d s a t i s f a c t i o n o f e v e r y d a y e x p e r i e n c e s . O t h e r s a p p e a r t o b e

i n c o n t i n u o u s c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e i r e m o t i o n s , s o m e t i m e s f i n d i n g t h e i r

e x p r e s s i o n e n e r v a t i n g a n d s o m e t i m e s f e a r i n g t h a t t h e i r e x p r e s s i o n

will be unacceptable . E f f e c t i v e c h a n n e l i n g o f a g g r e s s i o n , a n g e r ,

l o v e , a n d f e a r , i s d i f f i c u l t f o r m a n y . F r e u d i a n t h e o r y h a s b e e n t h e

b a s i s o f m u c h r e s e a r c h o n e m o t i o n s , b u t t h e r e a r e o t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l

p o s i t i o n s w h i c h a l s o a r e g u i d i n g c u r r e n t s t u d i e s . B e c a u s e o f t h e i m -

p o r t a n c e o f e m o t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e d y n a m i c s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l

s t u d i e s i n t h i s a r e a , t h e y a r e c e r t a i n t o p r o v i d e g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f e d u c a t i o n . T h e s c h o o l i s t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h c h i l d r e n l i v e

a n i m p o r t a n t f r a c t i o n o f t h e i r l i v e s . It should be an environment

w h i c h e n c o u r a g e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a r i c h e m o t i o n a l l i f e a n d h e l p s

e a c h c h i l d f i n d a c c e p t a b l e w a y s o f e x p r e s s i n g h i s g e n u i n e e m o t i o n s .

T h e f i v e a r e a s o f p e r s o n a l i t y r e s e a r c h b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d i n t h e p r e -

c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h s a r e n o t a l l t h e f i e l d s n o w u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

T h e y a r e m e n t i o n e d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e v a r i e t y o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n s u n d e r

w a y a n d t o s u g g e s t t h e k i n d s o f s t u d i e s w h i c h a p p e a r t o h a v e i m p l i -

c a t i o n s f o r e d u c a t i o n a n d t h e s c h o o l . O n e o t h e r k i n d o f f i n d i n g a p -

p e a r i n g f r e q u e n t l y i n c u r r e n t w o r k i s t h a t p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s d o

c h a n g e a n d d e v e l o p a n d t h a t p a t t e r n s o f p e r s o n a l i t y c a n b e l e a r n e d ,

a l t h o u g h n o t a s e a s i l y a s s p e c i f i c h a b i t s c a n b e a c q u i r e d . Hence,

p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s c a n b e v i e w e d a s a m o n g t h e e n d s o f e d u c a t i o n

as well as important influences upon the direction and extent of

l e a r n i n g .

Re s e a r c h a n d Le a r n i n g

A recent yearbook of the National Society for the Study of

Education i provides an excellent account of recent research on

i . T h e o r i e s o f L e a r n i n g a n d I n s t r u c t i o n . S i x t y - t h i r d Y e a r b o o k o f t h e N a -

t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r t h e S t u d y o f E d u c a t i o n , P a r t I . E d i t e d b y E r n e s t R . H i l g a r d

a n d H e r m a n G . R i c h e y . C h i c a g o : Di s t r i b u t e d b y t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o

P r e s s , 1 9 6 4 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 212/327

2 0 6 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES AND THE SCHOOLS

l e a r n i n g a n d s u g g e s t s m a n y i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n . Because

t h i s c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e p o r t i s a v a i l a b l e , i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y i n t h i s

chapter to do more than comment on the importance of studies in

l e a r n i n g i n p r o v i d i n g a b a s i s f o r t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f c u r r i c u l u m a n d

i n s t r u c t i o n . Hilgard's chapter in this yearbook 2o u t l i n e s p r o m i s -

i n g s t r a t e g i e s f o r i n t e g r a t i n g t h e p s y c h o l o g y o f l e a r n i n g w i t h t h e

t e c h n o l o g y o f i n s t r u c t i o n . In summary he states :

I n o r d e r t o b u i l d a s o u n d b r i d g e f r o m t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s o f

l e a r n i n g t o t h e c l a s s r o o m , w e n e e d a s e r i e s o f s t e p s , f o r a p p l i e d s c i e n c e

c o n s i s t s o f m o r e t h a n a p p l y i n g p r i n c i p l e s t o p r a c t i c e . T h e m a i n p o i n t s

a r e t h a t i n t h e r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t p h a s e s a c o l l a b o r a t i o n i s c a l l e d

f o r b e t w e e n p s y c h o l o g i s t , s u b j e c t - m a t t e r s p e c i a l i s t , a n d t e a c h e r ; b e y o n d

t h i s , c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n h a s t o b e g i v e n t o t e c h n i q u e s o f i n n o v a t i o n .

I f w e a c h i e v e s u c c e s s i n i n t e g r a t i n g t h e s e p h a s e s , w e w i l l m o v e t o w a r d

t h a t i m p r o v e m e n t o f e d u c a t i o n w h i c h w i l l b e s a t i s f y i n g t o u s a l l. 3

The need for collaboration, which Hilgard recognizes, grows

o u t o f t h e f a c t t h a t e f f e c t i v e d i r e c t i o n a n d c o n t r o l o f t h e p r o c e s s o f

l e a r n i n g a r e d i f f e r e n t w i t h d i f f e r e n t c o n t e n t , d i f f e r e n t e d u c a t i o n a l

o b j e c t i v e s , a n d d i f f e r e n t l e a r n e r s . There are some common features

o f a l l l e a r n i n g ; f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t f o r o n e t o l e a r n h e m u s t c a r r y o n

t h e b e h a v i o r t o b e l e a r n e d a n d m u s t o b t a i n r e w a r d f o r c a r r y i n g i t

o n s u c c e s s f u l l y . B ut this g eneral form u la d oes not answer many

q u e s t i o n s a b o u t p a r t i c u l a r l e a r n i n g p r o b l e m s : U n d e r w h a t c o n d i -

t i o n s w i l l t h e l e a r n e r a t t e m p t t o c a r r y o n a c e r t a i n k i n d o f b e h a v i o r ?

How does he discover the cues that are useful in guid ing his be-

h a v i o r ? W h a t k i n d s o f l e a r n i n g t a s k s w i l l b e a t a l e v e l a t w h i c h h e

can succeed and yet requ ire him to go beyond what he has previ-

ously been able to do? An even more fundamental question is the

d e g r e e o f g e n e r a l i t y o f t h e b e h a v i o r w h i c h t h e s t u d e n t i s t o l e a r n ,

t h a t i s , h o w g e n e r a l o r s p e c i f i c s h o u l d t h e e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s b e

f o r t h i s s u b j e c t a n d t h e s e s t u d e n t s ?

W h e n l e a r n i n g w a s c o n c e i v e d b y p s y c h o l o g i s t s a n d b y e d u c a t o r s

a s r e s t r i c t e d t o b u i l d i n g a c o n n e c t i o n t o e l i c i t a s p e c i f i c r e s p o n s e t o

a s p e c i f i c s t i m u l u s , e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s w e r e d e t a i l e d a n d s p e c i f i c ,

a n d l e a r n i n g w a s p r a c t i c e o r d r i l l i n m a k i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o n s e

2 . I b i d . , chap . x v i i , " A P e r s p e c t i v e o n t h e R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n Learning

T h e o r y a n d E d u c a t i o n a l P r a c t i c e s , " p p . 4 0 2 - 4 1 5 .

; . I b i d . , p . 4 1 5 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 213/327

TYLER 2 0 7

t o t h e s p e c i f i c s t i m u l u s . As research has sh own that hum an beings

c a n l e a r n m o r e g e n e r a l b e h a v i o r , s u c h a s p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h a p p l y t o

m a n y s i t u a t i o n s , t e c h n i q u e s f o r a t t a c k i n g p r o b l e m s , a p p r o a c h e s t o

d i s c o v e r d a t a a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d w a y s o f s e a r c h i n g n e w s i t u a t i o n s

f o r f a c t o r s t h a t a r e r e l e v a n t a n d a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e i r p u r p o s e s , t h e

n e e d f o r c o l l a b o r a t i o n i n r e s e a r c h a n d i n d e v e l o p i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l

practices has b ecome m uch more ob vious . I t i s n o l o n g e r p o s s i b l e

t o s t a t e f o r a l l a f o r m u l a t i o n o f a t t a i n a b l e o b j e c t i v e s , a l i s t o f g o o d

t e a c h i n g t e c h n i q u e s , a n d t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r u s e f u l m a t e r i a l s o f

i n s t r u c t i o n . These are matters to be worked out col laboratively,

using research and development procedures .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e r e s e a r c h r e p o r t e d i n t h e S i x t y - t h i r d Y e a r b o o k ,

other current studies verify the common view that there are im-

p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g l e a r n i n g w h i c h a r e n o t d i r e c t l y u n d e r

the control of the teacher . T h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l e x p e c t a t i o n s a s p e r -

c e i v e d b y t h e s t u d e n t s , t h e p e e r g r o u p s t o w h i c h t h e s t u d e n t b e l o n g s

o r w h o s e m e m b e r s h e r e s p e c t s , a n d t h e a t t r a c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t i e s w i t h

w h o m h e i d e n t i f i e s a r e f o u n d t o e x e r t a n i n f l u e n c e o n t h e d i r e c t i o n

and amount of learning . M o s t s c h o o l s a n d c o l l e g e s i m p r e s s u p o n t h e

students the kinds of perso ns valued by them and the kinds of

achievements expected of them . I n s o m e p l a c e s , i n t e l l e c t u a l a c h i e v e -

ments are highly valued ; i n s o m e , a t h l e t i c p r o w e s s ; i n s o m e , s o c i a l

s k i l l s ; i n s o m e , f r i e n d l i n e s s . I n ge n e r a l , i t c a n b e s a i d t h a t t h e i n s t i -

t u t i o n a l e m p h a s i s w h i c h i s p e r c e i v e d b y t h e s t u d e n t s a f f e c t s t h e n a -

t u r e a n d e x t e n t o f t h e i r e f f o r t s , e i t h e r p o s i t i v e l y o r n e g a t i v e l y .

I n m o s t s c h o o l s a n d c o l l e g e s , t h e f r i e n d s h i p g r o u p s o f s t u d e n t s

a r e v a r i e d i n t h e i r c o m p o s i t i o n , a n d e a c h g r o u p m a y o p e n l y o r t a c -

i t l y i n d o r s e d i f f e r e n t s t a n d a r d s . Some may support the educational

p u r p o s e s o f t h e s c h o o l ; s o m e m a y e m p h a s i z e s o c i a l a c t i v i t y o r o t h e r

b e h a v i o r w h i c h i s l a r g e l y i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e w o r k o f t h e s c h o o l a n d

o f t e n d i s t r a c t s i t s m e m b e r s f r o m e d u c a t i o n a l e n d e a v o r s . P e e r g r o u p s

s o m e t i m e s a r e i n r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t t h e s c h o o l o r m e m b e r s o f t h e s t a f f .

T h e a t t i t u d e s o f f r i e n d s c a n s u b s t a n t i a l l y a f f e c t o n e ' s a c t i o n s , m a t e -

r i a l l y f a c i l i t a t i n g o r i m p e d i n g l e a r n i n g .

As children grow up, they commonly find persons in their en-

vironment to whom they are attracted and frequently attempt to

e m u l a t e t h e i r b e h a v i o r . T h i s p r o c e s s c a n e x e r t a s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e

o n l e a r n i n g a n d i s p a r t i c u l a r l y p o t e n t i n h e l p i n g t h e c h i l d d e v e l o p

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 214/327

2 0 8 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES AND THE SCHOOLS

n e w a t t i t u d e s a n d a t t e m p t n e w a c t i v i t i e s a s h e o b s e r v e s t h e b e h a v i o r

o f p e r s o n s a t t r a c t i v e t o h i m .

Current research on learning is providing new u nderstanding

of the process by which individuals acquir e new behavior both

w i t h i n a n d o u t s i d e t h e c l a s s r o o m . I t i s n o w p o s s i b l e t o c o n s i d e r t h e

t o t a l e n v i r o n m e n t o f t h e s c h o o l i n s e e k i n g t o i n c r e a s e t h e e f f e c t i v e -

n e s s a n d e f f i c i e n c y o f l e a r n i n g .

Re s e a r c h o n S o c i a l G r o u p s

During the past twenty years, the study of social groups has

o c c u p i e d t h e i n t e r e s t s o f m a n y b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n t i s t s . T h i s r e s e a r c h

h a s g r e a t l y c l a r i f i e d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h u m a n g r o u p s i n t h e i r r e l a -

t i o n t o i n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o r . Man is born into a family . A l l o f h i s

e a r l i e s t p o t e n t e x p e r i e n c e s i n v o l v e a t l e a s t o n e o t h e r p e r s o n , u s u a l l y

his mother . M u c h o f h i s e a r l y e x p l o r a t i o n o u t s i d e t h e h o m e t a k e s

p l a c e w i t h t h e c h i l d r e n o f h i s o w n f a m i l y o r o f t h e i m m e d i a t e n e i g h -

b o r h o o d . Th e s c h o o l , t h e c h u r c h , t h e p l a y g r ou n d , t h e w o r k i n g

s i t u a t i o n , t o e n u m e r a t e o n l y a f e w , a r e a l l c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h l i f e i s

l i v e d , a n d t h e y a r e a l l g r o u p c o n t e x t s . T h e b u l k o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s

sh ow tha t grou ps i n f l u e n c e i n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o r p r o f o u n d l y a s t h e

i n d i v i d u a l , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , i s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e g r o u p .

S t u d i e s h a v e s h o w n t h a t m o s t g r o u p s a t t e n d b o t h t o t h e r e c o g -

n i z e d p u r p o s e f o r w h i c h t h e y e x i s t a n d t o t h e e m o t i o n a l i z e d s o c i a l

r e l a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e g r o u p . When the group social relations are

under tension, or when the individuals are uncertain or unhappy

a b o u t t h e i r s t a t u s i n t h e g r o u p , t h e r e i s l i t t l e p r o g r e s s i n a t t a i n i n g

g roup purposes . W h e r e g r o u p r e l a t i o n s a r e s t a b l e a n d i n d i v i d u a l s

a r e c l e a r a b o u t t h e i r s t a t u s a n d f i n d i t a c c e p t a b l e , g r o u p m o r a l e i s

h i g h ; t h e g r o u p i s i n e x c e l l e n t c o n d i t i o n f o r p u r s u i n g i t s b a s i c p u r -

p o s e s . R e c e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e f o r e f -

f e c t i v e g r o u p a c t i o n o f t h e c o n g r u i t y b e t w e e n a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s a n d

t h e g r o u p ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s s o c i a l r o l e . I f i n d i v i d u a l A

t h i n k s o f h i m s e l f a s t h e o n e t o c o n t r i b u t e i d e a s t o t h e g r o u p a n d i f

t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e g r o u p c o n s i d e r t h a t t o b e h i s r o l e , h i s i d e a s

a r e q u i c k l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o g r o u p t h i n k i n g ; b u t i f t h e y t h i n k o f

h i m a s a g g r e s s i v e , t r y i n g t o s h o w o f f r a t h e r t h a n t o h e l p t h e g r o u p ,

h i s i d e a s a r e r i d i c u l e d o r a t t a c k e d r a t h e r t h a n a c c e p t e d , a n d t h e

g r o u p b e n e f i t s l i t t l e f r o m t h e m . O r , i f i n d i v i d u a l B t h i n k s o f h i m -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 215/327

TYLER 2 0 9

s e l f a s t h e g r o u p " d i s c i p l i n a r i a n , " t h e o n e w h o w h i p s t h e o t h e r s " i n t o

l i n e " a n d i f t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e g r o u p c o n s i d e r t h a t t o b e h i s

r o l e , t h e g r o u p g e t s " i n t o l i n e " w h e n h e " g o e s a f t e r t h e m " a n d i s

m o b i l i z e d q u i c k l y f o r a c t i o n . On the other hand, if other members

o f t h e g r o u p t h i n k o f h i m a s a " b u l l y " o r a " f a l s e f r o n t , " h i s e f f o r t s

b r i n g g r e a t e r c o n f u s i o n r a t h e r t h a n m o b i l i z a t i o n o f f o r c e s .

S t u d i e s a l s o s u g g e s t t h a t i t i s c o m m o n l y i n t h e v a r i o u s s m a l l

groups of which an individual is a member that greatest develop-

m e n t a n d m o d i f i c a t i o n o f b e h a v i o r t a k e s p l a c e . Purely formal mem-

b e r s h i p i n a s c h o o l , o r c h u r c h , o r p o l i t i c a l p a r t y , o r l a b o r u n i o n , ' o r

other organization means little compared to the influence of the

f a m i l y , t h e g a n g , t h e f r i e n d s h i p g r o u p , t h e s m a l l " o u t f i t " w i t h w h i c h

h e w o r k s , a n d t h e l i k e . T h e s e g r o u p s p r o v i d e t h e v i t a l e n v i r o n m e n t

i n w h i c h s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s i n a t t i t u d e s , h a b i t s , a n d p r a c t i c e s m a y

t a k e p l a c e . A w e a l t h o f d e t a i l i s d e v e l o p i n g f r o m c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h

regarding the conditions under which groups form, the typology

o f g r o u p s , h o w t h e i r d i r e c t i o n s a r e s e t , h o w t h e y g r o w a n d c h a n g e ,

and the conditions under which they die . S i n c e e d u c a t i o n i n v o l v e s

t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f s m a l l g r o u p s i n m a n y c o n t e x t s , f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h s t u d -

ies of this sort can contribute to the planning and operatio n of

schools and educational programs .

S o c i a l C l a s s a n d O c c u p a t i o n

G r o u p s o f s m a l l s i z e a r e n o t t h e o n l y o n e s w h i c h i n f l u e n c e h u -

m a n b e h a v i o r . S u c h g r o u p s a s s o c i a l c l a s s e s , l a r g e - s c a l e o r g a n i z a -

t i o n s , a n d t h o s e b a s e d o n o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s a r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t .

I n c h a p t e r v i i , s e v e r a l c o m m e n t s w e r e m a d e o n t h e c h a n g i n g n a t u r e

o f s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n m o d e r n s o c i e t y . Mention was made also of

the fact that today a large majority of Americans who, by income

c r i t e r i a , m u s t b e c l a s s i f i e d a s " m i d d l e c l a s s " a r e s t i l l f u r t h e r d i f f e r -

e n t i a t e d i n t e r m s o f d i s t i n c t c u l t u r e o n t h e b a s i s o f o c c u p a t i o n a l a n d

e d u c a t i o n a l s t a t u s . C u r r e n t r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e m o d e r n c o m -

m u n i t y u s u a l l y i n c l u d e s w i t h i n i t s e v e r a l s o c i a l c l a s s e s , t y p i c a l l y

three or more . A s o c i a l c l a s s i s d e f i n e d a s a c o l l e c t i o n o f p e o p l e o f

s i m i l a r l e v e l o f s o c i a l p r e s t i g e a n d p u b l i c r e s p e c t , b u t a c l a s s s o d e -

f i n e d c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d m o s t r e a d i l y a c c o r d i n g t o e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l s

a n d t h e k i n d s o f o c c u p a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t e d . T h e f a m i l i e s o f s k i l l e d a n d

unskilled laborers with limited educational background commonly

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 216/327

2 1 0 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES AND THE SCHOOLS

comprise the majority of the so-called lower-middle and upper-

lower classes, while the families of professional and managerial

people, most of whom have a coll ege education, are commonly in

t h e u p p e r - m i d d l e c l a s s . F r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e i r i n f l u e n c e o n

h u m a n b e h a v i o r , t h e r e a r e t w o m a j o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i s s o c i a l

c l a s s s t r u c t u r e : ( a ) e a c h s o c i a l c l a s s s e t s a p a t t e r n o f " c o n v e n t i o n a l "

or acceptable behavior for its members, and (b) the hierarchy of

s o c i a l c l a s s e s i n t e r m s o f s o c i a l p r e s t i g e o r p u b l i c r e s p e c t f o r m s a

l a d d e r t o d i r e c t t h e a c t i o n s o f m e m b e r s o f a l o w e r s o c i a l c l a s s w h o

s e e k t o r i s e i n p u b l i c e s t e e m a n d s o c i a l r e c o g n i t i o n .

T h e p a t t e r n o f a c c e p t a b l e b e h a v i o r i n a g i v e n s o c i a l c l a s s i s o f t e n

c a l l e d i t s " c u l t u r e . " I t i n c l u d e s c e r t a i n v a l u e s w h i c h a r e p r e f e r r e d

t o o t h e r s , c e r t a i n a t t i t u d e s w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z e i t s m e m b e r s , c e r t a i n

l a n g u a g e p a t t e r n s , i n c l u d i n g v o c a b u l a r y , a n d c e r t a i n w a y s o f g e t t i n g

t h i n g s d o n e . T h e c u l t u r e o f o n e c l a s s d i f f e r s i n v a r i o u s r e s p e c t s f r o m

t h a t o f a n o t h e r . A m o n g c h i l d r e n o f l o w e r c l a s s e s , f i g h t i n g i s a n a p -

proved form of b ehavior . T h e u s e o f c e r t a i n f o u r - l e t t e r w o r d s i s

a c c e p t a b l e i n s o m e c l a s s e s a n d n o t i n o t h e r s . S h a r p d i f f e r e n c e s i n

e t i q u e t t e , d r e s s , t a b l e m a n n e r s , a n d t h e l i k e , a r e n o t i c e a b l e . M a n y

p a r e n t s i n l o w e r - m i d d l e c l a s s e s d e s i r e h i g h e r p r e s t i g e f o r t h e i r c h i l -

dren . T h e y o f t e n f i n d c u e s f o r e d u c a t i n g c h i l d r e n f o r u p p e r - m i d d l e -

c l a s s s t a t u s b y o b s e r v i n g t h e m o d e l s o f m i d d l e - c l a s s b e h a v i o r s h o w n

i n m o v i e s , t e l e v i s i o n , r a d i o , m a g a z i n e s , n e w s p a p e r s , a n d t h e l i k e .

T h u s , t h e h i e r a r c h y o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s e x e r t s a p o w e r f u l d i r e c t i v e i n -

f l u e n c e o n t h o s e w h o s e e k t o c l i m b t h e " s o c i a l l a d d e r . " T h e i n f l u -

e n c e o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s d o e s n o t n e g a t e t h e e a r l i e r s t a t e m e n t t h a t s m a l l

groups commonly exert the most powerful influence on individual

behavior. P a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o r s e t b y s o c i a l c l a s s e s u s u a l l y r e a c h t h e

individual through the mediation of small groups . T y p i c a l l y , t h e

m e m b e r s o f a s m a l l g r o u p a r e o f t h e s a m e s o c i a l c l a s s a n d r e i n f o r c e

t h e p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o r o f t h a t c l a s s .

O c c u p a t i o n s e x e r t p o w e r f u l i n f l u e n c e s o n t h e i r m e m b e r s t h r o u g h

t h e f a c t t h a t m o s t g a i n f u l l y e m p l o y e d a d u l t s i d e n t i f y s t r o n g l y w i t h

t h e o c c u p a t i o n s i n w h i c h t h e y a r e e n g a g e d , a n d e a c h o c c u p a t i o n d e -

v e l o p s c e r t a i n " e t h i c s " - c o n v e n t i o n a l b e h a v i o r e x p e c t e d o f i t s m e m -

b e r s , a t l e a s t w h i l e t h e y a r e a t w o r k . R e c e n t s t u d i e s o f t h e s o c i o l o g y

o f v a r i o u s o c c u p a t i o n s , s u c h a s l a w , t e a c h i n g , a n d m e d i c i n e , i n d i c a t e

h o w e x t e n s i v e l y t h e s e o c c u p a t i o n a l e x p e c t a t i o n s g u i d e t h e b e h a v i o r

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 217/327

TYLER 2 1 1

of their members . A s w i t h s o c i a l c l a s s e s , s m a l l g r o u p s o f t e a c h e r s , o r

l a w y e r s , o r c a r p e n t e r s , o r f a r m e r s , o f t e n s e r v e t o r e i n f o r c e t h e " c u l -

t u r e " o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n .

T h e S t u d y o f O r g a n i z a t i o n s

A n o t h e r g r o u p s t r u c t u r e , w h i c h h a s i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e s , i s t h e

formal organizatio n-the business firm, the government bureau, or

t h e s c h o o l s t a f f . In chapter vii, a major point was m ade that for

some years America has been moving from a society based on the

o p e n m a r k e t a n d o n t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i a l c l a s s e s t o o n e w h i c h i s m o r e

h i g h l y r e g u l a t e d , w i t h t h e c e n t r a l a c t i v i t i e s , i n g e n e r a l , p e r f o r m e d

b y f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . A s t h i s c h a n g e h a s b e e n t a k i n g p l a c e , a n

increasing amount of research has been focused on the nature of

f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . W e k n o w , o f c o u r s e , t h a t m o s t A m e r i c a n s

a r e e m p l o y e d , m o r e o r l e s s d i r e c t l y , b y l a r g e o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d t h a t

m o s t o f t h e g o o d s w e c o n s u m e a r e p r o d u c e d b y o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

I n c r e a s i n g l y , o u r l e i s u r e a n d o u r c u l t u r a l l i f e a r e p r o v i d e d b y l a r g e

o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a n d w e l i v e i n c o m m u n i t i e s w h i c h , a s p o l i t i c a l u n i t s ,

a r e t h e m s e l v e s l a r g e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . But we are only beginning to

l e a r n h o w o r g a n i z a t i o n s f u n c t i o n s o a s t o a c c o m p l i s h t h e i r p u r p o s e s ,

c a r r y o n p l a n n i n g a n d e x e c u t i o n , i n f l u e n c e a n d d i r e c t t h e b e h a v i o r

o f t h e i r m e m b e r s , a n d p r o v i d e a m i l i e u i n w h i c h m e m b e r s o b t a i n r e -

w a r d s .

I n i t i a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h t h e y r e v e a l e d s o m e o f t h e a n a t -

omy of the large-scale organization, overemphasized the power of

t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d i t s e f f e c t s o n t h e " o r g a n i z a t i o n m a n ." Cur-

r e n t r e s e a r c h i s m o r e l i k e l y t o b e g u i d e d b y t h e m o d e l o f a n o p e n

s y s t e m , l i k e a l i v i n g s y s t e m i n b i o l o g y , a n d s e e k s t o f i n d t h e f e a t u r e s

which provide mutual satisfactions to administrator and worker .

I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , c o m m u n i c a t i o n t u r n s o u t t o b e v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n

a n o r g a n i z a t i o n , n o t o n l y t o g i v e s o m e c o h e r e n c e t o t h e w o r k u n d e r -

t a k e n b u t a s a m e a n s t o p r o v i d i n g s a t i s f a c t i o n o r r e w a r d . Channels

o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , b o t h f o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l , n e e d t o b e i d e n t i f i e d .

The content and emotional character of communic ations through

t h e s e c h a n n e l s n e e d t o b e d e s c r i b e d i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e w a y

i n w h i c h c o m m u n i c a t i o n s o p e r a t e s e l e c t i v e l y t o h o l d t h e o r g a n i z a -

t i o n t o g e t h e r o r t o d e s t r o y i t s u n i t y , t o r e w a r d s o m e m e m b e r s a n d

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 218/327

2 1 2 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES AND THE SCHOOLS

n o t o t h e r s , a n d , m o r e g e n e r a l l y , t o d i s t o r t t h e i n t e n d e d m e s s a g e s .

F o u r f u n c t i o n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n a l a r g e - s c a l e o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e

frequently noted : (a) To com m unicate the purpose of the job

being done by a member of the organization in terms that give

m e a n i n g a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e t o i t f o r h i m ; ( b ) t o f u r t h e r i n t e r p e r s o n a l

relations in the organization by providing two-way channels by

which the memb ers may exchang e expressions of their id eas and

f e e l i n g s ; ( c ) t o c o m m u n i c a t e s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e s w h i c h g u i d e t h e

member's work-the work load, acceptable ways of doing the job,

a n d s o o n ; and (d) to provide a two-way communication by which

the member can find out how well he is doing .

O n e o f t h e a r e a s o f s t u d y i n w h i c h w i d e l y d i f f e r e n t t h e o r i e s a r e

g u i d i n g t h e r e s e a r c h i s t h a t o f t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n a l a r g e -

s c a l e o r g a n i z a t i o n . This is an area of great im portance in unde r-

s t a n d i n g h o w a n o r g a n i z a t i o n w o r k s o r f a i l s t o w o r k , b u t t h e r e m a y

b e n o s i n g l e m o d e l w h i c h w i l l b e u n i f o r m l y h e l p f u l i n t h e e x p l a n a -

t i o n , b e c a u s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s d i f f e r a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s i n s e v e r a l r e -

s p e c t s w h i c h m a y b e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s . Some or-

g a n i z a t i o n s , l i k e t h e p o s t o f f i c e o r t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s , a r e m o n o p o l i e s

t h a t n e e d s p e n d l i t t l e e n e r g y i n m e e t i n g e x t e r n a l c o m p e t i t i o n . Some

a r e a l m o s t c l o s e d s y s t e m s w h e r e c h a n g e i s r e l a t i v e l y s l o w ; o t h e r s ,

such as a graduate department of psychology, are open systems,

o p e n t o n e w k n o w l e d g e , n e w s t a f f m e m b e r s , a n d n e w s t u d e n t s .

S o m e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , s u c h a s a m e d i c a l c l i n i c , a r e b u i l t a r o u n d a h i g h

d e g r e e o f e x p e r t n e s s ; o t h e r s , s u c h a s a c h a i n g r o c e r y , r e q u i r e f e w ,

i f a n y , h i g h l y t r a i n e d s p e c i a l i s t s . S o m e s t u d i e s a s s u m e t h a t , i n o n e

s e n s e , p o w e r i s a b a r g a i n i n g v a l u e s o t h a t p o w e r e x e r c i s e d b y s o m e

has been granted by those assenting to power because they expect

to gain something of equal value . O n t h i s a s s u m p t i o n , d i f f e r e n t

k i n d s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e d i f f e r e n t n e e d s f o r p o w e r a n d a u t h o r i t y

a n d m a y p r o v i d e d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s t o t h o s e a c c e p t i n g t h e p o w e r r e -

l a t i o n s h i p .

C u r r e n t r e s e a r c h o n t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f l a r g e - s c a l e o r g a n i z a t i o n s

i s v e r y a c t i v e a n d c a n b e s e e n t o h a v e m a n y i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r e d u c a -

t i o n a s w e l l a s f o r t h e g e n e r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f o u r d e v e l o p i n g s o -

c i e t y . N o d o u b t , t h e m o s t o b v i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n s l i e i n t h e o r g a n i z a -

t i o n a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f s c h o o l s a n d c o l l e g e s .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 219/327

TYLER 2 1 3

Research on Leadership

A l t h o u g h t h e s t u d y o f l e a d e r s a n d l e a d e r s h i p i s a r e l a t i v e l y o l d

i t e m o n t h e a g e n d a o f t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , r e c e n t w o r k h a s t a k e n

s o m e n e w d i r e c t i o n s . T h e e a r l y w o r k o f p s y c h o l o g i s t s s o u g h t t o

f i n d t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t r a i t s o f t h e e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r . T h e o n l y t r a i t

w h i c h w a s f o u n d a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l l y a m o n g l e a d e r s o f b u s i n e s s , e d -

u c a t i o n , p o l i t i c s , a n d t h e m i l i t a r y w a s a h i g h e r - t h a n - a v e r a g e l e v e l

o f e n e r g y . N o t r a i t s o f p e r s o n a l i t y o r o f i n t e l l e c t u a l f u n c t i o n i n g

w e r e i d e n t i f i e d . E f f o r t s t o d i s c o v e r o t h e r t r a i t s w h i c h m i g h t be

c o m m o n t o e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s i n a s i n g l e f i e l d w e r e n o t s u c c e s s f u l .

E a r l y s o c i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s s o u g h t u n i f o r m i t i e s a b o u t l e a d e r s h i p b a s e d

o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h o s e l e d o r o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . B u t t h e s e i n v e s t i -

g a t i o n s a l s o w e r e r e l a t i v e l y b a r r e n . C u r r e n t r e s e a r c h i s b a s e d u p o n

a m o r e d e t a i l e d c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l o f t h e l e a d e r s h i p s i t u a t i o n . S o m e

i n v e s t i g a t o r s a r e s t u d y i n g l e a d e r s h i p a s a n e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e o f a l a r g e -

s c a l e o r g a n i z a t i o n . H e n c e , t h e y o u t l i n e t h e a n a t o m y o f a g i v e n t y p e

o f o r g a n i z a t i o n , i d e n t i f y p l a c e s i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n w h e r e l e a d e r s h i p

i s e x p e c t e d t o f u n c t i o n , a n d t h e n o b s e r v e t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e

" l e a d e r " a n d t h e b e h a v i o r h e e x h i b i t s i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n . T h i s a p p r o a c h

p r o v i d e s a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f l e a d e r s h i p s i t u a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o t h e a n a t -

o m y a n d t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d p e r m i t s i d e n t i f i c a -

t i o n o f v a r i o u s k i n d s o f l e a d e r s h i p r o l e s .

A s e c o n d k i n d o f a p p r o a c h w h i c h i s c o m m o n i n s t u d y i n g l e a d e r -

s h i p i n a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i s t o v i e w t h e o f f i c e , l i k e t h a t o f t h e

p r e s i d e n t , a s r e q u i r i n g l e a d e r s h i p a n d t h e n t o a n a l y z e t h e v a r i o u s

l e a d e r s h i p r o l e s i n t e r m s o f a g r o u p o r t e a m o f p e r s o n s f i l l i n g t h o s e

r o l e s . T h i s p e r m i t s l e a d e r s h i p t o b e v i e w e d a c c o r d i n g t o c o n f l i c t i n g

r e q u i r e m e n t s o f p e r s o n a l a b i l i t i e s a n d t r a i t s s i n c e t h e y c a n b e f i l l e d

b y a c o m b i n a t i o n o f s e v e r a l p e o p l e .

A t h i r d a p p r o a c h i s t h a t o f s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s s t u d y i n g l e a d e r -

s h i p a s f o u n d i n s m a l l g r o u p s - t h e b e h a v i o r i n v o l v e d i n t a k i n g i n i -

t i a t i v e , i n a l l o c a t i n g r e w a r d s , a n d s o o n . F i n a l l y , i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e

s t i l l c o n t i n u i n g o n t h e p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s

u s i n g t h e g u i d i n g h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e r e a r e t y p e s o f l e a d e r s h i p s i t u -

a t i o n s , e a c h o f w h i c h m a y e v o k e i t s o w n s p e c i a l p e r s o n a l i t y p a t t e r n s .

R e s e a r c h o n l e a d e r s h i p i s l i k e l y t o b e o f c o n t i n u i n g i n t e r e s t t o

e d u c a t o r s b e c a u s e s c h o o l s d e p e n d u p o n l e a d e r s h i p n o t o n l y f o r t h e i r

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 220/327

2 1 4 BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES AND THE SCHOOLS

f o r m a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n b u t a l s o f o r t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t e a c h e r o r g a n -

i z a t i o n s , c l a s s r o o m g r o u p a c t i v i t i e s , e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r p r o g r a m s , a n d

civic g roups concerned with ed ucation . P r e s e n t k n o w l e d g e p r o -

v i d e s h e l p f u l s u g g e s t i o n s f o r s t u d y w i t h i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l c o n t e x t ,

a n d n e w p u b l i c a t i o n s a r e l i k e l y t o a d d t o o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

O t h e r R e s e a r c h A r e a s

T h e f o r e g o i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f r e s e a r c h i n t h e b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s

w h i c h h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r e d u c a t i o n d o e s n o t e x h a u s t t h e l i s t i n g o f

active inquiries under way . Chapter vii outlined some important

work in economics, political science, demography, social change,

and decision-making . Mathematical g ame theory and information

t h e o r y c u r r e n t l y a r e u s e d t o s u g g e s t m o d e l s f o r r a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n -

m a k i n g u n d e r d i f f e r i n g c o n d i t i o n s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e r e l e v a n t i n -

f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e . The fields of commu nications researc h and of

o p e r a t i o n s a n a l y s i s a r e v e r y m u c h a l i v e . S t u d i e s o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t

of human resources in the newly emerging nations, by economists,

a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , s o c i o l o g i s t s , a n d p s y c h o l o g i s t s , a r e r e v e a l i n g a v a r i -

e t y o f i n f o r m a l s i t u a t i o n s , g r o u p s , a n d a g e n c i e s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e s u b -

s t a n t i a l l y t o t h e t r a i n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n o f y o u t h a n d a d u l t s . C l e a r l y ,

t h e c o n c e p t s a n d t h e r e s u l t s o f r e s e a r c h i n t h e b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s

appear to have important bearing on our unders tanding of educa-

t i o n . M o r e a d e q u a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , i n t u r n , p r o v i d e s u s w i t h f u r t h e r

b a s e s f o r g u i d i n g w o r k i n t h e s c h o o l s .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 221/327

CHAPTER I X

T h e D e s i g n o f I n s t r u c t i o n '

R O B E R T G LA S E R

T h e u s e o f m o d e r n s c i e n c e i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f s o c i e t y h a s b e c o m e

a n i m p o r t a n t o b l i g a t i o n o f o u r t i m e s . T h i s i s t r u e n o l e s s i n e d u c a t i o n

t h a n i t i s i n m e d i c i n e a n d e n g i n e e r i n g . A s i n c r e a s i n g k n o w l e d g e i s

a c c u m u l a t e d i n p s y c h o l o g y a n d t h e b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s i n g e n e r a l ,

a f o u n d a t i o n i s p r o v i d e d f o r a g r o w i n g s c i e n t i f i c a n d t e c h n o l o g i c a l

b a s e f o r i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r a c t i c e . T h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c k n o w l -

e d g e i n t o p r a c t i c e r e q u i r e s e x t e n s i v e a p p l i e d r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g -

i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t . H o w e v e r , a t t h i s t i m e , a n e n t i t y t o c a r r y o u t t h e

f u n c t i o n o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t h a r d l y e x i s t s . I f a

p e r s o n ( o r o r g a n i z a t i o n ) w e r e t o c a r r y o u t s u c h a f u n c t i o n , h o w

w o u l d h e b e g i n t o w o r k , a n d i n w h a t s o r t o f c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k

w o u l d h e p e r f o r m h i s j o b ? T h i s c h a p t e r s p e c u l a t e s a b o u t a n d d i s -

c u s s e s s u c h a f r a m e w o r k a n d d e s c r i b e s s o m e o f t h e c o n c e p t s t h a t a n

" i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n e r " m i g h t u s e i n t h i n k i n g a b o u t h i s w o r k . T h e

t a s k s h e m u s t p e r f o r m i n v o l v e t h e i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n t h e o r y , r e -

s e a r c h , a n d a p p l i c a t i o n . T h i s c h a p t e r d e s c r i b e s , n o t a p p l i c a t i o n a s

s u c h , b u t a s p e c t s o f t h e n e c e s s a r y r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h

c a n e v e n t u a l l y l e a d t o i n n o v a t i o n a n d r e d e s i g n i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r a c -

t i c e . E v i d e n c e s o f s u c h i n n o v a t i o n a n d r e d e s i g n a r e b e g i n n i n g t o

mark the changing American school .

I t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t f o r c e s a r e a t w o r k w h i c h a r e e n c o u r a g i n g t h e

i n c r e a s i n g g r o w t h o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c u n d e r p i n n i n g s o f e d u c a t i o n a l

p r a c t i c e a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f " e n g i n e e r i n g " e n t e r p r i s e s t h a t b a c k

u p t h e t e a c h i n g p r o f e s s i o n . I n m a n y w a y s t h e s e e n t e r p r i s e s a r e l i k e

i . T h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s p a p e r w a s a c c o m p l i s h e d u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f

t h e L e a r n i n g R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t C e n t e r , U n i v e r s i t y o f P i t t s b u r g h , w i t h

s u p p o r t f r o m t h e C o o p e r a t i v e R e s e a r c h P r o g r a m o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s O f f i c e o f

Education .

2 1 5

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 222/327

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 223/327

GLASER 2 1 7

s i g n e r a b o u t t h e t a r g e t p e r f o r m a n c e t o b e o b t a i n e d a n d t h e e x i s t i n g

p r e i n s t r u c t i o n a l b e h a v i o r o f t h e l e a r n e r . The d esig ner m ust then

p r o c e e d t o g e t f r o m o n e s t a t e t o t h e o t h e r . T h i s s e t s u p h i s t h i r d t a s k .

T h i s t a s k c o n s i s t s o f h e l p i n g t h e s t u d e n t g o f r o m t h e p r e i n s t r u c t i o n a l

b e h a v i o r a l s t a t e t o a s t a t e o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r c o m p e t e n c e . T h i s r e -

q u i r e s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t e a c h i n g p r o c e d u r e s a n d m a t e r i a l s t o b e

employed in the educational process . A s p a r t o f t h i s p r o c e s s , h e

m u s t t a k e a c c o u n t o f m o t i v a t i o n a l e f f e c t s a n d t h e a b i l i t y o f h u m a n s

t o g e n e r a l i z e a n d e x t r a p o l a t e ; t h i s i s a c c o m p l i s h e d b y p r o v i d i n g c o n -

d i t i o n s w h i c h w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e m a i n t e n a n c e a n d e x t e n s i o n o f t h e

c o m p e t e n c e b e i n g t a u g h t . F i n a l l y , t h e e d u c a t i o n a l d e s i g n e r m u s t

m a k e p r o v i s i o n f o r a s s e s s i n g a n d e v a l u a t i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c o m -

p e t e n c e a n d k i n d o f k n o w l e d g e a c h i e v e d b y t h e l e a r n e r i n r e l a t i o n

t o s o m e p e r f o r m a n c e c r i t e r i a t h a t h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d .

T o m a n y p r e s e n t - d a y e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i t i o n e r s t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n

o f t h e p r o c e s s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n m a y s o u n d h a r s h l y t e c h n o l o g -

i c a l , a n d i n d e e d , p e r h a p s s o m e e l e g a n c e h a s b e e n l o s t i n a n a l y s i s .

B u t , p r e s u m a b l y , o n c e b a s i c t e c h n i q u e s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d , t h e t e a c h e r

c a n u s e t h e t o o l s o f h i s p r o f e s s i o n w i t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a r t i s t r y , a n d

s e n s i t i v i t y . The design components that have just been described

a r e ( a ) a n a l y z i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r c o m p e t e n c e ,

( b ) d i a g n o s i n g p r e i n s t r u c t i o n a l b e h a v i o r , ( c ) c a r r y i n g o u t t h e i n -

structional process, and (d) measuring learning outcomes . This

chapter comments further about each of these .

A n a l y z i n g t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f S u b j e c t - M a t t e r C o m p e t e n c e

W h e n t h e p s y c h o l o g i s t t u r n s h i s a t t e n t i o n f r o m a n a l y s i s o f t h e

b e h a v i o r i n v o l v e d i n s t a n d a r d i z e d , a r b i t r a r y t a s k s u s e d i n t h e l a b o r a -

t o r y t o t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e d i n l e a r n i n g t h e

n o n a r b i t r a r y b e h a v i o r g e n e r a l l y t a u g h t i n o u r c u l t u r e , h e r u n s h e a d

o n i n t o t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r t a s k s . T h e s i g -

nificance of this problem was high-lighted by psychologists when

t h e y t u r n e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g , a s t h e y d i d i n t h e

Air Force program under the direction of Arthur W . M e l t o n . The

c o n c e r n w i t h t a s k a n a l y s i s i s a r e a c t i o n t o t h e f a c t t h a t , w h i l e t h e l a b -

oratory investigator decides upon and constructs an experimental

t a s k p e r t i n e n t t o h i s p a r t i c u l a r p u r p o s e s , h e i s n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o

d o t h i s i n t h e o n g o i n g e d u c a t i o n a l s e t t i n g . In the laboratory, by

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 224/327

2 1 8 DESIGN OF INSTRUCTION

p r e s e l e c t i n g h i s t a s k t o f i t a p r o b l e m , h e h a s i n a s e n s e a n a l y z e d i t s

s t i m u l u s a n d r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . However, when working with

n o n a r b i t r a r y b e h a v i o r , h e i s f a c e d w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f i d e n t i f y i n g

t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e b e h a v i o r i n v o l v e d s o t h a t h e c a n p r o c e e d t o

o p e r a t e i n h i s u s u a l w a y . A s a b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n t i s t h e i s a c c u s t o m e d

t o w o r k i n g w i t h s p e c i f i e d b e h a v i o r , a n d h e n e e d s t o d o s o i n t h e i n -

s t r u c t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n . T h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e l a b o r a t o r y t o a p p l i c a -

t i o n f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e s t h i s a d d i t i o n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n . The recent

w r i t i n g s a n d e x p l o r a t i o n s o f B r u n e r , 2 f o r e x a m p l e , c o n t i n u o u s l y

e m p h a s i z e a c o n c e r n w i t h s u b j e c t - m a t t e r s t r u c t u r e , a n d t h i s m o s t

l i k e l y d e v e l o p s o u t o f h i s c o n c e r n w i t h r e a l - l i f e s u b j e c t m a t t e r .

T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r a n a l y s i s i s e m p h a s i z e d w h e n

a p s y c h o l o g i s t , s i n v o l v i n g h i m s e l f i n t h e l e a r n i n g o f a s e c o n d l a n -

g u a g e , d i s c o v e r s t o h i s g o o d f o r t u n e t h a t m u c h t i m e a l r e a d y h a s b e e n

d e v o t e d t o t h e s y s t e m a t i c s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e t e r m i n a l b e h a v i o r s o f

l a n g u a g e i n s t r u c t i o n . B y c o n t r a s t , w o r k i n g i n t h e f i e l d o f E n g l i s h ,

a n o t h e r p s y c h o l o g i s t4

i n d i c a t e s t h a t a m a j o r p r o b l e m i s t h e n e e d

f o r b e t t e r s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e b e h a v i o r t o b e t a u g h t b y E n g l i s h

t e a c h e r s. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o p o i n t o u t t h a t , i n E n g l i s h , t h e p r e s c r i p -

t i v e n a t u r e o f t r a d i t i o n a l g r a m m a r h a s " a p p a r e n t l y s e t t l e d i n p r e -

s c r i p t i v e m e t h o d s o f i n s t r u c t i o n . "a

I n t h i s c a s e , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r a f f e c t e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s , a n d d e t a i l e d

a n a l y s i s o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r p r o p e r t i e s , i n t u r n , p r o b a b l y w i l l d e m a n d

a d v a n c e s i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e . S o m e i l l u s t r a t i v e i n f l u e n c e s o f

2 . J e r o m e S . B r u n e r , T h e P r o c e s s o f E d u c a t i o n ( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s :

H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , i g 6 o ) ; a n d " S o m e T h e o r e m s o n I n s t r u c t i o n I l l u s -

t r a t e d w i t h R e f e r e n c e t o M a t h e m a t i c s , " i n T h e o r i e s o f L e a r n i n g a n d I n s t r u c -

t i o n ( T h e S i x t y - t h i r d Y e a r b o o k o f t h e N a t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r t h e S t u d y o f E d u -

c a t i o n , P a r t I . E d i t e d b y E . R . H i l g a r d . C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s ,

1 9 6 4 ) .

3 . H . L . L a n e , " P r o g r a m e d L e a r n i n g o f a S e c o n d L a n g u a g e , " i n T e a c h i n g

M a c h i n e s a n d P r o g r a m e d L e a r n i n g , I 1 : D a t a a n d D i r e c t i o n s . Edited by Robert

G l a s e r . Washington : N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , 1 9 6 5 .

4 . Susan M . M a r k l e , " P r o g r a m e d I n s t r u c t i o n i n E n g l i s h , " i n T e a c h i n g M a -

c h i n e s a n d P r o g r a m e d L e a r n i n g , I I : D a t a a n d D i r e c t i o n s , o p . c i t .

S . I b i d .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 225/327

GLA SE R 2 1 9

s u b j e c t - m a t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s u p o n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g a n d

i n s t r u c t i o n a r e s u g g e s t e d b e l o w .

F i r s t i s t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n c o m p o n e n t r e p e r t o i r e s a n d c o n -

t e n t r e p e r t o i r e s . C o n t e n t r e p e r t o i r e r e f e r s t o a s u b j e c t - m a t t e r o r i -

e n t e d a n a l y s i s . C o m p o n e n t r e p e r t o i r e r e f e r s t o a b e h a v i o r a l a n a l y s i s .

A s u b j e c t - m a t t e r e x p e r t c a n g e n e r a l l y d i v i d e h i s s u b j e c t i n t o s u b -

t o p i c s , p r i m a r i l y o n t h e b a s i s o f c o n t e n t i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d

s u b j e c t - m a t t e r l o g i c a n d a r r a n g e m e n t . B y c o n t r a s t , a p s y c h o l o g i s t

c o n s i d e r s c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s l e s s a n d b e h a v i o r a n a l y s i s m o r e . P a r t i c u -

l a r l y , h e l o o k s f o r t h e k i n d s o f s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e s i t u a t i o n s i n v o l v e d .

T h e c o n c e r n o f p s y c h o l o g i s t s w i t h t a x o n o m i e s6

r e f l e c t s i n i t i a l a t -

t e m p t s t o d e v e l o p s c h e m e s f o r d e s c r i b i n g a n d a n a l y z i n g c o m p o n e n t

r e p e r t o i r e s .

F r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f i n s t r u c t i o n , t h e p r a c t i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t

f o r c o m p o n e n t - r e p e r t o i r e a n a l y s i s i s t o i d e n t i f y t h e k i n d o f b e h a v i o r

i n v o l v e d s o t h a t t h e l e a r n e r c a n b e p r o v i d e d w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o -

c e d u r e s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h b e s t f a c i l i t a t e t h e l e a r n -

i n g o f t h a t k i n d o f b e h a v i o r . T h e u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t t h e

l e a r n i n g o f v a r i o u s k i n d s o f c o m p o n e n t r e p e r t o i r e s r e q u i r e s d i f f e r e n t

k i n d s o f t e a c h i n g p r o c e d u r e s , a n d a r e s e a r c h t a s k i s t o i d e n t i f y t h e

l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s a n d a p p r o p r i a t e i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e s a s s o c i -

a t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t c o m p o n e n t r e p e r t o i r e s . T h i s k i n d o f t h i n k i n g

u n d e r l i e s G a g n e ' s ' a n a l y s i s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s f o r t h e d e -

s i g n o f i n s t r u c t i o n w h e n h e l i s t s r e s p o n s e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , a s s o c i a t i o n ,

m u l t i p l e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , b e h a v i o r c h a i n s , c l a s s c o n c e p t s , p r i n c i p l e s ,

a n d s t r a t e g i e s a s c a t e g o r i e s o f b e h a v i o r a n d a t t e m p t s t o s u g g e s t l e a r n -

i n g c o n d i t i o n s r e l e v a n t t o e a c h c a t e g o r y .

D e s i g n i n g o p t i m a l i n s t r u c t i o n m a y b e a m a t t e r o f c h o o s i n g t a c -

t i c s a p p r o p r i a t e t o c a t e g o r i e s o f b e h a v i o r i m p l i e d b y t h e n o n c o n t e n t

6 . Arthur W . Melton, "The Science of Learning and the Technology of

E d u c a t i o n a l M e t h o d s , " H a r v a r d E d u c a t i o n a l R e v i e w , X X I X ( S p r i n g , 1 9 5 9 ) ,

9 6 - 1 0 6 . ( A l s o i n Teaching M a c hines an d Prog ra m e d Learning . E d ite d b y A .

A. Lumsdaine and Robert Glaser . Washington : N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a -

t i o n , 1 9 6 0 . )

7 . R ob ert M . G a g n e , " T h e A n a l y s i s o f I n s t r u o t i o n a l O b j e c t i v e s f o r t h e

D e s i g n o f I n s t r u c t i o n , " i n Teaching Machines and Program ed Learning, 11 :

D a t a a n d D i r e c t i o n s , o p . c i t . ; a n d R o b e r t M . G a g n 6 , The Conditions o f L e a r n -

i n g (New York : H o l t , R i n e h a r t & W i n s t o n , 1 9 6 5 ) .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 226/327

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 227/327

GLASER 2 2 1

and state been more rampant than in the recent empha sis on "dis-

c o v e r y l e a r n i n g ." In both the practical and the research w ork in

this area, there is a confusion between two kind s of events : one

e v e n t h a s t o d o w i t h l e a r n i n g b y d i s c o v e r y ( p r o c e s s ) , t h a t i s , t e a c h -

i n g c e r t a i n o b j e c t i v e s b y a d i s c o v e r y m e t h o d ; t h e o t h e r e v e n t h a s t o

do with learning t o d i s c o v e r ( a b e h a v i o r a l s t a t e ) , o r t e a c h i n g f o r a

t e r m i n a l s t a t e w h i c h i s m a n i f e s t e d b y t h e a b i l i t y t o m a k e d i s c o v e r i e s .

T h i r d i s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t r a n s f e r a n d c o n c e p t f o r m a t i o n .

S u b j e c t - m a t t e r p r o p e r t i e s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e t e r m i n e t h e d i m e n -

sions along which the student must be taught to generalize and

t r a n s f e r h i s k n o w l e d g e . P r e s u m a b l y t h e a b i l i t y t o g e n e r a l i z e a n d t o

t r a n s f e r i s a f u n c t i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e w i t h a v a r i e t y o f e x a m p l e s a n d

d i f f e r e n t s u b j e c t - m a t t e r i n s t a n c e s . B ut what d efines variety and

w h a t d e f i n e s d i f f e r e n t i n s t a n c e s t h a t l e a d t o g e n e r a l i z a b l e k n o w l -

edge? For some subject-matter aspects, there is little ambiguity

a b o u t w h e t h e r v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e e x a m p l e s p r e s e n t e d t o a s t u d e n t a r e

i n s t a n c e s o f a b a s i c r u l e . However, as a subj ect matter b ecomes

complex, definition of a range of examples may become difficult,

a n d p r o b l e m s a r i s e c o n c e r n i n g w h e t h e r t r a i n i n g i n v a r i o u s i n s t a n c e s

d o e s , i n d e e d , c a r r y o v e r t o n e w s i t u a t i o n s .

G e n e r a l i z a t i o n i s a s i g n i f i c a n t c o m p o n e n t o f c o n c e p t f o r m a t i o n ,

a n d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r d i m e n s i o n s c a n

b e m a d e m o s t c l e a r l y w h e n o n e c o n s i d e r s t h e t e a c h i n g o f c o n c e p t s .

M a n y p s y c h o l o g i s t s w o u l d a g r e e t h a t t h e b a s i c p r o c e d u r e f o r t e a c h -

i n g t h e a b i l i t y t o u s e c o n c e p t s i n v o l v e s t e a c h i n g t h e s t u d e n t t o g e n -

e r a l i z e w i t h i n c l a s s e s a n d t o d i s c r i m i n a t e b e t w e e n c l a s s e s . T h e s t u -

d e n t m u s t l e a r n t o m a k e t h e s a m e r e s p o n s e s t o a l l m e m b e r s f a l l i n g

w i t h i n a c l a s s a n d t o m a k e d i f f e r e n t r e s p o n s e s t o m e m b e r s o f d i f f e r -

e n t c l a s s e s . T h e p r o c e d u r e i n v o l v e d c a n b e i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e s i m p l e

c a s e o f t e a c h i n g a c h i l d t h e c o n c e p t s o f r e d a n d b l u e. D i s c r i m i n a -

tion and generalization trials are presented with the colors red

and b l ue . O t h e r p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e o b j e c t s a r e v a r i e d r a n d o m l y s o

t h a t t h e s t u d e n t l e a r n s t o g e n e r a l i z e a m o n g o b j e c t s h a v i n g i n c o m -

m o n n o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o t h e r t h a n t h e i r c o l o r . For example : F i r s t , t h e

c h i l d i s s h o w n s u c c e s s i v e s e t s o f t h r e e o b j e c t s , t w o r e d o n e s a n d o n e

n o t r e d . E a c h t i m e t h e s e t h r e e o b j e c t s a r e p r e s e n t e d t h e q u e s t i o n i s

a s k e d , " W h i c h i s n o t r e d ? " T h i s i s r e p e a t e d a n u m b e r o f t i m e s w i t h

only two blue objects . I n t h i s w a y d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 228/327

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 229/327

GLASER 2 2 3

h a v i o r h a s m u c h m o r e t o c o n t r i b u t e t o a t e c h n o l o g y o f e d u c a t i o n . "1 1

This is from Skinner, and while he mean s somewhat more than onl y

t h e a n a l y s i s o f b e h a v i o r a l o b j e c t i v e s , h i s p o i n t i s c e r t a i n l y r e l a t e d

t o t h a t o f t h e w r i t e r . I n a n a l y z i n g E n g l i s h t e a c h i n g , M a r k l e s a y s ,

" I n t h e c a s e o f c r i t i c a l a n d e v a l u a t i v e s k i l l s i n l i t e r a t u r e , t h e t e c h -

n o l o g y o f t a s k a n a l y s i s i s c r u c i a l . Not the techno logy of designin g

frames . " 1 2 G a g n e , w i t h h i s e m p h a s i s o n s e q u e n t i a l o b j e c t i v e s , s a y s ,

" T h e e n t i r e s e q u e n c e o f o b j e c t i v e s . . . i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e m o s t

i m p o r t a n t s e t o f v a r i a b l e s i n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o c e s s , o u t w e i g h i n g

a s a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r m o r e f a m i l i a r v a r i a b l e s l i k e s t e p s i z e , r e s p o n s e

mod e, and others . " 1 3 C r a w f o r d , i n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e e x t e n s i v e e x -

periences of the Human Resources Research Office of George

Washington University in army military training, says that "per-

h a p s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s i n g l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

training through research has been the determination of me thods

f o r t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f o b j e c t i v e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n . " 1 4

D i a g n o s i n g P r e i n s t r u c t i o n a l B e h a v i o r

Once the objectives of subject-matter behavior have been ana-

l y z e d , t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n e r t u r n s h i s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e c h a r a c t e r -

i s t i c s o f t h e l e a r n e r w h o i s t o a t t a i n t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s . T h i s b r i n g s u p

t h e p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d i n d i a g n o s i n g t h e p r e i n s t r u c t i o n a l b e h a v i o r

o r t h e e n t e r i n g r e p e r t o i r e o f t h e l e a r n e r . For measurement psychol -

o g i s t s , t h i s h a s b e e n a p r i m a r y c o n c e r n . F o r p s y c h o l o g i s t s i n t e r e s t e d

i n l e a r n i n g , p r e i n s t r u c t i o n a l i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s h a v e b e e n r e l e -

g a t e d , f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , t o e r r o r v a r i a n c e i n e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n .

I t i s i n c r e a s i n g l y o b v i o u s , h o w e v e r , t h a t a p s y c h o l o g y o f l e a r n i n g

r e l e v a n t t o i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r a c t i c e c a n n o t c o n s i d e r i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r -

e n c e s a s e r r o r v a r i a n c e . C l a s s r o o m a n d l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s a r e c o n -

s t a n t r e m i n d e r s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i s o n e o f t h e m o s t i m -

i 1 . B . F . S ki n n er , " Re f le c ti o ns o n a D e c a d e o f T e a c h i n g M a c h i n e s , " i n

T e a c h i n g M a c h i n e s a n d P r o g r a m e d L e a r n i n g , 1 1 : D a t a a n d D i r e c t i o n s , o p . c i t .

1 2 . M a r k l e , o p . c i t .

1 3 . G a g n e , o p . c i t .

1 4 . M e r e d i t h P . C r a w fo r d , " Co n c ep t s o f T r a i n i ng , " i n P s y c h o l o g i c a l P r i n -

c i p l e s i n S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t . E d i t e d b y R o b e r t M . G a g n e . New Yor k : H o l t ,

R i n e h a r t & W i n s t o n , 1 9 6 2 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 230/327

2 2 4 D E S I G N O F I N S TR U C T I O N

p o r t a n t b u t l e a s t a c c e p t e d p r i n c i p l e s o f b o t h l e a r n i n g t h e o r y a n d

s u b j e c t - m a t t e r t e a c h i n g .1 5

In research on prog ramed instruction, one is uniform ly im-

p r e s s e d w i t h t h e e x t e n t o f v a r i a b i l i t y i n s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g r a t e s . 1 6

R a t e o f l e a r n i n g , h o w e v e r , i s o n l y o n e r e l e v a n t d i m e n s i o n o f i n d i -

v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s . I t i s t h e d i m e n s i o n w h i c h p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n

h a s e m p h a s i z e d , a n d i t i s p r o b a b l y t h e e a s i e s t o n e t o a c c o m m o d a t e

( e v e n t h o u g h i t s a d e q u a t e r e c o g n i t i o n c e r t a i n l y c a n u p s e t t h e o r -

g a n i z a t i o n o f a s c h o o l ) . T h e r e a r e o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l

d i f f e r e n c e s o f e q u a l o r g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e w h i c h p e r t a i n t o t h e

c o m p o n e n t a n d c o n t e n t r e p e r t o i r e s o f t h e s t u d e n t , i . e . , a p t i t u d e p a t -

t e r n , s k i l l l e v e l , e t c e t e r a . A t l e a s t f o u r c l a s s e s o f p r e i n s t r u c t i o n a l

v a r i a b l e s a r e d e t e r m i n a n t s o f t h e c o u r s e o f a c h i e v e m e n t : 1 7 ( a ) t h e

e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l a l r e a d y h a s a c q u i r e d t h e r e s p o n s e s

s o u g h t , e . g . , a p p r o p r i a t e m o t o r s k i l l s ; ( b ) t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e

i n d i v i d u a l h a s a c q u i r e d t h e p r e r e q u i s i t e s f o r l e a r n i n g t h e r e s p o n s e s

t o b e a c q u i r e d , e . g . , knowing how to add before learning to multi-

p l y ; ( c ) t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l h a s a c q u i r e d t h e l e a r n i n g -

s e t v a r i a b l e s c o n s i s t i n g o f a n t e c e d e n t l e a r n i n g s w h i c h f a c i l i t a t e o r

i n t e r f e r e w i t h n e w l e a r n i n g u n d e r c e r t a i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s ,

e . g . , p r i o r e x p e r i e n c e o r i n f o r m a t i o n i n a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a ; a n d ( d ) t h e

i n d i v i d u a l ' s a b i l i t y t o m a k e t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s n e c e s s a r y t o p r o f i t

f r o m i n s t r u c t i o n , e . g . , a p t i t u d e i n s p a t i a l p e r c e p t i o n .

I n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o c e s s , j u s t a s o b j e c t i v e s d e f i n e t h e t a r g e t

b e h a v i o r s w h i c h a r e a c c e p t e d a s g i v e n s t o b e a t t a i n e d , s o m u s t p r e -

i n s t r u c t i o n a l b e h a v i o r b e a c c e p t e d a s a g i v e n , i f w e d o n o t o r c a n n o t

r i g o r o u s l y c o n t r o l o r d e l i m i t s t u d e n t b e h a v i o r u p t o t h e p o i n t o f

e n t r y i n t o i n s t r u c t i o n . T h e a r r a y o f c o n c e p t s i n v o l v e d i n t h e p r e -

1 5 . Vide Patrick Suppes, "Mode rn Learning Theory and the Elementary-

S c h o o l C u r r i c u l u m , " A m e r i c a n E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h J o u r n a l , I ( M a r c h , 1 9 6 4 ) ,

7 9 - 9 3 -

0. Robert Glaser, Jam es H . R e y n o l d s , a n d M a r g a r e t G . F u l l i c k , Pro-

g r a m m e d I n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e I n t a c t C l a s s r o o m . P i t t s b u r g h : L e a r n i n g R e s e a r c h

a n d D e v e l o p m e n t C e n t e r o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f P i t t s b u r g h , 1 9 6 3 . ( R e p o r t i s s u e d

u n d e r C o o p e r a t i v e R e s e a r c h P r o j e c t N o . 1 3 4 3 . )

1 7 . Robert M . W . T r a v e r s , E s s e n t i a l s o f L e a r n i n g : An Overview for Stu-

d e n t s o f E d u c a t i o n . Ne w Yo r k : M a c m i l l a n C o . , 1 9 6 3 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 231/327

GLASER 2 2 5

i n s t r u c t i o n a l m e a s u r e m e n t a n d d i a g n o s e s o f a p t i t u d e , r e a d i n e s s , a n d

a c h i e v e m e n t m u s t b e s y s t e m a t i z e d f o r t h e o r e t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d

f o r u s e i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e l o n g - t e r m p r e d i c -

t i o n b y a p t i t u d e t e s t s o f a c h i e v e m e n t s c o r e s a t t h e e n d o f a c o u r s e

might be supplemented by measures of behavior which p r e d i c t

w h e t h e r t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a n a c h i e v e t h e n e x t i m m e d i a t e i n s t r u c t i o n a l

s t e p . " I n c e r t a i n o f t h e n e w c u r r i c u l a , t h e r e a r e d a t a t o s u g g e s t t h a t

a p t i t u d e m e a s u r e s c o r r e l a t e m u c h l e s s w i t h e n d - o f - c o u r s e a c h i e v e -

m e n t t h a n t h e y d o w i t h a c h i e v e m e n t i n e a r l y u n i t s . " 1 8

W h i l e m o s t o f t h e a v a i l a b l e p r o d u c t s i n p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n

s h o w a n a p p a l l i n g l a c k o f r e c o g n i t i o n o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n e n t e r i n g b e -

h a v i o r , r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n s o f p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n a r e v e r y m u c h

c o n c e r n e d w i t h i t . M a r k l e , 1 9 i n c o m m e n t i n g o n E n g l i s h t e a c h i n g ,

p o i n t s o u t t h a t s t u d e n t v a r i a b i l i t y r a n g e s f r o m n o i n f o r m a t i o n t o

m i s i n f o r m a t i o n a n d t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e p r o -

g r a m s i n E n g l i s h m a k e n o p r o v i s i o n f o r d i a g n o s i n g a n d t h e n u s i n g

t h i s d i a g n o s t i c i n f o r m a t i o n . S h e s a y s , " T h e E n g l i s h i n s t r u c t o r . . .

m u s t b e g i n a t m a n y p o i n t s a n d g o a t m a n y p a c e s w h i l e c o v e r i n g a

m u l t i t u d e o f p o i n t s . . . . T h e t a s k i s i m p o s s i b l e . . . . T h e r e c a n b e

l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t i n d i v i d u a l i z e d i n s t r u c t i o n i s a n e c e s s i t y , n o t a l u x -

u r y , i n E n g l i s h c l a s s . " C a r r o l l , 2 0 d i s c u s s i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t e a c h -

i n g o f l a n g u a g e d e v e l o p m e n t i n c h i l d r e n , s a y s , "Teachers must

p o n d e r t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e y c a n a t t e m p t t o a l t e r a s y s t e m o f

h a b i t s w h i c h a r e n o t o n l y h i g h l y p r a c t i c e d , b u t w h i c h a l s o p r o b a b l y

s e r v e a s u p p o r t i v e r o l e i n t h e c h i l d ' s a d j u s t m e n t t o h i s n o n - s c h o o l

environment . "

I f t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f p r e i n s t r u c t i o n a l b e h a v i o r i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e

t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a n e n t e r i n g b e h a v i o r a l r e p e r t o i r e w h i c h t h e

i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o c e s s i s d e s i g n e d t o g u i d e a n d m o d i f y , t h e n r e s e a r c h

b e c o m e s r e o r i e n t e d i n a n u m b e r o f a r e a s . I n t h e a n a l y s i s o f r e a d i -

n e s s , f o r e x a m p l e , m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e f a c t t h a t r e a d i n e s s f a c t o r s

1 8 . Lee J . C r o nba c h , "Co u r s e I m p r o v e m e n t t h r o u g h Ev a l u a t i o n , " Teachers

College Record, L XI V ( M a y , 1 9 6 3 ) , 6 7 5 .

1 9 . Markle, o p . c i t .

2 0 . J o h n B . C a r r o l l , " L a n g u a g e D e v e l o p m e n t i n C h i l d r e n , " i n P s y c h o l i n g u i s -

t i c s : A B o ok of Re a di n gs . Edited by S . S a p o r t a . New Yor k : H o l t , R i n e h a r t &

Winston, 1 9 6 3 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 232/327

2 2 6 D E S I G N O F I N S TR U C T I O N

d i f f e r w i t h a g e a n d w i t h i n d i v i d u a l s m u s t b e s u p p l e m e n t e d b y a n a l -

y s e s o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s a n d t h e c o n -

t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s t o l e a r n i n g .

The approach to developmental norms requires reconsideration .

P r e v a i l i n g n o r m s n e c e s s a r i l y a s s u m e p r e v a i l i n g l e a r n i n g c o n d i t i o n s ;

however, new learning environm ents can chang e the norms . On e

a p p r o a c h f o r r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n e d u c a t i o n i s t o a d j u s t a

l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t t o p r e i n s t r u c t i o n a l b e h a v i o r c a p a b i l i t i e s a n d

t h e n t o s t u d y m a t u r a t i o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s .

R e s e a r c h o n a p t i t u d e s m i g h t b e r e o r i e n t e d . I f d e s i g n i n g i n s t r u c -

t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t s f o r e a r l y a g e s i s c o n s i d e r e d , i t i s c o n c e i v a b l e

t h a t t h e " c u r r i c u l u m " w i l l n o t b e f o r m a l s u b j e c t m a t t e r s l i k e m a t h -

e m a t i c s o r s p e l l i n g b u t , r a t h e r , i n s t r u c t i o n i n b e h a v i o r s w h i c h l o o k

m o r e l i k e a p t i t u d e s . T h e g e n e r a l k i n d o f e x p e r i m e n t t h a t m i g h t b e

c o n s i d e r e d i s t o t r e a t a p t i t u d e s a s i n s t r u c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s i n a

s e q u e n c e o f e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r e s s . S k i l f u l t e a c h i n g o f t h e b e h a v i o r s

that comprise aptitud e shou l d then enhance sub seq uent learning

achievement .

W i t h r e s p e c t t o p r e i n s t r u c t i o n a l r e p e r t o i r e s , t h e i m p o r t a n t p r o b -

l e m i s t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s

a n d l e a r n i n g v a r i a b l e s a n d , m o r e p r a c t i c a l l y , t o d e v e l o p t e c h n i q u e s

for the accommodation of instruction to individual differences .

W o r k a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f p e r t i n e n t

entering behavior can be a complex and subtle task . Entering be-

h a v i o r t h a t f a c i l i t a t e s t h e n e x t l e a r n i n g s t e p i s r e l a t e d t o s u c h d i f f i c u l t

p r o b l e m s a s t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t r a n s f e r h i e r a r c h i e s o f l e a r n i n g .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e r e l e v a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n p r e -

i n s t r u c t i o n a l b e h a v i o r , w h e n o n e s t u d e n t l e a r n s a n d a n o t h e r s t u d e n t

d o e s n o t , m a y b e e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o a c c o m p l i s h . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n

i n n o n s p e c i f i c t e r m s , s u c h a s " i n a d e q u a t e a p t i t u d e l e v e l " o r " p o o r

m o t i v a t i o n , " d o e s n o t p r o v i d e t h e b e h a v i o r a l d e t a i l r e q u i r e d f o r t h e

d e s i g n o f a n a p p r o p r i a t e t e a c h i n g s e q u e n c e .

C a r r y i n g O u t t h e I n s t r u c t i o n a l P r o c e s s

'Once the content and component repertoires invol ved in termi-

n a l b e h a v i o r o b j e c t i v e s a n d s u b o b j e c t i v e s a r e d e s c r i b e d , a n d o n c e

t h e e n t e r i n g b e h a v i o r o f t h e s t u d e n t a l s o i s d e s c r i b e d , a p r e c i s e i n -

structional process can be implemented . F o r e x a m p l e , i f a s t u d e n t

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 233/327

GLASER 2 2 7

is learning to sound out phonemes that correspond to d isplayed

g raphemes, and he d oes not have the pronunciation of phonemes

i n h i s r e p e r t o i r e , h e m u s t f i r s t b e t a u g h t t h i s b e h a v i o r . I f i t a l r e a d y

h a s b e e n l e a r n e d , t h e n i n s t r u c t i o n c o n c e n t r a t e s o n b r i n g i n g t h e p r o -

nunciation responses under the control of appropriate graphemes .

I n s u b j e c t - m a t t e r l e a r n i n g , t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o c e s s c a n b e d e f i n e d

a s a w a y o f a r r a n g i n g t h e s t u d e n t ' s e n v i r o n m e n t t o e x p e d i t e l e a r n -

ings which comprise subject-matter competence .

A t l e a s t t h r e e k i n d s o f p r o c e s s e s s e e m t o b e i n v o l v e d : ( a ) s e t t i n g

up new forms of student behavior, such as new speaking patterns

o r a n e w s k i l l l i k e h a n d w r i t i n g ; ( b ) s e t t i n g u p n e w k i n d s o f s t i m u l u s

c o n t r o l , f o r e x a m p l e , l e a r n i n g t o r e a d a f t e r h a v i n g l e a r n e d t o s p e a k ,

s o t h a t t h e a l r e a d y - l e a r n e d r e s p o n s e o f m a k i n g s p e e c h s o u n d s i s a t -

t a c h e d t o p a r t i c u l a r v i s u a l s y m b o l s ; a n d ( c ) m a i n t a i n i n g t h e b e h a v -

i o r o f t h e s t u d e n t . T h i s t h i r d c a t e g o r y i s l e s s i n v o l v e d w i t h b e h a v i o r

c h a n g e a n d m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g t h e s t u d e n t ' s l i k e l i h o o d

t o b e h a v e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , o f t e n f a l l s u n d e r t h e l a b e l o f m o t i v a t i o n .

B r i e f e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e s e g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s f o l l o w s .

S e t t i n g u p n e w f o r m s o f b e h a v i o r .- A v e r y e v i d e n t c h a r a c t e r -

i s t i c o f l e a r n i n g w h i c h l e a d s t o s u b j e c t - m a t t e r m a s t e r y i s t h e i n c r e a s -

i n g p r e c i s i o n o f t h e s t u d e n t ' s r e s p o n s e s . In learning complex be-

h a v i o r , t h e s t u d e n t ' s i n i t i a l p e r f o r m a n c e i s v a r i a b l e a n d q u i t e c r u d e ,

r a r e l y m e e t i n g t h e c r i t e r i a o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r c o m p e t e n c e . E f f e c t i v e

i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e t o l e r a t e s t h e s t u d e n t ' s i n i t i a l l y c r u d e r e -

sponses and gradually takes him toward mastery . T h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l

p r o c e s s , t h e n , m u s t i n v o l v e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f s u c c e s s i v e l y m o r e

r i g o r o u s c r i t e r i a i n t h e p r o g r e s s i o n o f l e a r n e r p e r f o r m a n c e . I n c r e a s -

ing competence in new learning is accomplished by gradually con-

t r a c t i n g t h e p e r m i s s i b l e m a r g i n o f e r r o r . F o r e x a m p l e , i f p r e c i s e

t i m i n g a n d t e m p o w e r e b e i n g t a u g h t t o a s t u d e n t o f m u s i c , i t

wou l d b e unrealistic to reward the stu d ent only on those rare

occasions when he briefly maintained an accurate response . S i n c e

the performance of the beginning student will be quite variable,

s t a n d a r d s s h o u l d b e i n i t i a l l y g r o s s , a n d p e r f o r m a n c e c r i t e r i a s h o u l d

b e c h a n g e d a t a r a t e w h i c h i n s u r e s c o n t i n u i n g p r o g r e s s t o w a r d m a s -

t e r y . Each successive range of accepta ble performance shoul d in-

c l u d e a m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e r a n g e o f v a r i a t i o n s a l r e a d y i n t h e s t u -

d e n t ' s p e r f o r m a n c e s o t h a t t h e r e w i l l b e f r e q u e n t o p p o r t u n i t y f o r

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 234/327

2 2 8 D E S I G N O F I N S TR U C T I O N

t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f s u c c e s s . O v e r t h e s e q u e n c e o f i n s t r u c t i o n , t h e

r a n g e o f o b s e r v e d p e r f o r m a n c e w i l l a l i g n i t s e l f w i t h t h e p a r t i c u l a r

range of acceptable performance defined as subject-matter compe-

t e n c e . I n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l s e q u e n c e , a s u d d e n o r i n a p -

p r o p r i a t e c o n s t r i c t i o n i n p e r f o r m a n c e c r i t e r i a i s o n e e n v i r o n m e n t a l

c h a n g e w h i c h c a n l e a d t o f r u s t r a t i o n o r l o s s o f i n t e r e s t .

S e t t i n g u p n e w k i n d s o f s t i m u l u s c o n t r o l . - C o m p a r e d with the

p r o c e s s j u s t d e s c r i b e d , a n e q u a l l y i f n o t m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t p r o c e s s i n

subject-matter learning is the stimulus control of performance .

Learning a second language, for exam ple, has stressed the impor-

t a n c e o f t h e t r a n s f e r f r o m a n i n i t i a l r e p e r t o i r e t o a t a r g e t r e p e r t o i r e .

T h e r e i s o f t e n t h e d i f f i c u l t y , s a y , i n t e a c h i n g t r a n s l a t i o n , o f t r a n s -

ferring from one stim u l us class to another . The oral response

"flower" has to be transferred from th e English word "flower" to

the German word "die Bl u me . " T h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e s t u d e n t ' s

e n t e r i n g r e p e r t o i r e i s t h e p e r t i n e n t i n s t r u c t i o n a l t a s k , a n d t h i s i n -

volves teaching new forms of response and transferring stimulus

control to new subject matter . As another simplified example of

t h e t r a n s f e r o f s t i m u l u s c o n t r o l , c o n s i d e r a c h i l d l e a r n i n g c o l o r

names . The child can sa y the words "red" a nd "blue" ; t h e s e r e -

s p o n s e s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e t e a c h e r t o u s e . The teacher mu st now

b r i n g t h e r e s p o n s e u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e p r o p e r c o l o r s t i m u l i ,

r e d a n d b l u e , s o t h a t c o l o r s c a n b e c a l l e d b y t h e i r n a m e s . T h e t r a n s -

f e r o f s t i m u l u s c o n t r o l i s a m a j o r p r o c e s s i n v o l v e d i n t e a c h i n g s t u -

d e n t s t o m a k e r e s p o n s e s t o m o r e p r e c i s e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r d i s c r i m i n a -

t i o n s a n d i n t e a c h i n g t h e m t o u s e p r e v i o u s l y l e a r n e d s k i l l s i n r e s p o n s e

t o n e w s u b j e c t m a t e r i a l 21

M a i n t a i n i n g b e h a v i o r .-The p r o c e s s e s j u s t d e s c r i b e d , s e t t i n g u p

new forms of response and new kinds of stimulus control , assume

o n l y t h a t t h e b e h a v i o r o f a n e x p e r t i n a g i v e n s u b j e c t m a t t e r i s c h a r -

a c t e r i z e d b y t h e f a c i l i t y w i t h w h i c h t h i s b e h a v i o r i s c a l l e d o u t b y

p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t - m a t t e r c o n t e x t s . A f u r t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a n

e x p e r t ' s b e h a v i o r i s t h a t i t i s a p p a r e n t l y s e l f - s u s t a i n i n g . T h e e x p e r t

m a y c o n t i n u e t o r e s p o n d f o r r e l a t i v e l y l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e w i t h o u t

2 1 . Vide J u l i a n I . T a b e r , R o b e r t G l a s e r , a n d H a l m u t h H . S c h a e f e r , L e a r n -

i n g a n d P r o g r a m e d I n s t r u c t i o n , chap . i i i . R e a d i n g , M a s s a c h u s e t t s : Addison-

Wesl ey Publishing Co . , 1 9 6 5 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 235/327

GLASER 2 2 9

apparent external support and without support from aids and ref-

erences t hat are n eeded by the n ovice . Not only is the expert's

b ehavior g uid ed or controlied b y the subj ect matter b ut, with

i n c r e a s i n g c o m p e t e n c e i n b e h a v i o r , i t c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s s e l f -

s u s t a i n i n g a n d h i g h l y i n d e p e n d e n t o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l s u p p o r t s .

Research and d evelopment on the teaching and learning of such

self-susta ining sequences is an important problem-a problem that

i s r e l a t e d t o s u c h b e h a v i o r - m a i n t a i n i n g s i t u a t i o n s a s t h o s e w h i c h

c o m e u n d e r t h e l a b e l s o f m o t i v a t i o n a n d c u r i o s i t y .

SO M E C O ND I T I ON S IN FLUENC IN G T HE I NST RU CT I ONAL P R O C ESS

I f i t c a n b e a s s u m e d t h a t l e a r n i n g i n v o l v e s t h e k i n d s o f p r o c e s s e s

just described, attention can be turned to some conditions which

i n f l u e n c e t h e s e p r o c e s s e s . T h e c o n d i t i o n s t o b e d e s c r i b e d a r e t h o s e

suggested by the work of experime ntal psychologists and by prac-

t i c a l a t t e m p t s a t i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m i n g . I n d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e c o n -

d i t i o n s , i t i s u s e f u l t o i n t r o d u c e a n o t h e r t e r m , n a m e l y " t r a n s i t i o n a l

behavior. " I f a n i n s t r u c t i o n a l s e q u e n c e i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h m o d i f y -

i n g s t u d e n t p e r f o r m a n c e i n o r d e r t o g e t f r o m e n t e r i n g b e h a v i o r t o

s p e c i f i e d t e r m i n a l b e h a v i o r , t h e n t r a n s i t i o n a l b e h a v i o r i s d e f i n e d a s

t h e p e r f o r m a n c e c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e s t u d e n t i n t h e c o u r s e o f a t t a i n -

ing competence in terminal behavior . E f f i c i e n t l e a r n i n g c o n d i t i o n s

f o r t r a n s i t i o n a l b e h a v i o r m a y b e r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e e v e n -

t u a l c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h s u b j e c t - m a t t e r c o m p e t e n c e o c c u r s .

A s i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f c o n d i t i o n s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o c e s s

which can be subjected to psychological stu dy, the following are

c o n s i d e r e d : s e q u e n c i n g , s t i m u l u s a n d r e s p o n s e f a c t o r s , p r a c t i c e , a n d

r e s p o n s e c o n t i n g e n c i e s .

S e q u e n c i n g .-The s e q u e n c i n g o f t r a n s i t i o n a l b e h a v i o r i s a c o n -

d i t i o n o f l e a r n i n g w h i c h r e q u i r e s d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s . The id ea of

g r a d u a l p r o g r e s s i o n i n p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n i s a r e l a t e d n o t i o n .

However, more subtle analyses are required . S c h o l a r s f r e q u e n t l y

p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e i r s u b j e c t i s n o t o r g a n i z e d a s s e q u e n t i a l l y a s , s a y ,

m a t h e m a t i c s , a n d t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n c a n n o t b e s o c a r e f u l l y s e q u e n c e d .

F u r t h e r , t h e i r s u b j e c t m a t t e r r e q u i r e s t h a t m a n y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s b e

h a n d l e d a t o n e t i m e s o t h a t t h e s t u d e n t c a n p e r f o r m i n a n i n t e g r a t e d

f a s h i o n . However, when one undertakes to lay out details in in-

s t r u c t i o n a l s e q u e n c e s a n d t o e s t a b l i s h p a r t i a l a t t a i n m e n t g o a l s , t h e

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 236/327

2 3 0 D E S I G N O F I N S TR U C T I O N

" a l l t h i n g s a t o n c e " i d e a 2 2 s e e m s t o f a l l . D e c i s i o n s n e e d t o b e m a d e ,

o n s o m e b a s i s , a b o u t w h a t i s t o b e l e a r n e d b e f o r e w h a t . T h e s e -

q u e n c i n g r e q u i r e m e n t c u t s a c r o s s m a n y a r e a s o f i n t e r e s t i n p s y c h o -

l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h , c e r t a i n l y t h e a r e a o f t r a n s f e r - p a r t i c u l a r l y t r a n s f e r

f r o m t h e l e a r n i n g o f o n e s u b o b j e c t i v e t o t h e e n t e r i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s

f o r l e a r n i n g t h e n e x t s u b o b j e c t i v e . As Suppes 2 3 h a s p o i n t e d o u t ,

t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f s u b c o n c e p t s d e t e r m i n i n g t h e

n a t u r e o f t r a n s f e r i s a c e n t r a l p r o b l e m i n l e a r n i n g t h e o r y r e l a t e d t o

i n s t r u c t i o n .

S e q u e n c i n g c u t s a c r o s s t h e n o t i o n o f a g r a d u a l p r o g r e s s i o n o f

d i f f i c u l t y i n l e a r n i n g h i e r a r c h i e s. A n a n a l y s i s o f w h a t i s m e a n t b y

" d i f f i c u l t y " a n d o f t h e v a r i a b l e s t h a t i n f l u e n c e " l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t y "

c a n i n v o l v e a n a m a z i n g n u m b e r o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r f a c t o r s . S i l b e r -

m a n ' s 2 4 a n a l y s i s o f t h e f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g s e q u e n c i n g i n l e a r n i n g

t o r e a d i l l u s t r a t e s t h e c o m p l e x i t y i n v o l v e d . T h e v a r i a b l e s h e l i s t s

include word frequency, letter f r e q u e n c y , s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e ,

m e a n i n g f u l n e s s , r e d u n d a n t p a t t e r n s , p r o n o u n c e a b i l i t y , w o r d a n d

s e n t e n c e l e n g t h , w o r d f a m i l i a r i t y , s t i m u l u s s i m i l a r i t y , a n d g r a p h e m e -

phoneme correspondences .

S e q u e n c i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s p o i n t u p a t l e a s t t h r e e g e n e r a l p r o b -

l e m s i n d e s i g n i n g i n s t r u c t i o n a l s e q u e n c e s : ( a ) r e g u l a r i t y o f s t r u c -

t u r e , ( b ) r e s p o n s e a v a i l a b i l i t y , a n d ( c ) s t i m u l u s s i m i l a r i t y a n d d i s -

s i m i l a r i t y . R e g u l a r i t y o f s t r u c t u r e r e f e r s t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f c o n c e p t

development . T h e n e g l e c t o f t h i s a r e a i s v e r y f o r c e f u l l y b r o u g h t

o u t w h e n o n e e x a m i n e s m o s t p r e s e n t - d a y m e t h o d s o f t e a c h i n g r e a d -

i n g . T h e r e s e e m s t o b e l i t t l e r e g u l a r i t y i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f , s a y ,

p h o n e m i c c o n c e p t s , o r m o r p h e m i c r e g u l a r i t i e s a s t h e f o r m e r a r e

taught in the reading program by Buchanan 2 ao r t h e l a t t e r i n t h e

word analysis program by Markle . 2 6

2 2 . M a r k l e , o p . c i t .

2 3 . S u p p e s , o p . c i t .

2 4 . H a r r y F . S i l b e r m a n , " R e a d i n g a n d R e l a t e d V e r b a l L e a r n i n g , " i n T e a c h -

i n g M a c h i n e s a n d P r o g r a m e d L e a r n i n g, 1 1 : D a t a a n d D i r e c t i o n s , o p . c i t .

2 5 . C y n t h i a D . B u c h a n a n , P r o g r a m m e d R e a d i n g . New York : M c G r a w - H i l l

B o o k C o . , 1 9 6 3 -

2 6 . S u s a n M . M a r k l e , Words: A P r o g r a m e d C o u r s e i n V o c a b u l a r y D e v e l -

o p m e n t . C h i c a g o : S c i e n c e R e s e a r c h A s s o c i a t e s , 1 6 z .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 237/327

GLASER 2 3 1

R e s p o n s e a v a i l a b i l i t y r e f e r s t o t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e r e s p o n s e s t o

b e l e a r n e d i n t h e c o u r s e o f a n i n s t r u c t i o n a l s e q u e n c e s h o u l d b e a v a i l -

a b l e a t t h e t i m e t h e s e r e s p o n s e s a r e t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o r c o m e

u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f r e l e v a n t s u b j e c t - m a t t e r s t i m u l i . T h i s i s a n a r e a

i n v e s t i g a t e d i n s t u d i e s o f v e r b a l l e a r n i n g ; for exampl e, Und erwood

a n d S c h u l z 2 7 c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e p r o n o u n c e a b i l i t y o f c e r t a i n v e r b a l

u n i t s w a s a p r e d i c t o r o f t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e s e u n i t s w e r e l e a r n e d

in experiments on word association . Response availability woul d

s e e m t o b e n e g l e c t e d i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n . I n t e a c h i n g r e a d i n g ,

f o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e i s o f t e n l i t t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p i n l a n g u a g e a n d s y n t a c -

t i c p a t t e r n s b e t w e e n t h e o r a l l a n g u a g e o f c h i l d r e n a n d t h e m a t e r i a l

by which they learn to read . I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t a c l o s e r

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o c a n p r o f i t f r o m t h e f a c i l i t a t i o n i n -

v o l v e d i n r e s p o n s e a v a i l a b i l i t y . In everyday school pr actice, the

e x p e r i e n c e c h a r t s b y t e a c h e r s t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f

a l r e a d y s t r o n g r e s p o n s e s . In Gagne's hierarchical charts on sub-

o b j e c t i v e s , 2 8 a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i s r e s p o n s e a v a i l a b i l i t y , w h i c h

f a c i l i t a t e s t h e l e a r n i n g o f t h e n e x t s u b o b j e c t i v e.

S t i m u l u s s i m i l a r i t y a n d d i s s i m i l a r i t y i n t h e s e q u e n c i n g o f i n s t r u c -

t i o n r e l a t e s t o s u c h p r o c e d u r e s a s i n t r o d u c i n g s u b j e c t - m a t t e r c o n -

t e n t a c c o r d i n g t o i n c r e a s i n g s i m i l a r i t y o f f o r m o r m e a n i n g . S i m p l e

d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s a r e i n t r o d u c e d i n i t i a l l y a n d , a s t h e s e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s

become learned, more difficult ones are introduced . In learning

grapheme-phonem e corresponden ces, some programed instructional

procedures 29 take account of this by introducing not all of the

l e t t e r s o f t h e a l p h a b e t i n e a r l y r e a d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n , b u t o n l y t h e

m a x i m a l l y d i s c r i m i n a b l e l e t t e r s . M o r e d i f f i c u l t l e t t e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s

a r e r e s e r v e d u n t i l a s i z a b l e r e a d i n g v o c a b u l a r y h a s b e e n b u i l t u p

w i t h t h e i n i t i a l l y l e a r n e d l e t t e r s .

S t i m u l u s a n d r e s p o n s e f a e t o r s .-In addition to sequencing con-

d i t i o n s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y i n i n s t r u c t i o n t o d e c i d e u p o n t h e w a y s i n

2 7 . B e n t o n J . Und erwood and R ud olph W . S c h u l z , M e a n i n g f u l n e s s a n d

V e r b a l L e a r n i n g . N e w Y o r k : J . B . L i p p i n c o t t C o . , i 9 6 o .

2 8 . R o b e r t M . G a g n b , " T h e Ac q u i s i t i o n o f K n o w l e d g e , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e - ,

v i e w , L X I X ( Ju l y , 1 9 6 2 ) , 3 5 5 - 6 5 -

2 9 . B u c h a n a n , o p . c i t .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 238/327

2 3 2 D E S I G N O F I N S TR U C T I O N

w h i c h t h e s t u d e n t c a n p e r f o r m a n d t o d e t e r m i n e h o w s u b j e c t - m a t t e r

m a t e r i a l w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d t o h i m . T h i s p o i n t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m e n -

t i o n e d i n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e a n a l y s i s o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r c o n t e n t . The

s t i m u l u s a n d r e s p o n s e a s p e c t s o f a s u b j e c t - m a t t e r d o m a i n d e t e r m i n e

t h e d i m e n s i o n s a l o n g w h i c h a s t u d e n t c a n i n t e r a c t w i t h i t . I n p r e s e n t -

d a y i n s t r u c t i o n , s i n c e p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l s c a r r y s o m u c h o f t h e b u r d e n

o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r e s e n t a t i o n , e d u c a t o r s h a v e s c a r c e l y b e g u n t o i n -

v e s t i g a t e n e w p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r p r o v i d i n g i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e

s t u d e n t a n d h i s s u b j e c t m a t t e r , p o s s i b i l i t i e s w h i c h a r e d i c t a t e d b y t h e

s t i m u l u s a n d r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a s u b j e c t m a t t e r . I t s e e m s

p o s s i b l e t o b e a b l e t o p r e s e n t t h e l e a r n e r w i t h w a y s o f s e e i n g a n d

m a n i p u l a t i n g h i s s u b j e c t m a t t e r t h a t e x t e n d a n d e n r i c h h i s c o n t a c t

w i t h i t a n d t o f o r m a l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h s u b j e c t - m a t t e r

d i m e n s i o n s n e e d n o t b e s o d r a s t i c a l l y r e d u c e d a s t h e y m a y b e w h e n

f o r c e d i n t o a p r i m a r i l y p a p e r - a n d - p r i n t l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t . E n g i -

neering and eng ineering psycholog y have worked on the experi-

m e n t a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e d i s p l a y a n d r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b y w h i c h

a hu man can com m unicate with his environment . S i m i l a r c o n c e r n s

m u s t b e e x p r e s s e d i n e d u c a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i n t e r f a c e b e t w e e n

student and subject matter . We need to examine the displ ay and

response characteristics by which a student can in teract with a

s u b j e c t - m a t t e r d i s c i p l i n e 3 0 A n e x a m p l e o f t h i s e x c i t i n g t r e n d i s t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f g r a p h i c a l i n p u t a n d o u t p u t f a c i l i t i e s i n a u t o m a t e d

i n s t r u c t i o n a l s y s t e m s w h i c h c a n r e m o v e t h e s t u d e n t f r o m t h e r e s t r i c -

t i o n s o f k e y b o a r d s a n d o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l i n p u t s . I n c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d

i n s t r u c t i o n , a m a j o r i n n o v a t i o n s e e m s t o b e r e q u i r e d i n t h e f o r m o f

i n p u t a n d o u t p u t c o n s o l e s w h i c h a r e p o s s i b l e w i t h e x i s t i n g t e c h n o l -

o g y .

P r a c t i c e .-Many o f t h e e a r l y e x p e r i m e n t s i n p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c -

t i o n i n v o l v e d t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e n u m b e r o f s t e p s i n a p r o g r a m

s o t h a t p r o g r a m s w i t h d i f f e r e n t n u m b e r s o f f r a m e s , b u t t e a c h i n g t h e

same things, were compared . T h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d f r o m s e v e r a l s t u d -

i e s a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s a r e a m b i g u o u s . 3 1 However, they serve to make

3 0 . R o b e r t G l a s e r , W i l l i a m W . R a m a g e , a n d J o s e p h I . L i p s o n , T h e I n t e r f a c e

b e t w e e n S t u d e n t a n d S u b j e c t M a t t e r . P i t t s b u r g h : L e a r n i n g R e s e a r c h a n d D e -

v e l o p m e n t C e n t e r , U n i v e r s i t y o f P i t t s b u r g h , 1 9 6 4 .

3 1 . Ja m e s G . H o l l a n d , " R e s e a r c h o n P r o g r a m i n g V a r i a b l e s , " i n Teaching

M a c h i n e s a n d P r o g r a m e d L e a r n i n g , 1 1 : D a t a a n d D i r e c t i o n s , o p . c i t .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 239/327

GLASER2 3 3

o n e a w a r e o f h o w l i t t l e i s k n o w n t h a t c a n b e a p p l i e d a b o u t t h e

v a r i a b l e o f p r a c t i c e , w h i c h i s a n o l d a n d r e s p e c t a b l e t o p i c i n l e a r n i n g .

I n d e s i g n i n g p r o g r a m s , t h e a m o u n t o f p r a c t i c e a n d r e v i e w e m p l o y e d

n e e d s t o b e d e t e r m i n e d e m p i r i c a l l y a n d c e r t a i n l y i s a f f e c t e d b y i n d i -

v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s . A pilot study by Hawker 8 2s h o w s t h a t , a f t e r a

p r o g r a m i s c o m p l e t e d , a t l e a s t o n e - f i f t h o f t h e f r a m e s c a n b e r e -

moved without change in the average performance attained by a

group .

A study completed by Reynolds and Glaser, 8 S i n w h i c h e x p e r i -

m e n t a l s e q u e n c e s i n j u n i o r h i g h s c h o o l g e n e r a l s c i e n c e w e r e i m -

b e d d e d i n a l a r g e r g e n e r a l s c i e n c e p r o g r a m , i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e a m o u n t

o f r e p e t i t i o n o f s t i m u l u s a n d r e s p o n s e i n t h e l e a r n i n g o f t e c h n i c a l

t e r m s a n d a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e s p a c i n g o f r e v i e w s e q u e n c e s . Th e

r e s u l t s , m e a s u r e d f o r i m m e d i a t e l e a r n i n g a n d r e t e n t i o n , s h o w e d t h a t

v a r i a t i o n s i n r e p e t i t i o n h a d o n l y t r a n s i t o r y e f f e c t s b u t t h a t s p a c e d

r e v i e w i n t h e c o u r s e o f a p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l s e q u e n c e s i g n i f i -

c a n t l y f a c i l i t a t e d r e t e n t i o n o f t h e r e v i e w e d m a t e r i a l . S i m i l a r r e s u l t s

i n a l a b o r a t o r y s i t u a t i o n i n v o l v i n g p a i r e d - a s s o c i a t e l e a r n i n g w i t h

m a s s e d a n d d i s t r i b u t e d r e p e t i t i o n s o f i t e m s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d b y

G r e e n o 3 4 T h e r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e o f t e n - c r i t i c i z e d m o n o t o n y

o f r e p e t i t i o n f o u n d i n m a n y e a r l y p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s

m a y , i n f a c t , b e o f l i t t l e v a l u e i n e n h a n c i n g r e t e n t i o n a n d m a y p r o f i t -

a b l y b e r e p l a c e d b y a s e r i e s o f s h o r t i n s t r u c t i o n a l s e q u e n c e s i n s e v -

e r a l r e l a t e d t o p i c s , e a c h i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h r e v i e w s o f t h e p r e c e d i n g

m a t e r i a l . T h e g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e e n t i r e q u e s t i o n o f p r a c -

t i c e , r e v i e w , a n d r e t e n t i o n w i t h meaningful a c a d e m i c s u b j e c t m a t t e r

n e e d s t o r e c e i v e m o r e h e l p f r o m e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y a n d r e -

q u i r e s e x t e n s i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n b o t h l a b o r a t o r y a n d e d u c a t i o n a l

c o n t e x t s .

R e s p o n s e c o n t i n g e n c i e s - e r r o r s a n d correction.-Thef a c t i s t h a t

3 2 . P e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , 1 9 6 4 . .

3 3 . Ja m e s H . R e y n o l d s a n d R o b e r t G l a s e r , " E f f e c t s o f R e p e t i t i o n a n d S p a c e d

Review upon Retention of a Comp lex Learning Task," Journal o f Ed u c a t i o n a l

P s y c h o l o g y , LV ( O ctob er , 1 9 6 4 ) ,2 9 7 - 3 08 -

3 4 - J a m e s G . Greeno, "Paired-Associate Learning with Massed and Dis-

t r i b u t e d R e p e t i t i o n s o f I t e m s , " Journal of E xp er i me nt a l P sy ch o lo gy , L X V I I(March, 1 9 6 4 ) , 2 8 6 - 9 5

.

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 240/327

2 34 DESIGN OF INSTRUCTION

p r a c t i c e , a s s u c h , d o e s n o t c h a n g e b e h a v i o r b u t p r a c t i c e c o n d i t i o n s

w h i c h s u p p l y c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s a c t i o n s s e r v e t o m o d i f y

h i s b e h a v i o r . T h e s e r e s p o n s e c o n t i n g e n c i e s i n f l u e n c e t h e c o u r s e o f

l e a r n i n g . B e c a u s e t h e r e a r e s o m a n y t h i n g s t h a t a r e n o t k n o w n , t h e

s t u d y o f t h e c o n t i n g e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n b e h a v i o r a n d c o n s e -

q u e n t e v e n t s i s a k e y a r e a f o r b o t h b a s i c a n d a p p l i e d r e s e a r c h i n

l e a r n i n g w h i c h i s r e l e v a n t t o i n s t r u c t i o n . Although many studies

h a v e s h o w n t h e p o w e r f u l i n f l u e n c e o f v a r i o u s r e i n f o r c i n g o p e r a -

t i o n s , 8 5 S w e t s a n d h i s c o - w o r k e r s , S ° s t u d y i n g a t a s k o f c a t e g o r i z i n g

t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f d i f f e r e n t s o u n d s , c o n c l u d e t h a t " f a i r l y e x t e n -

s i v e f e e d b a c k m a y b e d e t r i m e n t a l . . . a n d p r o v i d e n o s u p p o r t f o r

t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t e f f i c i e n c y o f l e a r n i n g v a r i e s d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e

p r o b a b i l i t y o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t . " S u c h n e g a t i v e f i n d i n g s m a y b e a t -

t r i b u t e d t o m a n y s o u r c e s a n d n e e d t o b e a n a l y z e d c a r e f u l l y , p a r -

t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e t e r m i n a l c o m p o n e n t

r e p e r t o i r e a n d t h e s e q u e n c i n g b e t w e e n t r a n s i t i o n a l a n d t e r m i n a l

b e h a v i o r .

R e s p o n s e c o n t i n g e n c i e s f a l l i n t o s e v e r a l c l a s s e s , r e i n f o r c i n g e v e n t s

b e i n g o n e c l a s s , a n d o t h e r s b e i n g e x t i n c t i o n , p u n i s h m e n t , a n d c o r -

r e c t i o n . I t i s k n o w n , a t l e a s t o n a c o m m o n - s e n s e b a s i s , t h a t i n d i -

v i d u a l s l e a r n f r o m m a k i n g e r r o r s , b u t v e r y l i t t l e i s k n o w n a b o u t t h e

p r o c e s s i n v o l v e d a n d h o w t o u s e e r r o r b e h a v i o r e f f i c i e n t l y . C o r r e c -

t i o n i s h i g h l y r e l e v a n t t o i n s t r u c t i o n b u t h a s g e n e r a l l y b e e n n e g l e c t e d

i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s . Correction refers to the contingency

whereby an incorrect response is followed by a stimulus e v e n t

w h i c h s e r v e s t o i n f o r m t h e s t u d e n t o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c o r r e c t r e -

s p o n s e i n s u c h w a y s a s t e l l i n g h i m t h e r i g h t a n s w e r , s h o w i n g h i m

h o w t o g e t t h e r i g h t a n s w e r , m a k i n g h i m p e r f o r m t h e c o r r e c t r e -

s p o n s e , a n d s o f o r t h . H o w d o s t u d e n t s l e a r n f r o m t h e i r e r r o r s ?

3 5. F o r e x a m p l e , F r e d S . K e l l e r a n d W i l l i a m N . S c h o e n f e l d , P r i n c i p l e s o f

Psychol ogy (New York : A p p l e t o n - Ce n t u r y - C r o f t s ,1 9 5 o );nd C . B . F e r s t e r

a n d B . F . S k i n n e r , S c h e d u l e s o f R e i n f o r c e m e n t (New York : A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y -

C r o f t s , 1 9 5 7 ) .

3 6 . J . A . S w e t s a n d O t h e r s , " L e a r n i n g T o I d e n t i f y N o n v e r b a l S o u n d s : A n

A p p l i c a t i o n o f a C o m p u t e r a s a T e a c h i n g M a c h i n e , " J o u r n a l o f t h e A c o u s t i c a l

Society of America, XXXIV (July, 1 9 6 2 ) , 9 2 8 - 3 5 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 241/327

GLASER 2 3 5

S o m e i n v e s t i g a t o r s , l i k e K a e s s a n d Z e a m a n , R 7 a f t e r s t u d y i n g l e a r n -

i n g i n m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e s i t u a t i o n s w i t h i n c o r r e c t a l t e r n a t i v e s p r e s e n t e d

t o t h e s t u d e n t , c o n c l u d e t h a t i n c o r r e c t a l t e r n a t i v e s i n c r e a s e t h e

p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e s t u d e n t w i l l r e p e a t h i s e r r o r . S u p p e s a n d G i n s -

berg 3 8 r e p o r t t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f o v e r t c o r r e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s t o

f a c i l i t a t e l e a r n i n g i n c h i l d r e n . T h e r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t u r e a p p e a r s t o s u g -

g e s t t h a t t h e r e m a y b e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e e f f e c t s o f c o r r e c t i o n b e -

t w e e n a d u l t s a n d c h i l d r e n a n d a l s o d i f f e r e n c e s a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e

b e h a v i o r b e i n g l e a r n e d . H o w e v e r , t h e s e a r e m a t t e r s f o r i n v e s t i g a -

t i o n . T h e m a i n p o i n t i s t h a t a n i m p o r t a n t a r e a f o r l e a r n i n g r e s e a r c h

r e l e v a n t t o i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r a c t i c e i s t h e c l a s s o f r e s p o n s e c o n t i n g e n -

c i e s c a l l e d c o r r e c t i o n .

I n r e c e n t s t u d i e s , t h e r e h a v e b e e n p r o v o c a t i v e c o n t r a s t s i n t h e

f i n d i n g s o n t h e s u b j e c t o f l e a r n i n g w i t h e r r o r s v e r s u s l e a r n i n g w i t h -

o u t e r r o r . S k i n n e r ' s w o r k w i t h t h e t e a c h i n g m a c h i n e h a s e m p h a -

s i z e d t h e m i n i m i z a t i o n o f e r r o r . T h e r e h a s b e e n s o m e q u e s t i o n i n g o f

t h e o r i e s i n w h i c h r e s p o n d i n g t o a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e s t i m u l u s ( a n d h e n c e

t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f e r r o r s ) i s a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n

o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s . T h e g e n e r a l r a t i o n a l e f o r e r r o r m i n i m i z a t i o n i n

i n s t r u c t i o n s e e m s t o b e t h e f o l l o w i n g : F i r s t , w h e n e r r o r s o c c u r ,

t h e r e i s l a c k o f c o n t r o l o v e r t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s , a n d o p p o r t u n i t y i s

p r o v i d e d f o r t h e i n t e r m i t t e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s .

T h i s r e s u l t s i n i n t e r f e r e n c e e f f e c t s h i g h l y r e s i s t a n t t o e x t i n c t i o n .

S e c o n d , f r u s t r a t i o n a n d e m o t i o n a l e f f e c t s t h a t a r e d i f f i c u l t t o c o n t r o l

a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e x t i n c t i o n a n d i n t e r f e r e n c e f r o m e r r o r . And

t h i r d , r i c h e r l e a r n i n g , t h a t i s , r i c h e r i n a s s o c i a t i o n s , t a k e s p l a c e w h e n

t h e a s s o c i a t i v e h i s t o r y o f t h e l e a r n e r i s a p p l i e d t o e x t e n d h i s l e a r n i n g .

This is accomplished by mediators or thematic prompting which

m a k e p o s i t i v e u s e o f e x i s t i n g k n o w l e d g e a n d s e r v e t o g u i d e l e a r n i n g .

P e r h a p s a n o t h e r r e a s o n b e h i n d t h e d r i v e t o m i n i m i z e e r r o r i s , a s h a s

b e e n s a i d , t h a t t h e u s e o f e r r o r s a n d t h e p o s s i b l e v a l u e o f i n c o r r e c t

3 7 . W . K a e s s a n d D . Z e a m a n , " P o s i t i v e a n d N e g a t i v e K n o w l e d g e o f R e s u l t s

o n a P r e s s e y - T y p e P u n c h b o a r d , " J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y , LX( J u l y , 1 9 6 0 ) , 1 2

- 1 7 -

3 8 - P a t r i c k S u p p e s a n d R o s e G i n s b e r g , " A p p l i c a t i o n o f a S t i m u l u s S a m p l i n g

M o d e l t o C h i l d r e n ' s C o n c e p t F o r m a t i o n w i t h a n d w i t h o u t O v e r t C o r r e c t i o n

R e s p o n s e , " J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y , L X I I I ( A p r i l , 1 9 6 2 ) , 3 3 0 - 3 6 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 242/327

2 3 6 D E S I G N O F INSTRUCTION

r e s p o n s e s h a s b e e n n e i t h e r a s w i d e l y n o r a s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y i n v e s t i -

g a t e d a s o t h e r r e s p o n s e c o n t i n g e n c i e s .

I n d i v i d u a l s c o n c e r n e d w i t h m o r e a d a p t i v e t e a c h i n g p r o c e d u r e s

t h a n t h e S k i n n e r - t y p e l i n e a r p r o g r a m m a k e t h e c a s e t h a t e r r o r s m u s t

b e u s e d i n t h e c o u r s e o f i n s t r u c t i o n . 3 9 T h e i r p r o c e d u r e s r e q u i r e

t h a t t h e s t u d e n t r e v e a l , b y m a k i n g s o m e s o r t o f e r r o r , t h e k i n d o f

i n s t r u c t i o n h e s h o u l d r e c e i v e n e x t . I f a d a p t i v e c o n t r o l i s c o m p e -

t e n t l y d e s i g n e d , s t u d e n t w e a k n e s s e s a r e r e v e a l e d b y h i s s e l e c t i o n o f

r e s p o n s e a l t e r n a t i v e s . W h e r e n o a d a p t i v e p r o c e d u r e s a r e a v a i l a b l e

f o r d e a l i n g w i t h e r r o r , t h e m i n i m i z a t i o n o f e r r o r i s f o r c e d u p o n t h e

t e a c h i n g p r o c e d u r e . T h e a d v o c a t e s o f e r r o r m i n i m i z a t i o n r e c o g n i z e

t h e p r e s e n c e o f e r r o r b u t a t t e m p t t o c u e o r p r o m p t i t o u t o f e x i s t -

e n c e i n t h e c o u r s e o f d e s i g n i n g a p r o g r a m f o r a p a r t i c u l a r p o p u l a -

t i o n o f s t u d e n t s . Such nonadaptive programs attempt to remove

e r r o r w i t h o u t a l l o w i n g i t t o b e m a n i f e s t e d i n o v e r t m i s t a k e s . T h e s e

p r o g r a m s o f i n s t r u c t i o n , w h i c h a t t e m p t t o f o r e s t a l l e r r o r , n e e d t o

m a k e p r o v i s i o n s f o r f a r m o r e e r r o r p o s s i b i l i t i e s t h a n a n y o n e s t u d e n t

i s l i k e l y t o h a v e , a n d p r o b a b l y w i n d u p w i t h l e s s t h a n a n o p t i m a l

s e r i e s o f c h a l l e n g i n g t a s k s . T h e s u m m a r y p o i n t t o b e m a d e i s t h a t

a n i n t e r e s t i n g a r e a f o r l e a r n i n g r e s e a r c h r e l e v a n t t o i n s t r u c t i o n a l

p r a c t i c e i s s t u d y o f t h e r e s p o n s e c o n t i n g e n c i e s w h i c h f o l l o w t h e

o c c u r r e n c e o f i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s .

R e s p o n s e c o n t i n g e n c i e s - e f f e c t i v e r e i n f o r c e r s .-Another general

p r o b l e m w i t h r e s p e c t t o r e s p o n s e c o n t i n g e n c i e s i s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e

e f f e c t i v e r e i n f o r c e r s i n a s u b j e c t - m a t t e r l e a r n i n g s e q u e n c e . T h e r e i s

a l s o t h e r e l a t e d p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m o f w h a t r e i n f o r c i n g c o n t i n g e n c i e s

c a n b e e m p l o y e d i n d e s i g n i n g i n s t r u c t i o n . A s i s k n o w n , r e i n f o r c e -

m e n t c a n b e q u i t e s u b t l e . F o r e x a m p l e , S k i n n e r p o i n t s o u t t h a t c e r -

t a i n " c o n s e q u e n c e s a r e u s e d t o m o t i v a t e t h e b e g i n n i n g r e a d e r w h e n

a t e x t b o o k i s d e s i g n e d t o b e ` i n t e r e s t i n g . ' S u c h r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s n o t ,

however, contingent upon accuracy of response in the m a n n e r

n e e d e d t o s h a p e s k i l l f u l b e h a v i o r . " 4 0 T h e p o i n t i s t h a t a n i n t e r e s t -

3 9 . B r i a n N . L e w i s a n d G o r d o n P a s k , " T h e T h e o r y a n d P r a c t i c e o f A d a p -

t i v e T e a c h i n g S y s t e m s , " i n Teaching Machines and Progra med Learning, I1 :

D a t a a n d D i r e c t i o n s , o p . c i t .

4 0 . B . F . S k i n n e r . V e r b a l B e h a v i o r , p . 6 6 . New York : A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y -

C r o f t s , 1 9 5 7 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 243/327

GLASER2 3 7

i n g t e x t m a y r e i n f o r c e t h e b e h a v i o r i n v o l v e d i n o b t a i n i n g m e a n i n g

f r o m p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l b u t m a y n o t d i f f e r e n t i a l l y r e i n f o r c e c o r r e c t

phonemic responses . 4 1 Reinforcing events must be determined on

the basis of detailed analysis of appropriate subject matter and

c o m p o n e n t r e p e r t o i r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s. J u s t a s o n e i d e n t i f i e s w h a t s t i m -

u l i f e e l h o t o r c o l d , p l e a s a n t o r f r i g h t e n i n g , o n e n e e d s t o i d e n t i f y

w h a t e v e n t s c a n s e r v e a s r e i n f o r c e r s f o r s t u d e n t s i n t h e c o u r s e o f

l e a r n i n g c e r t a i n s u b j e c t m a t t e r s .

S t u d i e s i n l e a r n i n g a n d i n s t r u c t i o n d o s u g g e s t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s

o f c e r t a i n e v e n t s a s g e n e r a l r e i n f o r c i n g c o n d i t i o n s . As an exam ple,

a n a p p a r e n t l y p o w e r f u l r e i n f o r c e r i n l e a r n i n g i s o v e r t c o n t r o l o f

the physical environment . T h i s h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d p a r t i c u l a r l y b y

t h e w o r k o f M o o r e 4 2 on what he calls a responsive environment .

T h i s i s r e l a t e d t o t h e l e a r n i n g o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r c o n t e n t , e s p e c i a l l y

w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s t u d y o f b e h a v i o r g e n e r a l l y l a b e l e d a s c u r i o s i t y

a n d e x p l o r a t i o n . 4 3 An increasing amount of research has been di-

r e c t e d t o t h e s t u d y o f t h i s a r e a w i t h i n t h e p a s t d e c a d e . 4 4

I n i n f r a h u m a n s t u d i e s , r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n a i m e d a t t h e d i s c o v e r y

a n d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f v a r i a b l e s w h i c h s e r v e t o e l i c i t a n d m a i n t a i n

c u r i o s i t y a n d e x p l o r a t o r y b e h a v i o r i n t h e a b s e n c e o f c o n v e n t i o n a l

l a b o r a t o r y m o t i v e s , s u c h a s h u n g e r o r t h i r s t o r o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s o f

d e p r i v a t i o n . The specific respon ses which have been observed are

s u c h b e h a v i o r s a s o r i e n t i n g , a p p r o a c h i n g , i n v e s t i g a t i n g , a n d m a n i p u -

l a t i n g . T h e s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a b l e s i n f l u e n c i n g s u c h e x p l o r a t o r y r e -

s p o n s e s h a v e b e e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s s t i m u l u s o b j e c t s o r p a t t e r n s t h a t

a r e n o v e l , u n f a m i l i a r , c o m p l e x , s u r p r i s i n g , i n c o n g r u o u s , a s y m e t r i c a l ,

and so forth . All these aspec ts generally can be descr ibed as a

c h a n g e i n t h e s t i m u l u s d i s p l a y e d t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l . Research ha s

4 1 . S i l b e r m a n , o p . c i t .

4 2 . Omar K . M o o r e , " A u t o t e l i c R e s p o n s i v e E n v i r o n m e n t s a n d E x c e p t i o n a l

C h i l d r e n , " i n T h e S p e c i a l C h i l d i n C e n t u r y 2 1 . S e a t t l e , W a s h i n g t o n : S p e c i a l

C h i l d P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1 9 6

4 -

4 3. T h e s e c o m m e n t s o n c u r i o s i t y a n d e x p l o r a t o r y b e h a v i o r w e r e s i g n i f i -

c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e w o r k o f t h e a u t h o r ' s c o l l e a g u e , P r o f e s s o r H a r r y

F o w l e r , a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f P i t t s b u r g h .

4 4 . H a r r y F o w l e r , C u r i o s i t y a n d E x p l o r a t o r y B e h a v i o r (New York : M ac-

millan Co . , 1 9 6 5 ) ; a n d D. E . B e r l y n e , C o n f l i c t , A r o u s a l , a n d C u r i o s i t y (Ne w

Yor k : McGraw-Hill Book Co . , 1 9 6 o ) .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 244/327

2 3 8 D E S I G N O F I N S TR U C T I O N

i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h o f e x p l o r a t o r y b e h a v i o r t h a t i s e l i c i t e d

i s p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d , w i t h i n l i m i t s , t o t h e d e g r e e o f c h a n g e i n t h e

s t i m u l u s s i t u a t i o n s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . Too great o r

too abrupt a change, however, is disrupting and may preclude ex-

p l o r a t i o n .

I n c o m p l e x s i t u a t i o n s , a n i n d i v i d u a l e n c o u n t e r s c h a n g e b y w a y

o f h i s i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h o r m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e e l e m e n t s o f a s t i m u l u s

p a t t e r n . Such interactio n provides the stimul us change which can

e l i c i t c u r i o s i t y a n d e x p l o r a t o r y b e h a v i o r . I n v e s t i g a t i o n s h a v e d e m -

o n s t r a t e d t h a t b e h a v i o r s a r e l e a r n e d w h e n t h e y l e a d t o a c h a n g e i n

t h e s t i m u l u s d i s p l a y . T h u s , i n a d d i t i o n t o s t i m u l u s c h a n g e e l i c i t i n g

e x p l o r a t o r y b e h a v i o r , e x p e r i m e n t s s h o w t h a t o r g a n i s m s w i l l r e s p o n d

i n o r d e r t o s e c u r e n o v e l , u n f a m i l i a r s t i m u l i . I n g e n e r a l , t h e s e f i n d -

i n g s d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t s t i m u l u s c h a n g e o r s e n s o r y v a r i a t i o n m a y b e

e m p l o y e d t o s e l e c t i v e l y r e i n f o r c e b e h a v i o r s w h i c h r e s u l t i n s t i m u l u s

c h a n g e , a n d t h a t t h i s v a r i a t i o n i n t h e s t i m u l u s s i t u a t i o n w i l l s e r v e

c o n c o m i t a n t l y t o e l i c i t e x p l o r a t o r y b e h a v i o r . When stimulus change

i s u s e d a s a r e i n f o r c i n g s t i m u l u s , i t s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e t o h y p o t h e s i z e

t h a t l e a r n i n g v a r i a b l e s w h i c h i n f l u e n c e a c q u i s i t i o n a n d e x t i n c t i o n

w i l l i n f l u e n c e t h e a c q u i s i t i o n a n d e x t i n c t i o n o f e x p l o r a t o r y b e h a v i o r

a n d c u r i o s i t y a s t h e y d o o t h e r l e a r n e d b e h a v i o r . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t

a s t u d e n t ' s c u r i o s i t y a n d e x p l o r a t i o n s m a y b e b o t h e l i c i t e d a n d s e l e c -

tively maintained in an instructional environment which provides

f o r a p p r o p r i a t e v a r i a t i o n a n d c h a n g e i n b o t h t h e s t i m u l u s c h a r a c t e r -

i s t i c s o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t e r i a l s c o n f r o n t i n g t h e s t u d e n t a n d t h e r e -

s p o n s e s h e m u s t m a k e t o t h e s e m a t e r i a l s.

M e a s u r i n g L e a r n i n g O u t c o m e s

A n e f f e c t i v e t e c h n o l o g y o f i n s t r u c t i o n r e l i e s h e a v i l y u p o n t h e

effective measu rement of subject-matter competence at the begin-

n i n g , i n t h e c o u r s e o f , a n d a t t h e e n d o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s .

T h e m a s t e r y o f t h e s k i l l s a n d k n o w l e d g e s r e q u i r e d t o b e g i n a n i n -

s t r u c t i o n a l s e q u e n c e a n d t o c o n t i n u e a l o n g i t s c o u r s e i n s u r e s t h e

a v a i l a b i l i t y o f b e h a v i o r w h i c h t h e t e a c h e r a n d t h e s t u d e n t c a n r e l y

on for use in subseq uent learning . Elsewhere the au thor 4 5 h a s

4 5. R o b e r t G l a s e r , " I n s t r u c t i o n a l Techno logy and the Meas ure ment of

Learning Ou tcom e s : S o m e Q u e s t i o n s , " A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t , X V I I ( A u g u s t ,

1 9 6 3 ) , 519-21 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 245/327

GLA SE R 23 9

p o i n t e d o u t t h a t r e c e n t w o r k i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n , s u c h a s p r o -

gramed instruction, has raised into prominence a number of ques-

t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e o f m e a s u r e s o f s t u d e n t a c h i e v e m e n t a n d

t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f s u b j e c t - m a t t e r c o m p e t e n c e ( a s i t m a y b e d e f i n e d

b y r e c o g n i z e d s u b j e c t - m a t t e r s c h o l a r s ) . A c h i e v e m e n t m e a s u r e m e n t

c a n b e d e f i n e d a s t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f c r i t e r i o n b e h a v i o r i n v o l v i n g t h e

determinatio n of the characteristics of student performance with

r e s p e c t t o s p e c i f i e d s t a n d a r d s . Achievement me asurement is distin -

g u i s h e d f r o m a p t i t u d e m e a s u r e m e n t i n t h a t t h e i n s t r u m e n t s u s e d t o

a s s e s s a c h i e v e m e n t a r e s p e c i f i c a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f

present performance, with emphasis on the meaningfulness of its

content . B y c o n t r a s t , a p t i t u d e m e a s u r e s d e r i v e t h e i r m e a n i n g f r o m

a demonstrated relationship between present performance and the

f u t u r e a t t a i n m e n t o f s p e c i f i e d k n o w l e d g e a n d s k i l l . I n c e r t a i n c i r -

c u m s t a n c e s , o f c o u r s e , t h i s c o n t r a s t i s n o t q u i t e s o c l e a r - f o r e x -

a m p l e , w h e n a c h i e v e m e n t m e a s u r e s a r e u s e d a s p r e d i c t o r v a r i a b l e s .

T h e s c o r e s o b t a i n e d f r o m a n a c h i e v e m e n t h i e v e m e n t t e s t c a n p r o v i d e p r i -

marily two kinds of information . One is the degree to which the

student has attained criterion performance-for example, whether

h e c a n s a t i s f a c t o r i l y p r e p a r e a n e x p e r i m e n t a l r e p o r t o r s o l v e c e r t a i n

k i n d s o f w o r d p r o b l e m s i n a r i t h m e t i c . T h e s e c o n d t y p e o f i n f o r m a -

t i o n t h a t a n a c h i e v e m e n t t e s t s c o r e p r o v i d e s i s t h e r e l a t i v e o r d e r i n g

o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i r t e s t p e r f o r m a n c e - f o r e x a m p l e ,

whether Student A can solve his problems more quickl y than Stu-

dent B . T h e p r i n c i p a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o k i n d s o f i n f o r -

m a t i o n l i e s i n t h e s t a n d a r d u s e d a s a r e f e r e n c e. T h e s t a n d a r d a g a i n s t

which a student's perform ance is compared in order to obtain the

f i r s t k i n d o f i n f o r m a t i o n i s t h e c r i t e r i o n b e h a v i o r w h i c h d e f i n e s i n -

creasing subject-matter competence along a continuum of achieve-

m e n t . C r i t e r i o n l e v e l s o f c o m p e t e n c e c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d a t a n y p o i n t

i n i n s t r u c t i o n w h e r e i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n a s t o t h e

adequacy of a student's performance . B e h a v i o r a l l y d e f i n e d o b j e c -

t i v e s d e s c r i b e t h e s p e c i f i c t a s k s a s t u d e n t m u s t b e c a p a b l e o f p e r -

forming in order to achieve a particular knowledge or competence

l e v e l . T h e s t u d e n t ' s s c o r e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s e t a s k s p r o v i d e s e x p l i c i t

i n f o r m a t i o n a s t o w h a t h e c a n o r c a n n o t d o a n d i n d i c a t e s t h e c o r -

respond ence b etween what the stud ent d oes and the achievement

c r i t e r i a a t t h a t p o i n t i n h i s l e a r n i n g . M e a s u r e s c a s t i n t e r m s o f s u c h

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 246/327

2 4 0 D E S I G N O F I N S TR U C T I O N

c r i t e r i o n s t a n d a r d s p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n a s t o t h e d e g r e e o f c o m p e -

t e n c e o b t a i n e d b y a p a r t i c u l a r s t u d e n t w h i c h i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f r e f -

e r e n c e t o t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f o t h e r s .

On the other hand, achievement measures also convey informa-

t i o n a b o u t t h e c a p a b i l i t y o f a s t u d e n t c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e c a p a b i l i t y

o f o t h e r s t u d e n t s . I n i n s t a n c e s w h e r e a s t u d e n t ' s r e l a t i v e s t a n d i n g

i s t h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e o f m e a s u r e m e n t , r e f e r e n c e n e e d n o t b e m a d e

t o c r i t e r i o n b e h a v i o r . Educational achieveme nt examinations, for

e x a m p l e , a r e a d m i n i s t e r e d f r e q u e n t l y f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f d e t e r m i n -

i n g t h e c o m p a r a t i v e s t a n d i n g o f s t u d e n t s i n a c l a s s o r s c h o o l r a t h e r

t h a n f o r a s s e s s i n g t h e i r a t t a i n m e n t o f s p e c i f i e d c u r r i c u l u m o b j e c t i v e s .

When such norm-referenced measures are used, a particular stu-

dent's achievement is evaluated in terms of a comparison between

h i s p e r f o r m a n c e a n d t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e

g r o u p . S u c h m e a s u r e s n e e d p r o v i d e l i t t l e o r n o i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t

t h e d e g r e e o f p r o f i c i e n c y a c t u a l l y e x h i b i t e d b y t h e i n d i v i d u a l . They

t e l l t h a t o n e s t u d e n t i s m o r e o r l e s s p r o f i c i e n t t h a n a n o t h e r b u t d o

n o t t e l l h o w p r o f i c i e n t e i t h e r o f t h e m i s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s u b j e c t -

m a t t e r t a s k s i n v o l v e d . I n l a r g e p a r t , a c h i e v e m e n t m e a s u r e s c u r r e n t l y

e m p l o y e d i n e d u c a t i o n a r e n o r m r e f e r e n c e d , a n d w o r k n e e d s t o

be done which will contribute to the development of criterion-

r e f e r e n c e d t e s t s i n o r d e r t o a s s e s s t h e o u t c o m e s o f l e a r n i n g . C r i t e r i o n -

referenced measu res can provide information about both degree of

c o m p e t e n c e a n d r e l a t i v e s t a n d i n g .

A f u r t h e r p o i n t a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s r e l a t e s t o t h e f a c t t h a t a c h i e v e -

m e n t t e s t s a r e u s e d n o t o n l y t o p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s t u -

d e n t b u t a l s o t o p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e e f f e c t s o f d i f f e r e n t

t e a c h i n g p r o c e d u r e s a n d i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n s . I t s e e m s l i k e l y t h a t

t e s t s w h i c h a r e c o n s t r u c t e d t o b e s e n s i t i v e t o i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t d i f -

f e r e n c e s m a y n o t b e t h e s a m e k i n d s o f t e s t s t h a t a r e s e n s i t i v e t o t h e

d i f f e r e n c e s p r o d u c e d b y d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s . T e s t

theory, for the most part, has been concerned prim arily with the

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t e s t s t h a t a r e m a x i m a l l y s e n s i t i v e t o i n d i v i d u a l d i f -

f e r e n c e s . Less work has been concer ned with test deve lopment for

the purpose of curriculum evaluation and curriculum design . T h i s

p o i n t i s f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e d i n t h e a r t i c l e r e f e r r e d t o a b o v e4 6 a n d

4 6 . I b i d .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 247/327

GLA SE R 2 4 [

m o r e f u l l y i n a n a r t i c l e b y C r o n b a c h4 7 concerned with course im-

provement throug h eval uation . Cronbach writes, `I am b ecomin g

c o n v i n c e d t h a t s o m e t e c h n i q u e s a n d h a b i t s o f t h o u g h t o f t h e e v a l u -

a t i o n s p e c i a l i s t a r e i l l - s u i t e d t o c u r r e n t c u r r i c u l u m s t u d i e s . . . . how

m u s t w e d e p a r t f r o m t h e f a m i l i a r d o c t r i n e s a n d r i t u a l s o f t h e t e s t -

i n g g a m e ? " ( p . 67 2 ) a n d , " Th e t h r e e pu r p o s e s -c o u r s e i m p ro v e -

m e n t , d e c i s i o n s a b o u t i n d i v i d u a l s , a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e g u l a t i o n -

call for measurement procedures having somewhat different quali-

t i e s " ( p . 6 7 7 ) .

C o n c l u s i o n

This chapter has attempted to give some of the research ap-

p r o a c h a n d p e r s p e c t i v e t h a t i s l i k e l y t o b e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e d e s i g n

o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o c e d u r e s i n t h e f u t u r e , a s b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e a n d

e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e b e g i n t o b e r e l a t e d i n a m u t u a l l y h e l p f u l w a y .

I t i s f a i r t o s a y t h a t a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f m o d e r n

e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y i s r a r e l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s a n d t e a c h i n g p r o c e d u r e s . I t i s h y p o t h e s i z e d

t h a t , i n t h e f u t u r e , f o u r m a i n a r e a s o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s w i l l

b e i n f l u e n c e d : ( a ) I n s t r u c t i o n a l g o a l s w i l l b e a n a l y z e d i n t e r m s o f

b o t h s u b j e c t - m a t t e r c o n t e n t a n d c a t e g o r i e s o f s t u d e n t b e h a v i o r t h a t

s u g g e s t s t r a t e g i e s o f t e a c h i n g . ( b ) T h e d i a g n o s i s o f t h e l e a r n e r ' s

s t r e n g t h s a n d w e a k n e s s e s p r i o r t o i n s t r u c t i o n f o r a p p r o p r i a t e p e d a -

g o g i c a l g u i d a n c e w i l l b e c o m e a m o r e d e f i n i t i v e p r o c e s s s o t h a t i t

c a n a i d i n t h e d e s i g n o f a c u r r i c u l u m s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d f o r t h e s t u d e n t

involved. ( c ) T h e t e c h n i q u e s a n d m a t e r i a l s e m p l o y e d b y t h e t e a c h e r

w i l l u n d e r g o s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e . ( d ) The ways in which t he out-

comes of education are assessed, both for student evaluation and

curriculum improvement, will receive more attention .

A s t h e s e c h a n g e s o c c u r , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e y w i l l r e s u l t i n c e r t a i n

c h a n g e s i n s c h o o l o p e r a t i o n . F i r s t , t h e r o l e o f t h e t e a c h e r w i l l b e

r e s t r u c t u r e d . I t s e e m s l i k e l y t h a t t h e t e a c h e r w i l l b e a b l e t o b e c o m e

more concerned with ind ivid ual stud ent g uid ance and ind ivid ual

p r o g r e s s t h a n h e i s l i k e l y t o b e a t p r e s e n t i n h i s r o l e a s g r o u p m e n t o r .

4 7 . C r o n b a c h , o p . c i t .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 248/327

2 4 2 DESIGN OF INSTRUCTION

S e c o n d , t h e e d u c a t o r s ' g o a l o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n o f s t u d e n t p r o g -

r e s s b a s e d u p o n s t u d e n t b a c k g r o u n d , a p t i t u d e , a n d a c h i e v e m e n t w i l l

come closer to realization through school reorganization and the

a d o p t i o n o f n e w p r a c t i c e s . T h i r d , i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s a n d d e v i c e s

s u p p l i e d b y i n d u s t r y w i l l c o m e u n d e r c l o s e s c r u t i n y a s t o t h e i r i n -

s t r u c t i o n a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s ( j u s t a s t e s t s c a m e u n d e r c l o s e s c r u t i n y w i t h

r e s p e c t t o r e p o r t s o n t h e i r r e l i a b i l i t y a n d v a l i d i t y ) . F o u r t h , s u b j e c t -

m a t t e r c o m p e t e n c e w i l l b e e a s i e r t o a t t a i n f o r a l a r g e r n u m b e r o f

p u p i l s i n o u r s c h o o l s , a n d t e s t s w h i c h m e a s u r e p r o g r e s s t o w a r d m a s -

t e r y w i l l b e c o m e i m p o r t a n t a i d s f o r t h e q u a l i t y c o n t r o l o f e d u c a -

t i o n a l e x c e l l e n c e . T h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s , n e c e s s a r i l y b a s e d o n a d e v e l -

oping bod y of ped ag og ical principles, shou l d ad vance teaching

t o w a r d t h e s t a t u s o f a p r o f e s s i o n n u r t u r e d b y u n d e r l y i n g b e h a v i o r a l

sciences which are becoming increasingly relevant to the educa-

t i o n a l p r o c e s s .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 249/327

C H A P T E R X

P h i l o s o p h i c a l I n q u i r y

W I LL I A M K . FR ANKENA

I n t r o d u c t i o n

W hat philosophical id eas or d evelopments after W orld W ar I I

have implications for the schools and might or should have been

responded to by them? What is there in "the new world of philos-

o p h y " t h a t m i g h t o r s h o u l d h a v e b e e n t a k e n a s a b a s i s f o r c o n c l u -

s i o n s a b o u t e d u c a t i o n i n o u r s c h o o l s o r a b o u t t h e s c h o o l s t h e m s e l v e s ?

That is the question of this chapter . T h u s s t a t e d , h o w e v e r , i t i s

s o m e w h a t t o o b r o a d a n d v a g u e t o p e r m i t a v e r y p r o f i t a b l e r e s p o n s e .

S i n c e I c a n w r i t e p r o f i t a b l y o n l y a b o u t t h e w o r k o f p r o f e s s i o n a l

p h i l o s o p h e r s , a n d s i n c e , e v e n i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h i s , I c a n s a y l i t t l e

that is new about the work of Dewey and his followers or of the

T h o m i s t s , I s h a l l r e s t a t e t h e q u e s t i o n i n a c l e a r e r a n d n a r r o w e r f o r m .

W h a t i s t h e r e i n r e c e n t p r o f e s s i o n a l n o n - D e w e y a n a n d n o n -

Thomistic philosoph y I to which the schools might well have re-

s p o n d e d i n s o m e p o s i t i v e w a y , a t l e a s t e x p e r i m e n t a l l y , i . e . , w h a t i s

t h e r e t h a t h a s i m p l i c a t i o n s w h i c h m i g h t w e l l b e t a k e n s e r i o u s l y b y

t h o s e w h o p h i l o s o p h i z e a b o u t t h e s c h o o l s a n d s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n , b y

t h o s e w h o p l a n t h e c u r r i c u l a , a n d b y t h o s e w h o a d m i n i s t e r o r t e a c h

i n s c h o o l s ? ' T h e r e a r e a t l e a s t t h e s e t h r e e l e v e l s a t w h i c h t h e s c h o o l s r

m i g h t r e s p o n d , a n d I s h a l l t r y t o k e e p t h e m a l l i n m i n d , a l t h o u g h

i t w i l l t u r n o u t , a s m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d , t h a t I s h a l l f i n d a g o o d d e a l

m o r e t o s a y t o e d u c a t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h e r s t h a n t o t e a c h e r s , c u r r i c u l u m -

p l a n n e r s , o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .

I n o r d e r t o g e t a p u r c h a s e o n o u r q u e s t i o n , w e m u s t f i r s t s e e j u s t

h o w a n d w h e r e p h i l o s o p h y a r i g h t c o m e t o b e a r o n q u e s t i o n s a b o u t

i . H e r e a f t e r , by " r e c e n t p h i l o s o p h y " I s h a l l m e a n " r e c e n t n o n - D e w e y a n a n d

n o n - T h o m i s t i c ( a n d n o n - M a r x i s t ) p h i l o s o p h y : '

2 4 3

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 250/327

2 4 4 P H I L O S O P H I C AL INQUI R Y

school education . Education was def ined by Bertrand Russell as

" t h e f o r m a t i o n , b y m e a n s o f i n s t r u c t i o n , o f c e r t a i n m e n t a l h a b i t s a n d

a c e r t a i n o u t l o o k o n l i f e a n d t h e w o r l d " ; a n d by J o h n D e w e y a s

" t h e p r o c e s s o f f o r m i n g f u n d a m e n t a l d i s p o s i t i o n s , i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d

emotional, toward nature and fellow men . " 2 T h e t a s k o f e d u c a t i o n ,

i f w e a c c e p t t h e d e f i n i t i o n s , i s t h e f o r m a t i o n o f d e s i r a b l e a b i l i t i e s ,

dispositions, habits, and traits of character-of what the Greeks

c a l l e d e x c e l l e n c e s . I f t h i s i s t r u e , t h e n t h e t h e o r y o f s c h o o l e d u c a -

tion must answer two questions . ( a ) W h i c h a b i l i t i e s , d i s p o s i t i o n s ,

a n d h a b i t s a r e t o b e c u l t i v a t e d b y t h e s c h o o l s ? ( b ) H o w a r e s c h o o l

e d u c a t o r s t o f o s t e r t h e s e a b i l i t i e s , d i s p o s i t i o n s , o r h a b i t s a n d b y w h a t

methods, through what curricula, and in what kind of an atm os-

p h e r e ?

Now, anyone who seeks to give reaso ned answers to such qu es-

t i o n s m u s t r e s t h i s c o n c l u s i o n s o n p r e m i s e s o f t w o k i n d s :

( a ) n o r m a t i v e p r e m i s e s , e t h i c a l p r i n c i p l e s , o r b a s i c v a l u e j u d g m e n t s , i . e . ,

p r e m i s e s a b o u t t h e e n d s , v a l u e s , o r p r i n c i p l e s t o b e p u r s u e d o r a c t e d

on ;

( b ) n o n n o r m a t i v e o r f a c t u a l p r e m i s e s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f m a n , t h e r e -

s u l t s o f c e r t a i n m e t h o d s o f t e a c h i n g , t h e k i n d s o f k n o w l e d g e , a n d

s o o n .

A p a r t i a l a n s w e r t o t h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n m i g h t r e a d :

( i ) W e o u g h t t o p r o m o t e t h e g r e a t e s t g e n e r a l h a p p i n e s s .

( z ) H o n e s t y w i l l p r o m o t e t h e g r e a t e s t g e n e r a l h a p p i n e s s .

( 3 ) T h e r e f o r e , w e o u g h t t o f o s t e r h o n e s t y .

A n o t h e r a n s w e r m i g h t b e :

( 4 ) T h e a i m o f e d u c a t i o n i s t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f k n o w l e d g e .

( 5 ) R e l i g i o n a n d t h e o l o g y a r e n o t f o r m s o f k n o w l e d g e . P

( 6 ) T h e r e f o r e , t h e y s h o u l d n o t b e t a u g h t .

And a reply to the second question might run :

( 7 ) S c h o o l s s h o u l d f o s t e r h o n e s t y .

( 8 ) T h e i n d i r e c t m e t h o d i s m o r e e f f e c t i v e i n c u l t i v a t i n g h o n e s t y t h a n

t h e d i r e c t m e t h o d .

2 . B e r t r a n d R u s s e l l , M y s t i c i s m a n d L o g i c , p . 3 7 ( L o n d o n : A l l e n & U n w i n ,

L t d . , 1 9 1 7 ) ; J o h n D e w e y , D e m o c r a c y a n d E d u c a t i o n , p . 3 8 3 (New York : M a c -

m i l l a n C o . , 1 9 1 6 ) .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 251/327

FRANKENA 2 4 5

( q ) T h e r e f o r e , s c h o o l s s h o u l d u s e t h e i n d i r e c t m e t h o d i n f o s t e r i n g h o n -

e s t y .

I n t h e s e e x a m p l e s , p r e m i s e s ( 1 ) , ( 4 ) , and (7) are normative,

w h i l e( 2 ) , ( 5 ) ,

a n d ( 8 ) a r e n o t .

Premises of both kinds may be supplied by philosophy . F o r i n -

s t a n c e , p r e m i s e s l i k e ( i ) a n d ( 4 ) w o u l d b e p r o v i d e d b y e t h i c s , v a l u e

t h e o r y , o r s o c i a l p h i l o s o p h y , a n d p r e m i s e s l i k e ( 5 ) b y e p i s t e m o l o g y

or m etaphysics . T h u s , o n e w a y i n w h i c h p h i l o s o p h y m a y e n t e r i n t o

o u r t h i n k i n g a b o u t s c h o o l s a n d t h e i r p r a c t i c e s i s b y f u r n i s h i n g s o m e

o f i t s p r e m i s e s , normative or nonnormative . H o w e v e r , p h i l o s o p h y

may enter in another way . F o r a l l s u c h t h i n k i n g i n v o l v e s c o n c e p t s

or terms ; i n t h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n , t h e r e a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g : " h a p p i -

ness," "honesty," "teaching," "knowledge," "religion," "truth,"

" G o d , " a n d " e d u c a t i o n " i t s e l f . N o n e o f t h e s e c o n c e p t s o r t e r m s i s

e n t i r e l y c l e a r a n d u n a m b i g u o u s . T h e y a l l n e e d s o m e k i n d o f a n a l y -

s i s , c l a r i f i c a t i o n , o r d e f i n i t i o n , e l s e o u r t h i n k i n g a b o u t s c h o o l s a n d

e d u c a t i o n c a n n o t h a v e t h e a c c u r a c y , r i g o r , o r c e r t a i n t y t h a t i t o u g h t

to have . I t i s j u s t h e r e t h a t p h i l o s o p h y c a n m a k e i t s s e c o n d k i n d o f

c o n t r i b u t i o n . F o r o n e o f t h e m a i n t a s k s o f p h i l o s o p h y , e s p e c i a l l y

a s i t i s c o n c e i v e d t o d a y , i s t h a t o f a n a l y z i n g o r c l a r i f y i n g t h e k e y

concepts or terms of human thought, or the central phenomena of

human experience, as phenomenologists prefer to say, including

m a n y o f t h o s e t h a t a p p e a r o v e r a n d o v e r i n e d u c a t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e .

Along the same line, philosophy can also m ake a contribution by

analyzing and evaluating the logic of the slogans and arguments

u s e d i n t h e d i s c o u r s e o f e d u c a t i o n .

P h i l o s o p h y m i g h t , t h e n , i n f l u e n c e t h e t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e o f t h e

s c h o o l s i n t h e s e w a y s :

i . I t m i g h t s u p p l y i t s b a s i c n o r m a t i v e p r e m i s e s .

z . I t m i g h t s u p p l y s o m e o f i t s o t h e r p r e m i s e s ( s t i l l o t h e r s w o u l d c o m e

f r o m p s y c h o l o g y , t h e o l o g y , a n t h r o p o l o g y , e t c . ) .

3 . I t m i g h t p r o v i d e a n a l y s e s o f c o n c e p t s a n d s l o g a n s , e v a l u a t i o n s o f a r -

g u m e n t s , a n d c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f t e r m s .

Actually, there are two other ways in which philosophy might

b e r e l a t e d t o t h e s c h o o l s :

4 . I t m i g h t b e m a d e p a r t o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m o f t h e h i g h s c h o o l .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 252/327

2 4 6 PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY

5 . I t m i g h t b e m a d e p a r t o f t h e t r a i n i n g o f s c h o o l t e a c h e r s a n d a d m i n i s -

t r a t o r s .

I s h a l l t a k e o c c a s i o n l a t e r t o s a y s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e s e l a s t t w o

p o s s i b l e r e s p o n s e s o f t h e s c h o o l s t o p h i l o s o p h y b u t s h a l l d e v o t e m o s t

o f t h i s c h a p t e r t o t h e f i r s t t h r e e .

R e c e n t P h i l o s o p h y a n d N o r m a t i v e P r e m i s e s f o r t h e S c h o o l s

ANALYT I C AL P H I L OSO P HY AND EX I ST ENT I AL I S M

L e t u s a s k , t h e n , w h e t h e r r e c e n t p h i l o s o p h y o f f e r s t h e e d u c a t o r

a n y n o r m a t i v e ( e t h i c a l o r v a l u e ) p r e m i s e s f o r a n s w e r i n g t h e t h r e e

q u e s t i o n s f o r m u l a t e d e a r l i e r . I n r e p l y , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o o b s e r v e , t o

begin with, that both of the newer movements in philo sophy, ana-

l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y a n d e x i s t e n t i a l i s m , h a v e t e n d e d t o a v o i d l a y i n g

d own normative premises for hu man thoug ht and action .

Analytical philosophers -those belonging to "the revolution in

p h i l o s o p h y " s t e m m i n g f r o m G . E . Moore, Bertrand Russell, and

Ludwig Wittgenstein-have tended to regard the making of norma-

t i v e o r v a l u e j u d g m e n t s a s n o t a p r o p e r p a r t o f p h i l o s o p h y a n d h a v e

s o u g h t t o l i m i t p h i l o s o p h y t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f c o n c e p t s a n d t h e e l u c i -

d a t i o n o f t h e l o g i c o f v a r i o u s k i n d s o f t e r m s , s e n t e n c e s , o r r e a s o n i n g .

S o m e o f t h e m h a v e w r i t t e n a t l e n g t h i n e t h i c s o r v a l u e - t h e o r y , a n d

e v e n i n s o c i a l a n d e d u c a t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h y , b u t e v e n t h e n t h e i r c o n -

cern has not been with making and defendi ng any basic ethical

p r i n c i p l e s o r v a l u e j u d g m e n t s , i . e . , not with answering normative

q u e s t i o n s b u t w i t h a n s w e r i n g m e t a e t h i c a l o n e s , s u c h a s " W h a t i s t h e

m e a n i n g o r u s e o f e x p r e s s i o n s l i k e ` g o o d , ' ` o u g h t , ' ` p r o m i s e , ' ` f r e e

w i l l , ' ` c h o i c e , ' ` a c t i o n , ' ` t e a c h i n g , ' e t c . ? " a n d " W h a t i s t h e l o g i c o f

j u s t i f y i n g s t a t e m e n t s i n w h i c h s u c h e x p r e s s i o n s a r e u s e d ? " I t c a n b e

p l a u s i b l y a r g u e d t h a t s o m e a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r s h a v e b e e n m o r e

n o r m a t i v e t h a n t h e y c l a i m e d t o b e , b u t , a t a n y r a t e , i f t h e y h a v e ,

it was by inadvertence from their own point of view .

T h i s t e n d e n c y o f a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r s t o a v o i d t a k i n g n o r m a -

t i v e p o s i t i o n s h a s , a t l e a s t s o m e t i m e s , t h e e f f e c t o f l e a v i n g t h e n o r m a -

t i v e p r e m i s e s o f e d u c a t i o n a l t h o u g h t t o b e p r o v i d e d b y o t h e r s - p s y -

c h o l o g i s t s , s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s , o r t h e o l o g i a n s - o r b y t h e p r e v a i l i n g

mores or popu lar d emand . T h i s s e e m s t o m e , f o r e x a m p l e , t o b e t h e

n e t e f f e c t o f D a n i e l J . O'Connor's approach to the philosophy of

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 253/327

F R ANK ENA 2 4 7

e d u c a t i o n a n d e s p e c i a l l y t o h i s " t e n t a t i v e l i s t o f t h e a i m s o f e d u c a -

t i o n . " 3 O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w h i l e h e d i s l i k e s " t h e e n d l e s s t a l k a b o u t

t h e a i m s o f e d u c a t i o n , " R i c h a r d S . P e t e r s b e l i e v e s t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e

t o s h o w b y p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n a l y s i s t h a t c e r t a i n " p r e t t y f o r m a l " p r i n -

c i p l e s , w h i c h h e c a l l s " p r o c e d u r a l , " a r e " p r e s u p p o s e d b y t h e v e r y

a c t i v i t y o f g i v i n g r e a s o n s i n p r a c t i c a l d i s c o u r s e , " n a m e l y , t h e p r i n -

c i p l e s " o f i m p a r t i a l i t y , t r u t h - t e l l i n g , l i b e r t y , a n d t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n

o f i n t e r e s t s . " F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e p r i n c i p l e o f i m p a r t i a l i t y t e l l s u s t h a t

p e o p l e a r e t o b e t r e a t e d e q u a l l y u n l e s s t r e a t i n g t h e m u n e q u a l l y i s

j u s t i f i e d , i . e . , t h a t e q u a l i t y m u s t b e a s s u m e d a n d i n e q u a l i t y j u s t i f i e d .

T h e s e p r i n c i p l e s h e t h e n o f f e r s u s a s p r o v i d i n g v e r y g e n e r a l c r i t e r i a

f o r j u s t i f y i n g o r r u l i n g o u t m o r e s p e c i f i c j u d g m e n t s a n d p r a c t i c e s .

H e a r g u e s a l s o ( a ) t h a t i n m o r a l e d u c a t i o n i t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r -

t a n t t o p a s s o n t h e s e p r o c e d u r a l r u l e s , a n d ( b ) t h a t t h e p r i n c i p l e o f

t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f i n t e r e s t s r e q u i r e s e d u c a t i o n t o b e c o n c e r n e d

w i t h t h e p r o m o t i o n o f g o o d o r w o r t h - w h i l e a c t i v i t i e s a s w e l l a s w i t h

t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f r u l e s f o r s o c i a l c o n d u c t . 4 H e r e , a t l e a s t , w e h a v e

a n e x a m p l e o f a n a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r s e e k i n g i n a n o v e l w a y t o

e s t a b l i s h s o c i a l p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h m i g h t w e l l b e t a k e n s e r i o u s l y a s a

b a s i s f o r t h e t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e o f t h e s c h o o l s .

A n o t h e r p o i n t m a y b e m a d e h e r e . Ev e n w h e n t h e y m o s t c o m -

pletely avoid making normative commitments, analytical philoso-

p h e r s a r e s t i l l p r e s u p p o s i n g t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f c e r t a i n a b i l i t i e s o r

t r a i t s o f m i n d : c l a r i t y o f t h o u g h t , r i g o r o f r e a s o n i n g , a w a r e n e s s o f

a s s u m p t i o n s , a k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s t a n d a r d s t o b e a p p l i e d i n e a c h a r e a ,

a n d a n a b i l i t y t o j u d g e i n t e l l i g e n t l y b y t h e m ( w h i c h A r i s t o t l e r e -

garded as the marks of an educated man) . T h e i n s i s t e n c e o n s u c h

abilities and traits is somethin g-in my opinion, one of the main

things-that school educators and their teachers coul d learn from

recent philosophy . H e r e , s u r e l y , i s a f a m i l y o f d i s p o s i t i o n s ( n o t

e n o u g h i n s i s t e d u p o n b y D e w e y a n d h i s f o l l o w e r s ) , w h i c h t h e

s c h o o l s o u g h t t o p r o m o t e . Furtherm ore, teachers and educators

3 . D a n i e l J . O ' C o n n o r , A n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e P h i l o s o p h y o f E d u c a t i o n ,

chap . i . London : R o u t l e d g e & K e g a n P a u l , 1 9 5 7 .

4 . R i c h a r d S . P e t e r s , " R e a s o n a n d H a b i t : T h e P a r a d o x o f M o r a l E d u c a t i o n , "

i n M o r a l E d u c a t i o n i n a C h a n g i n g S o c i e t y , p p .5 1 - 5 3

. Edited by W . R . N i b l e t t .

Lo n d o n : F a b e r & F a b e r , L t d . , ' 9 6 3 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 254/327

2 4 8 PH I LOS O P H I CAL INQUIR Y

can learn a great deal from the work of analytical philosophers

a b o u t w h a t i t i s l i k e t o b e c l e a r a n d r i g o r o u s a n d a b o u t t h e s t a n d -

a r d s t o b e u s e d i n v a r i o u s f i e l d s o f a c t i v i t y a n d t h o u g h t , e v e n i f t h e y

c a n n o t l e a r n a n y t h i n g t h a t t h e y c a n t a k e b o d i l y i n t o t h e c l a s s r o o m.

E x i s t e n t i a l i s t s r e j e c t t h e a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r ' s n o t i o n o f n e u -

t r a l a n d o b j e c t i v e a n a l y s i s . T h e y r e g a r d a p h i l o s o p h e r a s i n e v i t a b l y

committed, engaged, and normative, and they call upon us all to

c h o o s e a n e t h i c s , a n x i o u s l y p e r h a p s , b u t w h o l e - h e a r t e d l y a n d w i t h -

o u t s e l f - d e c e i t . Y e t , p a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e y h e s i t a t e t o h e l p u s b y p r e -

s e n t i n g u s w i t h s u b s t a n t i v e m o r a l p r i n c i p l e s o r e n d s w h i c h w e m i g h t

e s p o u s e a n d u s e a s a b a s i s o f t h o u g h t a n d a c t i o n , w h e t h e r i n t h e f i e l d

o f e d u c a t i o n o r e l s e w h e r e . T h e y t e n d t o s t r e s s t h e f o r m o r m a n n e r

o f o u r a p p r o a c h t o l i f e - i t i s t o b e a u t h e n t i c o r e x i s t e n t i a l r a t h e r

t h a n u n a u t h e n t i c a n d u n a n x i o u s , e t c e t e r a - r a t h e r t h a n i t s c o n t e n t

o r s u b s t a n c e . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y a n d e x i s t e n t i a l -

i s m , t e m p e r a m e n t a l l y s o h o s t i l e t o o n e a n o t h e r , a r e c u r i o u s l y s i m i l a r

in outcome : b o t h a v o i d l a y i n g o u t a n o r m a t i v e e t h i c s f o r u s t o g o b y .

S t i l l , j u s t a s t h e p r a c t i c e o f a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y i n v o l v e s a f a m -

i l y o f d i s p o s i t i o n s w h i c h m a y b e t a k e n a s p a r t o f t h e g o a l o f s c h o o l

e d u c a t i o n , j u s t s o d o e s e x i s t e n t i a l i s m p r e s e n t a g r o u p o f d i s p o s i t i o n s

f o r u s t o f o s t e r . I t i s a v e r y d i f f e r e n t f a m i l y , i n c l u d i n g a u t h e n t i c i t y ,

d e c i s i o n , c o m m i t m e n t , c o u r a g e , a u t o n o m y , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , d e v o t i o n ,

and so on . T h e s e m a y b e c a l l e d m o r a l d i s p o s i t i o n s a s c o m p a r e d w i t h

t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l o r l o g i c a l o n e s e m p h a s i z e d b y a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o -

p h e r s , b u t t h e y a r e m o r a l d i s p o s i t i o n s t h a t h a v e t o d o w i t h t h e mod e

o f w h a t w e d o i n l i f e r a t h e r t h a n w i t h i t s c o n t e n t ( a s d o s u c h d i s -

p o s i t i o n s a s b e n e v o l e n c e , j u s t i c e , e t c e t e r a ) . T h e y a r e d i s p o s i t i o n s

which express themselves not so much in w h a t w e d o , b e i n g c o m -

p a t i b l e w i t h d o i n g a l l s o r t s o f a c t i o n s , g o o d o r b a d b y c o n v e n t i o n a l

s t a n d a r d s , b u t i n how we do it. To q uote W i l d :

V a l u e l i e s n o t s o m u c h i n w h a t w e d o a s i n h o w w e e x i s t a n d m a i n -

t a i n o u r s e l v e s i n t i m e . T o e x p r e s s t h i s n e w s e n s e o f e x i s t e n t i a l v a l u e , a

n e w t e r m i n o l o g y i s r e q u i r e d . . . w o r d s l i k e a u t h e n t i c , g e n u i n e , r e a l , a n d

r e a l l y . . . e x p r e s s t h o s e m o r e b a s i c ` e x i s t e n t i a l v a l u e s ' . . . w h i c h u n d e r l i e

a l l t h e v a l u a b l e t h i n g s w e d o o r s a y . S i n c e t h e y c h a r a c t e r i z e o u r w a y s

o f e x i s t i n g i n t h e w o r l d , t h e y . . . a p p l y t o e v e r y p h a s e a n d r e g i o n o f

o u r c a r e . T h e r e i s n o t h i n g . . . t h a t m a y n o t b e d o n e e i t h e r a u t h e n t i c a l l y

. . . o r u n a u t h e n t i c a l l y . . . . T h e y a r e n o t " v a l u e s " a t a l l , i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 255/327

FRANKENA 2 4 9

s e n s e o f t h i s t e r m . . . . T h e y a r e p a t t e r n s o f o u r l i v e d e x i s t e n c e i n t h e

w o r l d . 5

I t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o a r g u e t h a t t h e r e i s a p l a c e f o r a s t r e s s i n e d u c a -

t i o n , b o t h i n a n d o u t o f s c h o o l , o n s u c h e x i s t e n t i a l v i r t u e s , a s w e l l a s

o n t h e a n a l y t i c a l o n e s m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e . T h e t w o f a m i l i e s o f d i s p o -

s i t i o n s a r e n o t i n c o m p a t i b l e , f o r a l l t h e o p p o s i t i o n t h e r e m a y b e b e -

tween the two kinds of philosophy advocating them . Even the

H a t f i e l d s a n d t h e M c C o y s h a v e l e a r n e d t o l i v e t o g e t h e r . I n d e e d ,

i f w e w e r e t o a d d t h e s e t w o g r o u p s o f e x c e l l e n c e s t o t h o s e s t r e s s e d

e a r l i e r b y D e w e y - s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d , r e g a r d f o r e m p i r i c a l f a c t a n d

e x p e r i m e n t a l v e r i f i c a t i o n , d e m o c r a c y , a n d b e n e v o l e n c e - t h e n we

s h o u l d h a v e a l i s t o f m o s t o f t h e d i s p o s i t i o n s o u r s c h o o l s c o u l d b e

e x p e c t e d t o h e l p i n c u l t i v a t i n g . I n t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , D e w e y a n p r a g -

m a t i s m , p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n a l y s i s , a n d e x i s t e n t i a l i s m p r e s e n t u s w i t h

t h r e e c o m p l e m e n t a r y ( a n d e v e n o v e r l a p p i n g ) s e t s o f a t t i t u d e s o r

t r a i t s f o r t h e s c h o o l s t o a i m a t .

O T H E R R E C E N T P H I L O S O P H E R S

S o m e r e c e n t p h i l o s o p h e r s , h o w e v e r , h a v e s o u g h t t o b e m o r e d i -

r e c t l y n o r m a t i v e t h a n t h e a n a l y s t s a n d t h e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s a n d t o l a y

d o w n e n d s o r p r i n c i p l e s f o r h u m a n c o n d u c t , s o c i a l o r i n d i v i d u a l .

L i k e D e w e y , t h e y h a v e , f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , b e e n u t i l i t a r i a n s i n e t h i c s ,

t h o u g h n o t h e d o n i s t s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e y w o u l d h o l d t h a t e d u c a -

t i o n s h o u l d f o s t e r t h o s e a b i l i t i e s a n d d i s p o s i t i o n s w h i c h m o s t p r o -

m o t e t h e g o o d l i f e f o r a l l c o n c e r n e d . T h i s g r o u p i n c l u d e s R a l p h

B a r t o n P e r r y , B r a n d B l a n s h a r d , P . B . R i c e , A r t h u r C a m p b e l l G a r -

n e t t , A . C. E w i n g , J . J . C . S m a r t , a n d p r o b a b l y R i c h a r d B . B r a n d t .

( S o m e a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r s a r e a t l e a s t v e r y c l o s e t o u t i l i t a r i a n -

i s m , e . g . , Stephen Toulmin, R . M . H a r e , a n d P . H . N o w e l l - S m i t h . )

I n f a c t , s u c h p h i l o s o p h e r s w o u l d p r o b a b l y s a y t h a t e d u c a t i o n s h o u l d

f o s t e r ( a ) t h o s e a b i l i t i e s a n d d i s p o s i t i o n s w h i c h p u t t h e i n d i v i d u a l

i n a p o s i t i o n t o l i v e t h e b e s t l i f e h e i s c a p a b l e o f , a n d ( b ) t h o s e

w h i c h e q u i p a n d d i s p o s e h i m t o r e s p e c t t h e l i v e s o f o t h e r s a n d p e r -

h a p s e v e n t o h e l p m a k e t h e m a s g o o d a s p o s s i b l e , t o o

5 . J o h n D . W i l d , Existence and the World of Freedom, pp . 1 6 4 - 6 5 . E n g l e -

w o o d C l i f f s , N e w J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1 9 6 3 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 256/327

2 5 0 PH I L OS O PH I CAL INQUIR Y

I t s h o u l d b e o b s e r v e d i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n t h a t o n e m u s t d i s t i n -

g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e m o r a l l y g o o d l i f e a n d t h e g o o d l i f e , e v e n i f t h e y

t e n d t o c o i n c i d e . O n s u c h v i e w s a s w e a r e d i s c u s s i n g , t h e m o r a l l y

g o o d l i f e i s o n e o f s e e k i n g t h e g o o d l i f e f o r a l l c o n c e r n e d a s f a r a s

p o s s i b l e , b u t t h e g o o d l i f e t o b e p r o m o t e d i s n o t s i m p l y t h e m o r a l l y

g o o d l i f e . W h a t , t h e n , d o t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s i n q u e s t i o n r e g a r d a s t h e

g o o d l i f e ? A s i n d i c a t e d , t h e y h a v e u s u a l l y n o t b e e n h e d o n i s t s . T h a t

i s , t h e y u s u a l l y r e f u s e t o e q u a t e t h e g o o d w i t h p l e a s u r e , f o r r e a s o n s

w e c a n n o t g o i n t o h e r e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e y h a v e g e n e r a l l y

n o t g o n e t o a n y a n t i h e d o n i s t e x t r e m e . They might be thought of

a s q u a s i - h e d o n i s t s ; f o r m o s t o f t h e m , t h e g o o d o r t h e g o o d l i f e c o n -

s i s t s i n t h e e n d o f w h a t i s d e s i r e d , e n j o y e d , s a t i s f y i n g , or found

w o r t h w h i l e , e i t h e r f o r i t s o w n s a k e o r ( a s f o r D e w e y ) o n a r e f l e c -

t i v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f e v e r y t h i n g i n v o l v e d . S o m e o f t h e m , e . g . , Rice

a n d C l a r e n c e I r v i n g L e w i s , t a k e t h e a f f e c t i v e t o n e o f a c t i v i t i e s a n d

e x p e r i e n c e s ( n o t t o b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h p l e a s a n t n e s s ) a s t h e c r i t e r i o n

o f t h e i r v a l u e ; o t h e r s , e . g . , Perry and De Witt H . P a r k e r , t a k e a s t h e

c r i t e r i o n o f t h e i r v a l u e t h e f a c t o f t h e i r b e i n g d e s i r e d o r o f s a t i s f y -

i n g d e s i r e ; a n d st i l l o t h e r s , e . g . , B l a n s h a r d a n d G a r n e t t , a r g u e t h a t

t h e c r i t e r i o n i s a k i n d o f s y n t h e s i s o f a f f e c t i v e t o n e w i t h b e i n g d e -

s i r e d o r s a t i s f y i n g d e s i r e . P e r h a p s t h e r e i s n o t h i n g b a s i c a l l y n e w i n

a l l t h i s , b u t I d o t h i n k t h a t t h e d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e s e p h i l o s o p h e r s

w o u l d a t l e a s t b e u s e f u l t o t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f

e d u c a t i o n i n t h e s c h o o l s .

T h e r e i s o n e f o r m a l p r i n c i p l e w h i c h h a s f o u n d m u c h f a v o r w i t h

b o t h a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r s a n d m o r e n o r m a t i v e o n e s - t h o u g h n o t

w i t h t h e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s . T h i s i s a p r i n c i p l e w h i c h i s i n v o l v e d i n t h e

g o l d e n r u l e a n d i n K a n t ' s c a t e g o r i c a l i m p e r a t i v e a n d i s n o w u s u a l l y

r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n or u n i v e r s a l i z a t i o n . T h e

i d e a b e h i n d i t i s t h a t , w h e n o n e j u d g e s a p a r t i c u l a r a c t i o n t o b e

r i g h t , o n e i s t h e r e b y c o m m i t t e d t o t h e g e n e r a l r u l e t h a t a n a c t i o n

o f t h e s a m e k i n d w o u l d b e r i g h t f o r e v e r y o n e i n t h e s a m e k i n d o f

s i t u a t i o n , a n d t h a t o n e c a n n o t r e g a r d a n a c t i o n a s m o r a l l y r i g h t f o r

o n e p e r s o n i n a c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n u n l e s s h e i s r e a d y t o s e e i t u n i v e r -

s a l l y a c t e d o n b y o t h e r s i n s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n s . " W h a t i s r i g h t f o r o n e

p e r s o n m u s t b e r i g h t f o r e v e r y s i m i l a r p e r s o n i n s i m i l a r c i r c u m -

s t a n c e s . " S o m e t i m e s t h i s i s r e g a r d e d a s a s u b s t a n t i v e m o r a l p r i n -

c i p l e , e . g . , b y M a r c u s G e o r g e S i n g e r ; s o m e t i m e s a s a l o g i c a l " f e a t u r e

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 257/327

F R ANK ENA 2 5 1

o f m o r a l l a n g u a g e " w h i c h , b y i t s e l f , h a s n o m o r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s , e . g . ,

by Hare, Nowell -Smith, Bernard Ma yo, and possibly Lewis . I n a n y

c a s e , h o w e v e r , i t i s i n s i s t e d t h a t , i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r o r n o t o n e

should do A, one must ask whether or not one is ready to see it

become a universal law . I f o n e i s n o t , t h e n o n e m u s t j u d g e A t o b e

w r o n g , o r a t l e a s t a d m i t t h a t h e i s n o t t r y i n g t o d e c i d e t h e q u e s t i o n

o n m o r a l g r o u n d s . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p l e m a y n o t b e a

s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n f o r d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r a n a c t i o n i s r i g h t o r

w h e t h e r o n e ' s a p p r o a c h i s m o r a l , b u t i t i s a n e c e s s a r y o n e .

However this may be, if the p r i n c i p l e o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i s c o r -

r e c t , a s i t s e e m s t o m e t o b e , t h i s f a c t h a s a n i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n

for moral education which mu st be remembered in the schools . F o r

i t m e a n s t h a t w e m u s t c u l t i v a t e , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , a d i s p o s i t i o n

t o b e c o n s i s t e n t i n o u r a c t i o n s a n d j u d g m e n t s a n d t o a s k o u r s e l v e s

what maxims we are read y to see universa l ly ad opted - not ig no-

r a n t l y , b u t i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e f a c t s . °

R e c e n t P h i l o s o p h y a n d O t h e r ( N o n n o r m a t i v e ) P r e m i s e s

Now, let us sup pose that we have our axi ological and ethical

premises for answering our questions about the schools, whether

we find them in recent philosophy or not . The next que stion is

whether recent philosophy offers the school ed u cator any non-

normative premises that bear on his problems-prem ises about the

n a t u r e o f m a n a n d t h e u n i v e r s e , o r a b o u t t h e n a t u r e a n d l i m i t s o f

k n o w l e d g e . It must be pointed out at once that no such premises

c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s h a v i n g b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d i n a n y f i n a l w a y o r e v e n

as agreed on by all contemporary philosophers . I n a s e n s e , t h e n ,

i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o s a y t h a t t h e r e a r e a n y e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l o r m e t a -

p h y s i c a l d o c t r i n e s i n r e c e n t p h i l o s o p h y t o w h i c h t h e s c h o o l s m u s t

respond by drawing out their implications and putting them into

p r a c t i c e . I t m a y b e a d d e d , m o r e o v e r , t h a t p u b l i c s c h o o l e d u c a t o r s

must, in any case, be wary of presupposin g any particular philo-

s o p h i c a l p o s i t i o n , t h e i s t i c o r o t h e r w i s e , a s a b a s i s f o r t h e i r c o n c l u -

s i o n s a b o u t w h a t i s t o b e t a u g h t o r h o w .

6. F o r m o r e a b o u t r e c e n t m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y a n d m o r a l e d u c a t i o n , s e e W i l -

l i a m K . F r a n k e n a , " T o w a r d a P h i l o s o p h y o f M o r a l E d u c a t i o n , " H a r v a r d E d u -

c a t i o n a l R e v i e w s , X X V I I I ( F a l l , 1 9 5 8 ) , 3 0 0 - 3 1 3 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 258/327

2 5 2 PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY

O n e c o u l d a r g u e t h a t r e c e n t p h i l o s o p h y i s i n a v e r y b r o a d s e n s e

e m p i r i s t i c i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s o f r a t i o n a l i s m p r e v a i l -

i n g i n t h e p a s t . I t w o u l d r e q u i r e s o m e t e m e r i t y , t h e r e f o r e , f o r a n

e d u c a t o r t o r e s t a n y o f h i s t h e o r i e s o r p r a c t i c e s o n r a t i o n a l i s t i c

p r e m i s e s , e . g . , o n a r a t i o n a l i s t i c v i e w o f t h e n a t u r e o f m a t h e m a t i c s .

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t i s n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e v a r i o u s e m p i r i c i s m s o f

today, except perhaps for existentialism, would require any very

d i f f e r e n t r e s p o n s e s o n t h e p a r t o f t h e s c h o o l s f r o m t h o s e a l r e a d y

m a d e . A n a l y t i c a l l y m i n d e d p h i l o s o p h e r s a r e p e r h a p s m o r e i n s i s t e n t

t h a n e v e r b e f o r e t h a t s c i e n t i f i c q u e s t i o n s a r e t o b e a n s w e r e d b y s c i -

e n t i f i c m e t h o d s , h i s t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n s b y h i s t o r i c a l m e t h o d s , a n d s o

f o r t h . T h e y t e n d , h o w e v e r , t o a v o i d s e e k i n g f o r s u b s t a n t i v e e p i s t e -

mological or metaphysical doctrines from which educational con-

c l u s i o n s c a n b e d r a w n a n d t o l i m i t t h e m s e l v e s t o m o r e p u r e l y a n a -

l y t i c a l a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f i n d i n g s , s u c h a s w e s h a l l l o o k a t i n t h e

f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n . A s f o r e x i s t e n t i a l i s m - i n i t s m o r e e x t r e m e f o r m s ,

a t l e a s t - i t s e e m s t o o f f e r a v i e w o f m a n w h i c h m a k e s i t h a r d t o s e e

how education can play any important part in his formation . I t i s

s o a n t i d e t e r m i n i s t i c , s o i n s i s t e n t t h a t m a n i s a c r e a t u r e o f h i s o w n

f r e e u n g u i d e d c h o i c e , t h a t i t e v e n t a l k s a s i f a n i n d i v i d u a l c h o o s e s

h i s n a t u r e a n d d i s p o s i t i o n s i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f e x p e r i e n c e a n d t r a i n i n g

o r e v e n o f h e r e d i t y . T h e r e a r e , a s w e s a w , c e r t a i n d i s p o s i t i o n s w h i c h

i t a d v o c a t e s , b u t i t s a s s e r t i o n o f t h e p r i o r i t y o f e x i s t e n c e t o e s s e n c e

i s s u c h a s t o r e n d e r t h e r o l e o f e d u c a t i o n i n t h e i r f o r m a t i o n u n c l e a r .

I n a n y c a s e , h o w e v e r , e x i s t e n t i a l i s m , i n s o f a r a s i t i s w e d d e d t o t h e

p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l m e t h o d , i s s u r p r i s i n g l y l i k e a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y

i n b e i n g a v e r s e t o s p e c u l a t i v e m e t a p h y s i c s i n t h e g r a n d s t y l e . To

q u o t e W i l d a g a i n , t h e f u n c t i o n o f p h i l o s o p h y i s " n o t t o e s t a b l i s h

a n o b j e c t i v e s c i e n c e o f b e i n g " o r " a g r e a t s u p e r - s c i e n c e o f t h e u n i -

v e r s e " b u t t o b e " a n e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e b a s i c , n o e t i c f r e e d o m o f m a n ,

r e f u s i n g t o b e l o c k e d u p p e r m a n e n t l y i n a n y f i x e d f r a m e . . . " 7

Philosophical Analysis and the Schools

G ENE R AL R E M A R K S : H O O K ' S CRI TIQUE

I n t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n , I w a s l o o k i n g , n o t v e r y s u c c e s s f u l l y ,

for sweeping substantive premises or "world-hypotheses," estab-

7 . W i l d , o p . c i t . , p p. z 2 1 , 1 3

1.

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 259/327

FRANKENA 25 3

l i s h e d b y r e c e n t p h i l o s o p h y , w h i c h m i g h t w e l l b e t a k e n a s p r e m i s e s

for deducing educational implications for the schools . Now wem u s t l o o k a t t h e w o r k s o f s o - c a l l e d a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r s t o s e e

w h a t r e l e v a n t f i n d i n g s , i f a n y , t h e y m a y c o n t a i n .

We must remember here that the purer analytical philosophers

d o n o t t h i n k o f t h e m s e l v e s a s s e a r c h i n g f o r o r d i s c o v e r i n g a n y s u b -

s t a n t i v e i n s i g h t s o r s y n t h e t i c t r u t h s , f a c t u a l o r n o r m a t i v e . T h i s t h e y

l e a v e t o t h e e m p i r i c a l s c i e n t i s t , t h e h i s t o r i a n , t h e t h e o l o g i a n , t h e

a r t i s t , a n d t h e m o r a l i s t , t h o u g h t h e y a r e , o f c o u r s e , q u i t e r e a d y t o

t r y t o a n a l y z e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e v a r i o u s k i n d s o f i n s i g h t s a n d t r u t h s

at which these people may arrive . Rightly or wrongly, they typi-

c a l l y t h i n k o f t h e m s e l v e s a s s e e k i n g a n d g a i n i n g i n s i g h t s o f a d i f -

f e r e n t s o r t , v a r i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d a s a n a l y t i c a l , l o g i c a l , m e t h o d o l o g i c a l ,

f o r m a l , c o n c e p t u a l , o r l i n g u i s t i c . To b o r r o w a n e x a m p l e f r o m o n e

o f t h e m : I t i s a n e m p i r i c a l t r u t h t h a t h u m a n b e i n g s o f t e n d r e a m a t

n i g h t , b u t i t i s a c o n c e p t u a l o r l i n g u i s t i c t r u t h t h a t s t o n e s c a n n o t

dream . T h e v a l i d i t y o f a n y s u c h s h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t w o o r

m o r e k i n d s o f i n s i g h t s w o u l d b e q u e s t i o n e d b y s o m e D e w e y a n s ;

i t i s , i n f a c t , q u e s t i o n e d b y s o m e a n a l y t i c a l o r n e a r - a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s -

o p h e r s w h o s e v i e w s m a y b e t h o u g h t o f a s p r a g m a t i c o r e v e n a s

" be y o n d p r a g m a t i s m . " 8 W e cannot d iscuss this issue here, of

course, anymore than we can discuss the question of whether ana-

l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r s a r e m e r e l y d e s c r i p t i v e a n d e l u c i d a t o r y i n w h a t

t h e y d o o r w h e t h e r t h e y a r e l e g i s l a t i v e a n d n o r m a t i v e . O u r j o b i s

t o s e e w h a t b e a r i n g t h e i r a n a l y s e s h a v e o n t h e t h i n k i n g a n d p r a c t i c e

o f t h e s c h o o l e d u c a t o r , i f a n y .

T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y f o r t h e s c h o o l e d u c a t o r

has been discussed and somewhat impu gned by Hook in the second

e d i t i o n o f E d u c a t i o n f o r M o d e r n M a n . 9 I n p a r t , h i s c o m p l a i n t i s

t h a t w h a t i s w a n t e d i s a n s w e r s t o e d u c a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s o f a n o r m a -

t i v e s o r t a b o u t t h e a i m s , m e t h o d s , a n d c o n t e n t o f e d u c a t i o n a n d t h a t

8 . M o r t o n G a b r i e l W h i t e , T o w a r d R e u n i o n i n P h i l o s o p h y , c h a p . v i i i ( C a m -

b r i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 6 ) ; W i l l a r d V . 0 . Q u i n e ,

F r o m a L o g i c a l P o i n t o f V i e w , E s s a y 2 ( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s : H a r v a r d

U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,1 9 5 3 )

9 . S i d n e y H o o k , Education for M odern M an, pp .4 5 - 5 1

. New Yor k : A l f r e d

A. K n o p f , 1 9 6 3 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 260/327

2 5 4 PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY

a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y d o e s n o t a n d c a n n o t p r o v i d e a n s w e r s t o s u c h

problems-even "analytic al philosophy of education" cannot do so .

H e i s r i g h t , i n m y o p i n i o n , i n b o t h p a r t s o f t h i s c o m p l a i n t , b u t i t

d o e s n o t f o l l o w t h a t a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y o f e d u c a t i o n i s " m i s c o n -

c e i v e d . " F o r a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r s w o u l d b e t h e f i r s t t o s a y t h a t

a n a l y s i s d o e s n o t b y i t s e l f a n s w e r n o r m a t i v e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s .

N e i t h e r d o e s i t f o l l o w t h a t a n a l y s i s i s i r r e l e v a n t t o " t h e t h e o r y a n d

p r a c t i c e o f e d u c a t i o n , " f o r , e v e n i f i t i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o a n s w e r t h e

q u e s t i o n s o f e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e , i t m a y s t i l l b e h e l p f u l

i n d o i n g s o o r e v e n n e c e s s a r y . H o o k d o e s n o t d e n y , i n f a c t h e a d -

m i t s , t h a t c o n c e p t u a l a n d l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s m a y b e v e r y h e l p f u l i n

p r e v e n t i n g c o n f u s i o n a n d l o o s e n e s s i n e d u c a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g a n d w r i t -

ing and in enabling us "to express things in a way that leads to

g r e a t e r s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r t o r e a d i e r i n q u i r y a n d t e s t . " A n d t h i s

i s m o s t , i f n o t a l l , o f w h a t a n a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r w o u l d c a r e t o

c l a i m . A l l t h a t n e e d s t o b e a d d e d i s t h a t t h e a n a l y s t s c o u l d c o n f e r

a n u n t o l d b e n e f i t a l o n g t h i s l i n e , a t l e a s t i n t h e a r e a o f e d u c a t i o n a l

t h e o r y , a s a n y o n e c a n s e e b y l o o k i n g a t t h e q u a l i t y o f t h o u g h t a n d

e x p r e s s i o n t h a t i n f e c t s s o m u c h o f o u r l i t e r a t u r e o n e d u c a t i o n.

For the rest, H ook arg ues ( a ) t h a t l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s i s n o t

n e e d e d f o r t h e s o l u t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s , a n d ( b ) t h a t t h e

f i n d i n g s o f s u c h a n a l y s i s a r e s o m e t i m e s b i z a r r e a n d i n e p t . O n t h e

l a t t e r p o i n t h e i s c e r t a i n l y r i g h t ; b u t h e d o e s n o t c i t e t h e b e s t e x -

a m p l e s o f a n a l y t i c a l w o r k o n s l o g a n s o r o n t h e c o n c e p t o f t e a c h i n g .

T h e a n a l y s e s o f S c h e f f l e r i n T h e L a n g u a g e o f E d u c a t i o n 1 0 and of

Komisar in L a n g u a g e a n d C o n c e p t s i n E d u c a t i o n 1 1 d o n o t e x h i b i t

t h e f a u l t s H o o k f i n d s i n o t h e r s . T h e s e a u t h o r s a r e n o l e s s a n a l y t i c a l ,

b u t t h e i r a n a l y s e s a r e m o r e c o m p l e t e . As a contempor ary Francis

B a c o n m i g h t p u t i t , t h e r e m e d y f o r a l i t t l e a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y i s

n o t s o m e t h i n g e l s e b u t g r e a t e r d e p t h i n i t . I a l s o f i n d i t h a r d t o b e -

lieve that such analyses would not be h e l p f u l i n t h e t h i n k i n g o f

e d u c a t o r s a n d t e a c h e r s . It would, no doubt, be too much to claim

i o . I s r a e l S c h e f l i e r , The Lang u ag e of Education . S p r i n g f i e l d , I l l i n o i s : C h a r l e s

C Thomas, Publishers, 1960 .

i i . B . P . Komisar, "Need and the Needs-Curricul um," in Language and Con-

c e p t s i n E d u c a t i o n , chap . i i . Edited by B . O t h a n e l Sm i t h a n d Robe r t H . E n n i s .

Chicago : Rand M cNal ly & Co . , 1 9 6 1 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 261/327

FRANKENA 2 5 5

that any teacher need s " t h e b e n e f i t o f l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s t o r e a l i z e

t h a t a c h i l d m a y l e a r n t o a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s o n t h e d u t i e s o f a g o o d

c i t i z e n c o r r e c t l y y e t h a b i t u a l l y d i s r e g a r d t h e m . . . , " e t c e t e r a . B u t

t h i s i s b e c a u s e h e h a s a l r e a d y a c h i e v e d s o m e c o n c e p t u a l c l a r i t y , b e -

s i d e s e x p e r i e n c i n g s o m e e m p i r i c a l f a i l u r e . W o u l d i t a l s o b e t o o m u c h

to claim that many teachers (and their teachers) need more con-

c e p t u a l a n d l i n g u i s t i c c l a r i t y t h a n t h e y s h o w w h e n t h e y t a l k a b o u t

what they do and why they do i t? Or that linguistic analysis is

s o m e t i m e s n e c e s s a r y a t t h e l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y , i f n o t o f

p r a c t i c e ? O n t h i s l a s t p o i n t , i t m a y b e e n o u g h t o r e m a r k t h a t H o o k

h i m s e l f o f t e n f i n d s i t n e c e s s a r y t o d o w h a t i s a c t u a l l y a k i n d o f c o n -

c e p t u a l a n a l y s i s . D i d h e n o t , h i s t h o u g h t w o u l d b e m u c h l e s s c l e a r

and his arguments much less cogent .

SOM E CONTRIB UTIONS, ACTUAL OR POS SIB LE

H o w e v e r t h i s m a y b e , t h e r e i s a t a n y r a t e a g r o w i n g i n t e r e s t i n

analytical phil osophy among educators, and it is by no means all

negative, though a philosopher can only shudder at some of the

f o r m s i t t a k e s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e v o l u m e , La n g u a g e a n d C o n c e p t s

i n E d u c a t i o n , t h i s i n t e r e s t i s a t t e s t e d t o i n b o o k s e d i t e d b y J o e P a r k ,

T. H . B . H o l l i n s , R e g i n a l d D . Archambault, J . E . M c C l e l l a n , a n d

B . P . K o m i s a r , a s w e l l a s i n p a p e r s b y G . L . Newso me, C . D . H a r d i e ,

a n d o t h e r s . A s a m a t t e r o f f a c t , i t i s n o t h a r d t o f i n d p l a c e s i n e d u -

cational discussion where the analytical phil osopher can make a

c o n t r i b u t i o n .

C o n s i d e r , f o r e x a m p l e , D e w e y ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c r i t e r i a o f a n

e d u c a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e i n Experience and Education . 1 2 He correctly

p o i n t s o u t t h a t , a l t h o u g h a l l e d u c a t i o n c o m e s a b o u t t h r o u g h e x p e -

r i e n c e , n o t a l l e x p e r i e n c e s a r e e d u c a t i v e . T h e n h e s t a t e s t w o g e n e r a l

p r o p o s i t i o n s a b o u t e x p e r i e n c e s , ( a ) t h e p r i n c i p l e of c o n t i n u i t y ,

which says that every experience is affected by previous experi-

e n c e s a n d a f f e c t s t h e n a t u r e o f s u b s e q u e n t e x p e r i e n c e s , a n d ( b ) t h e

p r i n c i p l e o f i n t e r a c t i o n , w h i c h s a y s t h a t e v e r y e x p e r i e n c e i s t h e r e -

s u l t o f a n i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n e x t e r n a l a n d i n t e r n a l f a c t o r s . B u t ,

1 2 . John De wey, E x p e r i e n c e a n d E d u c a t i o n , c h a p s . n a n d i i i . New York :

M a c m i l l a n C o. , 1 9 3 8 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 262/327

2 5 6 PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY

e v e n t h o u g h h e s e e s t h a t t h e s e t w o p r i n c i p l e s a r e t r u e o f a l l e x p e r i -

e n c e s , D e w e y p e r s i s t s i n s p e a k i n g a s i f t h e y c a n a l s o s e r v e a s c r i t e r i a

" b y w h i c h t o d i s c r i m i n a t e b e t w e e n e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h a r e e d u c a t i v e

and those which are mis-educative ." He does not notice that the

t w o p r i n c i p l e s a r e p u r e l y f a c t u a l , a n d t h a t a n o r m a t i v e p r i n c i p l e i s

a l s o n e e d e d i f o n e i s t o b e a b l e t o t e l l w h i c h e x p e r i e n c e s a r e e d u c a -

tive and which are not ; e . g . , t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t a n e x p e r i e n c e m u s t

c o n t r i b u t e t o g r o w t h r a t h e r t h a n t o i t s o p p o s i t e . A n a n a l y t i c a l p h i -

l o s o p h e r m i g h t n o t b e a b l e t o s h o w t h a t D e w e y i s m i s t a k e n h e r e i n

a n y m a t t e r o f s u b s t a n c e , b u t h e w o u l d h a v e l i t t l e t r o u b l e i n s h o w i n g

that Dewey is confused about the form in which he puts what he

i s s a y i n g .

Consider, also, the following argument from Hutchins, one of

Dewey's critics : "Education implies teaching. Teaching implies

k n o w l e d g e . K n o w l e d g e i s t r u t h . T h e t r u t h i s e v e r y w h e r e t h e s a m e .

Hence ed ucation shou l d b e everywhere the same . " 1 3 I t t a k e s o n l y

a l i t t l e l o g i c t o s h o w t h a t H u t c h i n s n e e d s a t l e a s t o n e m o r e p r e m i s e

t o e s t a b l i s h h i s c o n c l u s i o n , n a m e l y , t h e n o r m a t i v e p r e m i s e t h a t e v -

e r y o n e s h o u l d b e t a u g h t t h e s a m e t r u t h s , w h i c h i s j u s t t h e q u e s t i o n

a t i s s u e . B u t a l i t t l e m o r e a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y - c o n c e p t u a l a n a l y s e s

o f " e d u c a t i o n , " " t e a c h i n g , " " k n o w l e d g e , " a n d " t r u t h , " a n d o f t h e i r

relations to one another-would be necessary to show whether or

n o t t h e o r i g i n a l f o u r p r e m i s e s a r e t r u e . I t w o u l d t h e n t u r n o u t , I

t h i n k , t h a t t h e y a r e e i t h e r f a l s e o r i n n e e d o f q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f s u c h

a k i n d a s t o r e n d e r t h e a r g u m e n t q u i t e i n c o n c l u s i v e .

O n e h e s i t a t e s , i n a c a s e l i k e t h i s , t o m e n t i o n o n e ' s o w n w o r k , a n d

I do so only because my ar ticle, "Public Education and the Good

L i f e , " 1 4 has found some favor with ed ucators . I n i t , I d i s c u s s a

problem which is important for both "the theory and practice of

education" in public schools, namely, the teaching of values and

m o r a l p r i n c i p l e s , a n d m u c h , t h o u g h n o t a l l , o f w h a t I d o i s a n a l y s i s .

I s e e k t o s h o w t h a t e v e n t h o u g h t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s c a n n o t t e a c h r e -

1 3 . Robert M . H u t c h i n s , The Higher Learning in America, p . 6 6 . Ne w

H a v e n , C o n n e c t i c u t : Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 3 6 , 1 9 6 2 .

1 4 . W i l l i a m K . F r a n k e n a , " P u b l i c E d u c a t i o n a n d t h e G o o d L i f e , " Harvard

E d u c a t i o n a l R e v i e w , X X X I ( F a l l , 1 9 6 , ) , 4 1 3 - 2 6 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 263/327

FRANKENA 2 5 7

ligion, they can still do something worth while toward promoting

t h e g o o d a n d t h e m o r a l l i f e , a n d t h e a n a l y s i s I u s e s e e m s t o m e n o t

o n l y h e l p f u l b u t n e c e s s a r y i n m a k i n g t h i s p o i n t . There seem to me

to b e many more ed ucational q uestions in connection with which

c o n c e p t u a l a n d l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s w o u l d b e u s e f u l .

A n o t h e r p o t e n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r i s

i n d i c a t e d b y t h e E d u c a t i o n a l P o l i c i e s C o m m i s s i o n ' s b o o k l e t , Moral

a n d S p i r i t u a l V a l u e s i n t h e P u b l i c S c h o o l s . 1 5 I s k i p o v e r t h e v a g u e -

n e s s o f t h e w o r d " s p i r i t u a l " a n d t h e f a i l u r e t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n

v a l u e s p r o p e r l i k e h a p p i n e s s a n d k n o w l e d g e , m o r a l v i r t u e s l i k e h o n -

e s t y a n d c o - o p e r a t i v e n e s s , a n d e t h i c a l o r p o l i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s l i k e

" T h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y i s s u p r e m e , " " I n s t i t u t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s

a r e t h e s e r v a n t s o f m a n k i n d , " o r " M u t u a l c o n s e n t i s b e t t e r t h a n v i o -

l e n c e . " ( T h e s e a r e t h r e e v e r y d i f f e r e n t s o r t s o f t h i n g s , b u t t h e y a r e

a l l c a l l e d " v a l u e s " a n d a r e t r e a t e d a s i f t h e y w e r e a l i k e a n d a s i f t h e y

figure in education in the same ways . ) W h a t c o n c e r n s m e i s t h e

d i s c u s s i o n o f " s a n c t i o n s " o r r e a s o n s f o r c o n d u c t , e . g . , f o r J o h n n y ' s

r e t u r n i n g a d i m e g i v e n t o h i m b y m i s t a k e . T h e u s e a n d t e a c h i n g o f

s a n c t i o n s o r r e a s o n s i s r e g a r d e d a s i m p o r t a n t i n t h e s c h o o l s . Seven

d i f f e r e n t s a n c t i o n s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d :

i . J u s t i c e : " T h e d i m e d o e s n ' t b e l o n g t o y o u . I t i s n ' t f a i r f o r y o u t o

k e e p i t . "

z . The Law : "K e e p i n g t h e d i m e i s s t e a l i n g , a n d t h e l a w p u n i s h e s s t e a l -

i n g . "

3 . P r o p e r t y R i g h t s : " W h a t w o u l d y o u t h i n k i f s o m e o n e e l s e k e p t s o m e -

t h i n g t h a t b e l o n g s t o y o u ? "

4 . I n te g r i t y : " Y o u w o u l d l o s e r e s p e c t f o r y o u r s e l f . "

5 . Group approval : " O t h e r s w i l l f e e l t h a t t h e y c a n ' t t r u s t y o u . "

6 . A u t h o r i t y : " It i s w r o n g t o k e e p i t , a n d I s h a l l p u n i s h y o u i f y o u d o n ' t

r e t u r n i t . "

7. Guidance : "What do y o u t h i n k , J o h n n y [ a f t e r f u l l d i s c u s s i o n ] ? "

I t i s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t r e l i g i o u s s a n c t i o n s c a n n o t b e a p p e a l e d t o i n

p u b l i c s c h o o l s , b u t i t i s n o t a d e q u a t e l y n o t i c e d h o w d i f f e r e n t t h e

above seven are or that some of them are much more appropriate

i n m o r a l e d u c a t i o n t h a n o t h e r s . E f f e c t i v e n e s s i s s a i d t o b e t h e t e s t

1 5 . E d u c a t i o n a l P o l i c i e s C o m m i s s i o n , M o r a l a n d S p i r i t u a l V a l u e s i n t h e

P u b l i c S c h o o l s . W a s h i n g t o n : E d u c a t i o n a l P o l i c i e s C o m m i s s i o n , 1 9 5 1 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 264/327

2 5 8 PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY

o f t h e u s e o f a " s a n c t i o n , " a n d i t i s d e e m e d w i s e " t o u t i l i z e a v a r i e t y

o f s a n c t i o n s " r a t h e r t h a n t o r e l y o n o n e a l o n e .

N o w , i t h a p p e n s t h a t t h e b u s i n e s s o f " s a n c t i o n s " o r r e a s o n s f o r

a c t i o n a n d m o r a l j u d g m e n t h a v e b e e n m u c h d i s c u s s e d b y r e c e n t

m o r a l p h i l o s o p h e r s , e s p e c i a l l y a n a l y t i c a l l y m i n d e d o n e s l i k e C h a r l e s

L. Stevenson, R. M . Ha r e , W . D . F a l k , K u r t B a i e r , a n d B e r n a r d

Mayo . T h e y m a k e o r d e b a t e d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n t e l l i n g a n d g e t -

t i n g t o ; b etween g uid ing and g oad ing ; b e t w e e n r e a s o n s , m o t i v e s ,

a n d c a u s e s ; b e t w e e n j u s t i f y i n g r e a s o n s a n d m o t i v a t i n g o n e s ; b e t w e e n

moral and other reasons ; between reason and authority . Both in

this way and in others, they have much to say to those who wri te

a b o u t t h e t e a c h i n g o f m o r a l a n d s p i r i t u a l v a l u e s i n t h e s c h o o l s a n d ,

p e r h a p s , a l s o t o t h o s e w h o d o t h e t e a c h i n g .

A r e l a t e d v e x i n g q u e s t i o n w h i c h h a s b e e n a g i t a t i n g b o t h e d u c a -

t i o n a l t h e o r i s t s a n d p r a c t i c i n g t e a c h e r s i s t h a t o f t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h

education does, may, or may not involve the teacher "imposing"

h i s v a l u e s o r e t h i c a l p r i n c i p l e s o n t h e c h i l d . Here again there is

m u c h t h a t t h e a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r c o u l d d o t o h e l p t h e d i s c u s s i o n

a l o n g , e . g . , b y e x p l o r i n g t h e l o g i c o f t e r m s l i k e " t e a c h , " " i m p o s e , "

"authority," "guide," "autonomy," and so on . A s a m a t t e r o f f a c t ,

s u c h a u t h o r s a s w e r e j u s t r e f e r r e d t o h a v e a l r e a d y d o n e a g o o d d e a l

o f w o r k o n s o m e o f t h e s e n o t i o n s . B e s i d e s , t h e w o r r y a b o u t i m p o s i -

t i o n i n t h e c a s e o f e t h i c a l a n d v a l u e j u d g m e n t s s t e m s i n p a r t , I a m

convinced, from the fact that such judgments are widely assumed

o r f e a r e d t o b e m e r e s u b j e c t i v e o r r e l a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s o f a t t i t u d e o r

p r e f e r e n c e . A n d , a g a i n , t h e w r i t e r s m e n t i o n e d , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r s ,

h a v e d o n e m u c h t o s h o w t h a t t h i s a s s u m p t i o n o r f e a r i s n o t c o r r e c t ,

i . e . , t h e r e a r e i m p o r t a n t w a y s i n w h i c h e t h i c a l a n d v a l u e j u d g m e n t s

a r e s u s c e p t i b l e o f r a t i o n a l i t y , i f n o t o f p r o o f . No doubt O'Connor

i s r i g h t i n s a y i n g t h a t t h e p r o b l e m o f h o w t o j u s t i f y s u c h j u d g m e n t s

i s s t i l l u n s o l v e d , b u t a t l e a s t s o m e p r o g r e s s h a s b e e n m a d e - a l o n g

r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t l i n e s f r o m t h o s e t a k e n e a r l i e r b y D e w e y o r P e r r y .

R E CE NT M E TH O D O LO G I C AL D I S CUS SI O NS , E . G . , HISTORY

I h a v e b e e n t r y i n g t o i n d i c a t e a r e a s a n d w a y s i n w h i c h a n a l y t i c a l

philosophers have done or might do work that is relevant to the

t h e o r y a n d e v e n t o t h e p r a c t i c e o f s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n . Another su ch

a r e a m a y b e p o i n t e d o u t a s f o l l o w s . O n e o f t h e c h i e f a r t i c l e s i n t h e

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 265/327

FRANKENA 2 5 9

Deweyan pedagogic creed is "the centrality of method," meaning

by "method" the method of intelligent or scientific inquiry con-

c e i v e d a s c o n s i s t i n g o f f i v e s t e p s :1 6

i . T h e p r e s e n c e o f a p r o b l e m

2 . C l a r i f i c a t i o n a n d d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m

3 . F o r m u l a t i o n o f a h y p o t h e s i s a s t o i t s s o l u t i o n

4 . D e d u c i n g a n d e n v i s a g i n g t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a c t i n g o n t h e h y p o t h e s i s

5 . A c t i n g o n t h e h y p o t h e s i s a n d o b s e r v i n g w h e t h e r t h e p r e d i c t e d c o n -

s e q u e n c e s t a k e p l a c e o r n o t .

T h e n o t i o n i s t h a t t h e c e n t r a l p o i n t o f e d u c a t i o n i s t o f o s t e r t h e

a b i l i t y a n d t h e d i s p o s i t i o n t o u s e t h i s m e t h o d i n a l l f i e l d s o f b e l i e f

a n d a c t i o n . Now, whether one take s method as central or mer ely

a s i m p o r t a n t , o n e m u s t h a v e s o m e c o n c e p t i o n o f i t . T h e r e h a s , h o w -

ever, been much discussion of method since Dewey's day-in sci-

e n c e , m a t h e m a t i c s , h i s t o r y , a n d s o f o r t h - s o m e o f i t b y f o l l o w e r s o f

D ewey like Ernest Nagel and Abraham Kaplan ; s o m e b y o t h e r s l i k e

K a r l P o p p e r , Ne l s o n G o o d m a n , R . B . B r a i t h w a i t e , C a r l G . H e m p e l ,

Toulmin, and Scheffler . I h a v e l i t t l e c o m p e t e n c e i n t h i s f i e l d , b u t

i t s t r i k e s m e t h a t t h i s r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n o f m e t h o d i s b e t t e r t h a n

D e w e y ' s w a s a n d t h a t i t i s e d u c a t i o n a l l y r e l e v a n t - j u s t a s r e l e v a n t

as Dewey's own views were . I s D e w e y ' s p a t t e r n o f r e f l e c t i v e i n -

q u i r y c o r r e c t e v e n f o r s c i e n c e ? I s " s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d " t h e s a m e f o r

a l l s c i e n c e s ? I s t h e s a m e p a t t e r n a p p l i c a b l e i n h i s t o r y , m a t h e m a t i c s ,

t h e h u m a n i t i e s , a n d t h e a r t s ? I n s o f a r a s m e t h o d i s i m p o r t a n t i n

education, it must also be imperative that school educators have

s o m e a w a r e n e s s o f t h e m o s t r e c e n t a n s w e r s t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s .

R e c e n t d e b a t e o n t h e n a t u r e o f h i s t o r i c a l i n q u i r y m a y b e t a k e n

a s a n i l l u s t r a t i o n h e r e . Roughly speaking, the debate is between

those who think that history is a science and those who think it

is something d ifferent- with such writers as H empel and Patrick

Gardiner on one side ; R . G . C o l l i n g w o o d , W . H . Walsh, and Wil-

l i a m H . D r a y o n t h e o t h e r . 1 7 I s t h e a i m o f h i s t o r y a k n o w l e d g e o f

t h e p a r t i c u l a r e v e n t s o f t h e p a s t ? D o e s o r s h o u l d t h e h i s t o r i a n s e e k

1 6 . H o o k , o p . c i t . , c h a p . v i i .

1 7 . E. g . , Wil l iam H. D r a y , P h i l o s o p h y o f H i s t o r y . E n g l e w o o d C l i f f s , Ne w

J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1 9 6 4 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 266/327

2 60 PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY

to explain past event s by exhibiting them as examples of general

laws or in some other way? Is history objective or subjective?

W h i l e t h e r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n o f s u c h q u e s t i o n s h a s n o t b r o u g h t a b o u t

a g r e e m e n t , i t h a s b e e n a c u t e a n d i n t e r e s t i n g a n d s h o u l d b e i n s t r u c -

tive both to those who wish to evaluate Dewey's views on history

a n d t o t e a c h e r s o f h i s t o r y .

OTH ER P OSSI BLY USEFUL ANALYSES

N o w I s h a l l c i t e a f e w f a i r l y s p e c i f i c e x a m p l e s o f r e c e n t p h i l o -

s o p h i c a l a n a l y s i s w h i c h s t r i k e m e a s b e a r i n g o n t h e t h e o r y a n d e v e n

t h e p r a c t i c e o f e d u c a t i o n i n t h e s c h o o l s . Much of the activity of

r e c e n t p h i l o s o p h e r s h a s b e e n i n t h e a r e a o f t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f l a n -

guage-many of them even conceive of philosophy as in some sense

a " l i n g u i s t i c " i n q u i r y . M a n y o f t h e i r s t u d i e s a r e v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g ,

a n d i t s e e m s t o m e t h a t s o m e o f t h e m m a y w e l l b e o f u s e t o s c h o o l

teachers and curriculum-planners. One of th e objects o f conc ern

h a s b e e n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y a n d m a n n e r o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n t w o

o r m o r e t y p e s o f d i s c o u r s e , e . g . , b e t w e e n d i s c o u r s e t h a t i s d e s c r i p -

t i v e , f a c t u a l , c o g n i t i v e , c o n s t a t i v e , s c i e n t i f i c , a n d s o o n , a n d d i s -

c o u r s e t h a t i s n o n d e s c r i p t i v e , e v a l u a t i v e , n o r m a t i v e , n o n c o g n i t i v e ,

n o n s c i e n t i f i c , p e r f o r m a t i v e , e t c e t e r a . I n o n e o f t h e m o r e e l a b o r a t e

stud ies, Charles W . M o r r i s d i s t i n g u i s h e s f i v e " m o d e s o f s i g n i f y -

i n g . " 1 8 T h e s e a r e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , d e s i g n a t i o n , a p p r a i s i n g , p r e s c r i p -

t i o n , a n d " f o r m a t i o n , " a n d a r e e x e m p l i f i e d , r e s p e c t i v e l y , b y " t h e r e , "

"deer," "fine," "Run!" and " o r . " H e t h e n a l s o d i s t i n g u i s h e s f o u r

k i n d s o f s i g n u s e s : t h e i n f o r m a t i v e , t h e v a l u a t i v e , t h e i n c i t i v e , a n d

t h e s y s t e m i c ; a n d , f i n a l l y , c o m b i n i n g t h e f i v e m o d e s a n d t h e f o u r

u s e s , d e f i n e s s i x t e e n " m a j o r t y p e s o f d i s c o u r s e , " e . g . , s c i e n t i f i c d i s -

c o u r s e , w h i c h i s d e s i g n a t i v e - i n f o r m a t i v e , a n d p o e t i c d i s c o u r s e , w h i c h

i s a p p r a i s i v e - v a l u a t i v e . Whatever one may think of this particular

t h e o r y o f s i g n s - a n d I h o l d n o b r i e f f o r i t - i t d o e s s e e m t o m e t h a t

s o m e a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h s u c h r e c e n t w o r k w o u l d b e o f u s e t o t e a c h -

e r s o f , w h a t u s e d t o b e c a l l e d , g r a m m a r a n d r h e t o r i c .

A s a l s o o f p o s s i b l e i n t e r e s t t o s u c h t e a c h e r s , a s w e l l a s t o o t h e r

1 8 . C h a P l e s W i l l i a m M o r r i s , S i g n s , L a n g u a g e , a n d B e h a v i o r . Ne w Yo r k :

P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1 9 4 6 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 267/327

FRANKENA 2 6 1

educators, one might mention P . W . T a y l o r ' s a t t e m p t t o w o r k o u t

a s y s t e m a t i c a c c o u n t o f n o r m a t i v e d i s c o u r s e ( e v a l u a t i n g a c c o r d i n g

t o s t a n d a r d s , e v a l u a t i n g a c c o r d i n g t o r u l e s , a n d p r e s c r i b i n g ) , i t s v a r -

i o u s " r e a l m s " ( m o r a l , a e s t h e t i c , i n t e l l e c t u a l , r e l i g i o u s , e c o n o m i c ,

p o l i t i c a l , l e g a l , a n d c o n v e n t i o n a l ) , a n d e i g h t c o r r e s p o n d i n g k i n d s

o f e d u c a t i o n . 1 9 A l o n g a s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t l i n e , t h e r e i s t h e s o r t o f

g r a m m a r o r s e m a n t i c a n a l y s i s d o n e b y Z e n o V e n d l e r i n h i s a r t i c l e s

o n v e r b s a n d o n t h e w o r d s " e a c h , " " a n y , " " e v e r y , " a n d " a l l " ; o r b y

Z i f f , a s w e l l a s V e n d l e r , i n w o r k s o n t h e w o r d " g o o d . " 2 0

P e r h a p s t h e m o s t h e r a l d e d o f r e c e n t w o r k i n t h i s a r e a o f " l i n -

g u i s t i c p h e n o m e n o l o g y , " a s h e h i m s e l f c a l l s i t , i s t h a t o f t h e l a t e J .

L . A u s t i n . 2 1 A m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , A u s t i n i s f a m o u s f o r c a l l i n g a t -

t e n t i o n t o " p e r f o r m a t i v e u t t e r a n c e s , " i . e . , sentences in which we d o

something as contrasted with sentences in which we merely state

a f a c t o r d e s c r i b e s o m e t h i n g ( w h i c h h e c a l l s " c o n s t a t i v e " ) . Kind s

o f p e r f o r m a t i v e s , w i t h e x a m p l e s , a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

i . V e r d i c t i v e s , e . g . , " W e f i n d h i m g u i l t y , " " I e s t i m a t e . . . . "

z . E x e r c i t i v e s , e . g . , " I a p p o i n t . . . , " " I b e q u e a t h . . . . "

3 . C o m m i s s i v e s , e . g . , " I p r o m i s e . . . , " " W e s w e a r . . . . "

4 . B e h a b i t i v e s , e . g . , " I a p o l o g i z e . . . , " " C o n g r a t u l a t i o n s ! "

; . E x p o s i t i v e s , e . g . , " I a s s u m e . . . , " " W e a f f i r m . . . . "

I n t h e c o u r s e o f s e e k i n g f o r a w a y o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c o n s t a t i v e s

a n d p e r f o r m a t i v e s , A u s t i n m a k e s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n

t h r e e k i n d s o f s p e e c h a c t s . W h e n I u t t e r a s e n t e n c e l i k e , " Y o u c a n ' t

do that," I am saying something or perform ing a l o c u t i o n a r y a c t .

I n s a y i n g t h i s , I a m a l s o p e r f o r m i n g a ni l l o c u t i o n a r y act-that of

f o r b i d d i n g y o u t o d o s o m e t h i n g o r p r o t e s t i n g a g a i n s t y o u r d o i n g i t .

By d o i n g t h i s , I may keep you from d oing it, b ring you to your

s e n s e s , o r a n n o y y o u ; i . e . , I b r i n g a b o u t a c e r t a i n e f f e c t , a n d A u s t i n

1 9 . P a u l W a r r e n T a y l o r , N o r m a t i v e D i s c o u r s e . E n g l e w o o d C l i f f s , Ne w

J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1 9 6 i .

2 0. Z e n o V e n d l e r , " V e r b s a n d T i m e s , " P h i l o s o p h i c a l R e v i e w , L X V I ( 1 9 5 7 ) ,

1 4 3 - 6 o ; " E a c h a n d E v e r y , A n y a n d A l l , " M i n d , L X X I ( 1 9 6 2 ) ; "T h e G r a m m a r

o f G o o d n e s s , " P h i l o s o p h i c a l R e v i e w , L X X I I ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 4 4 6 - 6 5 ; a n d P a u l Z i f f ,

S e m a n t i c A n a l y s i s ( I t h a c a , N e w Y o r k : C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 0 ) .

2 1 . J o h n L . A u s t i n , How To Do Things with W ords . T h e W i l l i a m J a m e s

L e c t u r e d e l i v e r e d a t H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y i n 1 9 5 5 . C a m b r i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s :

H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 2 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 268/327

2 6 2 PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY

c a l l s m y d o i n g s o a p e r l o c u t i o n a r y a c t . S o m e i l l o c u t i o n a r y a c t s a r e :

r e p o r t i n g , a s k i n g , p r o m i s i n g , t h a n k i n g ; s o m e p e r l o c u t i o n a r y a c t s :

p e r s u a d i n g , i n s p i r i n g , i m p r e s s i n g , a m u s i n g . B o t h m a y b e d o n e

t h r o u g h t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f a l o c u t i o n a r y a c t , i . e . , t h r o u g h u t t e r i n g

a s e n t e n c e , b u t t h e y m a y a l s o b e d o n e t h r o u g h a c t s t h a t d o n o t i n -

v o l v e s p e e c h , e . g . , through gestures or movements of the body .

I t w o u l d , n o d o u b t , b e t o o m u c h t o s u g g e s t t h a t A u s t i n ' s f i n d i n g s

should be taken bodily and taught in the schools, nor wou ld I go

a b o u t i t . B u t i t d o e s s e e m p l a u s i b l e t o m a i n t a i n t h a t s o m e o f t h e m

might well be made part of t he training of English teachers and

p e r h a p s e v e n t r i c k l e i n t o t h e i r c l a s s r o o m i n s t r u c t i o n . A t a n y r a t e ,

A u s t i n d o e s h a v e i n c i d e n t a l l y i n s t r u c t i v e t h i n g s t o s a y a b o u t i n d i r e c t

s p e e c h , a b o u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h r e a t e n i n g a n d i n t i m i d a t i n g ,

and many other matters relating to how to do things with words,

w h i c h i s c e r t a i n l y o n e o f t h e t h i n g s w e h a v e t o l e a r n a s w e g r o w u p .

I n g e n e r a l , i f t h e r e i s a n y v a l u e i n o u r h a v i n g s o m e c o n s c i o u s u n d e r -

s t a n d i n g o f o u r m o d e s o f s p e e c h , i t w o u l d s e e m a p p r o p r i a t e t h a t w e

s h o u l d b e i n i t i a t e d i n t o t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e f o r e w e c o m e t o t a k e

p h i l o s o p h y c o u r s e s i n t h e u n i v e r s i t y .

P h e n i x s a y s , " . . . knowledge has a fundamental role in educa-

t i o n . . . . I t f o l l o w s t h a t . . . it is important to know what knowl-

e d g e i s . T h e w a y s a n d c o n t e n t o f t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g d e p e n d v e r y

m u c h o n w h a t o n e u n d e r s t a n d s k n o w l e d g e t o b e . " 2 2 T h i s s t a t e -

m e n t i s n o t s o w h o l l y t r u e a s i t m i g h t s e e m t o b e o r a s e d u c a t o r s

h a v e o f t e n t a k e n i t t o b e , b u t p e r h a p s w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t t h e r e i s

s o m e t h i n g i n i t . I f s o , t h e n i t m a y a l s o b e r e l e v a n t h e r e t o c a l l a t -

t e n t i o n t o s o m e r e c e n t d i s c u s s i o n s o f k n o w i n g . It may be well to

p o i n t o u t a t o n c e t h a t t h e y d o n o t a l l g o o n w i t h i n t h e o l d i d e a l i s m -

r e a l i s m - p r a g m a t i s m t r i a n g l e . R a t h e r , t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s a r e o f t e n m o -

t i v a t e d , a t l e a s t i n p a r t , b y a w i s h t o u n d e r c u t s u c h " s k e p t i c a l " c o n -

clusions as "One can never know what another person is feeling,"

"We cannot be certain that there is an external world," or "We

cannot really know anything except what is true on analytical or

l o g i c a l g r o u n d s a l o n e ." They tend to take the form of studies of

t h e u s e o f e x p r e s s i o n s l i k e " I k n o w . . . , " " I a m c e r t a i n . . . , " a n d

2 2 . P h i l i p H . P h e ni x, P h i l o s o p h y o f E d u c a t i o n , p p . 2 9 7 - 9 8 . New Yor k :

H e n r y H o l t & C o . , 1 9 5 8 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 269/327

FRANKENA 2 6 3

" I b e l i e v e . . . , " a n d o f c o g n a t e f o r m s i n o t h e r p e r s o n s a n d t e n s e s .

T h e p o s s i b l e r e l e v a n c e o f t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s t o e d u c a t i o n i n t h e

s c h o o l s i s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y s o m e t i m e s i n c l u d e s u c h

q u e s t i o n s a s " H o w d o w e l e a r n t h e u s e o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n ` I k n o w ' ? "

o r r e m a r k s l i k e " W h e n I s a y ` S i s P , ' I i m p l y a t l e a s t t h a t I b e l i e v e i t

a n d , i f I h a v e b e e n s t r i c t l y b r o u g h t u p , t h a t I a m ( q u i t e ) s u r e o f i t . "

O n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t a n d b e s t - k n o w n c o n t r i b u t i o n s a l o n g t h i s l i n e

i s A u s t i n ' s p a p e r o n " O t h e r M i n d s . " 2 3 Here Austin makes a num-

b e r o f p o i n t s , a m o n g t h e m t h e f o l l o w i n g : ( a ) W h e n o n e s a y s , " I

k n o w . . . , " o n e i s n o t r e p o r t i n g o r d e s c r i b i n g t h e s t a t e o f o n e ' s

m i n d o r p a s s i n g o n a p i e c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n , a s o l d e r v i e w s s e e m t o

assume . " I k n o w " i s n o t " a d e s c r i p t i v e p h r a s e . " ( b ) R a t h e r , i t i s a

p e r f o r m a t i v e u t t e r a n c e o f s o m e k i n d . W h e n I s a y , " I k n o w , " I a m

doing something . I n f a c t , I a m d o i n g s o m e t h i n g s i m i l a r t o w h a t

I a m d o i n g w h e n I s a y , " I p r o m i s e . " W h e n I s a y , " I p r o m i s e , " I

a m n o t r e p o r t i n g o r d e s c r i b i n g w h a t I a m d o i n g ; I a m d o i n g i t -

I a m p r o m i s i n g , b i n d i n g m y s e l f , g i v i n g a n o t h e r m y w o r d . L i k e w i s e ,

" W h e n I s a y , ` I k n o w , ' I g i v e o t h e r s m y w o r d : I g i v e o t h e r s m y

a u t h o r i t y f o r s a y i n g t h a t ` S i s P . ' " ( c ) T h u s , " I k n o w " i s d i f f e r e n t

f r o m " H e k n o w s , " m u c h a s " I p r o m i s e " i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m " H e p r o m -

i s e s . " ( d ) I t i s a l s o v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m " I b e l i e v e , " " I a m s u r e , " " I

a m a b s o l u t e l y s u r e , " " I s w e a r , " a n d t h e l i k e . ( e ) I f I s a y , "I k n o w

p , " s o m e o n e m a y c h a l l e n g e m e by a s k i n g " Ho w d o y o u k n o w ? "

a n d , i n r e p l y , I m a y b e e x p e c t e d t o s h o w t h a t I a m i n a p o s i t i o n t o

know and what my evidence is . ( f ) I t i s n o t s t r i c t l y c o r r e c t t o s a y ,

a s s o m e d o , t h a t I c a n k n o w p o n l y i f p i s t r u e . I f I s a y , " I k n o w p , "

I c a n n o t a l s o s a y , " B u t I m a y b e m i s t a k e n . " B u t I m a y b e j u s t i f i e d

i n s a y i n g , " I k n o w p " i n s o m e c a s e s i n w h i c h i t l a t e r t u r n s o u t t h a t

p i s f a l s e ; a n d i n t h o s e c a s e s i t i s n o t a l w a y s a p p r o p r i a t e t o r o u n d

o n m e b y s a y i n g , " Y o u ' v e b e e n p r o v e d w r o n g , s o y o u d i d n ' t k n o w "

a n y m o r e t h a n i t i s t o s a y " Y o u h a v e n ' t p e r f o r m e d , s o y o u d i d n ' t

p r o m i s e ." (g) When someone has said to me "I know," I am en-

t i t l e d t o s a y " 1 k n o w " t o o , a t s e c o n d h a n d . " T h e r i g h t t o s a y ` I

k n o w ' i s t r a n s m i s s i b l e , i n t h e s o r t o f w a y t h a t o t h e r a u t h o r i t y i s

t r a n s m i s s i b l e . "

2 3 . John L . A u s t i n , " O t h e r M i n d s , " r e p r i n t e d i n h i s P h i l o s o p h i c a l P a p e r s .

O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , i g 6 i .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 270/327

264 PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY

S o m e o f t h e s e p o i n t s a n d o t h e r s l i k e t h e m a r e n o w c o m m o n c u r -

r e n c y , b u t s o m e o f t h e m h a v e b e e n c h a l l e n g e d b y l a t e r w r i t e r s , e s -

p e c i a l l y ( b ) , ( f ) , ( g ) , a n d e v e n ( a ) 2 4 A u s t i n h i m s e l f l a t e r i n d i -

c a t e d d o u b t w h e t h e r " I k n o w " i s a c o m m i s s i v e o r a n e x p o s i t i v e .

H o w e v e r , w h a t h a s b e e n s a i d w i l l e x h i b i t t h e t e r m s i n w h i c h t h e

d i s c u s s i o n i s g o i n g o n , b e s i d e s s h o w i n g t h a t i t m a y b e i n s t r u c t i v e

f o r e d u c a t o r s w h o u s e t e r m s l i k e " b e l i e v e " a n d " k n o w " ( a n d n o t

o n l y j a r g o n l i k e " c o g n i t i v e r e s p o n s e , " " i d e n t i f y w i t h , " a n d t h e l i k e ) .

P e r h a p s a f u r t h e r n o t e a b o u t p o i n t ( g ) w i l l b e o f i n t e r e s t h e r e ,

s i n c e e d u c a t i o n i s o f t e n c o n c e i v e d o f a s i n v o l v i n g a t r a n s m i s s i o n o f

know ledge . I t s e e m s , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , t o b e a r o n t h e q u e s t i o n

o f t h e a d m i s s i b i l i t y i n e d u c a t i o n o f s e c o n d - h a n d k n o w l e d g e , o f l e a r n -

i n g b y b e i n g t o l d r a t h e r t h a n b y d o i n g . I t m a y , t h e r e f o r e , b e w o r t h

n o t i c i n g t h a t H i n t i k k a i n Know led g e and B elief a g r e e s w i t h A u s t i n

t h a t k n o w l e d g e i s t r a n s m i s s i b l e a n d t h a t b e l i e f i snot . 2 5

" I f I k n o w

t h a t y o u k n o w t h a t p i s t r u e , I v i r t u a l l y k n o w m y s e l f t h a t p i s t r u e .

H e n c e , i f y o u t e l l m e t h a t y o u k n o w t h a t p i s t r u e , I c a n n o t ( d e -

f e n s i b l y ) d e n y t h a t I k n o w m y s e l f w h e t h e r p i s t r u e w i t h o u t i n d i -

c a t i n g t h a t I d o n o t w h o l l y t r u s t y o u ( y o u r j u d g m e n t o r y o u r s i n -

c e r i t y ) . " B u t H i n t i k k a d o u b t s t h a t A u s t i n i s r i g h t o n p o i n t ( b ) a n d

o f f e r s a d i f f e r e n t a c c o u n t o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y o f k n o w l e d g e . T h e

e x p l a n a t i o n i s n o t t h a t A , i n s a y i n g " I k n o w p , " i s p a s s i n g o n h i s

a u t h o r i t y o r r i g h t t o s a y i t t o B , b u t t h a t B t r u s t s A w h e n A s a y s i t .

I f B d o e s n o t t r u s t A , t h e n A ' s s a y i n g " I k n o w p " d o e s n o t j u s t i f y

B i n s a y i n g i t a l s o , u n l e s s A g i v e s B h i s e v i d e n c e f o r p . I f w e s u b -

s t i t u t e a t e a c h e r f o r A a n d a p u p i l f o r B , t h e n i t l o o k s a s i f t w o d i f -

f e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n s o f e d u c a t i o n g o w i t h t h e s e t w o d i f f e r e n t e x p l a -

n a t i o n s o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i b i l i t y o f k n o w i n g .

Conclusion

W i t h s o m e t r e p i d a t i o n , I o f f e r t h e a b o v e a s a n a t t e m p t t o r e v i e w

t h r e e o f t h e w a y s i n w h i c h r e c e n t p h i l o s o p h y m i g h t o r e v e n s h o u l d

h a v e a b e a r i n g o n t h e t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e o f t h e s c h o o l s : (i) by

2 4 . Cf . , e . g . , A l a n R . W h i t e , " O n C l a i m i n g T o K n o w , " P h i l o s o p h i c a l R e -

v i e w , L X V I ( A p r i l , 1 9 5 7 ) , 1 8 o - 9 z ; Winston H . F . B a r n e s , " K n o w i n g , " P h i l o -

s o p h i c a l R e v i e w , L X X I I ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 6 3 ) , 3 - 1 6 .

2 5 . J a a k o H i n t i k k a , Knowledge and Belief, p p . 6 1 - 6 4 . I t h a c a , N e w Y o r k :

C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 2 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 271/327

FRANKENA 2 6 5

p r o v i d i n g n o r m a t i v e p r e m i s e s , ( 2 ) b y p r o v i d i n g p r e m i s e s o f o t h e r

s o r t s , ( 3 ) b y p r o v i d i n g c o n c e p t u a l o r l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s e s , m e t h o d -

o l o g i c a l e l u c i d a t i o n s , a n d s o f o r t h . T h e r e a r e , a s I s a i d i n t h e f i r s t

s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r , t w o o t h e r w a y s i n w h i c h p h i l o s o p h y m a y

b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e s c h o o l s : ( 4 ) b y b e i n g m a d e a p a r t o f t h e i r

c u r r i c u l u m , a n d ( 5 ) b y b e i n g i n c l u d e d i n t h e t r a i n i n g o f t h e i r t e a c h -

e r s a n d a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . S p a c e d o e s n o t p e r m i t m e t o t a k e u p t h e s e

t o p i c s , w h i c h a r e i n a n y c a s e o f a v e r y d i f f e r e n t o r d e r f r o m t h e

o t h e r s d e a l t w i t h h e r e . T h e y h a v e , h o w e v e r , b e e n r a t h e r t h o r o u g h l y

c a n v a s s e d b y p h i l o s o p h e r s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w o r k s : Philosophy in

American Ed ucation, b y B r a n d B l a n s h a r d , e t a l . ;2 6 a n d t w o c o m -

mittee reports, "The Teaching of Phil osophy in American High

S c h o o l s " 2 7 and "Philosophy in the Education of Teachers . " 2 8

A s a p h i l o s o p h e r , I c a n n o t b u t a p p r o v e , i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h ( 5 ) ,

Conant's recommendations 2 9 t h a t o u r f u t u r e t e a c h e r s b e r e q u i r e d

t o t a k e a g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h y c o u r s e t a u g h t b y a " r e a l p h i l o s o p h e r , "

a n d t h a t f u t u r e c o u r s e s i n t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f e d u c a t i o n b e t a u g h t

b y p e o p l e " w e l l t r a i n e d " i n p h i l o s o p h y . W h a t I h a v e s a i d m a y , i n

f a c t , b e t a k e n a s p a r t o f a n a r g u m e n t f o r t h e s e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s .

I t s h o u l d n o t , h o w e v e r , b e t a k e n , i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h ( 4 ) , a s p a r t

o f a n a r g u m e n t f o r t e a c h i n g r e c e n t p h i l o s o p h y i n t h e s c h o o l s , f o r

i t s h o w s a t m o s t t h a t r e c e n t p h i l o s o p h y h a s s o m e t h i n g t o s a y t h a t

m a y b e o f v a l u e t o s c h o o l e d u c a t o r s b o t h f o r t h e i r t h e o r y a n d p e r -

h a p s e v e n f o r t h e i r p r a c t i c e . O f c o u r s e , i f w h a t I h a v e s a i d b e

e r r o r a n d u p o n m e p r o v e d , I s h o u l d l i k e t o c l a i m t h a t I n e v e r w r i t .

B u t i t i s t o o l a t e f o r t h a t n o w .

z 6 . B r a n d B l a n s h a r d e t a l . , P h i l o s o p h y i n A m e r i c a n E d u c a t i o n . Ne w Yo r k :

H arper & B r o s . , 1 9 4 5 -

2 7 -C o m m i t t e e o n P h i l o s o p h y i n E d u c a t i o n o f t h e A m e r i c a n P h i l o s o p h i c a l

A s s o c i a t i o n , " T h e T e a c h i n g o f P h i l o s o p h y i n A m e r i c a n H i g h S c h o o l s , " P r o -

c e e d i n g s o f t h e A m e r i c a n P h i l o s o p h i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , 1 9 S 8 - 5 9 , p p . 9 1 - 1 3 7 . ( P u b -

l i s h e d f o r t h e A s s o c i a t i o n b y A n t i o c h P r e s s , Y e l l o w S p r i n g s , O h i o , 1 9 5 9 . )

2 8 . C o m m i t t e e o n P h i l o s o p h y i n E d u c a t i o n o f t h e A m e r i c a n P h i l o s o p h i c a l

A s s o c i a t i o n a n d t h e C o m m i t t e e o n C o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n P h i l o s o p h -

i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f t h e P h i l o s o p h y o f E d u c a t i o n S o c i e t y , " P h i l o s o p h y i n t h e

E d u c a t i o n o f T e a c h e r s , " i n i b i d . , p p . 1 3 9 - 5 6 .

2 9 . Jam es B . C o n a n t , T h e E d u c a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n T e a c h e r s , p p . 1 2 7 - 3 1 . NewYork : M c G r a w - H i l l B o o k C o . , 1 9 6 3 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 272/327

S E C TI O N I I I

CRI TIQUE

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 273/327

I n s t r u c t i o n s t o t h e W r i t e r

J O H N I . G O O D L A D

You have had an opportunity to read chapters which describe

and analyze significant re-exam ination and change which have oc-

curred since World War II in several aspects of schooling . T h e s e

c h a p t e r s a t t e m p t t o r e l a t e t h e o r y t o p r a c t i c e ; t o d e t e r m i n e i f a n y

theory does underlie proposals that have been made and whether

s u c h t h e o r y a c t u a l l y h a s g u i d e d s c h o o l c h a n g e s p r e s u m a b l y r e s u l t -

i n g f r o m t h e s e p r o p o s a l s . Y o u a r e f r e e t o d i s a g r e e w i t h t h e a u t h o r s

whenever their perceptions and your own appear not to coincide .

You have had an opportunity, also, to read several chapters

which identify and analyze significant forces and ideas to which

schools might (or even should) have responded in the post-World

W a r I I p e r i o d . Is there any coincidence between the forces and

i d e a s p r o p e l l i n g r e c e n t s c h o o l c h a n g e s a n d t h e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r c e s

and ideas in American life which have appeared du ring this same

p e r i o d ? O r d o t h e a u t h o r s o f S e c t i o n s I a n d I I , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a p p e a r

t o b e t a l k i n g a b o u t t w o d i f f e r e n t A m e r i c a s a n d t w o d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l

s y s t e m s ?

2 6 9

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 274/327

C H A P T E R XI

S c h o o l C h a n g e i n P e r s p e c t i v e

FRANCIS S . CHASE

I n t r o d u c t i o n

S e c t i o n s I a n d I I o f t h i s v o l u m e o f f e r a t l e a s t t h r e e k i n d s o f i d e a s

f o r t h e r e a d e r ' s c o n s i d e r a t i o n : ( a ) d e s c r i p t i o n s a n d e v a l u a t i o n s o f

s o m e o f t h e m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s n o w t a k i n g p l a c e i n e l e m e n t a r y

and secondary education ; ( b ) a n a l y s e s o f t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i n c u l -

t u r e a n d s o c i e t y t o w h i c h e d u c a t i o n m u s t r e s p o n d ; a n d ( c ) s p e c u l a -

tions as to how philosophy and social science may become instru-

m e n t s i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d p r a c t i c e s

c a l c u l a t e d t o r e a l i z e i n d i v i d u a l p o t e n t i a l a n d s o c i a l i d e a s . I n t h i s f i n a l

c h a p t e r , I s h a l l t r y t o t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a n d i n t e r p r e -

t a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g t e n c h a p t e r s ; but I am under no

i l l u s i o n t h a t I c a n c o n t r i v e a n e a t m a t c h i n g o f c h a l l e n g e a n d r e -

s p o n s e ; a n d i t i s n o t m y a m b i t i o n t o d o s o . I n s t e a d , I s h a l l a t t e m p t

i n m y o w n w a y t o p u l l t o g e t h e r t h e s t r a n d s t h a t a p p e a r i n t h e e a r -

l i e r c h a p t e r s a n d t o i n t e r w e a v e t h e m w i t h o t h e r i n f l u e n c e s w h i c h

seem essential to u nd erstand ing the impetuses for ed ucational

change, the conditions which determine the kinds and amount of

chang e, and the b ases for hope that ed ucation may b ecome more

r e s p o n s i v e t o t h e n e e d s o f o u r s o c i e t y a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l s w h o c o m -

p o s e i t .

Genesis o f New Dema nds on Educatio n

I n t h e 1 9 5 o ' s , A m e r i c a s l o w l y a w o k e f r o m d r e a m s o f u n a s s a i l a b l e

s t r e n g t h a n d u n c h a l l e n g e a b l e w o r l d l e a d e r s h i p t o a n e w a n d f e a r -

f u l s e n s e o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y . A series of shock s, which rocked o ur

national complacency and produced mo re or less prolonged night-y

m a r e s , p r e c e d e d t h e a w a k e n i n g a n d c o l o r e d t h e e n s u i n g p e r c e p t i o n s

o f r e a l i t y .

2 7 1

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 275/327

2 7 2 SCHOOL CHANGE IN PERSPECTIVE

Among the more humbling aspects of the recent even ts was a

belated recognition that the United States has no monopoly on

"know how" and the accompanying realiz ati on that we mig ht be

l a g g i n g i n t h e t r a i n i n g o f s c i e n t i s t s a n d e n g i n e e r s . The speedy

emergence of the U . S . S . R . as a nuclear power had given ris e to

doubts which were reinfo rced both by the resurgence of European

i n d u s t r y a n d t h e r a p i d i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n o f R u s s i a a n d o t h e r c o m -

m u n i s t s o c i e t i e s ; a n d t h e R u s s i a n l e a d i n s p a c e e x p l o r a t i o n , d r a m a -

t i z e d b y S p u t n i k I , d e t o n a t e d t h e a c c u m u l a t e d m i s g i v i n g s a n d l o o s e d

a clamor for corrective action . A less spectacu lar but scarcely

l e s s p r o f o u n d b l o w t o o u r b e l i e f i n t h e i n e v i t a b l e t r i u m p h o f t h e

American way was the slowly dawning realization that prosperity

and continuing increases in the gross national product were not

eliminating unemployment and poverty . Other shocks were trace-

a b l e t o i n c i d e n t s w h i c h h i g h l i g h t e d c r i m e i n o u r c i t i e s , t h e e x c l u s i o n

o f o n e - t e n t h o r m o r e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n f r o m p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e

o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d b e n e f i t s o f o u r s o c i e t y , a n d t h e p o l l u t i o n o f a i r

a n d w a t e r .

P e r h a p s t h e s e r e c e n t e v e n t s e v o k e d m e m o r i e s o f e a r l i e r t h r e a t s

t o c o m p l a c e n c y . The Great Depression had exposed serious mal-

f u n c t i o n i n g i n t h e e c o n o m y a n d b r o u g h t f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t o t h e

g eneral view the prospect of wid espread unemployment and pov-

e r t y a n d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f l a r g e g r o u p s t o w h o m t h e b o a s t e d o p p o r -

t u n i t i e s o f A m e r i c a n l i f e w e r e l a r g e l y c l o s e d ; b u t t h e l e s s o n s o f t h e

d e p r e s s i o n w e r e q u i c k l y f o r g o t t e n i n t h e r e t u r n o f p r o s p e r i t y w i t h

i t s n e w d r e a m s o f a b u n d a n c e a n d t h e p e r s i s t e n t i l l u s i o n t h a t a l l o b -

s t a c l e s t o w e l l - b e i n g w o u l d y i e l d t o e v e r i n c r e a s i n g p r o d u c t i v i t y .

The depression-conceived W . P .A. nursery school s, which might

h a v e g i v e n u s a t h i r t y - y e a r s t a r t o n " H e a d S t a r t , " w e r e a l l o w e d t o

wither along with C . C . C . a n d N. Y . A . , which offered new hope to

disadvantaged youth . O t h e r p r o g r a m s f o r l i f t i n g t h e p o o r t o g r e a t e r

s e l f - d e p e n d e n c e a n d f o r e x t e n d i n g t h e b e n e f i t s o f A m e r i c a n l i f e t o

t h e s o c i a l l y h a n d i c a p p e d , l i k e w i s e , w e r e p e r m i t t e d t o l a p s e . Not

o n l y w e r e t h e d e p r e s s i o n - e x p o s e d s h o r t c o m i n g s o f s o c i e t y a n d e d u -

c a t i o n l a r g e l y f o r g o t t e n b u t t h e l a c k o f e m p l o y m e n t f o r y o u t h w a s

t u r n e d i n t o a v i r t u e b y t h e u p w a r d e x t e n s i o n o f c o m p u l s o r y s c h o o l

a t t e n d a n c e w h i c h h e l p e d c r e a t e t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t w e w e r e e d u c a t i n g

a l l c h i l d r e n a n d y o u t h . In fact, we were only holding more you ng

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 276/327

C H A S E 2 7 3

p e o p l e i n s c h o o l l o n g e r a n d r e f u s i n g e v e n t h i s b o o n t o t h e c h i l d r e n

o f m i g r a n t l a b o r e r s , a m a j o r i t y o f N e g r o e s , a n d o t h e r s w h o m w e

w i l f u l l y o r n e g l i g e n t l y e x e m p t e d f r o m r e g u l a r o r p r o l o n g e d s c h o o l

a t t e n d a n c e .

The Second World War and the subsequ ent rise of a powerful

b l o c o f c o m m u n i s t n a t i o n s p o s e d p r o b l e m s o f g r e a t m a g n i t u d e w i t h -

o u t s e r i o u s l y s h a k i n g o u r f a i t h i n t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e A m e r i c a n

e c o n o m y , t h e A m e r i c a n c h a r a c t e r , a n d A m e r i c a n e d u c a t i o n t o o v e r -

c o m e a l l o b s t a c l e s t o o u r " m a n i f e s t d e s t i n y " ; b u t t h e y d i d p e r h a p s

t r o u b l e t h e A m e r i c a n s u b c o n s c i o u s w i t h p r o b l e m s w h i c h t h e m o r e

r e c e n t s h o c k s b r o u g h t v i v i d l y t o p u b l i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s .

T h e e f f e c t o f t h e r e c e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f e a r l i e r m i s g i v i n g s w a s

t o a w a k e n u s t o t h e h a r s h f a c t t h a t w o r l d l e a d e r s h i p c o u l d s l i p f r o m

o u r g r a s p a n d , w o r s e , t h a t t h e h e a l t h o f o u r s o c i e t y a n d f u n c t i o n i n g

o f o u r o w n i n s t i t u t i o n s w e r e i n j e o p a r d y . T h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f v u l -

n e r a b i l i t y e v o k e d s o m e h y s t e r i a a m o n g t h e l e s s s t a b l e e l e m e n t s o f

t h e p o p u l a t i o n a n d l e d t o a t t a c k s o n t h o s e i n p o s i t i o n s o f r e s p o n -

s i b i l i t y i n e d u c a t i o n , g o v e r n m e n t , a n d e l s e w h e r e a s w e l l a s t o s o m e

h a s t i l y c o n c e i v e d c r a s h p r o g r a m s . T h e s e f l u r r i e s o n t h e p a r t o f t h e

h a l f - a w a k e n e d n a t i o n w e r e s o o n f o l l o w e d , h o w e v e r , b y a d e e p e n e d

s e n s e o f n a t i o n a l p u r p o s e , a r e c o m m i t m e n t t o d e m o c r a t i c i d e a l s , a n d

c r i t i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m s t o b e s o l v e d a n d t h e w e a k n e s s e s

t o b e o v e r c o m e . W h e r e a s t h e m o o d o f d i s m a y h a d p r o d u c e d s w e e p -

i n g c r i t i c i s m s o f e d u c a t i o n a n d a m b i g u o u s d e m a n d s f o r s c h o o l s t o

c u r e w h a t e v e r w a s b e l i e v e d a m i s s w i t h o u r s o c i e t y , t h e n e w e r m o o d

o f r a t i o n a l a c t i o n , w h i c h g a t h e r e d s t r e n g t h b e t w e e n 1 9 5 7 a n d 1 9 6 4 ,

p r o d u c e d , f i r s t , b e t t e r d e f i n i t i o n s o f p r o b l e m s a n d t h e r e l e v a n c e o f

e d u c a t i o n t h e r e t o ; a n d , s e c o n d , a s e t o f m o r e d i s c r i m i n a t i n g d e -

mands on education, accompanied increasingly by new resources

f o r m e e t i n g t h e d e m a n d s .

C h a n g e s i n c u l t u r e a n d s o c i e t y , a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g c h a n g e s

i n e d u c a t i o n , s e e m t o e x h i b i t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a d e e p , p o w e r f u l

c u r r e n t , n o t t o b e e a s i l y d e f l e c t e d . B e c a u s e o f i t s d e p t h a n d b e c a u s e

i t f l o w s o u t o f s o u r c e s n o t w e l l u n d e r s t o o d , t h i s c u r r e n t i s n o t r e a d -

i l y c h a r t e d o r i t s s t r e n g t h e a s i l y c a l c u l a t e d . T h e c a s u a l o b s e r v e r i s

l i k e l y , t h e r e f o r e , t o d e p e n d f o r b e a r i n g s o n s u r f a c e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s ,

which may indeed be related to the underlying movement b u t

w h i c h a r e p o o r i n d i c a t o r s e i t h e r o f p o w e r o r d i r e c t i o n . I t c a n n o t

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 277/327

2 7 4 SC HO OL C HANGE IN PERS P E CTI V E

b e d e n i e d t h a t s o m e o f t h e s u r f a c e d e t o n a t i o n s a r e s p e c t a c u l a r , o r

t h a t f r e q u e n t l y t h e y a r e l e g i t i m a t e c a u s e s f o r c o n c e r n b o t h f o r t h e i r

d i r e c t e f f e c t s a n d f o r t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t i m p a c t o n h u m a n b e h a v i o r .

T he eruption of the new know led g e and new technolog ies of in-

q u i r y i n t h e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s i n t h e m u s h r o o m i n g s p r e a d e r o f d e a t h

i s a c a s e i n p o i n t . The mere existence of su ch a weapon under the

u n c e r t a i n c o n t r o l o f c o m p e t i n g a n d m y o p i c n a t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s t e n d s

t o p r o d u c e c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s i r r e l e v a n t t o , i f n o t a c t u a l l y d e s t r u c -

t i v e o f , t h e g o a l s t o w h i c h m a n i n m o r e l u c i d m o m e n t s a s p i r e s .

M y p o i n t i s t h a t t h e b o m b , t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f r o c k e t s a n d m i s s i l e s ,

t h e d r a m a t i c c o m p e t i t i o n i n s p a c e e x p l o r a t i o n , t h e m o s t r e c e n t e l e c -

t r o n i c a n d c y b e r n e t i c d e v e l o p m e n t s a r e a l l s u r f a c e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s -

frequently misl eading-of the thrust generated by man's inherent

c u r i o s i t y e q u i p p e d w i t h r a p i d l y e l a b o r a t e d t e c h n o l o g i e s f o r d i s c o v -

e r i n g a n d a p p l y i n g k n o w l e d g e . W h e n m a n d e p e n d e d o n c r u d e r

implements to feed his impu lse to know, and when new ly d iscov-

ered know led g e was transformed into instru ments for supplying

m a n ' s m a t e r i a l a n d o t h e r w a n t s o n l y t h r o u g h s l o w p r o c e s s e s o f t r i a l

a n d e r r o r , a i d e d b y o c c a s i o n a l i n t u i t i v e i n s i g h t s , t h e r e w a s t i m e f o r

social adaptation to changes wrought in the environment and time

f o r r e f l e c t i o n r e g a r d i n g c h o i c e o f d i r e c t i o n . E v e n s o , t h e t e s t i m o n y

o f h i s t o r y s e e m s t o b e t h a t r a t i o n a l c h o i c e s , b a s e d o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n

of long - rang e conseq uences, are seld om mad e ; and adaptation of

s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s f o l l o w s s l o w l y , p a i n f u l l y , a n d i m p e r f e c t l y t h e

new need s created b y man- mad e chang es in the environment .

T h e e v e n t s o f t h e p a s t d e c a d e w h i c h p r o d u c e d p o p u l a r r e a c t i o n s

s u p p o r t i v e o f d r a s t i c m e a s u r e s i n d e f e n s e , e d u c a t i o n , a n d s o c i a l w e l -

fare were related to fundamental transformations of culture and

s o c i e t y . T h e s e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , o c c u r r i n g c h i e f l y i n t h e p a s t f i f t y

years, have made necessary the re-examinat ion, if not the recon-

s t r u c t i o n , o f a l l i n s t i t u t i o n s ; a n d t h e y h o l d p a r t i c u l a r i m p l i c a t i o n s

f o r e d u c a t i o n . S o g r e a t h a v e b e e n t h e s e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s t h a t s c h o l -

a r s a n d w r i t e r s s t r u g g l e f o r t e r m s t o i n d i c a t e a g r e a t b r e a k w i t h t h e

so-called mo dern tradition and the beginning of a new era . S o m e

call it the "post-modem age . " B r i d e n b a u g h , i n h i s p r e s i d e n t i a l a d -

d r e s s t o t h e A m e r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n i n 1 9 6 2 , c a l l e d i t " t h e

g r e a t e s t t u r n i n g p o i n t i n a l l h u m a n h i s t o r y , o f w h i c h w e h a v e a n y

record," and continued :

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 278/327

CHASE 27 5

T h e n a t u r e o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e h a s u n d e r g o n e " a g r e a t m u t a t i o n . " . . .

S o p e r v a d i n g a n d c o m p l e t e h a s b e e n t h i s c h a n g e , a n d s o c o m p l e x h a s l i f e

become . . . t h a t i t n o w a p p e a r s p r o b a b l e t h a t m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y

America or Western Europe had more in common with fift h-century

G r e e c e ( p h y s i c a l l y , e c o n o m i c a l l y , s o c i a l l y , m e n t a l l y , s p i r i t u a l l y ) t h a n

w i t h t h e i r o w n p r o j e c t i o n s i n t o t h e m i d d l e o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . ,

T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i n c u l t u r e a n d s o c i e t y t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d

h a v e b e e n s o r a d i c a l i n t h e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y a s t o b e a p p a r e n t t o e v e n

t h e s u p e r f i c i a l o b s e r v e r . C h a n g e s i n t h e t e c h n o l o g i e s t h r o u g h w h i c h

m a n a d a p t s h i m s e l f t o h i s e n v i r o n m e n t a r e s o r a p i d a s t o j u s t i f y t h e

o f t - r e p e a t e d a s s e r t i o n t h a t , f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n h i s t o r y , c h a n g e h a s

become an ordinary occurrence, and adaptation to a succession of

c h a n g e s h a s b e c o m e a n e c e s s i t y f o r s u r v i v a l . The highly dev eloped

techniques for discovering and testing knowledge which are known

c o l l e c t i v e l y a s s c i e n c e a r e t h e c h i e f p r o p e l l a n t s o f c h a n g e ; a n d t h e

constantly elaborated technologies of communication, production,

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , a n d w a r f a r e , i n i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e n e w t e c h n i q u e s

o f i n q u i r y , s e r v e a s a c c e l e r a t o r s o f c h a n g e .

The resulting proliferation of knowledge and changed views of

the function of know led g e prod uce impacts on the cu lture with

w h i c h e d u c a t i o n i s s t r u g g l i n g . O t h e r s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a l s o a r e h a v -

i n g g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y i n a c c o m m o d a t i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e s u c c e s s i v e

j o l t s t o a c c u s t o m e d w a y s o f t h i n k i n g a n d a c t i n g ; a n d t h i s , i n t u r n ,

p l a c e s n e w b u r d e n s o n e d u c a t i o n . M o r e o v e r , m a n o f t e n f e e l s a s e n s e

o f l o s s o f c o n t r o l , a r i s i n g f r o m t h o s e v e r y f a c t o r s w h i c h w e r e d e -

s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e h i s c o n t r o l o v e r h i s e n v i r o n m e n t ; a n d f i n d s h i m -

s e l f a t t i m e s l e s s a t h o m e i n t h i s n e w w o r l d w h i c h h a s b e e n f a s h i o n e d

o u t o f t h e m i n d o f m a n t h a n i n t h e o l d w o r l d w h e r e h i s c o n t r o l o v e r

n a t u r a l f o r c e s w a s l e s s c o m p l e t e . One of the functions of formal

e d u c a t i o n h a s a l w a y s b e e n t o b r i n g m e n ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e r i s i n g g e n -

e r a t i o n s ) i n t o p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e c u l t u r e ; t h a t i s t o s a y , o f t h e w o r l d

c r e a t e d o u t o f t h e i d e a s o f m e n . T h i s f u n c t i o n i s m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o d a y

t h a n a t a n y t i m e i n m a n k i n d ' s p a s t . N o t o n l y i s t h e c u l t u r e i t s e l f

incredibly more complex and specialized than was true of a few

d e c a d e s p a s t , b u t d i s j u n c t i o n s i n s o c i e t y h a v e i n t e n s i f i e d a n d m u l t i -

i . C a r l B r i d e n b a u g h , " T h e G r e a t M u t a t i o n , " A m e r i c a n H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w ,

LXVII I ( Ja n ua r y, 1 9 6 3 ) , 3 1 6- 1 7 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 279/327

2 7 6 SCHOOL CHANGE IN PERSPECTIVE

p l i e d t h e d e m a n d s f o r e d u c a t i o n . The present deman ds incorporate

t h e o l d n e e d t o h e l p m a n g a i n m a s t e r y o f h i m s e l f a n d f r e e h i m s e l f

from the tyranny of external circumstances ; b u t n o w f o r t h e f i r s t

t i m e , " m a n " m e a n s a l l men, and the external circumstances are

g l o b a l r a t h e r t h a n l o c a l . Consequently, what we req uire of educa-

t i o n t o d a y i s t h a t i t s h o u l d r e a c h o u t a n d e n c o m p a s s a l l , i n c l u d i n g

those formally thought ineducable, while simultaneously defining

in more rigorous terms the powers to be developed through edu-

c a t i o n .

T h e R e s p o n s e o f S c h o o l s t o t h e S o c i a l - C u l t u r a l T r a n s f o r m a t i o n

FACTOR S CONDI TIO NING THE RESPO NSE

O r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s , l i k e i n d i v i d u a l o r g a n i s m s , t e n d t o

r e a c t t o c h a n g e s i n t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t s i n w a y s w h i c h w i l l p e r p e t u -

a t e t h e m s e l v e s . Sometimes the reactions appear to be unreasoned

a n d l a r g e l y d e f e n s i v e ; s o m e t i m e s t h e y s h o w e v i d e n c e o f c a l c u l a t i o n

and planning . S o m e t i m e s t h e r e s p o n s e i s s l o t h f u l ; s o m e t i m e s p a r t i a l ;

sometimes prompt, but irrelevant; and sometimes characterized by

f o r e s i g h t , o r d e r l y p l a n n i n g , a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e n e s s . T h e m o r e s t a b l e

a n o r g a n i z a t i o n o r i n s t i t u t i o n i s a n d t h e m o r e d e e p l y i t i s e n t r e n c h e d

i n t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y , t h e m o r e d i f f i c u l t i t m a y b e f o r i t t o r e s p o n d

t o c h a n g e s i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . H e n c e , t h e s o - c a l l e d s o c i a l l a g - t h e

p i l i n g u p o f c h a l l e n g e s y e a r a f t e r y e a r w i t h o u t c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e a c -

t i o n s o n t h e p a r t o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s u n t i l t h e

c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t b e c o m e s s o g r e a t a s t o p r o d u c e a b r u p t c h a n g e i n

or even destruction of institutions-is alw ays a real and present

danger in education . T h i s i s i n p a r t b e c a u s e a n i n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h

c a r r i e s s o m a n y o f t h e v a l u e s a n d h o p e s o f t h e s o c i e t y i s n a t u r a l l y

r e s i s t a n t t o c h a n g e ; a n d i n p a r t b e c a u s e t h e r e s i s t a n c e i s r e i n f o r c e d

b y t h e i n e r t i a b u i l t i n t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s ( i . e . , t h e s c h o o l s a n d c o l -

l e g e s ) t h r o u g h w h i c h e d u c a t i o n i s p r o v i d e d .

Among the conditions which make the transmission of the cul-

t u r e i n c o m p a r a b l y m o r e d i f f i c u l t t h a n i n a n y p a s t p e r i o d a r e : ( a )

the highly specialized nature of modern knowledge which tends to

make each segment the private preserve of a particular group of

s c h o l a r s i n s t e a d o f t h e g e n e r a l p r o p e r t y o f e d u c a t e d m e n ; ( b ) t h e

g r e a t a c c e l e r a t i o n i n t h e d i s c o v e r y o f k n o w l e d g e a s a r e s u l t o f s c i -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 280/327

CHASE 2 7 7

e n t i f i c t e c h n o l o g i e s o f i n q u i r y , a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t n e c e s s i t y f o r

constant reformulation of the corpus of knowledge in all fiel ds

touched by science ; a n d ( c ) t h e r e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r e t o i n -

c l u d e c i v i l i z a t i o n s p r e v i o u s l y l a r g e l y i g n o r e d i n W e s t e r n e d u c a t i o n ,

a n d t h e g r o w i n g p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e n e e d f o r a w o r l d v i e w , i f n o t f o r

a w o r l d c u l t u r e - s y n t h e s i s .

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e m i n d o u r s e l v e s o f t h e m a n y s t e p s n e c e s s a r y

t o m a k e t h e f r u i t s o f s c h o l a r l y i n q u i r y a v a i l a b l e f o r c l a s s r o o m i n -

s t r u c t i o n . First, the new knowledge either has to be fitted into

e x i s t i n g f o r m u l a t i o n s o r o l d e r k n o w l e d g e h a s t o b e r e f o r m u l a t e d t o

accom modate the new . T h i s i s a t a s k t h a t g o e s b e y o n d r e s e a r c h a n d

r e q u i r e s t h e b u i l d i n g o f n e w c o n c e p t u a l s t r u c t u r e s , a t a s k w h i c h i s

a major concern of higher education . For example, note the con-

t i n u i n g r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p h y s i c s w i t h e a c h a d d i t i o n t o k n o w l e d g e

r e g a r d i n g t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e a t o m ; or the impact on biology of

increasing knowled ge of genetic coding ; o r t h e e f f e c t s o n p s y c h o l -

ogy of psychoanalytic theory . Second, the new st atements of re-

l a t i o n s h i p s m u s t b e p u b l i s h e d a n d s u b j e c t e d t o t h e s c r u t i n y n o t o n l y

of the specialized groups of scholars immediately concerned but

a l s o o f o t h e r s i n t h e w i d e r a c a d e m i c c o m m u n i t y . T h i r d , t h e b e a r i n g

of the new know led g e on the whole b od y of know led g e in a par-

t i c u l a r d i s c i p l i n e a n d o n t h e l a r g e r c u l t u r e m u s t b e c o m m u n i c a t e d

through an extended series of interpretations and applications .

F o u r t h , t h e n e w k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e l i g h t a n d s h a d o w s i t c a s t s m u s t

b e b u i l t i n t o i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s o f d i v e r s i t y s u f f i c i e n t t o m e e t

t h e n e e d s o f a l l l e a r n e r s w h o a r e e x p e c t e d t o p r o f i t b y i t . F i f t h ,

t e a c h e r s m u s t b e h e l p e d t o a s s i m i l a t e n o t o n l y t h e n e w g e n e r a l i z a -

t i o n s b u t a l s o t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s u p p o r t i n g e v i d e n c e a n d h o w i t w a s

a c q u i r e d . S i x t h , t e a c h e r s m u s t b e h e l p e d t o f i n d w a y s o f c o m m u n i -

cating the essential meanings of the new knowledge to those from

t h e s l u m s a s w e l l a s f r o m t h e s u b u r b s , t o t h e l e t h a r g i c a s w e l l a s t h e

a l e r t , t o t h e a c t i o n - o r i e n t e d a s w e l l a s t h e s t u d i o u s . A n d , s e v e n t h ,

t e a c h e r s m u s t s h o w g r e a t i n g e n u i t y i n a d a p t i n g t h e i r o w n b e h a v i o r s

t o t h e n e w k n o w l e d g e .

I n e a r l i e r e r a s , t h e f i r s t o f t h e s e s t e p s a l o n e m i g h t h a v e o c c u p i e d

a g e n e r a t i o n ; b u t t o d a y , b e c a u s e o f t h e a c c e l e r a t e d p a c e o f c h a n g e

a n d t h e r e s u l t a n t s t r e s s e s o n h u m a n s o c i e t y , a l l o f t h e s t e p s n e e d t o

be compressed within a few years . C o l l e g e s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s h a v e

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 281/327

2 7 8 SC HO O L C HANGE IN PERS P E CTI V E

a l w a y s c a r r i e d a m a j o r b u r d e n o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g

t h e c u l t u r e t o o n - c o m i n g g e n e r a t i o n s f o r t h r e e r e a s o n s : F i r s t , t h e y

s e r v e a s m a j o r r e p o s i t o r i e s b o t h f o r t h a t k n o w l e d g e w h i c h i s p a r t

o f t h e w r i t t e n r e c o r d a n d t h a t w h i c h i s s t i l l o n l y i n t h e m i n d s o f

l i v i n g p e r s o n s ; s e c o n d , t h e y p l a y a m a j o r r o l e i n t h e c o d i f i c a t i o n o f

k n o w l e d g e ; a n d , t h i r d , t h e y p r e p a r e t h e t e a c h e r s f o r t h e i r r o l e s i n

t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e c u l t u r e .

U p u n t i l f i f t y y e a r s o r s o a g o t h e t a s k o f t h e c o l l e g e s a n d u n i -

versities in preparing teachers to understand and to help others

understand the culture was taken for granted because it was im-

b e d d e d i n t h e n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n s o f h i g h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h e p r o f e s -

s o r o f h i s t o r y , c h e m i s t r y , l i t e r a t u r e , o r m a t h e m a t i c s a s s u m e d - a n d

had some right to do so-that his contribution to the preparation

of teachers could be made by effective instruction in whatever

branch of knowledge he was teaching . I n f o r m e r t i m e s t h e t e a c h e r

w h o p u r s u e d t h e s t a n d a r d c o u r s e o f a r i t h m e t i c i n e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l ,

algebra and geometry in high school, and tw o years or more of

s t a n d a r d u n d e r g r a d u a t e m a t h e m a t i c s i n c o l l e g e w a s a s s u m e d , r i g h t l y

o r w r o n g l y , t o b e r e a s o n a b l y w e l l p r e p a r e d t o t e a c h m a t h e m a t i c s i n

elementary or secondary schools . Such an assumption is utterly

u n t e n a b l e t o d a y . T h e r e i s n o g u a r a n t e e t h a t e v e n t h o s e t e a c h e r s w h o

have had four years of mathematics and some graduate training in

a s t r o n g c o l l e g e o r u n i v e r s i t y w i l l b e e q u i p p e d t o t e a c h t h e m a t h e -

matics programs developed by the School Mathem atics Study Group

o r s i m i l a r p r o g r a m s o f " n e w m a t h e m a t i c s ." The same th ing may be

s a i d f o r t h e b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e s a n d a l l o f t h e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s ; i t i s

r a p i d l y b e c o m i n g t r u e f o r t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , w i t h n e w a p p r o a c h e s

t o w o r l d h i s t o r y a n d t h e i m p a c t o f n e w p e r s p e c t i v e s i n t h e b e h a v -

i o r a l s c i e n c e s ; a n d s i m i l a r d i s j u n c t i o n s m a y b e n o t e d i n m o d e r n l a n -

g u a g e s , i n c l u d i n g E n g l i s h , b e c a u s e o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f l i n g u i s t i c

a n a l y s i s a n d o t h e r r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s .

T o s u m u p , e d u c a t i o n a l a d v a n c e m e n t a n d a d a p t a t i o n t o n e w

needs require speedy incorporation of applicable knowl edge and

t e c h n i q u e s t o t h e c o n t e n t a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n o f c u r r i c u l u m , t o m e t h -

o d s a n d m a t e r i a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n , a n d t o w a y s i n w h i c h t h e e d u c a -

t i o n a l e n t e r p r i s e i s o r g a n i z e d a n d a d m i n i s t e r e d . Ne w k n o w l e d g e ,

however, does not automatically become available for education

u p o n d i s c o v e r y ; but must pass through the frequently neglected

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 282/327

CHASE 2 7 9

p r o c e s s e s o f c o d i f i c a t i o n , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n d d i s s e m i n a t i o n . F o r e x -

a m p l e , t h e s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o v e r i e s o f t h e p a s t f i f t y y e a r s w e r e r e f l e c t e d

o n l y s l o w l y a n d i m p e r f e c t l y i n t e x t b o o k s f o r s c h o o l u s e a n d i n p r o -

g r a m s o f t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n. T h e y d i d n o t i n a n y r e a l s e n s e b e c o m e

a v a i l a b l e f o r i n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e s c h o o l s u n t i l t h e n a t i o n a l c u r r i c u l u m

s t u d y g r o u p s i d e n t i f i e d t h e s a l i e n t c o n c e p t s a n d w o r k e d o u t r e l e v a n t

m a t e r i a l s a n d m e t h o d s o f i n s t r u c t i o n . Goodlad (chap . i i ) s h o w s t h e

n a t u r e a n d m a g n i t u d e o f t h e r e s o u r c e s r e q u i r e d t o p e r f o r m t h e e s -

s e n t i a l t a s k s i n e a c h o f t h e s c i e n c e s a n d m a t h e m a t i c s . It may be

n o t e d t h a t h e a t t a c h e s i m p o r t a n c e n o t o n l y t o t h e c a r e f u l w a y i n

w h i c h e a c h o f t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e s e v e r a l p r o g r a m s w a s d e v e l -

o p e d b u t a l s o t o t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e p a r t s w e r e f i t t e d t o g e t h e r

a n d " p a c k a g e d " f o r c l a s s r o o m u s e .

What has been said of new knowledge bearing on curriculum

c o n t e n t a p p l i e s w i t h e q u a l f o r c e t o t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e b e h a v i o r a l

s c i e n c e s w h i c h h a v e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n a n d o t h e r s c h o o l

p r a c t i c e s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t

u n d o u b t e d l y c a r r i e s p r o f o u n d i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n ; b u t i t s

f u l l m e a n i n g h a s n o t b e e n e x p l o r e d a s y e t ; a n d t e a c h e r s r e q u i r e c o n -

s i d e r a b l e h e l p i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p o s s i b l e a p p l i c a t i o n s , a n d e v e n

m o r e h e l p i n a d a p t i n g t h e i r o w n b e h a v i o r s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e

n e w k n o w l e d g e . T h e b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s c e r t a i n l y d o n o t j u s t i f y

a n t i c i p a t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s i n i n s t r u c t i o n m e r e l y t h r o u g h c i r -

c u l a t i o n o f r e p o r t s s h o w i n g w h a t p s y c h o l o g i s t s h a v e l e a r n e d t h r o u g h

e x p e r i m e n t a l a n a l y s i s o f b e h a v i o r . T h e c o n c e p t o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t ,

l i k e o t h e r c o n c e p t s d e r i v e d f r o m s o c i a l s c i e n c e r e s e a r c h , h a s t o b e

b u i l t i n t o s t r a t e g i e s a n d t e c h n i q u e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n b e f o r e b e i n g p u t

t o e f f e c t i v e u s e b y t e a c h e r s . E v e n t h e i n v e n t i o n o f a n i n s t r u c t i o n a l

technique or device based on the new knowl edge may not carry

t h e c o n c e p t v e r y f a r t o w a r d e f f e c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n t o t e a c h i n g a n d

l e a r n i n g . A s a c a s e i n p o i n t , t h e t e c h n i q u e o f p r o g r a m i n g a n d t h e

t e a c h i n g m a c h i n e a s a d i s p e n s e r o f p r o g r a m s c e r t a i n l y m a k e i t e a s i e r

t o p r o v i d e i m m e d i a t e r e i n f o r c e m e n t f o r w h a t e v e r l e a r n i n g s a c c e s -

s i b l e p r o g r a m s o f f e r . Y e t i t m a y b e a d u b i o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o e d u -

c a t i o n a l i m p r o v e m e n t , o r t o e f f e c t i v e r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f l e a r n i n g , t o

m o v e t o w a r d u n i v e r s a l u s e o f p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n b e f o r e t e s t e d

p r o g r a m s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o f u s i o n a n d v a r i e t y h a v e been con-

s t r u c t e d . E v e n t h e n , w i d e s p r e a d a d o p t i o n i s l i k e l y t o b e f o l l o w e d

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 283/327

2 8 0 SCHOOL CHANGE IN PERSPECTIVE

b y d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t u n l e s s a d e q u a t e p r o v i s i o n i s m a d e f o r t h e e d u c a -

t i o n o f t e a c h e r s i n t h e l i m i t a t i o n s a s w e l l a s t h e p o t e n t i a l u s e s o f t h e

t e c h n i q u e .

A d o p t i o n o n a n e x p e r i m e n t a l b a s i s i s q u i t e a n o t h e r m a t t e r s i n c e

educators cannot expect techniques custom-made to their require-

m e n t s u n l e s s t h e y a c c e p t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e i r

d e v e l o p m e n t . F a i l u r e t o a s s u m e t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y l e n g t h e n s t h e

t e c h n o l o g i c a l l a g i n e d u c a t i o n .

P e r h a p s t h e b e s t i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s i s t h e f i v e - h u n d r e d - y e a r - o l d

t e c h n o l o g y o f p r i n t i n g , w h i c h h a s n o t y e t b e e n f u l l y e x p l o i t e d i n

t h e s c h o o l s . To be sure, the schools for reasons of economy and

l e s s d e f e n s i b l e r e a s o n s w e r e f o r m e r l y l i m i t e d l a r g e l y t o t h e o u t p u t

of the textbook publishers ; but improvements might have come

e a r l i e r i f t e a c h e r s h a d b e e n a w a r e o f a n d s u f f i c i e n t l y a r t i c u l a t e c o n -

c e r n i n g t h e m a g n i f i c e n t u n d e v e l o p e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n h e r e n t i n t h e

technology of the book . T h e r e c e n t f l o o d o f p a p e r b a c k s a n d o t h e r

t r a d e b o o k s o f f e r s a w i d e r a n g e o f m a t e r i a l s a n d m a k e s p o s s i b l e m u c h

g r e a t e r i n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n a n d d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f i n s t r u c t i o n b y s c h o o l s

and teachers sophisticated enough to take full advantage of what

p u b l i s h e r s p r o v i d e . B u t t e a c h i n g c o m p e t e n c e i s i t s e l f a f a c t o r i n t h e

a v a i l a b i l i t y o f k n o w l e d g e a n d t e c h n o l o g y f o r s c h o o l u s e . I t m a y b e

n o t e d a l s o t h a t t h e r e i s s t i l l a p a u c i t y o f p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l s s u i t a b l e

f o r t h o s e w h o s e i n t e r e s t s a n d e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e s d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y

from the middle range of the population to which the m aterials

c o m m o n l y a r e d i r e c t e d .

I n s h o r t , e d u c a t i o n a l a v a i l a b i l i t y c a n n o t b e m e a s u r e d b y t h e p o s -

s i b i l i t i e s i n h e r e n t i n t h e c o m p u t e r o r o t h e r t e c h n o l o g y u n t i l t h e a p -

plications to instruction are well worked out and tested under a

v a r i e t y o f c o n d i t i o n s ; a n d t h e p o t e n t i a l c a n n o t b e r e a l i z e d u n t i l t h e

n e c e s s a r y s k i l l s , a t t i t u d e s , a n d h a b i t u a l b e h a v i o r s a r e d e v e l o p e d i n

t e a c h e r s a n d o t h e r s c h o o l p e r s o n n e l .

A T T E M P T S T O U ND E R S T A ND C H A NG E P R O C E S S E S

Many persons are concerned with speeding up the processes of

c h a n g e i n e d u c a t i o n ; y e t , i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t n o t a l l k i n d s o f c h a n g e s

i n e d u c a t i o n c o n s t i t u t e f i t t i n g o r e f f e c t i v e r e s p o n s e s t o t h e t r a n s -

f o r m a t i o n s i n c u l t u r e a n d s o c i e t y . T h e e x i s t i n g l i t e r a t u r e o n e d u c a -

t i o n a l i n n o v a t i o n a n d s o c i a l c h a n g e p r o v i d e s l i t t l e e i t h e r i n t h e w a y

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 284/327

C H A SE 2 8 1

o f e m p i r i c a l d a t a o r v e r i f i a b l e h y p o t h e s e s o n h o w t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e

p r o c e s s o f m a k i n g e d u c a t i o n a m o r e e f f e c t i v e i n s t r u m e n t e i t h e r f o r

t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f s o c i a l g o a l s o r f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l

c a p a c i t i e s a n d t a l e n t s . W i t h o u t a n a d e q u a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e

f o r c e s i n f l u e n c i n g c h a n g e i n e d u c a t i o n o r t h e p r o c e s s e s t h r o u g h

w h i c h t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f e d u c a t i o n i n t e r a c t w i t h c u l t u r e a n d s o c i -

e t y , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t t h e d i r e c t i o n a n d a m o u n t o f f u t u r e

c h a n g e o r t o s p e c i f y t h e f a c t o r s w h i c h a r e l i k e l y t o d e t e r m i n e

c h a n g e s i n t h e f u t u r e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , a t t e m p t s t o i n t e r v e n e i n e d u -

c a t i o n a l c h a n g e p r o c e s s e s a r e l i k e l y t o b e i n e p t a n d i n e f f e c t i v e .

T o o o f t e n t h e i m p l i c i t a s s u m p t i o n s e e m s t o b e t h a t t h e a d o p t i o n

o f a n e w f o r m o f o r g a n i z a t i o n , t e c h n i q u e o f i n s t r u c t i o n , o r w a y o f

g r o u p i n g l e a r n e r s i s i n i t s e l f a n i n d i c a t i o n o f p r o g r e s s a n d , t h e r e f o r e ,

t o b e a p p l a u d e d . Y e t , a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e c h a n g e s i n e d u c a t i o n a l

p r a c t i c e w h i c h h a v e o c c u r r e d o v e r t h e p a s t f i f t y y e a r s w o u l d l e a d

t o c o n s i d e r a b l e d o u b t a b o u t t h e e d u c a t i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f m a n y

o f t h e m . P r o f e s s i o n a l a n d p o p u l a r b o o k s , p e r i o d i c a l s , n e w s p a p e r s ,

a n d t e l e c a s t s c r e a t e t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f s w e e p i n g c h a n g e s o v e r t h e

p a s t s e v e r a l y e a r s i n t h e c o n t e n t a n d m e t h o d o f i n s t r u c t i o n , i n s c h o o l

b u i l d i n g s a n d f a c i l i t i e s , a n d i n w a y s o f g r o u p i n g l e a r n e r s a n d u s i n g

t e a c h e r s . T h e n e w m a t h e m a t i c s , t h e n e w s c i e n c e p r o g r a m s , t h e n e w

e m p h a s i s o n t h e t e a c h i n g o f f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s , t h e u s e o f t e l e v i s i o n

a n d p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n , n o n g r a d i n g a n d c o n t i n u o u s p r o g r e s s ,

a n d t e a m - t e a c h i n g a r e a l l m u c h i n t h e e d u c a t i o n a l n e w s . Y e t , c a r e -

f u l o b s e r v e r s , i n c l u d i n g s e v e r a l o f t h e a u t h o r s o f t h i s y e a r b o o k , r e -

p o r t t h a t m a n y c l a s s r o o m s a r e l i t t l e a f f e c t e d b y t h e n e w i d e a s a n d

t h a t t h e e x c i t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s w h i c h a r e t a k i n g p l a c e a r e a t t r i b u t -

a b l e g e n e r a l l y t o t e a c h e r s o f u n u s u a l i n t e l l i g e n c e , r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s ,

a n d s e n s i t i v i t y t o n e e d s o f l e a r n e r s .

W e n e e d f a r m o r e a c c u r a t e s t a t i s t i c s a n d d e s c r i p t i o n s t h a n a r e

n o w a v a i l a b l e r e g a r d i n g t h e d i v e r s i t y o f p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n a n d a m o n g

s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , w i t h i n a n d a m o n g t h e s e v e r a l s t a t e s , w i t h i n a n d

a m o n g t h e s e v e r a l g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r y , a n d i n c o m -

p a r i s o n w i t h p r a c t i c e s i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . W e n e e d b e t t e r d e s c r i p -

t i o n s a l s o o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h c h i l d r e n h a v e a s t h e y p a s s

t h r o u g h t h e s c h o o l s a n d a b e t t e r a s s e s s m e n t t h a n w e n o w h a v e o f

t h e e f f e c t s o n t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e s p r o v i d e d .

M a n y s t u d i e s o f i n n o v a t i o n i n e d u c a t i o n m a k e n o d i s t i n c t i o n b e -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 285/327

2 8 2 SC HO O L C HANGE IN PERS P E CTI V E

t w e e n t h e r a t e s o f d i f f u s i o n f o r s i m p l e s o c i a l i n v e n t i o n s w h i c h m a y

b e a d o p t e d b y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e c r e e a n d f a r - r e a c h i n g c h a n g e s i n

t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m o r i n t e c h n o l o g i e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n

a n d i n s t r u c t i o n . R e f l e c t i o n o n i n n o v a t i o n s o f t h e p a s t f i f t y o r m o r e

y e a r s w i l l s h o w t h a t s o m e - s u c h a s t h e C a r n e g i e u n i t o r t h e e l e c t i v e

s y s t e m i n h i g h s c h o o l s - w e r e a d o p t e d u n i v e r s a l l y i n a v e r y s h o r t

t i m e ; o t h e r s , s u c h a s h o m o g e n o u s g r o u p i n g , s p r e a d r a p i d l y a m o n g

t h e l a r g e r a n d m o r e " p r o g r e s s i v e " s c h o o l s f o r a p e r i o d o f t e n y e a r s

o r s o , t h e n l o s t f a v o r a n d s u f f e r e d a d e c l i n e f o r s o m e t h i n g l i k e a

q u a r t e r o f a c e n t u r y b e f o r e g a i n i n g n e w i m p e t u s w h i c h i s n o t y e t

s p e n t ; a n d s t i l l o t h e r s , s u c h a s t h e a m o u n t a n d k i n d o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n

s c i e n c e , h a v e t a k e n p l a c e o v e r l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e w i t h r e c u r r e n t

c h a n g e s o f e m p h a s i s . I t m i g h t b e i l l u m i n a t i n g t o c o n s t r u c t c u r v e s

s h o w i n g t h e r a t e o f a d o p t i o n f o r d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f i n n o v a t i o n s .

T h e r e i s l i t t l e - a g r e e m e n t r e g a r d i n g t h e c r u c i a l f a c t o r s d e t e r m i n -

i n g t h e r a t e a t w h i c h i n n o v a t i o n s a r e a d o p t e d . We know that cer-

t a i n k i n d s o f d e c i s i o n s d e p e n d u p o n t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f f u n d s - a s

w o u l d b e t r u e , f o r e x a m p l e , o f t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c l o s e d - c i r c u i t

t e l e v i s i o n o r t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e p u p i l - t e a c h e r r a t i o ; but we know

a l l t o o l i t t l e a b o u t t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f

f u n d s m a y l e a d t o t h e a d o p t i o n o f a n i n n o v a t i o n w h i c h o t h e r w i s e

h a s l i t t l e t o r e c o m m e n d i t o r w h i c h i s n o t c l o s e t o t h e t o p o f a

s c h o o l ' s o w n p r i o r i t i e s f o r i m p r o v e m e n t . Likewise, we know that

s o m e c h a n g e s a r e d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f q u a l i f i e d p e r -

s o n n e l ; b u t w e a l s o k n o w t h a t , u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , s c h o o l s w i l l

embark on new programs or new subjects of instruction even in

t h e a b s e n c e o f q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l . S i m i l a r l y , w e k n o w t h a t c o m -

m u n i t y d e m a n d i s a f a c t o r ; b u t w e a r e n o t r e a d i l y a b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h

t h e o c c a s i o n s w h e n c o m m u n i t y d e m a n d g r o w s o u t o f a d i r e c t p e r -

ception of need from those occasions when demand is fanned by

p r o m o t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s , t h e p r o n o u n c e m e n t s o f h i g h p r e s t i g e f i g -

u r e s , o r s i m p l y a d e s i r e t o b e " m o d e r n . " N o t o n l y a r e t h e r e d i v e r s e

m o t i v a t i o n s f o r t h e a d o p t i o n o f n e w p r a c t i c e s o r t e c h n o l o g i e s b u t

t h e r e a r e a l s o d i v e r s e s e t s o f f a c t o r s w h i c h d e t e r m i n e w h i c h p a r -

t i c u l a r i n n o v a t i o n s w i l l b e s e l e c t e d f o r a d o p t i o n a n d t h e e x t e n t a n d

r a t e o f a d o p t i o n .

T h e s t u d i e s t h a t h a v e b e e n d o n e o n e d u c a t i o n a l i n n o v a t i o n h a v e

l e d t o a n u m b e r o f i m p e r f e c t l y v e r i f i e d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s w h i c h f a l l

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 286/327

C H A S E 2 8 3

short of providing tight conceptual frameworks for further re-

s e a r c h , s p e c u l a t i o n , o r p r a c t i c e . S o m e s t u d i e s s t r e s s t h e i m p o r t a n c e

o f p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s ; o t h e r s e m p h a s i z e t h e s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s o f

t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n v o l v e d ; o t h e r s b o r r o w e x p l a n a t i o n s f r o m s o c i a l -

s y s t e m s t h e o r y o r o t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n s ; a n d o t h e r s r e a c h

i n y e t o t h e r d i r e c t i o n s f o r p l a u s i b l e a n d v e r i f i a b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s o f

c h a n g e p r o c e s s e s i n e d u c a t i o n .

T h e r e i s r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e s i g n i f i c a n t a n d p e r s i s t i n g

c h a n g e s i n e d u c a t i o n r e p r e s e n t r e s p o n s e s t o f u n d a m e n t a l t r a n s f o r -

m a t i o n s i n c u l t u r e a n d s o c i e t y . Moreover, a marked response typ-

i c a l l y a p p e a r s n o t t o a s i n g l e e v e n t o r f o r c e b u t t o a c o n c a t e n a t i o n

o r c h a i n o f e v e n t s a n d f o r c e s ; and pronounced and lasting change

a p p e a r s t o f o l l o w f o r c e s t h a t a r e p e r s i s t e n t i n t h e i r e f f e c t s a n d n o t

simply momentarily disruptive . I t m a y b e o b s e r v e d , a l s o , t h a t t h e

r e s p o n s e o f e d u c a t i o n a l a g e n c i e s i s n o t t o t h e f o r c e i t s e l f ( h o w e v e r

d e e p a n d p e r s i s t e n t i t m a y b e ) b u t t o m e n ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f i t s i m p a c t

o n c u l t u r e a n d s o c i e t y . F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e r e s p o n s e s e l d o m a n t i c i -

p a t e s t h e s o c i a l i m p a c t o f a d i s c o v e r y o r a d e v e l o p m e n t b u t i s d e -

l a y e d w h i l e t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e i m p a c t a r e a s s e s s e d a n d a b s o r b e d b y

t h o s e w h o o c c u p y s t r a t e g i c r o l e s . T h u s , t h e s p e e d a n d c h a r a c t e r o f

t h e r e s p o n s e s t e n d s t o b e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e p e r c e p t i v e n e s s , v i g o r ,

a n d l e a d e r s h i p c a p a c i t i e s o f t h o s e i n h i g h - s t a t u s p o s i t i o n s w h o p l a y

r o l e s e n a b l i n g t h e m t o i n f l u e n c e t h e d e c i s i o n s a n d a c t i o n s o f o t h e r s

i n t h e s o c i e t y . ( W itness : t h e d e c i s i v e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e P r e s i d e n t

o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o n r e c e n t e v e n t s a f f e c t i n g e d u c a t i o n . ) E f f e c -

t i v e r e s p o n s e b y a n i n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h i n t e r p e n e t r a t e s t h e e n t i r e s o -

c i e t y , a s e d u c a t i o n d o e s , d e p e n d s a l s o o n t h e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e p e r -

ceptions of need into symbols and forms of communication which

w i l l p r e p a r e p u b l i c o p i n i o n f o r t h e r e q u i r e d c h a n g e s .

I t a p p e a r s t h a t a c o n j u n c t i o n o f e x t e r n a l ( s o c i e t a l ) p r e s s u r e s

t o w a r d c h a n g e a n d i n t e r n a l d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e w a y s i n w h i c h

e d u c a t i o n a l n e e d s a r e b e i n g m e t i s a f a v o r a b l e - a n d p e r h a p s a n e c -

e s s a r y - c o n d i t i o n f o r s u s t a i n e d a c t i o n g e n u i n e l y r e s p o n s i v e t o s o c i a l

n e e d s o n t h e p a r t o f s c h o o l s a n d o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l a g e n c i e s . The

a m o u n t o f p r o b l e m - o r i e n t a t i o n o r s e n s i t i v i t y o n t h e p a r t o f t e a c h e r s

and school officers to unmet needs for education among the popu-

l a t i o n s e r v e d c a n b e a m a j o r f a c t o r i n t h e r e c e p t i v i t y t o c h a n g e .

S c h o o l f a c u l t i e s w h i c h c u l t i v a t e t h e h a b i t o f l o o k i n g f o r t h e p r o b -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 287/327

2 84 S C H O O L C H ANG E I N P E R S P E C T I V E

lems behind such symptoms as dropouts and low achievement tend

t o b e c o m e a w a r e o f p o t e n t i a l l y r e m o v a b l e b a r r i e r s t o l e a r n i n g , i n -

a d e q u a t e p r o v i s i o n f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s e l f - e s t e e m , a n d i n a d e -

q u a t e e n c o u r a g e m e n t f o r a c h i e v e m e n t a t p r o g r e s s i v e l y h i g h e r l e v e l s ;

a n d t h i s a w a r e n e s s l e a d s t o e x p l o r a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e a n d t e c h n o l -

o g i e s a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e p r o b l e m s i d e n t i f i e d .

T h i s t y p e o f s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e n e e d s o f s t u d e n t s w a s e v i d e n t i n

t h e s e v e r a l p i o n e e r i n g o r e x p e r i m e n t a l s c h o o l s w h i c h I v i s i t e d b e -

t w e e n 1 9 5 7 a n d 1 9 6 5 ; a n d t h e f a c t o r a p p e a r e d i n e q u a l s t r e n g t h

w h e t h e r t h e s c h o o l w a s l o c a t e d i n a S w e d i s h t o w n , a P a k i s t a n i v i l -

l a g e , a n A m e r i c a n s u b u r b , o r a m e t r o p o l i s s u c h a s C h i c a g o , I s t a n b u l ,

o r L o n d o n . T h i s t y p e o f p r o b l e m - o r i e n t a t i o n , i n m y o p i n i o n , w a s

o n e o f t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s i n t h e s u c c e s s o f s u c h e d u c a t i o n a l

reformers as John Dewey, Francis Wayland Parker, Maria Montes-

s o r i , J o h a n n F r i e d r i c h P e s t a l o z z i , a n d m a n y o t h e r s . T h i s i s n o t t o

d e n y t h e p o w e r o f e i t h e r t h e c o n c e p t u a l s t r u c t u r e o r t h e c h a r i s m a t i c

l e a d e r s h i p p r o v i d e d b y t h e g r e a t r e f o r m e r s ; b u t i t i s t o h y p o t h e s i z e

t h a t , i n t h e m o r e s u c c e s s f u l v e n t u r e s , a n e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r

w a s t h e a c t i v e i n v o l v e m e n t o f t e a c h e r s a n d o t h e r s c h o o l p e r s o n n e l

in a continuing effort to understand and to meet more fully the

n e e d s o f p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l s g r o w i n g u p i n a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i e t y .

T h e f a c t o r t h a t I a m c a l l i n g " p r o b l e m - o r i e n t a t i o n " i n c l u d e s t h e

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , s u p p o r t e d b y s o c i a l - s c i e n c e t h e o r y a n d r e s e a r c h , r e -

g a r d i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f i n v o l v i n g t h o s e a f f e c t e d b y c h a n g e i n t h e

p l a n n i n g o f c h a n g e ; b u t i t s u g g e s t s a p a r t i c u l a r a p p r o a c h t o i n v o l v e -

m e n t i n t h e f o r m o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e s e a r c h f o r s o l u t i o n s t o p r o b -

l e m s e n c o u n t e r e d b y t h o s e t h e s c h o o l i s t r y i n g t o s e r v e . T h e r e i s a

significant differenc e between this approach and the approach in

w h i c h i n v o l v e m e n t s t a r t s w i t h e x a m i n a t i o n o f p r o p o s e d i n n o v a t i o n s .

T h e d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t a t t e n t i o n f o c u s e s o n s e l e c t i o n o f t e c h n i q u e s

f o r t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s i n m e e t i n g i d e n t i f i e d e d u c a t i o n a l n e e d s a n d o b -

j e c t i v e s r a t h e r t h a n o n e x p l o i t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s t h o u g h t t o i n h e r e i n

g i v e n t e c h n i q u e s .

I n s c h o o l s a s w i t h o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s , i n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g i d i t i e s o r

ineffective leadership may produce spasmodic or poorly planned

change and may delay, deflect, or even prevent adequate response

until new organizations and new approaches are developed to cope

with the unmet need s . I n s u c h c a s e s , t h e o l d e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s m a y

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 288/327

CHASE z $ 5

be displaced entirely or may be incorporated into new configura-

t i o n s i n v o l v i n g a p l u r a l i t y o f a g e n c i e s a d d r e s s i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o v a r i -

o u s a s p e c t s o f t h e n e w d e m a n d s w h i c h o l d e r a g e n c i e s f a i l e d t o m e e t .

T h e r e a r e i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t t h i s i s h a p p e n i n g i n t h e f i e l d o f e d u c a t i o n

t o a n e x t e n t n o t y e t g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d .

THE INFLUENCE O F P O WERF UL ID EAS

Common human motivations tend to generate, in every society

a n d n a t i o n , i m p u l s e s t o r e s p o n d t o p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e a n d

c o m p l i c a t i o n o f t e c h n o l o g i e s b y e l a b o r a t i n g t h e m e a n s o f e d u c a t i o n ;

b u t t h e f o r m o f t h e r e s p o n s e i s s h a p e d t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t b y

c o n d i t i o n s a n d t r a d i t i o n s o p e r a t i n g i n p a r t i c u l a r s o c i e t i e s a n d n a -

t i o n s . The distinctive patterns which emerge m ay be traceable to

powerful ideas which often have a prescientific origin and which

a r e n o t y e t s u s c e p t i b l e t o e m p i r i c a l m e a s u r e m e n t , b u t w h i c h o f t e n

p l a y d e c i s i v e r o l e s i n e n g e n d e r i n g a n d s h a p i n g c h a n g e s i n e d u c a t i o n .

I r e f e r e s p e c i a l l y t o i d e a s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e n a t u r e o f m a n ; t h e p o s -

s i b i l i t i e s i n m a n ; t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f m a n t o h i s f e l l o w s ; t h e f u n c t i o n

o f s o c i e t y ; a n d a w h o l e c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f c o n c e p t s r e g a r d i n g e q u a l i t y ,

freed om , authority, and so on. With particular reference to the

American experience, the concept of the equality of man and of

certain inherent prerogatives of man has had a powerful and con-

t i n u i n g i n f l u e n c e o n s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s o f a l l k i n d s . For example,

n o t e h o w t h e a t t e m p t t o r e d e f i n e t h e m e a n i n g o f e q u a l i t y i n m o d e r n

t i m e s h a s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e c i v i l r i g h t s m o v e m e n t i n t h i s c o u n t r y

a n d t o t h e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d m o v e m e n t t o r e m o v e t h e b a r r i e r s t o l e a r n -

i n g t h a t a r e r a i s e d b y s o c i a l d i s a d v a n t a g e o r c u l t u r a l d e p r i v a t i o n .

As Robert Frost said regard ing the celebrated phrase in t he pre-

amble to the Declaration of Independence :

T h a t ' s a h a r d m y s t e r y o f J e f f e r s o n ' s .

What did he mean? Of course the easy way

I s t o d e c i d e i t s i m p l y i s n ' t t r u e .

I t m a y n o t b e . I h e a r d a f e l l o w s a y s o .

B u t n e v e r m i n d , t h e W e l s h m a n g o t i t p l a n t e d

W h e r e i t w i l l t r o u b l e u s a t h o u s a n d y e a r s ?

z . R o b e r t F r o s t , " T h e B l a c k C o t t a g e , " F r o s t ' s Complete Poems, p . 7 4 . Ne w

Yor k : H o l t , R i n e h a r t & W i n s t o n , 1 9 4 9 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 289/327

2 8 6 S C H O O L C H ANG E I N P E R S P E C T I V E

B e c a u s e o f t h e p o w e r o f t h i s i d e a a n d t h e n e c e s s i t y t o i n t e r p r e t

i t a n e w i n e a c h g e n e r a t i o n , t h e e v o l u t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n i n A m e r i c a

h a s b e e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s u c c e s s i v e m o v e s t o w a r d g r e a t e r i n c l u s i v e -

n e s s . I n C o l o n i a l d a y s a n d i n t h e e a r l i e r d a y s o f t h e n a t i o n , e d u c a -

t i o n w a s r e s t r i c t e d s e v e r e l y ; a n d e v e n a f t e r t h e v i c t o r y h a d a p p a r -

e n t l y b e e n w o n f o r s t a t e s y s t e m s o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n , g r e a t i n e q u i t i e s

p e r s i s t e d . W e l l i n t o t h e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y t h e r u r a l c h i l d ' s a c c e s s t o

e d u c a t i o n w a s f a r l e s s t h a n t h a t o f c h i l d r e n i n t h e c i t i e s a n d i n t h e

wealthy suburbs . M o r e o v e r , l a r g e s e g m e n t s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , i n -

cluding Negroes, Mexican s, and other minority groups and such

o c c u p a t i o n a l g r o u p s a s t h e m i g r a n t w o r k e r s , w e r e v i r t u a l l y c u t o f f

f r o m o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r e d u c a t i o n o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n . N e v e r t h e l e s s ,

t h e q u e s t f o r s u b s t a n t i a l e q u a l i t y o f o p p o r t u n i t y h a s b e e n s o p o w e r -

f u l t h a t i t h a s o f t e n s e e m e d t o t a k e p r e c e d e n c e o v e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s

o f e x c e l l e n c e .

I n E n g l a n d a n d o t h e r c o u n t r i e s o f t h e O l d W o r l d , b o t h s e c o n d -

a r y s c h o o l s a n d c o l l e g e s r e f l e c t e d v e r y s t r o n g l y b o t h t h e s t a t e o f

t h e c u l t u r e a n d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s o c i e t y a n d , a t b e s t , w e r e o p e n

t o t h o s e w h o e x h i b i t e d a n a p t i t u d e t o p r o f i t f r o m s t u d y i n i n s t i t u -

t i o n s a d h e r i n g t o c e r t a i n s t a n d a r d s o f a c a d e m i c e x c e l l e n c e - i n f o r c e d

t y p i c a l l y b y e x t e r n a l e x a m i n a t i o n s . In the United States, on th e

o t h e r h a n d , w i t h i t s v i r t u a l a b s e n c e o f e x t e r n a l c r i t e r i a o f e x c e l l e n c e ,

secondary schools came to be thought of as serving a given age

group ; a n d t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t t h e s a m e t h i n g w a s t r u e o f c o l l e g e s .

T h u s , w e s u c c e s s i v e l y o p e n t h e d o o r s o f o u r s c h o o l s a n d c o l l e g e s t o

e a c h g r o u p i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h a t d e m a n d s a d m i s s i o n ; a n d w h e n t h e

o l d e r s c h o o l s a n d c o l l e g e s d o n o t a c c e d e t o t h i s d e m a n d , w e c r e a t e

new ones which will . T h i s t e n d e n c y i s w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d a n d o f t e n

d e p l o r e d , b u t i t i s n o t s o g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e t h r u s t t o

o p e n e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o t h o s e p r e v i o u s l y e x c l u d e d t y p i -

c a l l y i s f o l l o w e d b y a s e c o n d t h r u s t t o r a i s e t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e e d u -

c a t i o n p r o v i d e d . T h e l a t t e r t e n d e n c y m a y b e r e a d i n t h e e v o l u t i o n

o f t h e h i g h s c h o o l a n d o f s u c h p o s t - h i g h - s c h o o l i n s t i t u t i o n s a s t h e

l a n d - g r a n t c o l l e g e s , t h e n o r m a l s c h o o l s , a n d t h e j u n i o r c o l l e g e s .

T h r o u g h t h e d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , t h e A m e r i -

c a n p e o p l e h a v e s u c c e s s i v e l y e x t e n d e d t h e b e n e f i t s o f s e c o n d a r y a n d

higher education to rural youth, to children of European immi-

g rants, to women ; a n d n o w , a t l a s t , i s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f e x t e n d i n g

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 290/327

CHASE 2 8 7

t h e m t o N e g r o e s a n d t o o t h e r s t i l l - d i s a d v a n t a g e d g r o u p s . T h e f i r s t

o b j e c t i v e o f t e n s e e m s m e r e l y t h e g a i n i n g o f n o m i n a l a c c e s s t o c o v -

eted opportunities previously denied to certain groups ; b u t t h e

s e c o n d o b j e c t i v e , s o m e t i m e s u n d u l y d e l a y e d , i s t o g i v e s u b s t a n c e t o

the nominal achievement .

T h e d r i v e t o w a r d " i n c l u s i v e n e s s " o r e q u a l i t y o f e d u c a t i o n a l o p -

portunity has accounted for a major share of the changes in the

American high school during the past fifty years and more . I t l e d

to the attempt to place high schools within an hour's journey by

m e a n s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a v a i l a b l e t o a l l ; a n d i t w a s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n

t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e " c o m p r e h e n s i v e " s c h o o l . I t l e d t o a p r o l i f e r a t i o n

of offerings-vocational and otherwis e-in an effort to provide

s o m e t h i n g f o r t h o s e n o t a t t u n e d t o a c a d e m i c p u r s u i t s ; a n d i t e n t e r e d

i n t o s u c h d i v e r s e i n n o v a t i o n s a s t h e e l e c t i v e s y s t e m , t h e g u i d a n c e

movement, ability grouping, and life-adjustment programs . I t i s

now manifesting itself in preschool prog rams and compensatory

e d u c a t i o n t o r e l i e v e c u l t u r a l d e p r i v a t i o n , j o b - t r a i n i n g p r o j e c t s , a n d

a renewed emphasis on counseling . Many of the attempts were mis-

c o n c e i v e d o r a b o r t i v e ; b u t t h e q u e s t c o n t i n u e s .

A s i m i l a r c a s e c a n b e m a d e f o r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a n o t h e r k i n d o f

i d e a ; n a m e l y , t h e c o n c e p t o f l e a r n i n g a s a p r o c e s s o f a c t i v e i n q u i r y

a n d o f t h e h u m a n i n d i v i d u a l a s n a t u r a l l y i n c l i n e d t o s e e k m e a n i n g

and to develop his powers in confrontation with the environment .

This view of man and of learning was expou nded in the classical

c u l t u r e s o f b o t h E a s t a n d W e s t a n d h a s h a d i n f l u e n c e i n a l l s o c i e t i e s ;

but, because of the work of Dewey and the Progressive Education

a n d C h i l d S t u d y m o v e m e n t s , i t h a s b e e n e s p e c i a l l y p e r v a s i v e i n t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s . Cremin documents this influ ence in T he Transfo r-

m a t i o n o f t h e S c h o o l ; 3 a n d t h e r e c a n b e l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t t h i s d u a l

c o n c e p t o f t h e n a t u r e o f m a n a n d o f t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s u n d e r l i e s

t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s i n t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s i n t h i s c e n -

tury . I t b r o k e u p t h e e x c e s s i v e f o r m a l i t y a n d p u n i t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f

primary education and produced an emphasis-sometimes misplaced

- on child activity and freed om . I t l e d m o r e o r l e s s d i r e c t l y t o

3 . L a w r e n c e A . C r e m i n , The Transformation of the School, Ne w Yo r k :

A l f r e d A . K n o p f , i g 6 i .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 291/327

2 8 8 SCHOOL CHANGE IN PERSPECTIVE

c u r r i c u l u m r e f o r m s , t o n e w t y p e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s , a n d ,

e v e n t u a l l y , t o s u c h i n n o v a t i o n s a s n o n g r a d i n g . Moreover, the cur-

rent curricu l u m reforms incorporate the same concepts and the

s a m e e m p h a s i s o n a c t i v e i n q u i r y , a l t h o u g h t h e p r e s e n t i n f l u e n c e d e -

rives more directly from the new breed of natural and behavioral

s c i e n t i s t s t h a n f r o m t h e o l d e r p h i l o s o p h i e s .

I t m a y b e s a i d , t h e n , t h a t i d e a s w h i c h h a v e e n t e r e d d e e p l y i n t o

a s o c i e t y ' s s t r e a m o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s h a v e a p o w e r t o s h a p e t h e e v o l u -

t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n a n d t o b e n d t e c h n o l o g i e s t o t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n t s .

Even though the working out of the ideas goes forward hal tingly

a n d s t u m b l i n g l y , o f t e n i g n o r i n g o r u s i n g i n e p t l y p o t e n t i a l l y u s e f u l

t e c h n o l o g i e s , i t s e e m s t o o f f e r s o m e a s s u r a n c e t h a t e d u c a t i o n w i l l

c o n t i n u e t o r e s p o n d t o h u m a n a s p i r a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n t o o r i e n t i t s e l f

p r i m a r i l y t o t h e t e c h n i c a l l y f e a s i b l e . T h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h e n d s a n d

values derived from human ex perience will govern the choice and

s p u r t h e i n v e n t i o n o f r e l e v a n t t e c h n i q u e s i n e d u c a t i o n w i l l b e d e -

termined by many factors, one of which is the way in which the

f u n c t i o n s o f e d u c a t i o n a r e c o n c e i v e d .

T h e F u n c t i o n s o f E d u c a t i o n T o d a y

T h o s e w h o t r y t o g i v e d i r e c t i o n t o e d u c a t i o n w i l l l a b o r t o s m a l l

e f f e c t u n l e s s t h e y m o v e s t e a d i l y t o w a r d b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e

powerfu l forces and id eas which are reshaping our environment

w i t h a s p e e d w h i c h a m a z e s a n d o f t e n d i s m a y s t h o u g h t f u l o b s e r v e r s .

Among these forces, education plays a dual role as promoter of

c h a n g e a n d a s h a r m o n i z e r o f t h e o t h e r i n t e r a c t i n g f o r c e s . T h e d i f -

f i c u l t i e s i n v o l v e d r e q u i r e u s t o c o n s i d e r a n e w t h e f u n c t i o n s o f e d u -

c a t i o n .

T H E END S O F E D U C A T I ON R E C ON S I D E R E D

Education sometimes seems to become a process designed pri-

m a r i l y t o i n c r e a s e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f b e h a v i o r s i n v o l v e d i n g o a l

a c h i e v e m e n t , a l t h o u g h i t h a s l o n g b e e n h e l d t h a t e d u c a t i o n s e r v e s

a l s o t o r a i s e t h e q u a l i t y o f p u r p o s e s a n d t o i n c r e a s e t h e l i k e l i h o o d

of wise choices among values and goals . T h e l a t t e r f u n c t i o n i s n o t

easy to discharge under the conditions of contemporary life when

t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s a p p e a r t o l o s e r e l e v a n c e a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l s a n c t i o n s

a r e w e a k e n e d . A n e v e n m o r e f a r - r e a c h i n g c o n c e p t o f t h e f u n c t i o n s

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 292/327

CHASE 2 8 9

o f e d u c a t i o n i s t h a t o f e n l a r g i n g t h e c a p a c i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s t o r e -

spond with empathy and e l a n to a wide range of phenomena and

r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

M o r e t h a n t h r e e c e n t u r i e s a g o , t h e p o e t M i l t o n c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s

" a c o m p l e a t a n d g e n e r o u s e d u c a t i o n t h a t w h i c h f i t s a m a n t o p e r -

f o r m j u s t l y , s k i l f u l l y , a n d m a g n a n i m o u s l y a l l t h e o f f i c e s b o t h p r i v a t e

and publick of Peace and War . " 4 T h i s d e f i n i t i o n i s m a g n i f i c e n t l y

comprehensive ; y e t i t s e m p h a s i s o n p e r f o r m a n c e o f d u t i e s , e x c e p t

f o r t h e s a v i n g g r a c e o f t h e a d v e r b s , " j u s t l y " a n d " m a g n a n i m o u s l y "

m i g h t t e n d t o r e s t r i c t e d u c a t i o n t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s k i l l s r e -

q u i r e d t o d i s c h a r g e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s s e t b y s o c i e t y . D e w e y u s e d

a d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h i n d e f i n i n g e d u c a t i o n a s " r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o r r e -

o r g a n i z a t i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h a d d s t o t h e m e a n i n g o f e x p e r i e n c e ,

a n d w h i c h i n c r e a s e s a b i l i t y t o d i r e c t t h e c o u r s e o f s u b s e q u e n t e x -

p e r i e n c e . " 5 C r e m i n t h i n k s t h i s w a s D e w e y ' s " w a y o f s a y i n g t h a t

t h e a i m o f e d u c a t i o n i s n o t m e r e l y t o m a k e c i t i z e n s , o r w o r k e r s , o r

f a t h e r s , o r m o t h e r s , b u t u l t i m a t e l y t o m a k e h u m a n b e i n g s w h o w i l l

l i v e l i f e t o t h e f u l l e s t . " 8 T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s w h o l l y j u s t i f i e d i n

t h e f u l l c o n t e x t o f D e w e y ' s w r i t i n g s .

T h e d e f i n i t i o n s c i t e d c o m p l e m e n t e a c h o t h e r a n d p r o v i d e c o g e n t

w a y s o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t e d u c a t i o n ; y e t , t h e y d o n o t s e e m t o m e s u f -

f i c i e n t l y e x p l i c i t r e g a r d i n g t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f e d u c a t i o n t o a n i n -

d i v i d u a l ' s a b i l i t y t o c h o o s e w i s e l y t h e a c t i v i t i e s t o w h i c h h e g i v e s

h i s e n e r g y , h i s t i m e , a n d e v e n t u a l l y h i s l i f e ; a n d t h e y d o n o t d e a l

d i r e c t l y w i t h s u c h a c c o m p a n i m e n t s o f l e a r n i n g a n d l i v i n g a s j o y

o r a p p r e c i a t i o n . Moreover, although these formulations do not

d e n y , t h e y l i k e w i s e d o n o t d e a l w i t h t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r d e v e l o p -

m e n t t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n o f o p e n n e s s t o o n e ' s o w n s u b l i m i n a l i m -

p u l s e s a n d n e e d s o r o f a w a r e n e s s t o t h e p e r s o n s , o b j e c t s , a n d e v e n t s

n . M i l t o n ' s T r a c t a t e o n E d u c a t i o n , p . S . Edited by Oscar Browni ng, Cam-

b r i d g e , E n g l a n d : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 o 5 . ( F i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n p a m -

p h l e t f o r m i n 1 6 4 4 f r o m a n e a r l i e r l e t t e r p r o p o s i n g a n a c a d e m y f o r " o u r n o b l e

a n d o u r g e n t l e y o u t h . " )

5 . Jo h n D e we y , D e m oc r a cy a n d Ed u c at i o n , pp . 8 9 - g o . Ne w Yo r k : M a c -

m i l l a n . C o . , 1 9 1 6 .

6 . Crem in, o p . c i t . , p p . 1 2 2 - 2 3 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 293/327

2 9 0 SCHOOL CHANGE IN PERSPECTIVE

i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t. Y e t , i n t h i s p o s t - F r e u d i a n c y b e r c u l t u r e , o p e n -

n e s s t o s e l f , o p e n n e s s t o n e w e x p e r i e n c e , a n d a u t o n o m y r o o t e d i n

t h i s d u a l o p e n n e s s c l a i m a p l a c e a m o n g t h e e n d s o f e d u c a t i o n f o r

r e a s o n s o f s e l f - f u l f i l m e n t a s w e l l a s b e c a u s e t h e y u n d e r l i e t h e c a -

p a c i t y t o m a k e i n t e l l i g e n t c h o i c e s a n d a s s u m e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n s i t u a -

t i o n s i n w h i c h k n o w l e d g e i s i n c o m p l e t e a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f

c h o i c e s a r e u n c l e a r .

T h e r e i s n o i n t e n t h e r e t o p r o b e a l l t h e m e a n i n g s o r t o e x a m i n e

a l l t h e f u n c t i o n s o f e d u c a t i o n ; b u t o n l y t o c l i n c h t h e p o i n t t h a t ,

w h e n e d u c a t i o n i s c o n c e i v e d p r i m a r i l y a s a m e a n s o f c o n v e y i n g t h e

k n o w l e d g e a n d d e v e l o p i n g t h e s k i l l s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e t a s k s s o c i e t y

r e q u i r e s , i t r e a d i l y d e g e n e r a t e s i n t o a f o r m o f m o r e o r l e s s s o p h i s t i -

c a t e d c o n d i t i o n i n g o r t r a i n i n g . I t m a y b e t h a t e d u c a t i o n , t h u s m i s -

c o n c e i v e d , b e c o m e s m o r e d e t r i m e n t a l t o t h e " g o o d l i f e " o r t o t h e

g o o d s o c i e t y a s i t b e c o m e s m o r e e f f e c t i v e .

R e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e f u n c t i o n s o f e d u c a t i o n , of the ends

sought, thus takes on new urgency . I n s o c i e t i e s a t t u n e d t o t h e

h i g h e r n e e d s a s w e l l a s t o t h e m a t e r i a l w a n t s o f m a n , t h e i n d i v i d u a l

i s e s t e e m e d n o t m e r e l y f o r h i s w o r k s b u t a l s o f o r h i m s e l f . E d u c a t i o n

i n s u c h s o c i e t i e s i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e a c t o r a s w e l l a s t h e a c t ; i t

b e a r s u p o n w h a t h a p p e n s t o t h e p e r s o n s w h o h a v e t h e p u r p o s e s a n d

w h o r e a l i z e t h e m - o r f a i l t o r e a l i z e t h e m - m o r e o r l e s s g r a c e f u l l y

a s w e l l a s u p o n t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h p u r p o s e s a r e a c h i e v e d a n d u s e f u l

c o n t r i b u t i o n s m a d e t o s o c i e t y . E d u c a t i o n , t h e n , m a y b e e x p e c t e d t o

p r o d u c e e f f e c t s ( a ) o n w h a t i n d i v i d u a l s a r e b e c o m i n g , ( b ) o n t h e

k i n d s o f p u r p o s e s w h i c h d i r e c t t h e i r b e h a v i o r , ( c ) o n t h e r e l e v a n c e

a n d e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e i r p u r p o s e f u l b e h a v i o r , a n d ( d ) o n t h e a e s -

t h e t i c a n d e t h i c a l c o n c o m i t a n t s o f t h e i r g o a l - s e t t i n g a n d g o a l - s e e k i n g

b e h a v i o r . T o r e s t a t e i n s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t t e r m s , i t m a y b e a r g u e d t h a t

a g e n e r o u s e d u c a t i o n w i l l c o n t r i b u t e t o a t l e a s t f o u r d i s t i n c t i v e t y p e s

of development :

I . T h e a b i l i t y t o u s e r e l e v a n t p r o c e s s e s f o r s e l e c t i o n o f g o a l s a n d

a c t i v i t i e s . T h i s i n v o l v e s w h a t m a y b e c a l l e d p u r p o s e - e s t a b l i s h i n g b e -

h a v i o r. T h e u l t i m a t e a i m i s t o h e l p t h e i n d i v i d u a l choose with care

t h e e n d s f o r w h i c h l i f e i s s p e n t . I t i s a f u n c t i o n g r o s s l y n e g l e c t e d

t o d a y , l a r g e l y b e c a u s e w e d o n o t f e e l e q u i p p e d t o h e l p t h e s t u d e n t

d e a l w i t h t h e c o n f l i c t o f v a l u e s . T h e a p p r o a c h e s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e

g r e a t r e l i g i o n s , b y e t h i c s , a n d b y t h e n e w e r i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t , a n a l y t i c ,

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 294/327

C HASE 2 9 1

a n d e x i s t e n t i a l i s t p h i l o s o p h i e s a l l h o l d p o t e n t i a l c l u e s t o a r e s o l u t i o n

of the problem .

2 . T h e a b i l i t y t o s e l e c t a n d u s e m e a n s a p p r o p r i a t e t o l e a r n i n g

a n d o t h e r g o a l s . H e r e w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f p e r f o r m -

a n c e , w i t h p u r p o s e - a c h i e v i n g b e h a v i o r s . T h e a i m i s t o h e l p t h e i n -

dividual find and employ without wastefulness the necessary and

proper means to the chosen ends . This now occupies the major part

o f s c h o o l i n g . I t i n v o l v e s a l l t h e s k i l l s f o r l e a r n i n g , f o r v o c a t i o n , f o r

p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g , a n d f o r d i s c o v e r y o f n e w k n o w l e d g e . M i l t o n ' s

d e f i n i t i o n " t o p e r f o r m s k i l f u l l y " i s a p t f o r t h i s t y p e o f o b j e c t i v e .

3 . T h e c a p a c i t y a n d t h e d i s p o s i t i o n t o i d e n t i f y a n d a p p l y a e s -

t h e t i c a n d e t h i c a l c r i t e r i a t o t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h a c t i v i t i e s a r e p e r -

f o r m e d . T h i s h a s t o d o w i t h w h a t m i g h t b e c a l l e d , b r o a d l y , t h e s t y l e

o f b e h a v i o r . I t i n v o l v e s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f f o r m , s e q u e n c e , h a r m o n y ,

p r e c i s i o n , e l e g a n c e , a n d i m p a c t o n s e l f a n d o t h e r s . T h e a i m i s t o e n -

a b l e t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o b r i n g t o a c t i v i t i e s a l i v e l y s e n s e o f j o y , a s e n s e

o f s t y l e , a n d a c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f a f f e c t s .

4 . T h e c a p a c i t y t o r e s p o n d t o a n i n c r e a s i n g r a n g e o f p h e n o m e n a

a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a p p r e c i a t i o n , a n d a p p r o p r i a t e

o v e r t a c t i o n . This category has to do primarily with the emerging

person and not with performance . A s i n D e w e y ' s d e f i n i t i o n , i t i s

d e v e l o p e d i n t h e p r e s e n t t h r o u g h r e f l e c t i o n o n o r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f

e x p e r i e n c e a n d c o n s i s t s o f a p o w e r r e a d y f o r s u b s e q u e n t u s e . T h e

a i m i s a s t e a d i l y e n l a r g i n g c a p a c i t y t o r e s p o n d , w i t h s a t i s f a c t i o n t o

o n e ' s s e l f a n d o t h e r s , t o t h e p h e n o m e n a o f n a t u r e , t h e p e r c e p t i v e i n -

s i g h t s o f a r t , t h e p r o c e s s e s o f s c i e n c e , t e c h n i c a l e x c e l l e n c e , o r t h e

c o m p l e x i t i e s o f h u m a n n a t u r e a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I t m a y b e c u l t i v a t e d

t h r o u g h t h e v i s u a l , p e r f o r m i n g , a n d o t h e r a r t s a n d t h r o u g h t h e g r e a t

records of human aspiration and degradation, of achievement and

d e f e a t , a n d o f a g o n y a n d e c t a s y w h i c h a r e t o b e f o u n d i n s a c r e d a n d

s e c u l a r c h r o n i c l e s a n d w o r k s o f i m a g i n a t i o n . P e r h a p s t h e c h i e f o u t -

comes sought are in the form of increasing openness-both to the

w o r l d ( i . e . , t o n e w e x p e r i e n c e s ) a n d t o t h e s e l f , w i t h a c o n t i n u i n g

d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n t h e p a t t e r n s o f t h i n k i n g e s t a b l i s h e d b y e a r l i e r e x -

p e r i e n c e s a n d t h e i n s i g h t s p r o v i d e d b y n e w e x p e r i e n c e s , s o t h a t a

r e f o r m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s i n a n e w s e l f , c o n f r o n t i n g a n e v e r - e n g a g i n g

w o r l d . T h e e n t i r e p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s s e l f - o t h e r d e l i n e a t i o n s l e a d i n g t o

new integ rations and m utual enhancement . I t i s a p r o c e s s t h r o u g h

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 295/327

2 9 2 SCHOOL CHANGE IN PERSPECTIVE

w h i c h t h e l e a r n e r c o m e s t o k n o w w h o h e i s i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e w o r l d

a n d t h e m e a s u r e o f c o n t r o l h e c a n h o p e t o e x e r t o n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n .

I t i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p p r o d u c t i v e o f a r i c h r a n g e o f e m o t i o n s - i n c l u d -

i n g j o y a n d s o r r o w , h o p e a n d d e s p a i r , u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d b a f f l e m e n t .

T h e q u a l i t y r e f e r r e d t o a s " o p e n n e s s t o t h e w o r l d " s e e m s t o m e

t o c o n t a i n p e r c e p t u a l , c o g n i t i v e , a n d e m o t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t s . S o m e

k i n d o f a w a r e n e s s h a s t o p r e c e d e r e s p o n s e ; t h e r e f o r e , w h a t o n e r e -

s p o n d s t o i s l i m i t e d b y w h a t o n e c a n p e r c e i v e ; b u t p e r c e p t i o n a p -

p e a r s t o b e l i m i t e d b y t h e t h r e s h o l d o f r e c e p t i v i t y o r s e n s i t i v i t y .

A n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e e d u c a t i v e p r o c e s s , w h i c h w e u n d e r s t a n d

b u t p o o r l y , w o u l d s e e m , t h e r e f o r e , t o b e a g r a d u a l s e n s i t i z i n g o f i n -

d i v i d u a l s t o p e r c e p t i o n s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s , c o n s t r u c t s , a n d s e n s e p h e -

n o m e n a . R e s p o n s e , h o w e v e r , i s l i m i t e d n o t o n l y b y w h a t o n e i s a b l e

t o p e r c e i v e a t a g i v e n t i m e , b u t o n h o w t h e p e r c e p t i o n i s h a n d l e d .

T h e p r o c e s s i n g o f t h e p e r c e p t i o n w o u l d s e e m t o d e p e n d n o t o n l y

o n t h e a d e q u a c y o f c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g b u t a l s o o n t h e d i s p o s i t i o n

t o t a k e r i s k s a n d t o v e n t u r e b e y o n d t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e k n o w n i n

o r d e r t o t e s t h y p o t h e s e s c o n c e r n i n g p e r c e i v e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s . A f u r -

t h e r p h a s e h a s t o d o w i t h t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s w i l l -

i n g t o m a n i f e s t o r a c t u p o n t h e o u t c o m e s o f t h e t r a n s a c t i o n b e t w e e n

t h e e x t e r n a l a n d t h e i n t e r n a l . T h e s e m a t t e r s a r e w i t h i n t h e p r o p e r

s p h e r e o f e d u c a t i o n , b u t k n o w l e d g e o f h o w t o d e a l w i t h t h e m s o

t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l " g r o w s f r o m m o r e t o m o r e " i s a v a i l a b l e t o t e a c h -

e r s i n m e a g e r q u a n t i t y a n d p o o r l y d e f i n e d f o r m .

T h e f o r e g o i n g r e p r e s e n t s a n a t t e m p t t o r e l a t e t h e g o a l s o f e d u -

c a t i o n t o a s p i r a t i o n s w h i c h h a v e t h e i r r o o t s i n o l d e r c u l t u r e s i n m a n y

l a n d s a n d w h i c h a p p e a r n o w t o b e e m e r g i n g i n t h e n e w w o r l d - w i d e

c u l t u r e . I t i s b y n o m e a n s c o m p l e t e ; a n d , i t d o e s l i t t l e t o i n d i c a t e

h o w e a c h o f t h e f o u r t y p e s o f d e v e l o p m e n t g a i n s r e l e v a n c e f o r t o -

d a y o n l y b y d r a w i n g u p o n t h e t o t a l c u l t u r e a v a i l a b l e t o m o d e r n

m a n s o t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s l e a r n t o s e t t h e i r g o a l s i n t h e m i d s t o f u n -

c e r t a i n t y a n d v a l u e c o n f l i c t s , t o p u r s u e t h e m w i t h t h e t o o l s and

t e c h n o l o g i e s t h e m o d e r n w o r l d p r o v i d e s , t o a c t w i t h v e r v e a n d c o n -

s i d e r a t i o n f o r o t h e r s i n s p i t e o f c o m p l e x i t i e s , a n d t o g o o n l e a r n i n g

a s n e w k n o w l e d g e a p p e a r s a n d n e w s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s a r i s e o n t h e

r u i n s o f o l d e r i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h e k i n d s o f e d u c a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s a n d

g o a l s w h i c h I h a v e p r e s e n t e d a r e d i f f i c u l t t o t r a n s l a t e i n t o o b j e c t i v e s

w h i c h w i l l g o v e r n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f c o n t e n t a n d t h e c h o i c e o f i n s t r u c -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 296/327

CHASE 2 9 3

t i o n a l m e t h o d o l o g i e s a n d t e c h n i q u e s . Y e t , I b e l i e v e t h a t a d d i t i o n a l

efforts to find ways of moving toward such outcomes may contrib-

ute more to the enhancement of man and the elevation of society

t h a n w i l l a r e d u c t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n t o t h a t w h i c h i s n e a t l y d e f i n a b l e

a n d s p e c i f i a b l e .

I M P L I C AT I ON S O F CULTURAL-SOC I AL MU TAT I ON S

U n d e r p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n s , t h e p o t e n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f e d u c a -

tion to the full development of m an take on new poignancy . E v i -

d e n c e o f d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n t h e c u l t u r e a n d m a l f u n c t i o n i n g o f s o c i a l

i n s t i t u t i o n s h a s l e d t o a n e a r n e s t s e a r c h f o r w a y s o f m a k i n g e d u c a -

tion more relevant to the need s of m od ern man . Ne w c o n d i t i o n s

a r i s i n g f r o m c u l t u r a l c h a n g e s h a v e m a d e e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d

t e c h n i q u e s i n a d e q u a t e , i f n o t o b s o l e t e . T h e r a p i d i n c r e a s e i n t h e

amount of know led g e with which schools m ust d eal and new per-

c e p t i o n s o f t h e n a t u r e o f k n o w l e d g e g e n e r a t e n e w d e m a n d s a n d

r e n d e r i n c r e d i b l y m o r e d i f f i c u l t t h e b a s i c f u n c t i o n o f t r a n s m i t t i n g

t h e c u l t u r e . The world-wide intermingling of cul tures resulting

from revolutionary advances in transportation and communication

m a k e a l l c u l t u r e s r e l e v a n t ; and d evelopments in warfare and the

id eolog ical polariz ation of the wor l d make any prob lem in any

country, howev er remote or inconspicuous, a possible trigger for

world-wide devastation .

T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f n e w t e c h n o l o g i e s i n b u s i n e s s , i n d u s t r y , a n d

g o v e r n m e n t r e s u l t s i n t h e s t e a d y r e p l a c e m e n t o f o c c u p a t i o n s w h i c h

m a k e s m a l l d e m a n d s o n l i t e r a c y o r o n t h e h i g h e r m e n t a l a b i l i t i e s b y

j o b s r e q u i r i n g p r e c i s e c o m m u n i c a t i o n , s k i l l i n q u a n t i t a t i v e t h i n k i n g ,

a n d t h e e x e r c i s e o f j u d g m e n t . The fulfilm ent of the individual

t h r o u g h w o r k , c o n s e q u e n t l y , r e q u i r e s a b r e a d t h o f t r a i n i n g b e y o n d

t h a t r e q u i r e d i n p r e v i o u s t i m e s . Moreover, the mounting need for

p e r s o n n e l w i t h h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d l i n g u i s t i c , m a t h e m a t i c a l , s c i e n t i f i c ,

a n d o t h e r s p e c i a l i z e d a b i l i t i e s i n g o v e r n m e n t , i n d u s t r y , a n d t h e p r o -

f e s s i o n s h a s p u t p r e s s u r e o n e d u c a t i o n a t a l l l e v e l s t o d i s c o v e r a n d

d e v e l o p u n u s u a l t a l e n t s .

A s p i r a t i o n s t o w a r d a b e t t e r l i f e a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r a g r e a t e r

s h a r e o f t h e w o r l d ' s g o o d s a r e b e i n g e x p r e s s e d t o d a y i n e v e r y s e g -

m e n t o f s o c i e t y a n d i n e v e r y c o u n t r y i n t h e w o r l d . T h e s e e x p e c t a -

t i o n s a n d a s p i r a t i o n s s o f a r o u t r u n t h e p r e s e n t m e a n s o f f u l f i l l i n g

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 297/327

2 9 4 SC HO O L C HANGE IN PERS P E CTI V E

t h e m a s t o p r o d u c e t e n s i o n s w h i c h t h r e a t e n t o e r u p t i n t o v i o l e n c e

u n l e s s m e a n s a r e f o u n d t o c l o s e t h e g a p . E d u c a t i o n i s s e e n b y a l l o f

t h e n e w l y a r t i c u l a t e p e o p l e s ( i n t h i s c o u n t r y a s w e l l a s i n l e s s a f f l u -

e n t s o c i e t i e s ) a s a n e s s e n t i a l m e a n s t o t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n s t o h i g h e r

s t a n d a r d s o f l i v i n g , a v o i c e i n a f f a i r s , a n d a g r e a t e r c o n t r o l o v e r

t h e i r o w n d e s t i n i e s .

P o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e a n d a p o s s i b l e l o w e r i n g o f t h e g e n e t i c q u a l i t y

o f t h e h u m a n r a c e t h r e a t e n t o c a n c e l o u t g a i n s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e

advance in science and technol ogy and, perhaps, even to endanger

t h e f u t u r e o f t h e r a c e . G e n e t i c i s t s a n d d e m o g r a p h e r s a g r e e t h a t a l l

o f t h e e l e m e n t s o f a w o r l d - w i d e c a t a s t r o p h e a r e i n t h e m a k i n g a n d

d i s a g r e e o n l y a s t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y a n d t h e m e a n s o f a v e r t i n g t h e

t h r e a t e n e d c a t a s t r o p h e . T h e b e s t h o p e l i e s i n i n c r e a s i n g t h e r a t i o n a l -

i t y o f d e c i s i o n s , b o t h b y f a m i l i e s w i t h r e g a r d t o o f f s p r i n g a n d b y

n a t i o n s r e s p e c t i n g e c o n o m i c a n d s o c i a l p o l i c i e s .

T h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e d a t a t h a t e n t e r i n t o m o d e r n d e c i s i o n s a n d

the speed with which d ecisions often m ust b e mad e rend er more

u n l i k e l y t h a n i n a n y p r e v i o u s a g e t h e p r o s p e c t o f w i s e d e c i s i o n s b y

p o o r l y e d u c a t e d a n d i l l - i n f o r m e d p e r s o n s . T h e e d u c a t i o n n o w a v a i l -

a b l e t o a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f o u r p o p u l a t i o n p r o v i d e s a n i n a d e q u a t e

b a s i s f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n d e c i s i o n s o n p u b l i c p o l i c y . C r i m e , p o v e r t y ,

a n d o v e r c r o w d i n g , a c c o m p a n i e d b y p o l l u t i o n o f a i r a n d w a t e r , t r a f -

f i c p a r a l y s i s , a n d o t h e r p r o b l e m s i n o u r c i t i e s , g e n e r a t e o t h e r d e -

m a n d s o n e d u c a t i o n . Other problems whi ch schools are asked to

c u r e i n c l u d e u n e m p l o y m e n t , s e g r e g a t i o n , a n d d e n i a l o f c i v i l r i g h t s .

T h e b r o a d o u t l i n e s o f a d a p t a t i o n s r e q u i r e d t o b r i n g e d u c a t i o n i n

l i n e w i t h t h e n e e d s o f o u r t i m e s a r e b e c o m i n g c l e a r . T h e f i r s t r e -

q u i r e m e n t i s t h a t a l l c h i l d r e n s h a l l h a v e a f a i r s t a r t t o w a r d a n e d u -

c a t i o n . T h i s r e q u i r e s t h e e r a d i c a t i o n o r a m e l i o r a t i o n , t h r o u g h n u r s -

ery schools and otherwise, of the cultural deprivation commonl y

experienced by children from homes in which parents are more or

l e s s i l l i t e r a t e , b o o k s a r e l a c k i n g , a n d a s p i r a t i o n s t o w a r d e d u c a t i o n

a b s e n t . I t r e q u i r e s i n t e g r a t e d f a c i l i t i e s , g o o d t e a c h i n g , a n d i m p r o v e d

materials and techniques of instruction for children of minority

g r o u p s , c h i l d r e n i n r u r a l a r e a s , a n d o t h e r s w h o a r e t h e v i c t i m s o f

e n v i r o n m e n t a l b l i g h t .

T h e m a j o r f u n c t i o n o f t h e p r i m a r y l e a r n i n g s t a g e i s t o k e e p a l i v e

t h e c h i l d ' s n a t u r a l q u e s t f o r m e a n i n g a n d t o e q u i p h i m w i t h t h e e s -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 298/327

C H A S E 2 9 5

s e n t i a l t o o l s f o r p u r s u i n g l e a r n i n g o n h i s o w n . E v e r y c h i l d i n t h i s

stage needs the extended influence of teachers who have deep un-

d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e n e e d s o f y o u n g c h i l d r e n , a f i r m g r a s p o n l e a r n i n g

a s a p r o c e s s o f a c t i v e i n q u i r y , a n d g r e a t s k i l l i n p l a n n i n g s e q u e n c e s

of experiences through which children can acquire the tools and

h a b i t s o f s u s t a i n e d a n d s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y . Groups of varying size

a n d c o m p o s i t i o n f o r d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f l e a r n i n g t a s k s a n d a v a r i e t y

o f s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e v i c e s a r e r e q u i r e d i n o r d e r f o r e a c h c h i l d t o

advance at his own rate and to experience genuine achievement .

T h e s e c o n d a r y s t a g e c a l l s f o r t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f a c o n s i d e r a b l e

b o d y a n d v a r i e t y o f o r g a n i z e d k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e l e a r n i n g o f m o d e s

o f i n q u i r y a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e c o n t i n u i n g e x t e n s i o n o f k n o w l e d g e i n

each of the major disciplines . Ingenuous differ entiation of ap-

p r o a c h e s a n d i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s a r e e s s e n t i a l t o t a k e a c c o u n t o f

d i f f e r e n c e s i n a b i l i t y , p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e , v a l u e s , a n d o t h e r m o t i v a -

t i o n s . A s s e l f - d i r e c t i o n i s d e v e l o p e d , i t m a y b e c o m e p o s s i b l e f o r a

m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e t i m e i n s c h o o l t o b e s p e n t i n i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n i n g

b y m e a n s o f r e a d i n g , s e l f - t e a c h i n g d e v i c e s o f m a n y k i n d s , a n d s e l f -

d i r e c t e d a c t i v i t y i n l a b o r a t o r i e s a n d w o r k s h o p s . C o n t a c t s w i t h c u l -

t i v a t e d t e a c h e r s w h o a r e k n o w l e d g e a b l e i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f i e l d s a n d

m o t i v a t e d b y a s p i r i t o f c o n t i n u i n g i n q u i r y a r e e s s e n t i a l . E v a l u a t i o n

of achievement and of progress in the development of powers may

b e c o m e t h e c h i e f b a s i s , o t h e r t h a n t h e l e a r n e r ' s o w n p u r p o s e s , f o r

s c h e d u l i n g t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l s .

A l l s t u d e n t s c a n b e i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e m o d e s o f t h i n k i n g a n d t h e

i n s i g h t s i n t o m a n ' s a c h i e v e m e n t s a n d s h o r t c o m i n g s t h a t a r e p r o v i d e d

t h r o u g h g r e a t l i t e r a t u r e , h i s t o r y , t h e a r t s , a n d s c i e n c e s ; a n d a l l n e e d

h e l p i n a c q u i r i n g p r e c i s i o n a n d p o w e r i n t h e u s e o f l a n g u a g e a n d o f

t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l t o o l s f o r q u a n t i t a t i v e t h i n k i n g . T h e c o n t e n t o f t h e

c u r r i c u l u m i n a l l f i e l d s r e q u i r e s t h o r o u g h a n d c o n t i n u o u s r e v i s i o n t o

w e e d o u t o b s o l e t e o r s e c o n d - r a t e i d e a s a n d t h e s h o d d y e x p r e s s i o n o f

i d e a s a n d t o p r o v i d e a r e a s o n a b l e s a m p l i n g o f m a n ' s h i g h e s t a c h i e v e -

m e n t s . T o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s , t h e s p e c i a l i z e d s c h o l a r s i n t h e s e v e r a l

f i e l d s m u s t c o n t i n u e t o i d e n t i f y t h e k e y c o n c e p t s a n d f o r m u l a t i o n s

from which more specific select ion may b e mad e for particu lar

l e a r n e r s a t p a r t i c u l a r s t a g e s o f d e v e l o p m e n t . P s y c h o l o g i s t s a n d o t h e r

s t u d e n t s o f h u m a n b e h a v i o r c a n p r o v i d e g u i d a n c e f o r t h e o r g a n i z a -

t i o n a n d s e q u e n c e o f l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s a n d t h e c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 299/327

2 9 6 SCHOOL CHANGE IN PERSPECTIVE

p a r t i c u l a r k i n d s o f c o n t e n t m a y b e u s e d m o s t e f f e c t i v e l y f o r d i f f e r -

e n t p u r p o s e s w i t h d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f l e a r n e r s .

T h e c a p a c i t y t o c h o o s e t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e n t t h a t w i l l c o n t r i b -

u t e m o s t t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p a r t i c u l a r l e a r n e r s a t p a r t i c u l a r t i m e s

w i l l r e m a i n i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o c o m p e t e n t t e a c h i n g . Improvements in

t h e s e l e c t i o n , p r e p a r a t i o n , a n d u s e o f t e a c h e r s a r e , t h e r e f o r e , e s s e n t i a l

if the schools are to respond with anything approaching adequacy

t o t h e n e w d e m a n d s o n e d u c a t i o n . M a k i n g t e a c h i n g a t t r a c t i v e t o

y o u n g p e o p l e o f i n t e l l e c t u a l c u r i o s i t y a n d s c h o l a r l y i n t e r e s t s i s n o t

i m p o s s i b l e ; a n d t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n a s a n e x t e n s i o n o f ( r a t h e r t h a n a

replacement for) liberal studies m ight produce teacher-scholars .

H o w e v e r , r e d e f i n i t i o n o f t e a c h e r r o l e s t o p e r m i t b e t t e r u s e o f s p e -

c i a l i z e d t a l e n t s i s l o n g o v e r d u e ; a n d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d a d m i n i s -

tration of schools can be made more conducive to achievement of

e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s . F i n a l l y , i n d u c e m e n t s a n d r e s o u r c e s f o r c o n -

t i n u i n g e d u c a t i o n t h r o u g h l i f e c a n b e m a d e a v a i l a b l e t o a l l c i t i z e n s .

NEW O R I ENTAT IONS T O A CHANGING W OR LD

I n c h a p t e r v i i , G o w , H o l z n e r , a n d P e n d l e t o n o f f e r a n i n t r i g u i n g

glimpse of a new world-wide view which is developing among in-

t e l l e c t u a l s i n a l l s o c i e t i e s a n d t o u c h i n g a l l a s p e c t s o f c u l t u r e , i n c l u d -

i n g a r t , l i t e r a t u r e , m u s i c , a n d p h i l o s o p h y a s w e l l a s t h e s c i e n c e s .

A m o n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e : a w i l l i n g n e s s t o m a k e d e c i s i o n s a n d

t o a c c e p t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h e f a c e o f u n c e r t a i n t y , a n e w h u m a n i s t i c

i n d i v i d u a l i s m , a n d a n i n c r e a s i n g l y r e f l e c t i v e , s e l f - a n a l y z i n g o u t l o o k .

To the extent that these new orientations perme ate society, they

o f f e r a d e m o n s t r a t i o n o n a b r o a d s c a l e o f t h e k i n d o f r e c o n s t r u c t i o n

of experience which Dewey defined as education . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t

t h e s e p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n s t o o u r c h a n g i n g w o r l d a r e o c c u r r i n g w i t h -

o u t m u c h a s s i s t a n c e f r o m t h e s c h o o l s a n d a r e l a r g e l y t h e p r o d u c t s

of direct on-the-scene involvements or of secondary involvement

through the vivid reporting of television and other modern media

o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . I t m a y b e ob s e r v e d , h ow e v e r , t h a t t h e n e w

o r i e n t a t i o n i s b y n o m e a n s u n i v e r s a l ; t h a t i t h a s n o t b e e n a d o p t e d

f u l l y e v e n b y a l l c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e s ; a n d t h a t , i n f a c t , i t s e e m s t o b e

c o n f i n e d l a r g e l y t o t h e m o r e i m a g i n a t i v e a n d r e f l e c t i v e m e m b e r s o f

s o c i e t y .

T h e r e i s g r e a t n e e d t o s p e e d u p t h e p o s i t i v e a d a p t a t i o n s o n t h e

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 300/327

CHASE2 9 7

p a r t o f a l l m e m b e r s o f s o c i e t y ; o t h e r w i s e t h e r e i s l i t t l e h o p e o f r a -

t i o n a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n b y t h e m a j o r i t y o f c i t i z e n s i n t h e g r e a t d e c i s i o n s

o f o u r t i m e s ; a n d e v e n l e s s e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t m o s t w i l l b e a b l e t o

c o n f r o n t t h e w o r l d w i t h z e s t e n g e n d e r e d b y f e e l i n g s o f a u t o n o m y

and adequacy . T h e s c h o o l s h a v e n o t y e t l e a r n e d h o w t o c o p e w i t h

t h i s c h a l l e n g e . F o r e x a m p l e , i n s t r u c t i o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n a r e s t i l l b a s e d

l a r g e l y o n a n a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s a " r i g h t " o r c o r r e c t a n s w e r ,

t h a t q u a n t i t i e s c a n b e m e a s u r e d e x a c t l y , a n d t h a t t h e r e i s a " b e s t

w a y " o f d o i n g t h i n g s . R e a d i n g i s s t i l l t a u g h t a s a n e x e r c i s e i n r e -

t r i e v i n g t h e a u t h o r ' s m e a n i n g ( o r s o m e t i m e s o n l y h i s w o r d s ) f r o m

t h e p r i n t e d p a g e r a t h e r t h a n a s a n e x e r c i s e i n r e f l e c t i v e t h o u g h t ,

i n v o l v i n g n o t o n l y a t r a n s a c t i o n b e t w e e n n e w d a t a a n d p r e v i o u s

e x p e r i e n c e b u t a l s o a h y p o t h e t i c a l p r o j e c t i o n i n t o n e w s i t u a t i o n s o f

t h e i d e a s e n c o u n t e r e d .

T h e s c h o o l s h a v e r e c e i v e d l i t t l e h e l p f r o m p h i l o s o p h e r s , p s y -

c h o l o g i s t s , o r c u r r i c u l u m - m a k e r s i n c o m b a t i n g f o r c e s o f d e h u m a n -

i z a t i o n a n d a l i e n a t i o n ; c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e n e w

h u m a n i s t i c i n d i v i d u a l i s m t e n d a t b e s t t o b e i n c i d e n t a l . W h a t i s a t

s t a k e i s n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n a s u c c e s s f u l c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f t h e n e w c u l -

t u r e i n i t s m a n y g u i s e s t o t h e e n d t h a t t h e o u t p u t o f m a n ' s b r a i n m a y

be put to uses which most "become" a man . I t i s a t a s k w h i c h

s c h o o l s c a n n o t h o p e t o p e r f o r m w i t h o u t e x t e n s i v e h e l p f r o m t h e

u n i v e r s i t i e s a n d o t h e r a g e n c i e s f o r t h e d i s c o v e r y , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n d

a p p l i c a t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e .

T e n y e a r s a g o a S c o t t i s h r e v i e w o f t h e S o c i e t y ' s F i f t y - f o u r t h

Y e a r b o o k r e m a r k e d t h a t p e r h a p s " t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e -

tween contemporary European and American educational thought

c e n t r e s i n t h e c o n c e r n t o u n d e r s t a n d m a n ' s n a t u r e a n d b e i n g " 7

w h i c h h e c l e a r l y t h o u g h t m u c h g r e a t e r i n E u r o p e t h a n i n A m e r i c a .

I t m a y b e t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s l e s s s t r i k i n g t o d a y . C e r t a i n l y A m e r i -

c a n t h o u g h t i s n o w b e i n g i n f l u e n c e d b y e x i s t e n t i a l i s t c o n c e p t s o f

m a n a s " a m a k e r o f d e c i s i v e c h o i c e s . . . a u n i q u e p e r s o n w i t h h i s

c o m m i t m e n t t o m a k e . " 8

7 . W . B . I n g l i s , " T h e A m e r i c a n A c c e n t i n E d u c a t i o n , " S c o t t i s h E d u c a t i o n a l

J o u r n a l , November, 19 53, p . 6 7 9 .

8 . I b i d . , p . 6 8 o .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 301/327

2 9 8 SC HO O L C HANGE IN PERS P E CTI V E

The problem of values re-emerges as perhaps the most cru cial

concern of ed ucation tod ay ; and the problem will not disappear

s i m p l y b e c a u s e i t f a l l s o u t s i d e t h e d o m a i n s o f s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l -

o g y . F r a n k e n a ' s d i s c u s s i o n i n c h a p t e r x s u g g e s t s t h a t p o s t - D e w e y a n

p h i l o s o p h e r s h a v e , u p t o n o w , e x e r t e d a n a l m o s t n e g l i g i b l e i n f l u e n c e

o n p r a c t i c e s i n t h e s c h o o l s a n d o n l y s l i g h t i n f l u e n c e o n d i s c o u r s e

i n t h e f i e l d o f e d u c a t i o n . Y e t , h e b e l i e v e s t h a t b o t h a n a l y t i c a l a n d

e x i s t e n t i a l i s t p h i l o s o p h e r s h a v e i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o m a k e t o

the selection of goals, determination of emphases, and choice of

m e t h o d s .

I f I r e a d h i m c o r r e c t l y , F r a n k e n a i d e n t i f i e s f o u r k i n d s o f c o n -

t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e n o r m a t i v e o r e t h i c a l p r e m i s e s o f e d u c a t i o n : ( a ) t h e

f a m i l y o f d i s p o s i t i o n s s t r e s s e d b y t h e a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r s a n d

h a v i n g t o d o w i t h p r o c e d u r a l r i g o r , c l a r i t y o f t h o u g h t a n d e x p r e s -

s i o n ; ( b ) t h e f a m i l y o f m o r a l d i s p o s i t i o n s d e r i v e d f r o m e x i s t e n t i a l i s t

philosophy which are represented by such terms as authenticity,

c o m m i t m e n t , c o u r a g e , a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; ( c ) t h e d i s p o s i t i o n t o w a r d

c o n s i s t e n c y e m b o d i e d i n t h e " P r i n c i p l e o f G e n e r a l i z a t i o n ; a n d ( d )

the dispositions toward excelle ncy stressed earlier by Dewey and

i n h e r i n g i n s c i e n t i f i c r e g a r d f o r e m p i r i c a l f a c t a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l v e r -

i f i c a t i o n .

T h e p o t e n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f p h i l o s o p h y t o t h e w o r k i n g o u t o f

p r o c e s s e s t h r o u g h w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s c a n o r d e r t h e i r o w n v a l u e s a n d

g o a l s m a y e v e n t u a l l y a s s u m e g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e t h a n i t s c o n t r i b u -

tions to normative premises . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i n s u f f i c i e n t g r o u n d -

work has been done to enable those preparing to teach to develop

s u c h p r o c e s s e s f o r t h e m s e l v e s , m u c h l e s s t o t e a c h t h e m t o o t h e r s .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s e n c o u r a g i n g t h a t a n u m b e r o f p h i l o s o p h e r s a r e

beginning to grapple with the problem of developing and teachi ng

p r o c e s s e s f o r r e s o l v i n g v a l u e c o n f l i c t s . Students of edu cation are

a l s o g i v i n g t h e m a t t e r a t t e n t i o n .

N o l l , i n a r e c e n t s t u d y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o , u n d e r t o o k

to identify meta-terms which represent common pivotal points in

t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f e t h i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s o f f e r e d b y a n u m b e r o f t h e

m a j o r e x i s t e n t i a l p h i l o s o p h e r s . W h i l e h e s a w e n o r m o u s p o s s i b i l i t i e s

f o r a p p l y i n g t h e i d e n t i f i e d c o n c e p t s t o t h e p r o b l e m o f v a l u e s , N o l l

w a s u n a b l e t o f i t t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e p r e s e n t s t r u c t u r e o f

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 302/327

CHASE2 9 9

education . He thinks "a co mp lete transfor mation of the schoo l" e

may be necessary in order to realize the full potential of the ex -

i s t e n t i a l i s t p o s i t i o n . T h e s t u d y i s a n e x t r e m e l y p r o v o c a t i v e c o n t r i b u -

tion to a problem that l ies at the heart of edu cation . F u r t h e r e x p l o -

ration by phil osophers and other thinker s is u rgent if school s are to

b e g i n t o a d d r e s s t h e m s e l v e s w i t h a n y h o p e o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s t o h e l p -

ing you ng peopl e acq u ire a val id and rel iable process for dete rm ining

w h o t h e y a r e , w h a t t o c o m m i t t h e m s e l v e s t o , a n d h o w t o s p e n d

t h e i r l i v e s . As W h e e l i s s a y s : " V a l u e s d e t e r m i n e g o a l s , a n d g o a l s

define identity. The prob l e m o f i d e n tity , ther efore , is secon d a r y to

so me basic tro uble about va l u e . "1 0

I n the search for val u es, Wheel i s pins his faith on the instru m en-

t a l p r o c e s s c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f f a c t s a n d t h e d r a w i n g

of relevant conclusions-in which reason rather than belief founded

o n f o r c e b e c o m e s t h e v i t a l e l e m e n t . He r e c og n i z es t h e n ee d a l so f o r

instit u t i ona l v a l u e s b u t ca l l s f or an en d to instit u t i ona l c oercions .

T h e i s s u e i s j o i n e d b e t w e e n t h o s e w h o w o u l d s u b j e c t v a l u e s a n d

e n d s a s w e l l a s m e a n s t o i n t e l l i g e n t s c r u t i n y a n d i n q u i r y a n d t h o s e

w h o w o u l d l o o k t o i n s t i t u t i o n a l p o w e r t o p r o p a g a t e a n d i n f o r c e

"revea l e d " va l u e s . H o w o n e r e s o l v e s t h i s i s s u e h a s c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r

education . I f o n t h e t h e o r y t h a t t h e u n e x a m i n e d v a l u e i s n o t e n -

tit led to the a l l egiance of man, we choose the approach of reason

a n d d i s c i p l i n e d i n q u i r y , w e a r e i m p e l l e d t o w o r k o u t a n d a p p l y

r e l e v a n t m o d e s o f i n q u i r y .

A n A p p r a i s a l o f D e v e l o p m e n t s a n d P o s s i b i l i t i e s

CONSIDERATIONS O F R E L E V A NC E , A M P L I T U D E , A N D P O T E N C Y

Many of the changes described in the first six chapters of this

v o l u m e s e e m t o r e f l e c t p r e s s u r e s t o w a r d t e c h n i c a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d

t o b ear on l y inci d e nta l r e l a t i onshi ps to the b asic phi l o s ophica l a n d

s o cia l i ss u e s w h i c h arise fro m t he transfor m a t ion of c u l t u r e an d s o-

9 . J a m e s W i l l i a m N o l l , " A n A n a l y s i s o f E x i s t e n t i a l i s t C o n c e p t s a s a B a s i s

for the Value Dimension of Contemporary American Education . " U n p u b l i s h e d

P h . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o , 1 9 6 5 .

1 o . A l l e n W h e e l i s , T h e Q u e s t f o r I d e n t i t y , p . 1 7 4 . Ne w Yo r k : W . W . N o r -

ton & Co . , 1 9 5 8 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 303/327

3 0 0 SCHOOL CHANGE IN PERSPECTIVE

c i e t y . S o m e o f t h e a c t u a l o r i n c i p i e n t c h a n g e s , n o t a b l y t h e c u r -

r i c u l u m d e v e l o p m e n t s d e s c r i b e d b y G o o d l a d i n c h a p t e r i i a n d t h e

c h a n g i n g r o l e o f t h e t e a c h e r a s d i s c u s s e d b y L e e i n c h a p t e r i , s e e m ,

h o w e v e r , t o r e p r e s e n t a c l e a r r e s p o n s e t o n e e d s a r i s i n g f r o m t h e

m e t a m o r p h o s i s o f t h e c u l t u r e . I n s p i t e o f t h e s l o w n e s s w i t h w h i c h

m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g i e s f i n d t h e i r w a y i n t o t h e s c h o o l s , t h e r e i s r e a s o n

t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e i s a m a j o r t h r u s t t o w a r d t e c h n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e

i n e d u c a t i o n . U n d o u b t e d l y i m p r o v e d t e c h n o l o g i e s a p p l i e d t o s c h o o l

h o u s i n g , o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d i n s t r u c t i o n w i l l e n a b l e s c h o o l s t o d o b e t -

t e r w h a t e v e r t h e y a r e t r y i n g t o d o a n d t h u s i n c r e a s e t h e e f f e c t i v e -

n e s s o f t h e i r r e s p o n s e t o t h e b a s i c f o r c e s a n d i d e a s a t w o r k i n o u r

s o c i e t y . T h e d e s c r i p t i o n s i n t h i s v o l u m e s u g g e s t , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e

n e w t e c h n o l o g i e s h a v e n o t b e e n a d o p t e d v e r y w i d e l y , t h a t t h e y a r e

n o t w e l l i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e s c h o o l s , a n d t h a t t h e i r

e f f e c t s t o d a t e p r o b a b l y a r e n o t v e r y g r e a t .

S i n c e s c i e n c e h a s n o t y e t d e v i s e d a n a c c e p t e d w a y o f m e a s u r i n g

t h e f o r c e s a t w o r k i n o u r s o c i e t y o r t h e n e e d s t o w h i c h e d u c a t i o n

i s r e l e v a n t , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o m a k e e v e n a p p r o x i m a t e j u d g m e n t s a s t o

h o w f a r c h a n g e s i n e d u c a t i o n c a r r y u s t o w a r d m e e t i n g t h e n e e d s .

P e r h a p s i t m a y b e u s e f u l , h o w e v e r , t o s c r u t i n i z e c h a n g e s a n d p r o -

p o s a l s f o r c h a n g e i n t e r m s o f r e l e v a n c e , a m p l i t u d e , a n d p o t e n c y .

R e l e v a n c e m i g h t b e d e f i n e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o s p e c i f i e d c u l t u r a l

c h a n g e s , s o c i a l g o a l s , t h e n e e d s o f i n d i v i d u a l s c o n f r o n t e d w i t h r a p -

i d l y c h a n g i n g c o n d i t i o n s , o r a d e s i g n a t e d s e t o f e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c -

t i v e s . T h e a m p l i t u d e o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l r e s p o n s e m i g h t b e d e f i n e d

w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e r e s o u r c e s r e q u i r e d t o a c h i e v e s t a t e d p u r p o s e s ,

o r t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e e s s e n t i a l r e s o u r c e s a r e m a d e a v a i l a b l e a n d

a p p l i e d . I f a g r e e m e n t c o u l d b e r e a c h e d r e g a r d i n g t h e r e l e v a n c e o f

p r o p o s e d c h a n g e s t o s t a t e d g o a l s o f e d u c a t i o n , a n d t h e k i n d s a n d

a m o u n t s o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s , t e a c h i n g c o m p e t e n c i e s , a n d o t h e r

r e q u i r e m e n t s s p e c i f i e d , i t m i g h t b e c o m e p o s s i b l e t o p r e d i c t t h e p o -

t e n c y o f a d a p t a t i o n s a n d t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d t o a c h i e v e t h e p o s t u l a t e d

e f f e c t s .

T o a s s e s s c h a n g e s t a k i n g p l a c e i n e d u c a t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i r

r e l e v a n c e t o t h e h u m a n n e e d s a r i s i n g f r o m t h e " g r e a t t r a n s m u t a t i o n "

a n d t h e i r a m p l i t u d e i n r e l a t i o n t o d e s i r e d e f f e c t s i n v o l v e s g r e a t d i f -

f i c u l t i e s ; y e t c e r t a i n r o u g h j u d g m e n t s m a y b e m a d e . F o r e x a m p l e ,

t h e c h a n g e s i n g u i d a n c e a n d c o u n s e l i n g , a s d e s c r i b e d b y S p r i n t h a l l

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 304/327

C H A S E 3 0 1

a n d Ti e d e m a n ( c h a p . i i i ) , a p p e a r e d t o p o s s e s s c o n s i d e r a b l e a m p l i -

t u d e b u t s e e m t o h a v e r e l e v a n c e t o c e r t a i n d e m a n d s r e l a t i n g t o c o l -

l e g e e n t r a n c e , o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d t o j o b s e c u r i t y , o n t h e o t h e r

h a n d , r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e d e v e l o p i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l a u t o n o m y . I f t h e

l a s t i s t h e a i m , a s h i f t i n a p p r o a c h i s i n d i c a t e d . T h e c h a n g e s i n s c h o o l

o r g a n i z a t i o n a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t e a m - t e a c h i n g , n o n g r a d i n g , a n d r e -

l a t e d d e v e l o p m e n t s a p p e a r t o h a v e s o m e r e l e v a n c e t o s u c h o b j e c t i v e s

a s b e t t e r a d a p t a t i o n o f i n s t r u c t i o n t o i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a n d b e t -

t e r u s e o f a v a i l a b l e t e a c h i n g t a l e n t ; H e a t h e r s ' a n a l y s i s i n c h a p t e r v

r e v e a l s t h a t t h e c h a n g e s t o d a t e a r e n o t o f s u c h a m p l i t u d e a s t o p r o -

d uce m uch in the way of nation- wid e effect . I n b o t h c a s e s , t h e

present potency of the changes in terms of basic social needs or

s t a t e d e d u c a t i o n a l a i m s w o u l d s e e m t o b e l o w . I n c h a p t e r i v , D a l e ' s

v e r d i c t o n p r e s e n t u s e o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s i s t h a t r e l e v a n c e i s

n o t a l w a y s c l e a r a n d t h e a m p l i t u d e i s l o w , s o t h a t t h e p o t e n c y o f

w h a t i s n o w b e i n g d o n e p r e s u m a b l y i s a l s o l o w . G o r e s , o n t h e o t h e r

h a n d , s e e s t h e s c h o o l h o u s e a s t h e k e y t o o t h e r c h a n g e s i n e d u c a t i o n

a n d s e e m s t o h a v e n o d o u b t a s t o t h e r e l e v a n c e t o e d u c a t i o n a l o b -

j e c t i v e s o f t h e n e w e r a p p r o a c h e s t o s c h o o l a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d f a c i l i -

t i e s . I f h e i s r i g h t , t h e o n l y p r o b l e m w o u l d s e e m t o b e t o i n c r e a s e

t h e a m p l i t u d e u n t i l a l l c h i l d r e n a n d y o u t h h a v e t h e b e n e f i t o f f a c i l i -

t i e s w i t h t h e f l e x i b i l i t y a n d p o w e r w h i c h h e v i s u a l i z e s .

I n c u r r i c u l u m r e v i s i o n , G o o d l a d ' s a n a l y s i s s h o w s h i g h r e l e v a n c e

t o t h e s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e s . T h e r e w o u l d s e e m a l s o t o b e h i g h r e l e v a n c e

t o t h e r o l e o f s c i e n c e i n o u r c u l t u r e a n d s o c i e t y a n d t o t h e d e v e l o p -

m e n t o f a t t i t u d e s a n d h a b i t s o f i n q u i r y . T h e a m p l i t u d e i s r e l a t i v e l y

h i g h w i t h r e s p e c t t o m a t e r i a l s a n d t e c h n i q u e s , b u t r e l a t i v e l y l o w

w i t h r e g a r d t o q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r s . T h e e f f o r t t o d e v e l o p p a c k a g e s o f

"teacher-proof" material was accepted by some as obviating the

m u c h m o r e d i f f i c u l t s o l u t i o n o f d e v e l o p i n g i n t e a c h e r s - i n - t r a i n i n g

a n d t h o s e a l r e a d y e m p l o y e d t h e c a p a c i t y f o r u s i n g t h e n e w i n s t r u c -

t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s , d e v i c e s , a n d t e c h n i q u e s t o t h e i n t e n d e d e f f e c t . I n

s p i t e o f t h i s s e r i o u s s h o r t c o m i n g , I a m o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e p o -

t e n c y o f c u r r i c u l u m r e v i s i o n i n m a t h e m a t i c s a n d t h e s c i e n c e s , b o t h

w i t h r e g a r d t o s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e s a n d t o f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e s i n c u l -

t u r e a n d s o c i e t y , p l a c e t h e s e c h a n g e s v e r y h i g h a m o n g t h o s e c u r r e n t

i n e d u c a t i o n . F u r t h e r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s f o r l e a r n e r s w i t h

d i v e r s e b a c k g r o u n d s a n d a b i l i t i e s a n d r e l a t i v e l y l o w m o t i v a t i o n f o r

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 305/327

3 0 2 S C H O O L C H ANG E I N P E R S P E C T I V E

i n t e l l e c t u a l p u r s u i t s w o u l d g i v e g r e a t e r a m p l i t u d e , e s p e c i a l l y i f r e -

l a t e d t o e f f e c t i v e p r o g r a m s o f t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n .

W i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c h a n g e s i n t h e r o l e o f t h e t e a c h e r i d e n t i -

f i e d b y L e e , o n e i s j u s t i f i e d i n a s k i n g w h e t h e r t h e s e c h a n g e s a r e a l -

r e a d y g e n e r a l l y r e a l i z e d a n d o p e r a t i v e a s o f 1 9 6 5 ; w h e t h e r t h e y a r e

s t i l l n o t f u l l y r e a l i z e d , b u t p a r t o f a t r e n d t h a t i s s o s t r o n g t h a t e a r l y

a n d f a i r l y c o m p l e t e r e a l i z a t i o n m a y b e a n t i c i p a t e d ; w h e t h e r t h e y a r e

m e r e l y i n c i p i e n t a n d s t r u g g l i n g w i t h c o u n t e r f o r c e s s o t h a t t h e r e -

s u l t i s s t i l l i n d o u b t ; o r w h e t h e r t h e y f a l l i n t o t h e m u c h - t a l k e d - a b o u t

b u t l i t t l e - a c t e d - u p o n c a t e g o r y .

C e r t a i n l y m u c h o f t h e d i s c o u r s e o n e d u c a t i o n i n r e c e n t y e a r s h a s

c e n t e r e d o n t h e t h r e e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i d e n t i f i e d b y L e e ; n a m e l y ,

s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , i n t e l l e c t u a l i z a t i o n , a n d c o n t i n u i t y . T o t h e e x t e n t t h a t

we are moving away from the expectation that teachers in elemen-

t a r y s c h o o l s s h o u l d b e a b l e t o t e a c h a b r o a d r a n g e o f s u b j e c t s a n d

perform many social and other nonacademic functions and toward

t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l t e a c h e r s a s s p e c i a l i s t s i n c e r t a i n

f i e l d s o r d i s c i p l i n e s , t h i s m a y b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s a r e l e v a n t r e s p o n s e

to the specialized nature of m odern knowledge . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n

i t i s w e l l t o r e c a l l t h a t d e p a r t m e n t a l i z a t i o n o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r i n t h e

e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l , w h i c h t o o k p l a c e i n t h e f i r s t d e c a d e o f t h i s c e n -

t u r y a n d f l o u r i s h e d f o r a p e r i o d t h e r e a f t e r , r e p r e s e n t e d a n e a r l i e r

a n d n o t n o t a b l y s u c c e s s f u l r e s p o n s e t o t h e i n c r e a s i n g s p e c i a l i z a t i o n

o f k n o w l e d g e . T h e p r e s e n t e m p h a s i s o n i n t e l l e c t u a l i z a t i o n a l s o c o r -

r e s p o n d s t o a n e a r l i e r e m p h a s i s w h i c h w a s o v e r w h e l m e d n o t s o

much by the Progressive movement as by the rapid rise of school

e n r o l m e n t s , w i t h o u t a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i m p r o v e m e n t i n t e c h n i q u e s a n d

m a t e r i a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n . L e e f i n d s t h i s e m p h a s i s r e a s s e r t i n g i t s e l f .

He makes a strong case for the relevance of the new emphases on

i n t e l l e c t u a l i z a t i o n , s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , a n d c o n t i n u i t y t o t h e c h a n g e s i n

o u r c u l t u r e . H e d o e s n o t s h o w h o w f a r t h e s e c h a n g e s h a v e p r o -

ceeded and, therefore, gives no indications of amplitude and po-

tency . H e d o e s d e r i v e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n a n d t h u s

points to one way in which the response may be amplif ied .

A l l i n a l l , t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e d o u b t t h a t t h e e d u c a t i o n a l a d a p t a -

t i o n s o f r e c e n t y e a r s , w i t h e x c e p t i o n o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m p r o j e c t s ,

h a v e d e v e l o p e d s u f f i c i e n t p o t e n c y t o r a d i c a l l y a f f e c t t h e p r o c e s s e s

u s e d i n t h e s c h o o l s o r t h e b e h a v i o r o f i n d i v i d u a l s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 306/327

CHASE 3 0 3

t h e m . Y e t i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e c o m b i n e d e f f e c t s o f t h e n e w d r i v e

t o w a r d e q u a l i t y a n d n e w s o c i a l s c i e n c e r e s e a r c h m a y a l t e r t h e p i c -

t u r e m a t e r i a l l y i n t h e n e x t d e c a d e .

TWO NEW DEVELOPMENTS

T y l e r p o r t r a y s i n c h a p t e r v i i i a w i d e r a n g e o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h e

a p p l i c a t i o n o f s o c i a l - s c i e n c e r e s e a r c h t o e d u c a t i o n . The promise,

h o w e v e r , i s l a r g e l y u n r e a l i z a b l e u n t i l t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e g i v e n

f u r t h e r t e s t i n g a n d i n c o r p o r a t e d i n s o p h i s t i c a t e d w a y s i n t e a c h e r

e d u c a t i o n .

G l a s e r ' s p r o j e c t e d t e c h n o l o g y o f i n s t r u c t i o n s o a l l u r i n g l y s e t

! f o r t h i n c h a p t e r i x i s a n a p p r o a c h t o t h e p r o g r a m i n g o f b e h a v i o r s i n

t h e i n t e r e s t o f m o r e e f f e c t i v e l e a r n i n g . T h e s a m e i s t r u e o f a l l a t -

t e m p t s t o s p e c i f y b e h a v i o r a l o b j e c t i v e s a n d " t e a c h t o t h e m " e x c e p t

t h a t , u p t o n o w , t e c h n o l o g i e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n h a v e b e e n s o l o o s e l y

c o n s t r u c t e d t h a t t h e s u b j e c t s ( i . e . , t h e l e a r n e r s ) e a s i l y e v a d e t h e n e t

t o p u r s u e t h e i r o w n o b j e c t i v e s . % G l a s e r v i s u a l i z e s t h e s u c c e s s i v e a p -

p l i c a t i o n o f r e s e a r c h t o t h e t i g h t e n i n g o f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l s e q u e n c e

t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e s t u d e n t i s m o d i f i e d " i n o r d e r

t o g e t f r o m e n t e r i n g b e h a v i o r t o s p e c i f i e d t e r m i n a l b e h a v i o r . " He ,

l i k e m o s t o t h e r w r i t e r s o n p r o g r a m e d i n s t r u c t i o n , l e a v e s u n a n s w e r e d

t h e q u e s t i o n s o f h o w a n d b y w h o m t h e t e r m i n a l b e h a v i o r s a r e t o b e

s p e c i f i e d . T h i s m a y b e a p r o p e r s t a n c e f o r a s c i e n t i s t w h o d o e s n o t

w a n t t o c o m p r o m i s e h i s o b j e c t i v i t y b y v a l u e j u d g m e n t s ; b u t t e c h -

n o l o g i e s , i n t r o d u c e d w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o s o c i a l e f f e c t s o r o t h e r c o n -

s i d e r e d e n d s , e x e r t a p u l l t o w a r d s e t t i n g e n d s w h i c h a r e t e c h n i c a l l y

f e a s i b l e . " ' G l a s e r h i m s e l f s a y s i n t h e c o n c l u s i o n t o c h a p t e r i x t h a t

" t h e s e t t i n g o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l g o a l s w i l l b e r e c a s t m o r e a n d m o r e i n

t e r m s o f o b s e r v a b l e a n d m e a s u r a b l e ( i t a l i c s m i n e ) s t u d e n t b e h a v i o r . "

I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t G l a s e r r e l i e s o n i m p r o v e m e n t s i n o b s e r v a t i o n a n d

m e a s u r e m e n t t o e n l a r g e t h e r a n g e o f g o a l s t o w h i c h i n s t r u c t i o n c a n

b e d i r e c t e d ; b u t i n t h e m e a n t i m e , i t i s m y h o p e t h a t p h i l o s o p h e r s

a n d o t h e r e d u c a t o r s w i l l w r e s t l e w i t h w a y s o f a t t a i n i n g o u t c o m e s o f

e d u c a t i o n i m p o r t a n t t o t h e h i g h e r n e e d s o f m e n , e v e n i f s u c h o u t -

i i . F o r a b r i l l i a n t a n d e x t e n d e d e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h i s p o i n t s e e J a c q u e s E l l u l ,

T h e T e c h n o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y . New York : A l f r e d A . K n o p f , 1 9 6 4 .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 307/327

3 0 4 SC HO O L C HANGE IN PERS P E CTI V E

comes elude precise measurement and do not immediately manifest

t h e m s e l v e s i n o b s e r v a b l e b e h a v i o r .

S o m e o f t h e m i s c o n c e p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g p r o g r a m i n g a r e d e a l t w i t h

in a recent paper by Skinner, 1 2 whose experiments and writing s

h a v e i m p a r t e d m u c h o f t h e c u r r e n t i m p e t u s t o t h e d e s i g n i n g o f i m -

p r o v e d t e c h n o l o g i e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n . Skinner notes that programed

i n s t r u c t i o n " m a d e i t s f i r s t a p p e a r a n c e i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y i n t h e f o r m

of programed contingencies of reinforcement" ; a n d h e s t r e s s e s t h e

sometimes overlooked point that in operant conditioning ( a s o p -

p o s e d t o t h e P a v l o v i a n a p p r o a c h ) " a r e s p o n s e c a n n o t b e r e i n f o r c e d

u n t i l i t o c c u r s . " H i s d i s c u s s i o n o f f o u r d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f p r o g r a m -

i n g s h o w s p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r " g e n e r a t i n g n e w a n d c o m p l e x p a t t e r n s "

o f b e h a v i o r a n d " m a i n t a i n i n g b e h a v i o r u n d e r i n f r e q u e n t r e i n f o r c e -

m e n t " a s w e l l a s f o r " b r i n g i n g b e h a v i o r u n d e r c o n t r o l o f s t i m u l i "

a n d a l t e r i n g " t e m p o r a l o r i n t e n s i v e p r o p e r t i e s o f b e h a v i o r . " W i t h

r e g a r d t o m a i n t a i n i n g b e h a v i o r w i t h o u t t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r f r e q u e n t

r e i n f o r c e m e n t , S k i n n e r s a y s :

T h e e f f e c t i v e s c h e d u l i n g o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s a n i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t

i n e d u c a t i o n a l d e s i g n . S u p p o s e w e w i s h t o t e a c h a s t u d e n t t o r e a d " g o o d

b o o k s " - b o o k s w h i c h , a l m o s t b y d e f i n i t i o n , d o n o t r e i n f o r c e t h e r e a d e r

s e n t e n c e b y s e n t e n c e o r e v e n p a r a g r a p h b y p a r a g r a p h b u t o n l y w h e n

p o s s i b l y h u n d r e d s o f p a g e s h a v e p r e p a r e d h i m f o r a c o n v i n c i n g o r m o v -

ing denouement . T h e s t u d e n t m u s t b e e x p o s e d t o a p r o g r a m m e o f m a t e -

r i a l s w h i c h b u i l d u p a t e n d e n c y t o r e a d i n t h e a b s e n c e o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t .

S u c h p r o g r a m m e s a r e s e l d o m c o n s t r u c t e d d e l i b e r a t e l y a n d s e l d o m a r i s e

b y a c c i d e n t , a n d i t i s t h e r e f o r e n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t f e w s t u d e n t s e v e n i n

g o o d u n i v e r s i t i e s l e a r n t o r e a d b o o k s o f t h i s s o r t a n d c o n t i n u e t o d o s o

f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e i r l i v e s . I n t h e i r p r i d e , s c h o o l s a r e l i k e l y t o a r r a n g e j u s t

t h e w r o n g c o n d i t i o n s ; t h e y a r e l i k e l y t o m a i n t a i n s o - c a l l e d " s t a n d a r d s "

u n d e r w h i c h b o o k s a r e f o r c e d u p o n s t u d e n t s b e f o r e t h e y h a v e h a d a d e -

q u a t e p r e p a r a t i o n .

O t h e r o b j e c t i v e s i n e d u c a t i o n n e e d s i m i l a r p r o g r a m m i n g . T h e d e d i -

c a t e d s c i e n t i s t w h o w o r k s f o r y e a r s i n s p i t e o f r e p e a t e d f a i l u r e s i s o f t e n

l o o k e d u p o n a s a h a p p y a c c i d e n t , b u t h e m a y w e l l b e t h e p r o d u c t o f a

h a p p y i f a c c i d e n t a l h i s t o r y o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t . A p r o g r a m m e i n w h i c h

1 2 . B . F . S k i n n e r , i n a l e c t u r e d e l i v e r e d N o v e m b e r 1 9 , 1 9 6 4 , a n d s u b m i t t e d

f o r p u b l i c a t i o n i n t h e P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e R o y a l S o c i e t y o f L o n d o n . V o l .

C L X I I - B ( J u l y 2 7 , 1 9 6 5 ) .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 308/327

CHASE3 0 5

e x c i t i n g r e s u l t s w e r e f i r s t c o m m o n b u t b e c a m e l e s s a n d l e s s f r e q u e n t

c o u l d g e n e r a t e t h e c a p a c i t y t o c o n t i n u e i n t h e a b s e n c e o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t

f o r l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i m e . 1 3

S k i n n e r ' s p a p e r i n d i c a t e s t h a t " c o n t i n g e n c i e s o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t "

c a n b e c o n t r i v e d t o d e v e l o p c o m p l e x a s w e l l a s s i m p l e b e h a v i o r s a n d

t o e n c o m p a s s " h i g h e r " l e a r n i n g o u t c o m e s . It also suggests how

n a t u r a l r e i n f o r c e r s m a y r e p l a c e c o n t r i v e d r e i n f o r c e r s .

Skinner acknowledges that "an effective technology of teach-

ing" could be unwisely used ; a n d h e n a m e s s o m e d i r e p o s s i b i l i t i e s .

"O n the other hand , it cou l d maximiz e the g enetic end ow ment of

e a c h s t u d e n t , . . . b u i l d t h e g r e a t e s t d i v e r s i t y o f i n t e r e s t s . . . l e a d

h i m t o m a k e t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s u r v i v a l a n d

development of his culture . "

Both Glaser's chapter in this volume and Skinner's paper seem

to me to contain a basis for hope and a solemn warning . The hope

lies in advancing understanding of human motivat ion and learning

t h r o u g h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n a l y s i s o f b e h a v i o r a n d i n a p p l i c a t i o n s o f

w h a t i s l e a r n e d t o t h e p r o c e s s e s o f t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g . The warn-

i n g i s t h a t t h e u s e m a d e o f t h e e f f e c t i v e t e c h n o l o g i e s w h i c h w i l l i n -

e v i t a b l y f l o w f r o m t h e s c i e n t i f i c s t u d y o f h u m a n b e h a v i o r w i l l d e -

p e n d o n d e c i s i o n s t h a t l i e b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f s c i e n c e .

N o o n e h a s y e t w r i t t e n p r o g r a m s t o r e i n f o r c e p s y c h i c r i s k - t a k i n g

o r o p e n n e s s t o n e w l e a r n i n g s , i n d e p e n d e n c e o f j u d g m e n t a n d w i l l i n g -

n e s s t o m a k e c h o i c e s a m i d s t u n c e r t a i n t y , o r d e f e r m e n t o f i m m e d i a t e

g r a t i f i c a t i o n f o r l o n g - r a n g e b e n e f i t s . T h a t a l l t o o r a r e i n d i v i d u a l , t h e

w i s e a n d s e n s i t i v e t e a c h e r , d o e s f i n d w a y s o f r e i n f o r c i n g s u c h b e -

h a v i o r s e v e n t h o u g h t h e o u t c o m e s o f t e n a r e n o t m e a s u r a b l e o r e v e n

immediat ely observable . I n s u f f i c i e n t i m a g i n a t i o n a n d g r o s s l y i n a d e -

q u a t e a p p r o a c h e s c o n t i n u e t o b l o c k t h e p r o s p e c t o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e

nu mb er of such teachers .

T h e s c h o o l s , a r o u s e d b y t h e c i v i l r i g h t s m o v e m e n t a n d p r o m p t e d

b y p r e s i d e n t i a l e x h o r t a t i o n a n d c o n g r e s s i o n a l g r a n t s , a r e b e s t i r r i n g

t h e m s e l v e s u n c e r t a i n l y a n d u n e v e n l y t o h e l p a l l c h i l d r e n a n d y o u n g

p e o p l e l e a r n w h a t e v e r i s n e c e s s a r y f o r e n t r a n c e t o a n d a d v a n c e m e n t

i n o u r h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d t e c h n o l o g i c a l s o c i e t y . T h e u n c e r t a i n t y a r i s e s

from the meagerness of knowledge regarding both the differential

1 3 . I b i d .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 309/327

3 0 6 SCHOOL CHANGE IN PERSPECTIVE

e f f e c t s o f v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n e a r l y c h i l d h o o d a n d

l a t e r a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e e f f i c a c y o f c o r r e c t i v e m e a s -

u r e s. T h e u n e v e n n e s s a n d t a r d i n e s s o f t h e r e s p o n s e a r e t r a c e a b l e t o

a h o s t o f f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g i n a f e w c a s e s b l i n d n e s s o r i n d i f f e r e n c e

t o t h e n e e d a n d i n o t h e r s a m i s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l s ' r e s p o n s i b i l -

i t i e s . E v e n w h e r e t h e i n t e n t i s s t r o n g a n d t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f u l l y

a c c e p t e d , m o s t s c h o o l s s t i l l f i n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o m a k e f u l l u s e o f t h e

r e l e v a n t k n o w l e d g e b e c a u s e o f a s h o r t a g e o f t e a c h e r s a n d s u i t a b l e

m a t e r i a l s . Y e t , t h i s e f f o r t t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e e d u c a b i l i t y o f a l l c h i l -

d ren and youth m ay prod uce chang es of profound sig nificance in

s c h o o l s a n d o t h e r a g e n c i e s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n a n d s o c i a l i z a t i o n . The

c h a l l e n g e h a s b e e n p o s e d i n t e l l i n g t e r m s b y M o s h e S m i l a n s k y , C h a i r -

m a n o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T e l A v i v :

I n t h e l i g h t o f ( i ) t h e n e e d o f a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y f o r a f u n c t i o n i n g

e q u a l i t y a m o n g t h e p e o p l e , ( 2 ) t h e n e e d o f a t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y d e v e l o p i n g

e c o n o m y f o r a s p e e d y e x p a n s i o n o f " t h e p o o l o f a b i l i t y , " a n d ( 3 ) t h e

e v i d e n c e f r o m r e s e a r c h a n d e x p e r i e n c e i n d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s t h a t n o t

o n l y c u l t u r e s a n d s o c i e t i e s a r e i n p r o c e s s o f e v o l u t i o n a n d c h a n g e , b u t

t h a t m a n ' s p o t e n t i a l i t i e s c a n b e p r o m o t e d , t h e t a s k o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l s y s -

t e m a n d t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l s e r v i c e s h o u l d b e a l t e r e d . I n s t e a d o f s e r v i n g

a s " g a t e - k e e p e r s , " t h e s e a g e n c i e s s h o u l d : t r y t o i d e n t i f y , d i a g n o s t i c a l l y ,

t h o s e s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l d e t e r m i n a n t s t h a t s e t c o n s t r a i n t s o n t h e a p p e a r -

a n c e a n d a c t i v a t i o n o f h u m a n p o t e n t i a l i t i e s ; a n d c o n d u c t a s y s t e m a t i c

s e a r c h , e x p e r i m e n t a l l y , f o r w a y s t o d e a l w i t h , a n d p r o m o t e , t h e i r e m e r -

gence and growth . 1 4

Acceptance of this challenge by social scientists and school

people may speed up the discovery and application of new knowl-

edge and technologies to produce education with greater power to

produce in all members of society the four types of development

d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g , " T h e E n d s o f

Education Reconsidered . "

1 4 . L e c t u r e s p o n s o r e d b y t h e G r a d u a t e S c h o o l o f E d u c a t i o n , U n i v er s i t y o f

C h i c a g o , J u l y z 8 , 1 9 6 g .

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 310/327

A c h i e v e m e n t : information conveyed

by m e a s u r e s o f , 2 40 ; m easu rem ent

o f , d e f i n e d , 2 3 9 ; p r e i n s t r u c t i o n a l

variants as determinants of course

o f , 2 2 4

Achievement tests : i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t

t e a c h i n g p r o v i d e d b y , 2 4 0 - 4 1 ; k i n d s

of inform ation provided by, 2 3 9 ;

l i m i t a t i o n s o f , f o r s t u d i e s o f n e w i n -

s t r u c t i o n a l p l a n s , 1 3 1

Acke r l u n d , G e o r g e , 1 2 1

A d vance d P l a c e m e n t Prog ra m , 1 2 8

A f f e c t i v e t y p e o f o b j e c t i v e s , c l a s s i f i -

cation of, by Benjamin S . Bloom,

9 3

A l l p o r t , G o r d o n W . , q u o t e d , 6 4 - 6 5

A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e A d -

vancement of Science, Commission

on Science Education of, 43

American culture, diversity of views

e n c o m p a s s e d by , 1 6 1 ; s e e a l s o C u l -

t u r a l c h a n g e ; M odem cu l tu re

A m e r i c a n P e r s o n n e l a n d G u i d a n c e

A s s o c i a t i o n ( A P G A) : ASCA andACES under aegis o f, 66 ; The Per-

s o n n e l a n d G u i d a n c e j o u r n a l o f , 6 6

American Psychological Associatio n,

Division of Counseling and Guid-

a n c e o f , 6 6

American School Counselors Associ-

ation (ASCA), 68, 70 ; c r e a t i o n a n d

growth of, 66 ; f i v e - y e a r s t u d y b y ,

quoted, 67 ; s h i f t o f f o c u s o f , 6 9

American society, values and myths

i n i m a g e o f , 1 6 6 - 6 7

"Amp l i t u d e , " r e c e n t e d u c a t i o n a l

c h a n g e s i n t e r m s o f , 2 9 9 - 3 0 6

A n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r s : c o n t r i b u -

t i o n s o f , 2 S 7 ; discussion of views

o f , 2 5 3 ; e x p l o r a t i o n o f l o g i c o f e d -

ucational terms by, 258 ;w o r k of ,

r e l e v a n t t o e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y , 2 5 8 -

5 9

Index

307

Analytical philosophy : i m p o r t a n c e

o f , f o r t h e e d u c a t o r , 2 5 3 - 5 4 ;s c h o o l s

i n r e l a t i o n t o , 2 4 6 - 5 1

A n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y a n d e x i s t e n t i a l -

ism, comparison of, 248 - 4 9

A n d e r s o n , R o b e r t H . , 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 4 ,

1 1 6 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 8 ; q u o t e d ( w i t h J o h n I .

Goodlad), 129

Apti t u de s : m e a s u r e m e n t o f , d e f i n e d ,

239 ; r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f r e s e a r c h o n ,

226

Archambault, Reginald D . , 2 5 5

A r i s t o t l e , 2 4 7

Association of Counselor Educators

and Supervisors (ACES), 70 ; c r e a -

t i o n o f , 6 6 ; p r o p o s a l o f , 6 8 ; s h i f t o f

f o r c e s o f , 6 9 ; s t a n d a r d s d e v i s e d b y ,

69

A u d i o - v i s u a l i n s t r u c t i o n , s t r e s s o n , i n

t e a m t e a c h i n g , 1 1 8 ; s e e a l s o Materi-

a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n ; Technol ogy

Auditoriums : increased use of, 142-

4 3; new developments in design of,

1 4 2

Austin, John L . , 2 6 1 , 2 6 2 ; d i s c u s s i o n

o f " O t h e r M i n d s " w r i t t e n by , 2 6 3 ;

q u o t e d , 2 6 4

A u t o m a t i o n , e f f e c t s o f , 1 8 5

B a c o n , F r a n c i s , 2 5 4

B a i e r , K u r t , 2 5 8

B a i r , M e d i l l , 1 1 7

Barry, Ruth, 74

B eg g s , D a v i d W . , 1 1 7

B e g l e , E . C . , 3 3 , 3 5

B e h a v i o r : categories of, listed by

G ag n e ,7j 9;a i n t a i n i n g , i n l e a r n -

i n g , 2 2 8 - 2 9 ; setting up new forms

o f , i n l e a r n i n g , 2 2 7 - 2 8

Behavior goals, major analyses of,

9 2 - 94

B e h a v i o r a l G o a l s o f General Edu ca-

t i o n i n H i g h S c h o o l , b y W i l l

French, 92

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 311/327

308 I N D EX

B e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s : enumeration of

s e l e c t e d a r e a s f o r r e s e a r c h i n , 2 1 4 ;

influence of studies in, on school

p r o g r a m s a n d f a c i l i t i e s , 9 o ; s c h o o l s

i n r e l a t i o n t o , 2 0 0 - 2 1 4

B e h a v i o r a l s t u d i e s , n a t u r e a n d e x t e n t

o f , 2 0 0

B i o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s C u r r i c u l u m S t u d y ,

3 4 , 9 1

Blanchard, Brand, 2 4 9 , 2 5 0 , 2 6 5

Bl oom , Benjam in S . , 9 2 , 9 3

Bordin, Edw ard S . , 7 4 , 7 7

B r a i t h w a i t e , R . B . , 2 5 9

Brandt, Richard B . , 2 4 9

Bray, Charl es W . , 1 2 7

Brayfield, Arthur H . , 7 4

B r i d e n b a u g h , C a r l , q u o t e d , 2 7 4- 7 5

B r o w n , B . F r a n k , r e p o r t o n M e l -

bourne High School by, 1 2 3

B r u n e r , J e r o m e S . , 1 2 1 , 2 1 8

Bu chanan, Cynthia D . , 2 3 0

Bureaucracy, extent and growth of,

1 7 0 - 7 2 ; s e e a l s o F o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n

C a l l i s , R o b e r t ,7 4

"Cardinal Principl es of Secondary

Education," quoted, 1 3

Ca r e e r d ev e l o pm e nt , a n a l y s i s of

T i e d e m a n - O ' H a r a m o n o g r a p h i n

t e r m s o f , 7 8

C a r e e r i d e n t i t y , Er i k s o n q u o t e d o n ,

8 1 - 8 2

C a r e e r t h e o r y , S u p e r o n , 8 1

Carroll, John B . , q u o t e d , 2 2 5

" C a t e g o r i c a l i m p e r a t i v e , " K a n t ' s p r i n -

c i p l e o f , 2 5 0

Categ ories of H u m a n Learning , by

A r t h u r W. M e l t o n , 9 2

C a t s k i l l A r e a P r o j e c t , 1 3 8

C e n t r a l c i t y , c h a n g e s i n , a n d p r ob-

l e m s o f , 1 7 0

C e r t i f i c a t i o n : c h ang es an d re q u i r e-

m e n t s f o r , o f c o u n s e l o r s , 6 9 - 7 0 ; r i s -

i n g s t a n d a r d s o f , f o r t e a c h e r s , 2 9

C h a l l , J e a n n e , 9 8

Change agents, schools in role of,

1 9 7 - 9 8

Change processes, attempts to under-

s t a n d , 2 8 0 - 8 5

Chemical Education Materials Study

(CHEMS), 9 2 ; influence of, on

t e x t m a t e r i a l s , 3 3

Cherryholmes , Cleo, 1 0 3

Chil d-centered vs . s u b j e c t - c e n t e r e d

c u r r i c u l a , 2 2 - 2 3 , 4 0 - 4 1

C i v i l i a n C o n s e r v a t i o n C o r p s ( C . C . C . ) ,

2 7 2

C l a s s s t r u c t u r e , f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n i n

r e l a t i o n t o , i n 1 9 4 o and 1 9 6 0 , 1 8 8 - 8 9 ;

s e e a l s o S o c i a l c l a s s e s ; S o c i al s t a t u s

C l a s s r o o m s : features of, in modern

s t r u c t u r e s ,1 3 9 - 4 0

; f l e x i b i l i t y a n d

o t h e r f e a t u r e s o f , i n m o d e r n b u i l d -

i n g s ,1 3 9 - 4 0

; ol d and new designs

o f , 1 3 9 - 4 0 ; r e o r d e r i n g s p a c e o f , 13 9

C l i e n t - c e n t e r e d Therapy , b y Ca r l

Rogers, 7 3

Climate control, use of, in school

b u i l d i n g s , 1 4 5 - 4 6

C o l l e g e En t r a n c e Ex a m i n a t i o n B o a r d ,

6 1 ; c o n c e r n o v e r t e s t s o f , 5 0

Collingwood, R . G . , 2 S 9

Com m u nication(s) : effect of archi-

tecture on, 91 ; i m p o r t a n c e o f , i n

t h o u g h t r e l a t i n g t o o r g a n i z a t i o n,

2 1 1 - 1 z ; k e y i n v e n t i o n s i n , 8 6 - 8 7 ;

m e a n i n g o f , 9 0 - 9 1

Communism, growing strength of, in

relation to demand for educational

reform,2 7 2 - 7 3

Component repertoire : d e f i n i t i o n o f ,

2 1 9 ; r e q u i r e m e n t f o r a n a l y s i s o f , 2 1 9

C o m p u t e r - b a s e d i n f o r m a t i o n l i b r a r i e s ,

n e e d f o r ,5 3 - 5 4

C o n a n t , J a m e s B . , 3 2 , 6 9 , 2 6 5

Concept formation, generalization as

a s i g n i f i c a n t c o m p o n e n t i n , 2 2 1 - 2 2

C o n e o f e x p e r i e n c e , D a l e ' s c l a s s i f i c a -

t i o n o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s a s a ,

8 5

C o n s o r t i u m s : c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s c h o o l s

by, 1 4 7 - 4 8 ; d e s c r i p t i o n o f , 1 4 7 - 4 8 ;

s t i m u l a t i o n g i v e n b y , t o p r i v a t e i n -

d u s t r y , 1 4 8

C o n t e n t r e p e r t o i r e , d e f i n i t i o n o f , 2 1 9

C o n t i n u i t y , p r i n c i p l e o f , 2 5 3 - 5 4

"Continuous progress," recommenda-

t i o n o f , 1 1 1 - 1 2

Co-operative s c h o o l c o n s t r u c t i o n ,

1 4 6 - 4 8 ; s ee a l so Consortiums

C o r p o r a t i o n s , e f f e c t o f g r o w t h o f , 1 7 0

Counseling and guidance : d i f f e r e n t i -

a t e d t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r , 7 5 ; e m e r-

gence of professional organization

a n d l e a d e r s h i p i n , 6 6 - 7 0 ; e m e r g e n c e

of theory for, 7 0 - 7 6 ; M a t h e w s o n ' s

emphasis in developmental frame-

w o r k f o r ,7 5 ; more viable concepts

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 312/327

o f , 7 4 ; n e e d f o r d r o p p i n g s u p p l e -

mentary functions of, 8z ; p r o g r e s s

i n , 8 2 - 8 3

C o u n s e l i n g and P s y c h o t h e r a p y , by

Carl Rogers, 73

Counsel ing theory, changes u nder-

g o n e b y , 7 1

C o u n s e l o r s ( g u i d a n c e ) : increase in

n u mbe r o f , 5 9 - 60 ; r i v a l r y o f , w i t h

t e a c h e r s , 6 7 - 6 8 ; r o l e a n d f u n c t i o n s

o f , 6 2 - 6 3 , 6 6 - 6 7

Craw ford, M eredith P . , q u o t e d , 2 2 3

Cremin, Lawrence A . , 6 8 , 2 8 7 ; q u o t e d ,

2 8 9

Cronbach, Lee J . , q u o t e d , 2 2 5 , 2 4 1

Cultural change, extent of, 1 7 7 ; s e e

a l s o Social change ; S o c i a l - c u l t u r a l

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n

C u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y , e x p o s u r e o f m o d -

e r n m a n t o , 1 6 2

" C u l t u r a l e l e c t i v e s , " 1 2 3 ; S t o d d a r d ' s

d e s i g n a t i o n o f , 1 1 4 - 1 5

" C u l t u r a l i mp e r a t i v e s , " 1 2 3 ; Stod-

d a r d ' s s e l e c t i o n o f , 1 1 4 - 1 5

C u l t u r a l - s o c i a l m u t a t i o n s , i m p l i c a t i o n s

o f , 2 9 3- 9 6

Culture, conditions making difficult

t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f , 2 7 6 - 7 7

C u l t u r e a n d s o c i e t y , t r a n s f o r m a t i o n

i n , i n p r e s e n t c e n t u r y , 2 7 5 ; s e e a l s o

S o c i a l c h a n g e ; S o c i a l - c u l t u r a l t r a n s -

formation

Curriculum, the, 32-58 ; i n f l u e n c e o f

" c h i l d - c e n t e r e d " c o n c e p t o n , 1 8 - 1 9 ;

n e w k n o w l e d g e i n r e l a t i o n t o , 2 7 8 -

79 ; s e e a l s o M a t e r i a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n

Curriculum design, failure to employ

c u r r i c u l u m t h e o r y i n , 5 6 ; s e e a l s o

C u r r i c u l u m - p l a n n i n g

C u r r i c u l u m - p l a n n i n g : a c t i v i t i e s f o r

r e s o l u t i o n o f p r o b l e m s o f , 5 4 ; b u r -

d e n o f , o n l o c a l d i s t r i c t , 5 o ; f a i l u r e

to bridge gap betw een paper and

i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o g r a m s i n , S 3 ; l a c k

of ex perim ental stu dy in, 5 2- 5 3 ;

p r o b l e m s o f , 3 9 - 4 0 , 4 8 - 4 9;

s e e a l s o

Curricu l u m reform

Cu rricu l u m reform : assumptions re-

l a t i n g t o s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n i n ,

4 4 - 4 5; continuous issues in, and

problems of, 52-58 ; c u r r e n t a s s e t s

o f , 4 6 - 4 8 ; e f f e c t of expanding

k n o w l e d g e o n , 3 7 ; f a i l u r e o f , t o

make use of accepted principles,

5 1 - 5 2 ; f a i l u r e o f , t o r e l a t e t o t e a c h e r

I N D EX 309

e d u c a t i o n , 5 7 - 5 8 ; f o r c e s a n d f a c t o r s

i n f l u e n c i n g , 3 4 - 3 8 ; involvement of

s c h o l a r s i n ,4 5 - 4 6

; l i m i t a t i o n s o f ,

4 8 - 5 2 ; n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f , 3 3- 3 4

n a t u r e o f , a t e l e m e n t a r y l e v e l , 4 1 -

4 5; n a t u r e o f , a t s e c o n d a r y l e v e l ,

3 8 - 4 1 ; n a t u r e o f r e c e n t a t t e m p t s a t ,

3 2 - 3 4; need for guiding principles

i n , 5 1 - 5 2 ; " o r g a n i z i n g e l e m e n t s " i n

r e l a t i o n t o , 4 0 ; PSSC project for,

1 0 2 - 3 ; p r o s p e r i t y i n r e l a t i o n t o , 3 5 -

3 6 ; s h i f t i n g v a l u e s i n r e l a t i o n t o ,

3 6 - 3 7

D a l e , E d g a r , 9 8

Davis, Rene V . , 7 6

D e w e y , J o h n , 4 6 , 9 7 , 2 4 3 , 2 4 7 , 2 4 9 ,

2 5 0 , 2 5 3 , 2 5 5 , 2 5 6 , 2 5 8 , 2 5 9 , 2 6 0 , 2 8 4 ,

2 8 7 , 2 8 9 , 2 9 1 , 2 9 6 , 2 9 8 ; q u o t e d , 9 7 ,

2 4 4

D e w e y ' s f i v e s t e p s , 2 5 9

Dictionary o f Occupational Titles,

number of choices offered by, 64

D i pbo y e , W i lbe r t J . , 7 4

D i r e c t i v e v s . n o n d i r e c t i v e c o u n s e l i n g ,

7 1 - 7 5

D i s a d v a n t a g e d c h i l d r e n , i n s t r u c t i o n a l

m a t e r i a l s i n r e l a t i o n t o g u i d a n c e o f ,

89

D i s c i p l i n e s ( a c a d e m i c ) , c h o i c e o f , f o r

e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l , 42 - 4 3

" D i s c o ve r y " : c o n c e pt o f , 4 2 ; l e a r n -

i n g b y , 9 o ; m isu nderstanding of

m e a n i n g o f , 3 9

Dropouts, plans to reduce number of,

1 2 0

D r a y , W i l l i a m H . , 2 S 9

Dual progress plan (Stoddard) : c h a r -

a c t e r i s t i c s o f , I I 4 - 1 5 ; l a c k o f e v i -

d e n c e o n o u t c o m e s o f , a n d o f o t h e r

d u a l - p r o g r e s s p l a n s , 1 3 1 ; l ack of

t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n f o r , a n d f o r

o t h e r d u a l - p r o g r e s s p l a n s , 1 2 6 ; n o n -

g r a d e d s u b j e c t s i n , 1 2 3 ; p u p i l a d -

v a n c e m e n t u n d e r , 1 1 5 ; s t a t u s o f , i n

1 9 6 5 , 1 2 8 ; u s e o f s p e c i a l i s t - t e a c h e r s

i n , 1 1 5

D u g a n , W i l l i s , 5 9 ; q u o t e d , 6 3

D y n a m i c s o f Instructional Groups,

T h e (NSSE, Fifty-nin th Yearbook,

P a r t I I ) , 100

Ear n i n gs , r e l a t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n t o ,

1 8 4 ; s e e a l s o I n c o m e

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 313/327

3 1 0 INDEX

E c o n o m i c change, p e r s p e c t i v e o f ,

1 7 8 - 8 6

E c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , i m p l i c a t i o n s

o f , o f l a s t t w o d e c a d e s , 1 8 5

Economic Opportunity Act, 191

Eco n o m i c p r o d u c t i o n , p r obl e m s a r i s -

i n g f r o m c h a n g e s i n , I 8 o - 8 I

E c o n o m i c structure, indicators of

c h a n g e i n , 1 8 1 - 8 2

Education : d e f i n i t i o n s o f , 2 4 4 ; f u n c -

t i o n s o f , i n m o d e m l i f e , 1 9 8 ; i n e q u i -

t i e s i n e a r l i e r p r o v i s i o n s o f , 2 8 6 ;

p l a c e f o r e x i s t e n t i a l a n d a n a l y t i c a l

v a l u e s i n , 2 4 9 ; p u r p o s e o f , a s v i e w e d

b y r e c e n t p h i l o s o p h e r s , 2 4 9 - 5 0

Education Act of 1965, Title III of,

1 5 0

E d u c a t io n f o r M o d e r n M a n , by Si d -

ney Hook, 2 5 3

Education v s . t r a i n i n g , i s s u e s o f , 9 4 - 9 6

Educational change : a p p r a i s a l o f , 2 9 9 -

306 ; concatenation of forces in-

volved in, 283 ; c o n d i t i o n s l e a d i n g

t o , 2 8 4 - 8 5 ; g e n e s i s o f n e w d e m a n d s

f o r , 2 7 1 - 7 6 ; i n f l u e n c e o f s c h o o l o n ,

1 3 6 ; s e e a l s o Ed u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m

E d u c a t i o n a l d e s i g n e r , p r o b l e m s f a c e d

b y , 2 1 8

Eductional F a c i l i t i e s L a b o r a t o r i e s ,

s u p p o r t o f SCSD by , 1 4 7- 48

E d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l ( s ) , c l o s e r e l a t i o n -

s h i p o f e a r n i n g t o , 1 8 4

E d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s ; s e e Goa l s of

education ; O b j e c t i v e s o f e d u c a t i o n

Ed u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y : d r i v e t o -

w a r d , d u r i n g r e c e n t d e c a d e s , 287 ;

f a i l u r e t o a c h i e v e e q u a l i t y i n , 8 8 - 8 9 ;

i n e q u a l i ti e s o f , i n t h e p a s t , z 8 6

Educational P o l i c i e s Commission,

q u o t e d , 1 5

E d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i t i o n e r , u s e o f d e -

s i g n c o m p o n e n t s by , 2 1 7

E d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s , a r e a s o f , i n f l u -

enced by educational psychology,

2 4 1

E d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m , i m p l i c i t a s s u m p -

t i o n s o f , i n n e e d o f e x a m i n a t i o n , 2 8 1

E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h D e v e l o p m e n t

Centers, sponsorship of, by Office

o f E d u c a t i o n , 1 3 3

Ed u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y , q u e s t i o n s t o be

a n s w e r e d by , 2 4 4 - 45

E i n s t e i n , A l b e r t , 1 6 1

Ele m e n t a r y - s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m , d i -

l e m m a s i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f , 4 4

Elem entary School Objectives,

No l a n C . K e a r n e y , 9 2

Elementary schools, curriculum

f o r m i n ,4 1 - 4 5

E l e m e n t a r y t e a c h e r s , c h a n g e s i n p r e p -

a r a t i o n o f , 2 6 - 2 7 ; s e e a l s o Teachers

E l i t e , t h e : changing membership of,

1 7 7 ; c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f m o d e r n t y p e

o f , 1 7 6 - 7 7 ; rou tes to m embership

m , 1 7 7

E m o t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s , s t u d i e s o f u t i l i -

z a t i o n o f , i n p e r s o n a l i t y r e s e a r c h ,

2 0 5

En d s o f e d u c a t i o n : a t t e m p t s t o r e l a t e

a s p i r a t i o n s o f c u l t u r e s t o , 2 9 2 - 9 3 ;

r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f , 2 8 9 - 9 9 ; s e e a l s o

G o a l s o f e d u c a t i o n ; Objectives of

e d u c a t i o n

E n g l a n d , G e o r g e W . , 7 6

Equal educational opportunity, fail-

u r e i n a c h i e v e m e n t o f , 88- 89 ; s e e

a l s o Educational opportunity

Er i k s o n , Er i k H . , 8 1 ; q u o t e d , 8 3

Error minimization (programing),

n e e d f o r , u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s ,

2 3 6

Establishment (education), 49 ; Con-

a n t ' s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f , 32 - 3 3

E w i n g , A . C . , 2 4 9

Existentialism, movement of, in phi-

l o s o p h y , 1 6 1

E x i s t e n t i a l i s m a n d a n a l y t i c a l p h i l o s o -

phy, comparison of, 248 - 4 9

E x i s t e n t i a l i s t s , v i e w s o f , r e l a t i n g t o

e d u c a t i o n , 2 4 8

Experience and Education , b y J o h n

D e w e y , 25 5

Experim ental Training Center (NewYork U niversity ) , w o r k of ,

d u a l - p r o g r e s s p l a n , 1 2 4 - 2 5

E x p l o r a t o r y b e h a v i o r , e l i c i t a t i o n

2 3 7 - 3 8

E x p l o r a t o r y r e s p o n s e s , v a r i a b l e s

f l u e n c i n g , 2 3 7 - 3 8

F a l k , W . D . , 2 5 8

F e d e r a l a g e n c i e s , c r e a t i o n a n d e x t e n -

s i o n o f , f o r e d u c a t i o n , 1 9 5

F e d e r a l a i d : c o n t r o l n o t i n v o l v e d i n ,

3 3 - 34 ; i n c r e a s e o f , 3 3 ; movement of,

toward categorical assistance, 89 ;

provision of instructional materi-

a l s b y , 8 9 ; s e e a l s o Federal govern-

m e n t

Federal government : a c t i v i t i e s o f , r e -

b y

r e -

o n

o f ,

i n -

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 314/327

l a t i n g to u r b a n i s m , p o v e r t y , e t c . ,

1 9 6 - 9 7 ; changing pattern of inter-

r e l a t i o n s h i p o f , w i t h s c h o o l s , 1 9 6 ;

c h a n g i n g r o l e a n d f u n c t i o n o f , 1 9 2 -

9 3 ; c h a n g i n g r o l e o f , i n r e l a t i o n t o

s o c i a l w e l f a r e , 1 9 3 ; c o n f i r m a t i o n o f

t r e n d s i n , 1 9 4 ; e f f e c t o f c o m m i t -

m e n t o f , o n s c h o o l s , 1 9 6 ; h i s t o r i c a l

r e l a t i o n s h i p o f , t o s c h o o l s , 1 9 5 ; r e -

s p o n s e o f , t o e d u c a t i o n a l n e e d s , 3 8 ;

role of, in curriculum reform, 33 -

3 4; use of school by, for social

c h a n g e , 1 9 7 - 9 8 ; s e e a l s o F e d e r a l a i d

Field, Frank L . , q u o t e d ( w i t h D a v i d

V. T i e d e m a n ) , 6 2 , 7 0

F i n n , J a m e s D . , 1 o 8

Flanders , Ned A . , 9 3 ; q u o t e d , 9 4

F l e s c h , R u d o l p h , 9 8

F l e x i b i l i t y , d e g r e e o f , a s s i g n i f i c a n t

d i m e n s i o n o f p e r s o n a l i t y , 2 0 4

F o r m , W i l l i a m H . , 7 7

F o r m a l e d u c a t i o n , i n t e l l e c t u a l e m p h a -

s i s i n , 2 8

Form al o r g a n i z a t i o n ( s ) : e f f e c t of

g r o w t h o f , 1 7 1 - 7 2 ; s t u d y o f , 2 1 1 - 1 2 ;

s e e a l s o Bureaucracy ; O r g a n i z a t i o n

Frankena, William K . , 2 9 8

French, Will, 92

F r o e h l i c h , C l i f f o r d P . , q u o t e d , 7 3

F r o s t , R o b e r t , q u o t e d , 2 8 5 - 8 6

F u n c t i o n s o f e d u c a t i o n , e n u m e r a t i o n

and discussion of, 290-92 ; d i s c u s -

s i o n o f , o f t o d a y , 2 8 8 - 9 1

G a g n e , R o b e r t M . , 2 1 9 , 2 3 1 ; q u o t e d ,

2 2 3

G a r d i n e r , P a t r i c k , 2 5 9

Garnett, Arthur Campbell, 749, 250

G e n e r a l k n o w l e d g e , t e a c h i n g f o r ,

p r i o r t o 1 9 4 0 , 1 4

G e n e r a l i z a t i o n : importance o f , a s

co m p o nent in concept for m a t ion ,

2 2 1 - z z ; p r o b l e m s i n , z z z

G i f t e d , t h e : i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s i n

relation to guidance of, 89 ; n o n -

g r a d i n g i n r e l a t i o n t o p r o g r e s s o f ,

1 2 2 ; s e e a l s o Talented

G i n s b e r g , R o s e , 2 3 5

G i n z b e r g , E l i , 7 6

G l a s e r , R o b e r t ,2 3 3 ,

3 0 5 ; q u o t e d , 3 0 3

G o a l s o f e d u c a t i o n : i n f l u e n c e o f , o n

s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n , 1 2 0 ; i m p r o v i n g

c l a r i t y o f , 9 1 - 9 4 ; t e a c h e r ' s r e s p o n -

s i b i l i t y f o r c l a r i t y o f , 9 4 ; s e e a l s o

O b j e c t i v e s o f e d u c a t i o n

INDEX 3 11

Goodl ad, John I . , 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 4 , 1 1 6 ,

1 2 1 , 1 2 8 , 3 0 0 , 3 0 1 ; q u o t e d ( w i t h

R o b e r t H . Anderson), 129 ; s t a t e -

ment of, on approaches to individ-

u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , I I o - 1 1

Goodman , Nelson, 259

G o v e r n m e n t a g e n c i e s , g r o w t h o f , 1 7 0 -

7 1

G o w , J . S t e e l e , 2 9 6

G r a y , William S . , 9 8

G r e a t C i t i e s P r o g r a m , 6 1

Great Depression : anxieties caused

by, 178 ; l a p s e o f a g e n c i e s c r e a t e d

d u r i n g , 2 7 2 - 7 3

G r e e n o , J a m e s G . , 2 3 3

Gross national product, increase of,

1 7 9

Grou p instru ction : c o n c e r n a b o u t

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f , 9 9 - 1 0 2 ; u s e o f i n -

s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s i n , l o o

Grou p l earning, share of tim e de-

v o t e d t o , 1 0 1

G r o u p s t r u c t u r e , i n f l u e n c e o f , 2 1 1

G u i d a n c e a n d t h e p u p i l , 5 9 - 8 2

Guidance services : causes of recent

e x p a n s i o n o f , 6 0 - 6 2 ; e x p a n s i o n o f ,

d o w n w a r d t o e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l ,

6 2 ; i n a d e q u a t e r a t i o n a l e f o r , 6 3 ;

o r g a n i z a t i o n o f , a s c o m p l e m e n t a r y

t o t e a c h i n g , 8 o - 8 I

G u i d a n c e s t a f f , e x p a n s i o n o f , 6 o - 6 1

Gy m n asi u m, n e w p l a n s for , in W a y-

land (Massachusetts) and Holland

( M i c h i g a n ) , 1 4 1 - 4 2

Hardie, C . D . , 2 5 5

Ha r e , R . M . , 2 4 9 , 2 5 0 , 2 5 8

H a r r i n g t o n , M i c h a e l , 1 7 2

H e a t h e r s , G l e n , 3 0 1

Hempel , Carl G . , 2 5 9

H e r r i c k , V i r g i l E . , 4 0

H e r r i o t t , R o b e r t E . , 6 8

High schools, nature of curriculum

r e f o r m i n , 3 8 - 4 1 ; s e e a l s o Secondary

education

H i g h e r Horizons Project (NewYork) , 61

Hilgard, Ernest R . , q u o t e d , 2 0 6

H i n t i k k a , J a a k o , 7.64

Hol l and, John L . , 7 7

H o l l i n s , T . H . B . , 2 5 5

Holzner, Burkart, 296

Hook, Sidney, 252, 253, 255 ; q u o t e d ,

25 4

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 315/327

3 1 2 INDEX

H u m m e l , R a y m o n d C . , 7 4

Hutchins, Robert M . , q u o t e d , 2 5 6

I d e a s , i n f l u e n c e o f , i n s c h o o l ' s r e -

s p o n s e t o c h a l l e n g e , 285

I d e o l o g i c a l f o r c e s , i n f l u e n c e o f , o n

m a t e r i a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n , 88

I d e o l o g i e s , c o n f u s i o n i n , i n A m e r i c a ,

167-68

" I n - B a s k e t " s i m u l a t i o n , 1 0 3

I n c o m e : r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f , s i n c e 1 9 4 1 ,

172-73 ; r e l a t i o n of h i g h - s c h o o l

g r a d u a t i o n t o , 188 ; s e e a l s o Earn-

i n g s

I n d e p e n d e n t l e a r n e r , d e v e l o p m e n t o f ,

1 0 8 - 9

I n d i v i d u a l , t h e : change of focus in

e d u c a t i o n o f , 2 3 -2 4 ; em ergence of

new conceptions of, 1o4 ; n a t u r e o f ,

200-202

I n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s : e x t e n t o f , a t

s a m e g r a d e l e v e l , 1 1 2 ; f a i l u r e t o

p r o v i d e f o r , i n t r a d i t i o n a l s c h o o l s ,

1 2 1 ; i m p o r t a n c e o f , a s p r i n c i p l e o f

learning theory and of teaching,

2 2 3 -2 4 ; t e a m t e a c h i n g i n r e l a t i o n t o ,

123

I n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u c t i o n , c o n c e r n a b o u t

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f , 99-102

I n d i v i d u a l l e a r n i n g , s h a r e o f t i m e d e -

v o t e d t o , 1 01

I n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s , c h a n g i n g r o l e o f

g o v e r n m e n t i n r e l a t i o n t o ,1 9 3

I n f o r m a t i o n a l - i n t e l l e c t u a l g o a l s , r a n g e

o f ,9 3

I n n o v a t i o n , l a c k o f a g r e e m e n t o n

factors determining rate of, 282 ;

s e e a l s o E d u c a ti o n a l c h a ng e ; E d u -

c a t i o n a l r e f o r m

In-service education, reform move-

m e n t i n r e l a t i o n t o , 4 7 - 4 8

I n s t r u c t i o n , s t r a t e g i e s f o r i n t e g r a t i n g

p s y c h o l o g y o f l e a r n i n g w i t h , 2 06 ;

s e e a l s o Teaching

I n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n , 215-42

I n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n e r : c o n c e p t s u s e -

f u l t o , 215 ; n e c e s s a r y s t e p s i n o p e r -

a t i o n o f , 216-19

I n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s : l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e

of educational psychology on, 2 4 1 ;

problems of organization and use

o f , 1 0 7 ; s e e a l s o Curriculum ; Mate-

r i a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n

I n s t r u c t i o n a l p r a c t i c e : f o r c e s e n c o u r -

a g i n g r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t

b a s i c t o , 216 ; i n c r e a s e d k n o w l e d g e

i n b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s a s b a s e s f o r ,

215 ; s e e a l s o Teaching

I n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o c e s s : c a r r y i n g o u t o f ,

226-29 ; c o n d i t i o n s i n f l u e n c i n g , 2 2 9-

3 8 ; kinds of, in subject-m atter

l e a r n i n g , 227 ; s e e a l s o Ed u c a t i o n a l

p r o c e s s

I n s t r u c t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s , 84-109

I n t e g r a t i o n : influence of, on school

o r g a n i z a t i o n , 120 ; p r o b l e m s o f , 174

I n t e r a c t i o n , p r i n c i p l e o f , 25 3 - 5 4

I n t e r l o c k i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s , e f f e c t o f ,

o n e c o n o m i c s c e n e , 170-72

I n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e , i m p l e m e n t a t i o n

o f f r e e r p o l i c i e s r e l a t i n g t o , 18o

I n t r a i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , e x t e n t a n d

n a t u r e o f , I 1 2

I n v e n t i o n s , d i s c u s s i o n o f , i n r e l a t i o n

t o c o m m u n i c a t i o n , 86-87

J e w e t t , A r n o , q u o t e d , 9 6

Johnson, President Lyndon B . , c o m -

m i t t e e a p p o i n t e d b y , 5 4

K a e s s , W. , 235

K ant, Em m anu el , 2 5 0

K apl an, Abraham , 259

K a r p l u s , R o b e r t , 3 3

K a t z , M a r t i n , q u o t e d , 6 5

K earney, Nolan C . , 9 2

K e r r , C l a r k , 1 7 1

K n o w l e d g e : effect of expansion of,

on curriculum, 3 7 ; p a c k a g i n g o f ,

f o r s c h o o l s , 2 78-79 ; p r o l i f e r a t i o n

o f , i n p r e s e n t c e n t u r y , 275

K n o w l e d g e a n d B e l i e f , by Jaako Hin-

t i k k a , 2 6 4

K o m i s a r , B . P . ,2 5 4 , 2 5 5

K r a t h w o h l , D a v i d R . , 9 2 , 9 i

K r u m b o l t z , J ohn D . , 6 8

Labor force : c h a n g i n g o c c u p a t i o n a l

pattern of, 1 8 2 ; implications of

changing economic structure for,

181-82

Language and Concepts in Education ,

e d i te d b y B . O thane l S m ith an d

R o b e r t H . E n n i s , 25 4 , 2 5 5

Language of Education, The, b y I s r a e l

S h e f f i e r , 254

L a r g e - s c a l e o r g a n i z a t i o n , r e s e a r c h o n

p o w e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n , 212 ; s e e a l s o

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 316/327

F o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n ; O r g a n i z a t i o n

L e a d e r s h i p : e a r l y r e s e a r c h o n , 2 1 3 - 1 4 ;

f a i l u r e t o f i n d t r a i t s f u n c t i o n i n g i n ,

2 1 2 ; new approaches to stu dy of,

2 1 2 - 1 3

L e a r n i n g : d e p e n d e n c e o f t y p e s o f , o n

g ro u p s i t u a t i o n , z o o ; effect of

c h a n g e d c o n c e p t i o n s o f , 2 0 6 - 7 ; e f -

f e c t o f s c h o o l b u i l d i n g o n , 1 3 5 - 3 6 ;

factors in, not under control of

t e a c h e r , 2 0 7 ; n e e d f o r c o n t i n u a t i o n

o f , 2 9 - 3 0 ; n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

p r o c e s s o f , 2 0 8 ; p e r c e p t u a l - c o n c e p -

t u a l p r o b l e m f a c e d i n , 8 7 ; s t r a t e g i e s

f o r i n t e g r a t i n g p s y c h o l o g y o f l e a r n -

i n g w i t h , 2 0 6 ; s t u d i e s o f , a s b a s i s f o r

c u r r i c u l u m d e v e l o p m e n t , 2 0 6

L e a r n i n g b y d i s c o v e r y , m a t e r i a l s f o r

u s e i n , 9 o

L e a r n i n g o u t c o m e s , t h e m e a s u r i n g o f ,

2 3 8 - 4 1 ; s e e a l s o G o a l s o f e d u c a t i o n

L e a r n i n g t h e o r y , i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r -

e n c e s a s i m p o r t a n t p r i n c i p l e o f , 2 2 3 -

2 4

Learning w ith v s . l e a r n i n g w i t h o u t

e r r o r s ,2 3 5

L e a r y , B e r n i c e E . , 9 8

Lee, Gor d o n C . , 3 0 0 , 3 0 2

L e w i s , C l a r e n c e I r v i n g , 2 5 0 , 2 5 1

L i b r a r y ( i e s ) : l o c a t i o n o f , i n r e l a t i o n

t o o t h e r w o r k i n g s p a c e ,1 3 9 - 4 0 ;

n e w p l a n s f o r h o u s i n g o f , 1 4 o - 4 4 ;

n e w p l a n s o f , i n P a r m a ( O h i o ) a n d

C l a r k s v i l l e ( T e n n e s s e e ) , 1 4 1

L i f e l o n g l e a r n i n g : c o m m i t m e n t o f

t e a c h e r t o , 2 2 ; i d e a l o f , 2 9

L i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s , H o o k o n ,2 5 4

" L i n g u i s t i c p h e n o m e n o l o g y , " d i s c u s -

s i o n o f , 2 6 1 - 6 2

L i t e r a c y : h i s t o r i c a l r o l e o f t e a c h e r i n

t e a c h i n g f o r , z 1 ; new conceptions

o f , 1 0 8 - 9

L o f t q u i s t , L l o y d H. , 7 6

L o r g e , I r v i n g , 9 8

L o y a l t y , h i s t o r i c a l r o l e o f t e a c h e r i n

i n c u l c a t i o n o f , 1 3

M c C l e l l a n , J . E . , 25 5

M c G o w a n , J o h n F . , 7 2 ; q u o t e d ,7 3

M c M u r r i n , S t e r l i n g , q u o t e d , 2 5

M a n n , H orace , 1 3 8

M a r k l e , S u san M . , q u o t e d , 2 2 3 , 2 2 5 ,

2 3 0

M a s i a , B e r t r a m , 9 2 , 9 3

INDEX3 1 3

M a s s e d u c a t i o n , A m e r i c a n c o m m i t -

m e n t t o , 1 9 1

M a t e r i a l s c e n t e r s , n e e d f o r ,5 2

M a t e r i a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n : c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

o f , a s c o n e o f e x p e r i e n c e ,8 5

;e x -

t e n s i v e i n c l u s i o n o f , i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l

p l a n s , 4 7 ; i n f l u e n c e s o f s o c i a l f o r c e s

o n , 8 7 - 9 1 ; m e a n i n g o f e x t e n s i v e n e s s

o f , f o r s c h o o l s , i o 8 ; p r o g r a m i n g i n

r e l a t i o n t o , 1 o 6 ; v i e w o f , a s r e l a t e d

t o m a j o r c a t e g o r i e s o f c o m m u n i c a -

t i o n , 8 4 - 8 5 ; w i d e v a r i e t y o f , 8 5 ; s e e

a l s o Curricu l u m

M a t h e w s o n , R ob ert H . ,7 5

Mayo, Bernard, 2 5 1 , 2 5 8

M e a s u r e m e n t , r e l i a n c e o f t e c h n o l o g y

o f i n s t r u c t i o n o n , 2 3 8 - 3 9

M e l ton, Arthur W . , 9 2 , 2 1 7

M e t r o p o l i t a n i s m , c h a n g e f r o m u r b a n -

i s m t o , 1 6 9 - 70

M i l l e r , D e l b e r t C . , 7 7

M i l t o n , J o h n , 2 9 1 ; q u o t e d , 2 8 9

M odern cu l tu re : g r e a t d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n

o f , 1 6 4 ; p r o b l e m s a n d p r o m i s e s o f ,

1 6 o ; s e e a l s o A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e ; C u l -

t u r a l c h a n g e

M o n t e s s o r i , M a r i e , 2 8 4

M oore, G . E . , 2 4 6

M oore, Omar K . , 2 3 7

M o r a l a n d S p i r i t u a l V a l u e s i n t h e

S c h o o l s b y t h e E d u c a t i o n a l P o l i c i e s

C o m m i s s i o n , q u o t e d , 2 5 7

M o r a l i t y , h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f

t e a c h e r ' s r o l e i n r e l a t i o n t o i n c u l c a -

t i o n o f , 1 2 - 1 3

M o r r is , Char l e s W . , f i v e " m o d e s o f

s i g n i f y i n g " b y , 2 6 0

M o t i v a t i o n : n a t u r e o f i n d i v i d u a l r e -

v e a l e d i n s t u d i e s o f , 2 0 1 ; p e r s o n a l i t y

r e s e a r c h i n a r e a o f , 2 0 4 - 5

M u l t i m e d i a a p p r o a c h , 1 0 2 - 3

M u l t i p l e - c h o i c e s i t u a t i o n , e f f e c t o f

i n c o r r e c t a l t e r n a t i v e s i n , 2 3 5

M y t h s , e x i s t e n c e a n d n a t u r e o f , i n

A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y , 1 6 6 - 6 8

Nachman, Ba rbara, 7 7

N a g e l , E r n e s t , 2 5 9

National Association for Guidance

Supervisors and Counselor Train-

e r s , c h a n g e o f , t o A C E S , 6 6

National Council for Accreditation

in Teacher Edu cation (NCATE),

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 317/327

3 1 4

e v a l u a t i n g b y , i n c o u n s e l o r e d u c a -

t i o n , 7 0

N a t i o n a l Defense Education Ac t

(ND E A ) , 1 9 5 ; f u n d s o f , t o p r o v i d e

i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s ,8 9

; i n f l u -

ence of studies supported by, on

i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s , 9 2 ; s u p p o r t

o f teacher edu cation b y , 47 ;

t e a c h e r - e d u c a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s o f , 4 1 ;

t r a i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s p r o v i d e d u n d e r ,

5 9 - 60

N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , P r o j -

e c t o n I n s t r u c t i o n , I I I , 1 2 7 - 2 8 , 1 2 9 ;

q u o t e d , 1 1 2

Nationa l g over n m e n t : s e e F e d e r a l

g o v e r n m e n t

N a t i o n a l M e r i t S c h o l a r s h i p P r o g r a m ,

6 1

N a t i o n a l p u r p o s e , s e r v i c e o f s c h o o l s

t o , 1 9 4 - 9 5 ; s e e a l s o F e d e r a l g o v e r n -

m e n t

N a t i o n a l Science Foundation, 1 0 2 ,

1 9 5 ; i n f l u e n c e o f s t u d i e s o f , o n i n -

s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s , 9 2 ; s u p p o r t o f

c u r r i c u l u m c h a n g e b y , 3 3 ; s u p p o r t

o f t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n b y ,47 ;

t e a c h e r - e d u c a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s o f , 4 1

National Society for the Stu dy of

E d u c a t i o n , 2 0 5 , 2 0 7 ; F i f t y - n i n t h

Yearbook of, q u oted,9 3 - 9 4 ,

1 0 1 ;

S i x t y - t h i r d Y e a r b o o k o f , q u o t e d ,

z o 6

National Vocati onal Guidance Asso-

c i a t i o n : O c c u p a t i o n s , j o u r n a l o f ,

66 ; s u p e r s e d e d b y A P G A, 6 6

N a t i o n a l You th A d m i n i s t r a t i o n

( N . Y . A . ) , 2 7 2

N a t u r a l s c i e n c e s , n e w o r i e n t a t i o n o f ,

1 6 1 - 6 z

"Need s an d Need s- C u r ric u l u m , " b y

B. P . K o m i s a r , 25 4

Negr o, p a t t e r n s o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n

a g a i n s t ,1 7 4

New cult ure : e m e r g e n c e o f n e w p a t -

t e r n s o f , 1 5 9 - 6 5 ; n a t u r e o f , 1 6 5 ; s e e

a l s o A m e r i c a n c u l t u r e ; C u l t u r a l

change ; M o d e r n c u l t u r e

Ne w s o m e , G . L . ,2 5 5

N o l l , J a m e s W i l l i a m , 2 9 8 ; q u o t e d , 2 9 9

N o n d i r e c t i v e c o u n s e l i n g , p o s i t i o n s o f ,

c o m p a r e d t o d i r e c t i v e c o u n s e l i n g ,

7 1 - 7 2

Nongrade d school s : grouping prac-

INDEX

t i c e s i n , 1 1 3 ; p r o g r a m s o f , i n M e l -

b o u r n e ( F l o r i d a ) , e t c . , 1 1 3

Nongrading : a s s u m p t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g ,

1 2 6 ; c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f , 1 1 2 - 1 3 ; e a r l y

d e v e l o p m e n t a n d s p r e a d o f , 1 2 7 - 2 8 ;

e x t e n t o f , i n h i g h s c h o o l s , 1 1 3 ; i m-

p o r t a n t e f f e c t s o f , 1 2 2 ; p l a c e o f , i n

n e w o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n s , 1 1 1 - I 4 ;

P u e b l o , B a t a v i a , Wi nnetka , a nd

D a l t o n p l a n s a s p r e c u r s o r s o f , 1 1 4 ;

r e f o r m e r s ' i n t e r e s t i n , 44

N o n n o r m a t i v e p r e m i s e s , t y p e o f , o f -

f e r e d b y p h i l o s o p h y , 2 5 1

N o n p r o m o t i o n , d u b i o u s u s e s o f , 1 1 2

N o r m a t i v e p r e m i s e s f o r t h e s c h o o l s ,

r e c e n t p h i l o s o p h y i n r e l a t i o n t o ,

2 4 6 - 5 1

N o w e l l - S m i t h , P . H . , 2 4 9 , 2 5 0

O b j e c t i v e s o f e d u c a t i o n , t h r e e t y p e s

o f , d e s c r i b e r b y B l o o m , 9 2 - 9 3 ; s e e

a l s o G o a l s o f e d u c a t i o n

O c c u p a t i o n a l l i f e : problems o f

g r o u p s e n t e r i n g , 1 9 o ; r e q u i r e m e n t s

o f , 1 8 9

O c c u p a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e , m aj or

c h a n g e s i n , 17 5 - 7 6

O c c u p a t i o n s : e m p l o y m e n t i n , 1 8 3 ; i n -

f l u e n c e o f , o n m e m b e r s o f o c c u p a -

t i o n a l g r o u p s , 2 I o - 1 1 ; t e a c h e r ' s r e -

s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t e a c h i n g f o r , i n

e a r l i e r p e r i o d s , 1 2

O ' C o n n o r , D a n i e l J . , 2 4 6 , 2 5 8

O'Hara, Robert P . , 78

Olds, Henry F . , J r . , 1 1 7 , 1 2 7

O l s o n , W i l l a r d C . , i o 1

O r g a n i z a t i o n ( s c h o o l ) : a p p r a i s a l o f

p l a n s o f , 1 3 0 - 3 1 ; f o r c e s a n d i d e a s

r e s h a p i n g , 1 1 9 - 2 5 ; i n f l u e n c e o f b e -

h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s o n , 1 z 1 ; i n f l u e n c e

o f n e w c u r r i c u l a o n , 1 2 0 ; i n f l u e n c e

o f p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e o n , 1 2 2 ; s e e

a l s o , D u a l - p r o g r e s s p l a n s ; N o n g r a d -

i n g ; O r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n s

O r g a n i z a t i o n o f e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s ,

c o n v e n t i o n a l p l a n s f o r , 1 1 4

" O r g a n i z a t i o n m a n , " l a r g e - s c a l eo r -

g a n i z a t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o , 2 1 1

O r g a n i z a t i o n a l p l a n s : l a c k o f w e l l -

f o r m u l a t e d t h e o r y f o r , 1 2 5 - 2 6 ; non-

g r a d i n g i n r e l a t i o n t o , I I I -I 4 ; p o s i -

t i v e f i n d i n g s i n s t u d i e s o n , 1 3 1 - 3 2 ;

s e e a l s o R e o r g a n i z a t i o n

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 318/327

" O r g a n i z i n g c e n t e r s " o f l e a r n i n g , c r i -

t e r i a f o r s e l e c t i o n o f , 40 -

4 1

O r g a n i z in g e l e m e n t s : o r g a n i z i n g c e n -

t e r s i n r e l a t i o n t o ,5 4 - 5 6

; u s e o f

t e r m i n c u r r i c u l u m t h e o r y , 4 0

O t h e r America, The, b y M i c h a e l

Harrington, 173

P a r k , J o e , 2 5 5

P a r k e r , D e W i t t H . , 2 5 0

Parker, Francis Wayland, 284

P a t t e r n s o f be h a v i o r , m e d i a t i o n o f ,

t h r o u g h s m a l l g r o u p s , 2 1 0

P e a c e C o r p s , 1 9 6

Peer groups, effect of, on learning,

2 0 7

P e n d l e t o n , W i l l i a m C . , 2 9 6

Pepinsky, Harold, 74

P e p i n s k y , P a u l i n e , 7 4

Perception : c u r r e n t s t u d i e s o n , 2 0 2 - 3 ;

i m p o rtance of u n d e r stan d i ng of ,

2 0 3 ; i n f l u e n c e o f o t h e r s o n , 2 0 3 ; s e e

a l s o V i s u a l p e r c e p t i o n

Perceptual-motor skills, means for

a c q u i s i t i o n o f , 9 3

P e r r y , R a l p h B a r t o n , 2 4 9 , 2 5 0 , 2 5 8

Perry , W i l l i a m G . , 7 4

P e r s o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t , c o n c e r n o f

s c h o o l f o r , p r i o r t o 1 9 4 0 , 1 4 - 1 5

P e r s o n a l i t y : f l e x i b i l i t y a s s i g n i f i c a n t

d i m e n s i o n o f , zoo ; p o s s i b i l i t y o f

learning new patterns of, 2 05 ; r e -

s e a r c h o n i n t e r e s t s a n d v a l u e i n r e -

l a t i o n t o , 2 0 4

P e r s o n a l i t y r e s e a r c h : c h a n g i n g n a t u r e

o f , 2 0 3 ; i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l ' s

u s e o f e m o t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s i n , 2 0 5

P e s t a l o z z i , J o h a n n F r i e d r i c h , 2 8 4

P e t e r s , R i c h a r d S . , 2 4 7

Phenix, Philip H . , q u o t e d , 2 6 2

P h i l o s o p h y : nonnorm ative prem ises

offered by, 251 ; p o s s i b l e i n f l u e n c e

o f , o n t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e , 2 4 5- 4 6 ;

r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s r e l a t i n g t o p l a c e

o f , i n t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e i n s c h o o l s ,

2 6 4 - 6 5 ; stu dy of, recom m ended in

s c h o o l s , 2 6 5 ; t a s k o f , i n c l a r i f y i n g

c o n c e p t s , 2 45

Phil osophy in American Edu cation,

b y B r a n d B l a n s h a r d a n d o t h e r s , 2 6 5

P h y s i c a l h e a l t h , t e a c h i n g o f , m a d e r e -

s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e s c h o o l , 1 3

Physica l S cience S t u d y Co m m i t t ee

(PSSC), 9z , 1 o 2;uoted, 102-3 ;

I N D E X3 1 5

s t a n d a r d s o f e x c e l l e n c e s e t b y , 4 1 ;

u s e o f m a t e r i a l s p r o d u c e d b y , 3 3

P i a g e t , J e a n , 3 7

Planck, Max, 161

P o l i t i c a l c h a n g e , p e r s p e c t i v e o f , 1 9 1 -

98

Popper, Karl, 259

Population : increasing hom ogeneity

o f , 1 7 2 - 7 4 ; i n f l u e n c e o f i n c r e a s e o f ,

on organization, 122 ; i n f l u e n c e o f

i n c r e a s e o f , o n s c h o o l b u i l d i n g , 1 3 6 ;

o c c u p a t i o n a l composition of, i n

195 o and i96o, 182-83 ; problem s

a r i s i n g f r o m , i n u r b a n s c h o o l s , 1 4 9 ;

s c h o o l b u i l d i n g i n r e l a t i o n t o m o v e -

ment of, 148-51 ; t h r e a t t o c u l t u r e

i n v o l v e d i n i n c r e a s e o f , 2 9 4

Poverty : c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p o p u l a t i o n

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h , 1 8 4 ; p e r s i s t e n c e o f ,

am ong l arge grou ps, 173 ; r e g i o n s

a n d p o c k e t s o f , 1 7 5

" P o v e r t y c y c l e , t h e , " n a t u r e o f , 1 9 0 -

9 1

P r a c t i c e , d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a m o u n t o f ,

i n i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n , 2 3 2 - 3 3 ; s e e

a l s o Reinforcement

P r e i n s t r u c t i o n a l b e h a v i o r : d i a g n o s i n g

o f , 2 2 3 - 2 6 ; r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f r e s e a r c h

t h r o u g h a s s e s s m e n t o f , 2 2 5 - 2 6

P r e i n s t r u c t i o n a l r e p e r t o i r e s , prob-

l e m s i n i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f , 2 2 6 - 2 7

P r e m i s e s , t w o k i n d s o f , p r o v i d e d by

p h i l o s o p h y , 2 4 5

Pressey, Sidney L . ,

Primary education, major functions

o f , 2 94 - 9 5

" P r i n c i p l e o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , " 2 9 8 ;

meaning of, 251

P r o b l e m - o r i e n t a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s , d i s -

c u s s i o n o f , 2 8 4 - 8 5

P r o c e s s , i m p o r t a n c e o f l e a r n i n g o f ,

220

P r o c e s s o f I n s t r u c t i o n , T h e , by J e r -

o m e S . B r u n e r , 1 2 1

P r o c e s s o b j e c t i v e s , n a t u r e o f , 2 2 0

Product and process, distinction be-

t w e e n , 2 2 0 - 2 1

P r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r t , r i s e o f s t a t u s o f ,

1 6 5

P r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n , e f f e c t o f , i n o c -

c u p a t i o n s , 1 8 9

P r o f e s s i o n a l i z a t i o n of g u i d a n c e ,

t r e n d s t o w a r d , 7 9 - 8 3

Program ed instru ction : c h a r a c t e r i s -

3 8

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 319/327

3 1 6 INDEX

t i c s a n d p r o b l e m s o f , 1 0 4 - 5 ; c o n t r i - Re l e v a n c e o f n e w e d u c a t i o n a l d e v e l -

b u t i o n o f , t o d e l i n e a t i o n o f e d u c a - o p m e n t s , 299 -306

t i o n a l g o a l s , 9 2 ; e f f e c t o f r e d u c i n g Re l i g i o n , p r e d o m i n a n c e o f , i n c o l o -

n u mbe r o f f r a m e s i n m a t e r i a l s o f , n i a l s c h o o l s , I o - I I ; t e a c h i n g o f , i n

233 ; f a i l u r e o f p r o d u c t s o f , t o r e c - e a r l i e r p e r i o d s , 1 o - i 1

o g n i z e d i f f e r e n c e s i n e n t e r i n g b e - Research : p o o r d e s i g n s f o r , i n o r g a n -

h a v i o r s , 225-26 ; r e f o r m e r s ' i n t e r e s t i z a t i o n , 1 3 2 ; w e a k n e s s o f d e s i g n s o f ,

i n , 4 4 ; t r a n s f e r a b i l i t y o f , t o l i f e s i t u - for study of organizational plans,

a t i o n s , l o 5 ; v a r i a b i l i t y i n s t u d e n t - 1 3 3

l e a r n i n g r a t e s r e v e a l e d b y , 224 ; u s e R e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t : f o r c e s

o f , i n t e a m t e a c h i n g , 118 encouraging, basic to instruction,

P r o g r a m i n g , m i s c o n c e p t i o n s o f , d e a l t z16 ; growth of, in postwar period,

with by Skinner, 3 0 4 - 5 180

Progress, view of, by m odern m an, R e s p o n s e a v a i l a b i l i t y , n e g l e c t o f , i n

1 6 0 - 6 1 i n s t r u c t i o n a l d e s i g n , 2 3 1

P r o g r e s s i v e E d u c a t i o n m o v e m e n t , Re s p o n s e c o n t i n g e n c i e s : c l a s s e s o f ,

2 8 7 , 3 0 22 3 4 - 3 5 ; p r obl e m s w i t h r e s p e c t t o ,

P r o s p e r i t y , f a i l u r e o f , t o b e n e f i t a l l , i n l e a r n i n g s e qu e n c e s , 236-37

179 Reynolds, James H . , 233

Psychol ogy : c h a n g i n g p o s i t i o n o f h u - R i c e , P . B . , 2 4 9 , 2 5 0

m a n b e i n g i n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f , R i g i d i t y , d e g r e e o f , a s s i g n i f i c a n t d i -

200-201 ; design in experiments in, l n e n s i o n o f p e r s o n a l i t y , 204

a t t u r n o f c e n t u r y , 200-201 Roe, Anne,7 7 -

" P u b l i c E d u c a t i o n a n d t h e G o o d R o g e r s , C a r l , 7 3

Life," by William K . F r a n k e n a , 25 6 Ru r a l s c h o o l s , e f f e c t o f p o p u l a t i o n

P u b l i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , h i s t o r i c a l r o l e m o v e m e n t on , 1 4 8

o f t e a c h e r s i n d e v e l o p m e n t o f , i n R u s s e l l , B e r t r a n d , 246 ; quoted, 7.4 4

c h i l d r e n , 1 1 - 1 2 Russell, James C . , 6 7

Quincy School (Boston), patter n of

b u i l d i n g s e t b y , 1 i 7

R a t i o n a l i s m , o p p o s i t i o n o f r e c e n t p h i -

l o s o p h y t o , 2 5 2

R e a d a b i l i t y : i s s u e s r a i s e d b y s t u d i e s

o f , 9 9 ; n e e d f o r u s e o f f o r m u l a o f ,

i n d e v e l o p i n g m a t e r i a l s , 98-99

Reading, perceptual -conceptual prob-l e m f a c e d i n , 8 7

R e f e r e n c e m a t e r i a l s , r e a d a b i l i t y i n r e -

l a t i o n t o , 98-99

Regional development : e c o n o m i c

c h a n g e i n r e l a t i o n t o , 185 ; ne w d e-

t e r m i n a n t s o f , 185-86

R e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s , d e c l i n e i n ,

7 5

Rehage, Kenneth, 116

Reik, Theodore, 9 o

Reinforcem ent : n e e d f o r b u i l d i n g o f ,

i n t e c h n i q u e s o f i n s t r u c t i o n , 279-80 ;

S k i n n e r ' s d i s c u s s i o n o f , 305

Re i n f o r c e rs , n e e d f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n

o f , i n l e a r n i n g s e q u e n c e s , 236-37

R e i n f o r c i n g o p e r a t i o n s , i n f l u e n c e o f ,

234

174 -

S c h o l a r l y i n q u i r y , s t e p s i n v o l v e d i n

m a k i n g f r u i t s o f , a v a i l a b l e f o r c l a s s -

roo m , 277 - 7 8

School attendance, grow ing period

o f , 1 8 6 - 8 7

School boards, need for communica-

t i o n a m o n g , i n r e l a t i o n t o c o n s t r u c -

t i o n , 1 4 6 - 4 7

S c h o o l b u i l d i n g s : comparisons of old

an d ne w , 136-37 ; e l i m i n a t i n g n o i s e

i n ,1 4 3 - 4 4 ;

f a c t o r s d e t e r m i n i n g a p -

p r o p r i a t e s i z e o f , 138 ; i n f l u e n c e o f

e d u c a t i o n a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o n , 1 3 7 ;

i n f l u e n c e o f n e w t y p e s o f t e a c h i n g

m a t e r i a l s o n , 1 3 7 ; l i m i t s t o s i z e o f ,

1 3 8 - 3 9 ; n e w t y p e s o f , i n N e w

Ha v e n , Ea s t O r a n g e , e t c . , 150 ; u s e

o f a i r c o n d i t i o n i n g i n , 1 4 4 - 4 5

School construction, effect of, on

e c o n o m y , 14 5 - 4 6

S c h o o l C o n s t r u c t i o n i n Ne w Y o r k

C i t y , q u o t e d , 149-5o

School Construction Systems Devel-

o p m e n t ( S C SD ) , 1 4 6 ; d e s c r i p t i o n

o f , 1 4 7 - 4 8 ; system of, used in Bar-

r i n g t o n ( I l l i n o i s ) , 1 4 8

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 320/327

Sch o o l Mathematics Study G r o u p

( S M S G ) , 3 3 , 9 1 , 2 7 8 ; p l a n n i n g o f ,

4 3 ; r o o t s o f ,3 5

School operation, hypothesized re-

s u l t s o n , o f r e s e a r c h i n e d u c a t i o n a l

p r o c e s s , 2 4 1 - 4 2

S c h o o l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n : t e a m - t e a c h i n g

p r o j e c t s o f 1 9 5 7 i n r e l a t i o n t o , 1 2 7 ;

nongrading, team t e a c h i n g , and

d u a l p r o g r e s s a s a s p e c t s o f , 110 -3 4 ;

p r o s p e c t s o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g e d u c a -

t i o n b y ,1 3 2 - 3 4 ;

r e v i e w o f l i t e r a t u r e

o n , 1 3 0 - 3 2 ; s p r e a d o f , 1 2 7 - 2 8 ; s e e

a l s o Organization

School site(s), appropriate size of,

1 3 8 - 3 9

School space, departu re from egg-

c r a t e a r r a n g e m e n t o f , 1 1 9

S c h o o l h o u s e i n t r a n s i t i o n , 1 3 5 - 5 1

S c h o o l s , e n l a r g e d r o l e s o f , 1 9 9

S ch u l z , R u d o l p h W . , 2 3 1

Science cu rricu l u m , fou r em erging

p a t t e r n s o f , i n e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l ,

4 3

S c i e n c e C u r r i c u l u m I m p r o v e m e n t

S t u d y , d e v e l o p m e n t o f c o n c e p t s

b y , 4 3

S c i e n c e s o f m a n , i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f ,

1 6 z - 6 3

S e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n , m a j o r f u n c t i o n s

o f ,2 9 5

S e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n , e f f o r t s t o i m p r o v e

c o m p e t e n c i e s i n , 1 2 3

S e g a l , S t a n l e y J . , 7 7

Sequencing : a n a l y s i s o f , a s a c o n d i -

t i o n o f l e a r n i n g , 2 2 9 - 3 0 ; problems

o f , i n d e s i g n i n g i n s t r u c t i o n , 2 3 0

Shaplin, Judson T . , 1 1 7 , 1 2 7 ; d e f i n i -

t i o n o f t e a m t e a c h i n g by , q u o t e d ,

1 1 6

S h e f f l e r , I s r a e l ,2 5 4 , 2 5 9

Shoben, Edw ard J . , J r . , 5 9 , 6 z

Silberman, Harry F . , 2 3 0

Si m u l a t i o n , g r o w t h o f , a s t e c h n i q u e

o f i n s t r u c t i o n , 1 0 3 - 4 ; " I n - b a s k e t "

e x a m p l e o f , 1 0 3

Sing e r , M a r c u s G e o r g e , 2 5 0

Skinner, B . F . , 2 2 2 ; q u o t e d , 2 2 2 - 2 3 ,

2 3 6 , 3 0 4 _ .

S m a r t , J . J . C . , 2 4 9

Smilansky, Moshe, quoted, 3 0 6

Social change : effect of, on educa-

t i o n , 1 9 1 ; e x t e n t o f , 1 7 7 ; recent

I N D EX3 1 7

t r e n d s i n , 1 6 8 - 6 9 ; s c h o o l s a s a g e n t s

o f ,1 9 7 - 9 8

S o c i a l c h a n g e i n p e r s p e c t i v e , 2 7 1 - 3 0 6

S o c i a l c l a s s ( e s ) : infl u ence of m em-

b e r s h i p i n , o n b e h a v i o r , 2 0 9 - 1 0 ; p a t -

t e r n s o f a c c e p t abl e be h a v i o r s o f ,

2 1 0

S o c i a l - c u l t u r a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n : de-

mands leading to, 2 7 1 - 7 6 ; response

of an d factors con d i tioning re-

s p o n s e o f s c h o o l s t o , 2 7 6 - 8 0 ; s e e

a l s o C u l t u r a l c h a n g e ; S o c i a l c h a n g e

S o c i a l f a c i l i t y , i n c r e a s i n g d e m a n d o n

t e a c h e r s f o r d e v e l o p m e n t o f , 1 3 - 1 4

S o c i a l f o r c e s , i n f l u e n c e o f , o n i n s t r u c -

t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s , 8 7 - 9 1

S o c i a l g r o u p s , r e s e a r c h o n , z o 8 - 9

" S o c i a l l a g , " e f f e c t s o f , 2 7 6

Social mobility : a v e n u e s f o r , 2 1 o ;

c h a n g i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r , 1 9 o ; e x -

t e n t o f , i n 1 9 4 1 and 1 9 4 8 , 1 8 8 ; s h i f t

o f c h a n n e l s l e a d i n g t o , 1 7 5 - 7 7

Soc i a l p r obl e m s , s o l u t i o n o f , a s k e d

o f s c h o o l s , 2 9 4

S o c i a l s c i e n c e r e s e a r c h , a p p l i c a t i o n s

o f , t o e d u c a t i o n , 3 0 3

Social sciences, use of, by American

i n t e l l e c t u a l s , 1 6 3 - 6 6

S o c i a l s k i l l s , e m p h a s i s p l a c e d o n , b y

m o d e r n s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , 1 8 9

S o c i a l s t a t u s : b a s e s o f , 1 7 3 - 7 4 ; p e g g i n g

o f , a t p r e c i s e l e v e l , 1 9 o ; prim ary

b a s e s f o r , i n 1 9 4 1 , 1 8 8

Social structure : development of

new forms of, 1 6 6 - 7 8 ; e m p h a s e s i n

development of, 1 9 8 - 9 9 ; p r e m i u m

p l a c e d b y , o n s o c i a l s k i l l s , 1 8 q ; p r e -

r e qu i s i t e s f o r h i g h le v e l i n , 1 75 - 77 ;

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f , i n 1 9 4 1 , 1 8 7 - 8 8 ; s e e

a l s o S o c i a l s t a t u s

S o c i a l w e l f a r e , c h a n g i n g r o l e o f f e d -

e r a l g o v e r n m e n t i n r e l a t i o n t o ,1 9 3

Sociological change, perspective of,

1 8 6 - 9 1

S pache , Georg e D . , 9 8

Specialist-teacher, use of, in dual-

p r o g r e s s p l a n , 1 1 5

S p e c i a l i z a t i o n : effect of increased

k n o w l e d g e o f t e a c h i n g p r o c e s s o n ,

2 7 - 2 8 ; g r o w t h o f , i n s u b j e c t m a t t e r ,

2 6 ; i n c r e a s e a n d i m p a c t o f , o n

t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n , 2 7 ; i n c r e a s e i n

pow er of symbol ization accom pa-

n i e d b y , 1 6 4 - 6 5

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 321/327

3 1 8 INDEX

Spr i n t h a l l , Nor m a n A . , 3 00

S p u t n i k , e f f e c t o f , o n e d u c a t i o n a l r e -

form,3 5

Stevenson, Charles L . , 258

Sti m u l u s c h a n g e , e x p l o r a t o r y be h a v -

i o r e l i c i t e d b y , 237-38

S ti m u l u s c ontro l , s etting u p ne w

f o r m s o f , i n l e a r n i n g , zz8

S t i m u l u s a n d r e s p o n s e f a c t o r s i n d e -

s i g n i n g i n s t r u c t i o n , 231-32

S tod d a r d , Georg e D . , 1 2 3 , 127 ; T h e

Dual Progress Plan b y , 114

Stratificatio n systems, changes in,

since Warner's book of 1 9 4 1 , 1 9 1

Structural change : America and Eu-

r o p e c o m p a r e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o , 1 6 8 -

6 9 ; need for devising ways for ac-

commodation of, 186

S t r u c t u r e , c o n c e p t o f , i n t h e c u r r i c -

u l u m d i s c o u r s e , 4 2

S u b j e c t f i e l d s : e f f e c t o f i n t e r e s t i n

structures of, on curriculum re-

form, 3 7-38 ; problems arising from

e m p h a s i s o n , 5 1

Subject matter, greater attention of

n a t i o n t o , 8 9 ; s e e a l s o M a t e r i a l s o f

i n s t r u c t i o n

Subject-matter competence, analyzing

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f , 217-z3

Suburbanism, opportunities offered

by, and problems of, 169-70

Super, Donal d E . , 7 2 , 7 8 , 8 1 ; s t u d i e s

o f c a r e e r p a t t e r n s b y , 7 7

S u p p e s , P a t r i c k C . , 3 3 , 2 3 0 , 2 3 5

Supplementary Educational Centers :

a d v a n t a g e s t o b e d e r i v e d f r o m

b u i l d i n g o f , 1 5 0 - 5 1 ; e s t a b l i s h m e n t

o f , 1 5 0

S w e t t s , J . A. , a n d o t h e r s , q u o t e d , 734

T a x o n o m y o f E d u c a t i o n a l O b j e c -

t i v e s : Handbook I , by Benjam in S .

Bl oom , 9 2 ; Handbook I I , by David

R. K r a t h w o h l a n d o t h e r s , 9 2

T a le n t , o r g a n i z a ti o n i n r e l a t i o n t o

f u l l r e a l i z a t i o n o f , I z o ; s e e a l s o

G i f t e d

Taylor, Earl A . , 9 8

Taylor, P . W . , 2 6 1

Teacher aides : r o l e o f , i n t e a m t e a c h -

i n g , 117-18 ; u s e o f , i n i n s t r u c t i o n ,

2 4 ; u s e o f , i n N o r w a l k , 117

Teacher edu cation : c h a n g e s i n , a n d

r i s i n g s t a n d a r d s o f , 2 9 ; c h a n g e s i n

o r g a n i z a t i o n o f , 3 o ; changing na-

t u r e o f , 2 6 ; changing role of col-

l e g e s a n d u n i v e r s i t i e s i n , 2 7 o ; e f f e c t

of "whole-child" concept on, 1 7 -

1 8 ; f a i l u r e o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e c u r r i c -

ulum to meet needs of, 5 7 ; g ro w i ng

i n t e l l e c t u a l e m p h a s i s i n , 28-29 ; need

f o r l i f e l o n g c o n t i n u a t i o n o f , 2 9 - 3 0 ;

n e e d e d c h a n g e s i n , 2 9 6 ; r e - e x a m i n a -

t i o n o f p r o g r a m s o f , 2 9 - 3 0 ; t y p e o f ,

no w n ee d e d , 2 5 - 2 6

Teacher shortage, effect of, on or-

g a n i z a t i o n , 1 2 2

Teachers : c h a n g e s i n c o n c e p t i o n o f

r o l e o f , z o - 2 5 ; currently changing

r o l e o f , 2 4 - 2 5 ; d e s c r i p t i o n o f , i n

1 9 6 o ' s , 1 9 - 2 0 ; description and con-

c e p t i o n o f , i n p r e w a r p e r i o d , 1 6 - 1 8 ;

growth and change in roles of, I o -

1 5 ; i n a d e q u a c i e s o f , i n r e l a t i o n t o

needed organization, 134 ; r e q u i r e -

m e n t s f o r , i n c o l o n i a l C h a r l e s t o n ,

I I

T ea c h i ng , i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a s

i m p o r t a n t p r i n c i p l e o f , 223-24

Team teaching : benefits sought

through, 116 ; d e s c r i p t i o n o f , 115 ;

d i v e r s i t y o f p l a n s f o r , 1 1 6 ; f l e x i b l e

n a t u r e o f p r o g r a m s o f , 118 ; l a c k o f

w e l l - f o r m u l a t e d r a t i o n a l e f o r , 1 2 7 ;

n e w c a r e e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n , 1 2 3 ;

planning and conducting of, 1 1 9 ;

r e f o r m e r ' s i n t e r e s t i n , 4 4 ; s t a f f i n g

f o r , 1I7 ; t e a c h e r s h o r t a g e i n r e l a -

t i o n t o , 123-24 ; t e a c h e r s i n r e l a t i o n

t o , 2 4 ; u s e o f , i n t e a c h i n g , 124 ; u s e

o f p r o g r a m e d m a t e r i a l s i n , I 1 8 ; u s e

o f t e a c h e r a i d e s i n , 1 1 7

Technological change : e f f e c t s o f , 185 ;

n a t u r e a n d i n f l u e n c e o f , I8o

T e c h n o l o g y : i m p a c t o f , o n m a t e r i a l s

o f i n s t r u c t i o n , 8 7 - 8 8 ; need to adapt

f r u i t s o f , t o e d u c a t i o n a l u s e , 2 79-80

Technology of instruction : G l a s e r ' s

approach to , 3 0 3 - 5 ; h o p e s a n d

warnings indicated by discussion

o f , 305

Tex tb ooks : c r i t i c i s m s o f , 9 7 ; i m p o r -

tance of, as learning tool, 9 6 - 9 7 ;

m e a n s for i m p r ove m e n t of , 98-99 ;

w e a k n e s s o f , n o t i n h e r e n t i n , 9 8

Theology, replacement of dogmatism

b y , 161-62

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 322/327

T i e d e m a n , D a v i d V . , 7 8 , 3 0 1 ; q u o t e d

(with Frank L. F i el d) , 6 2 , 70

T o u l m i n , S t e p h e n ,2 4 9 , 2 5 9

T r a i n i n g v s . e d u c a t i o n , i s s u e o f , 9 4 - 9 6

T r a i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s , e x p a n s i o n o f , f o r

g u i d a n c e , 6 o

T r a n s f e r a n d c o n c e p t f o r m a t i o n , s i g -

n i f i c a n c e o f , 2 2 1

T r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e S c h o o l , T h e ,

by Lawrence A . C r e m i n , 2 8 7

T r u m p , J . L l o y d , 1 1 9 ; p l a n o f , 1 2 1

Tyler, Leona E . ,5 9 , 7 3 , 7 9

Tyl er , R a l p h W . , 9 8 , 3 0 3

Un d e r w o o d , B e n t o n J . , 2 3 1

Un e m p l o y m e n t : c h a n g e s i n r a t e o f ,

for yo u t h , 1 8 6 - 8 7 ; o c c u p a t i o n a l

grou ps m ost affected by, 1 8 3 - 8 4 ;

s t r u c t u r a l d i s e q u i l i b r i u m s u g g e s t e d

b y , 1 8 3

U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a r t m e n t o f A g r i c u l -

t u r e , u s e o f p u b l i c a t i o n s o f , 8 8

U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h ,

E d u c a t i o n , a n d W e l f a r e , 1 9 5

U n i t e d S t a t e s O f f i c e o f E d u c a t i o n , 1 3 ,

5 4 , 1 3 3 , 1 9 5 ;r e g i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l

l a b o r a t o r i e s s u p p o r t e d b y , 5 6 ; s u p -

p o r t o f c u r r i c u l u m c h a n g e b y , 3 3

U n i v e r s i t i e s : d e p e n d e n c e o n , f o r i m -

provem ent of research and prac-

t i c e , 1 3 4 ; em ergence of, as m ajor

f o r c e s i n A m e r i c a n l i f e , 1 7 1 ; p r o v i -

s i o n o f t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s b y , f o r

t e a c h e r s ,1 3 3 - 3 4

U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s E l e m e n t a r y -

S c h o o l S c i e n c e P r o j e c t , o r g a n i z a -

t i o n o f ,4 3

U r b a n i s m , s t y l e o f l i f e o f , c a r r i e d i n t o

c o u n t r y , 1 6 9

U r b a n i s m t o m e t r o p o l i t a n i s m , 1 6 9 - 7 0

V a r e n h o r s t , B a r b a r a , 6 8

V e n d l e r , Z e n o , s e m a n t i c a n a l y s i s o f ,

2 6 1

V i s u a l p e r c e p t i o n : i n f l u e n c e o f e a r l y

i m p r e s s i o n s u p o n , 2 02 ; s t u d i e s o f , o f

INDEX 3 1 9

d e p t h a n d d i s t a n c e , z o z ; s e e a l s o

P e r c e p t i o n

Vocational choice, rational making

o f , 7 8

V o c a t i o n a l - e d u c a t i o n c o u n s e l i n g: n a -

t u r e o f r e s e a r c h i n r e l a t i o n t o , 7 6 -

7 8 ; Tyler on, 7 9

W a l s h , W . H . , 2 5 9

W a r n e r , W . L l o y d ,1 8 7 , 1 9 1

Washburne Social-Adjustment Inven-

t o r y , by J. W . W a s h b u r n e ,1 9 5

W a s hb u r ne , J . W . , 9 8

W e s t e r n S t a t e s S m a l l S c h o o l s P r o j e c t ,

1 3 8

W h e e l i s , A l l e n , q u o t e d ,2 9 9

W h i t e H o u s e C o n f e r e n c e o n E d u c a -

t i o n( 1 9 6 5 ) , 4 9

W h i t e h e a d , A l f r e d N o r t h , 1 0 5

W i l d , J o hn D . , q uo t ed , 2 4 8 - 49 , 2 5 2

W i t t g e n s t e i n , L u d w i g , 2 4 6

" W h o l e- chi l d " concept : domination

o f t e a c h i n g b y , 1 7 - 1 8 ; e f f e c t o f , o n

t e a c h e r s a n d t e a c h e r e d u c a t i o n , 1 8 -

1 9 ; e f f e c t o f m o d i f i c a t i o n o f , 2 2 - 2 3

W i l l i s , A r t h u r R . , 6 7

Wisconsin Improvement Program,

u s e of in t er n s in , 1 1 8

W i t t l i n , A l m a S . , qu ot ed , 6 7

W o l f , B e v e r l y ,7 4

W o l f l e , D a e l , q u o t e d , 6 4

W o o d r i n g , P a u l , 1 1 6 , 1 2 6 ; q u o t e d , 2 8

W o o d w a r d , R i c h a r d G . , 1 1 7

W o r k s Prog ress Ad m i nistrat ion

(W. P . A . ) , n u r s e r y s c h o o l s o f , 2 7 2

Wor l d-vie w : c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f , a n d

o r i e n t a t i o n t o , 2. 9 6 - 9 9 ; devel opm ent

o f , 1 6 o

W r e n n , C . G i l b e r t , e n u m e r a t i o n o f

n e w c h a l l e n g e s f o r g u i d a n c e b y , 6 5

Y a l e University, pu rposes of, at

f o u n d i n g , 1 2

Z a c h a r i a s , J e r r o l d R . ,3 3 , 4 9

Zeaman, D . ,2 3 5

Z i ff , P a ul , 2 61

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 323/327

INFORMATION CONCERNING THE NATIONAL SOCIETY FORTHE STUDY OF EDUCATION

I . PURP OSE . The purpose of the National Society is to prom ote the investiga-

tion and discussion of educational questions . To this end it holds an annual

m e e t i n g a n d p u b l i s h e s a s e r i e s o f y e a r b o o k s .

z . ELIGIBI LITY To M E M B E R S H I P . Any person who is interested in receiving its

p u b l i c a t i o n s m a y b e c o m e a m e m b e r b y s e n d i n g t o t h e S e c r e t a r y - T r e a s u r e r

i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g n a m e , t i t l e , a n d a d d r e s s , a n d a c h e c k f o r $ 8 . o o ( s e e I t e m

5), except that graduate students, on the recomm endation of a faculty member,

m a y b eco m e m e m b ers b y paying $ 6 . o o f o r t h e f i r s t y e a r o f t h e i r m e m b e r s h i p . D u e s

f o r a l l s u b s e q u e n t y e a r s a r e t h e s a m e a s f o r o t h e r m e m b e r s ( s e e I t e m 4 ) .

M e m b e r s h i p i s n o t t r a n s f e r a b l e ; i t i s l i m i t e d t o i n d i v i d u a l s , a n d m a y n o t b e h e l d

b y l i b r a r i e s , s c h o o l s , o r o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y .

3 . PERIO D O F MEM B ERSHIP . App l i c a nt s f o r m e mbe r s h i p m a y n o t d a t e t h e i r e n -

t r a n c e ba c k o f t h e c u r r e n t c a l e n d a r y e a r , a n d a l l m e mbe r s h i p s t e r m i n a t e a u t o -

m atical l y on December3 1 ,

u n le ss t he d ue s fo r th e en su i ng y ea r a r e p a i d a s

i n d i c a t e d i n I t e m 6 .

4 . DUT IES AND PRI V ILEGES O F MEM B ERS . M e m b e r s p a y d u e s o f $ 7 . 0 o a n n u a l l y ,

r e c e i v e a c l o t h - b o u n d c o p y o f e a c h p u b l i c a t i o n , a r e e n t i t l e d t o v o t e , t o p a r t i c i p a t e

i n d i s c u s s i o n , a n d ( u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s ) t o h o l d o f f i c e . T h e n a m e s o f

members are printed in the yearbooks .

Persons w ho are six ty years of age or above m ay becom e l ife m embers on

p a y m e n t o f f e e b a s e d o n a v e r a g e l i f e - e x p e c t a n c y o f t h e i r a g e g r o u p . F o r i n f o r m a -

t i o n , a p p l y t o S e c r e t a r y - T r e a s u r e r .

5 . ENTRANCE F EE . N e w m e m b e r s a r e r e q u i r e d t h e f i r s t y e a r t o p a y , i n a d d i t i o n

t o t h e d u e s , a n e n t r a n c e f e e o f o n e d o l l a r .

6 . PAYMENT OF DUES . Statements of dues are rendered in October for the

following calendar year . Any member so notified w hose dues remain u npaid on

J a n u a r yI , thereby loses his membership and can be reinstated only by paying a

r e i n s t a t e m e n t f e e o f f i f t y c e n t s .

School w arrants and vou chers from institu tions m u st be accom panied by

definite information concerning the name and address of the person for whom

m e mbe r sh i p f e e i s be in g p a i d . St a t e m e n ts o f d u e s a r e r e n d e r e d o n o u r o w n f o r m

only . T h e S e c r e t a r y ' s o f f i c e c a n n o t u n d e r t a k e t o f i l l o u t s p e c i a l i n v o i c e f o r m s o f

a n y s o r t o r t o a f f i x n o t a r y ' s a f f i d a v i t t o s t a t e m e n t s o r r e c e i p t s .

C a n c e l l e d c h e c k s s e r v e a s r e c e i p t s . M e m b e r s d e s i r i n g a n a d d i t i o n a l r e c e i p t m u s t

e n c l o s e a s t a m p e d a n d a d d r e s s e d e n v e l o p e t h e r e f o r .

7 D I S T R I B U T I O N O F YEA R B O O K S T O MEMBERS . The yearbooks, ready prior to

e a c h F e b r u a r y m e e t i n g , w i l l b e m a i l e d f r o m t h e o f f i c e o f t h e d i s t r i b u t o r s , o n l y t o

members whose dues for that year have been paid . M e mbe r s w h o d e s i r e y e a rbo o k s

p r i o r t o t h e c u r r e n t y e a r m u s t p u r c h a s e t h e m d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e d i s t r i b u t o r s ( s e e

Item 8) .

8 . COMMERCIAL SALES . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a l l y e a r b o o k s p r i o r t o t h e c u r r e n t

year, and also of those of the current year not regularly mail ed to members in

e x c h a n g e f o r t h e i r d u e s , i s i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e d i s t r i b u t o r , n o t o f t h e S e c r e t a r y .

For such commercial sales, com municate directly with the University of Chicago

P r e s s , C h i c a g o , I l l i n o i s 6 0 6 3 7 , w h i c h w i l l g l a d l y s e n d a p r i c e l i s t c o v e r i n g a l l t h e

p u b l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s S o c i e t y . T h i s l i s t i s a l s o p r i n t e d i n t h e

m onth before. YEARBOOK S . T he y e a rbo o k s a r e i s s u e d abo u t o n e m o n t h be f o r e t h e F ebr u a r y

m e e t i n g . They com prise from 6 o o t o 8 o o p a g e s a n n u a l l y . U n u s u a l e f f o r t h a s b e e n

made to make them, on the one hand, of immediate practical value, and, on the

o t h e r h a n d , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f s o u n d s c h o l a r s h i p a n d s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

i o . M E E T IN G S . T he a n n u a l m e e t i n g , a t w h i c h t h e y e a rbo o k s a r e d i s c u s s e d , i s

held in February at the same time and place as the meetin g of the American

Association of School Administrators .

Applications for membership will be handled promptly at any time on receipt

of name and address, together with check for $8 . 0 0 ( o r $ 7 . 5 0 f o r r e i n s t a t e m e n t ) .

A p p l i c a t i o n s e n t i t l e t h e n e w m e m b e r s t o t h e y e a r b o o k s l a t e d f o r d i s c u s s i o n d u r i n g

t h e c a l e n d a r y e a r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n i s m a d e .

5835 K i m b a r k A v e . HERMAN G RICHEY, Sec r et a ry - Tr e as u r er

C h i c a g o , I l l i n o i s 60637

3 2 1

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 324/327

PUBLICATIO NS OF THE NATIO NAL SOCIETY FOR

T H E S TU DY O F E D U C A T I ON

NOTICE : Many of t h e early Ye a r b o o k s o f t h i s s e r i e s are now

o u t o f print . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t , t h o s e t i t l e s t o which an

asterisk i s prefixed a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e for p u r c h a s e .

P O ST PA I D

P R I C E

* F i r s t Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 0 2 , P a r t I -So m e P r i n c i p l e s i n t h e T e a c h i n g o f H i s t o r y . Lucy M .

Sa l m o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

* F i r s t Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 0 2 , P a r t II-The Progress of Geography in the Schools. W. M .

D a v i s a n d H . M . W i l s o nSecond Yearbook, 1903, Part I - T h e C o u r s e o f S t u d y i n H i s t o r y s n t h e C o m m o nS c h o o l . I s a b e l L a w r e n c e , C . A . M c M u r r y , F r a n k M c M u r r y , E . C . P a g e , a n d E . J .

R i c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

*Second Yearbook, 1903, Part II-The Relation of Theory to Practice in Education .

M. J

. H o l m e s , J . A

*Third Yearbook, 1904, Part I - T h e R e l a t i o n o f T h e o r y t o P r a c t i c e i n t h e E d u c a t i o n

o f T e a c h e r s . J o h n De w e y , Sa r a h C . B r o o k s , F . M . McMurry, e t a tThird Yearbook, 19 04, Part I I -N a t u r e S t u d y. W. S . J a c k m a nF o u r t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 0 5 , P a r t I-The Education and Training of Secondary Teachers .

E . C . E l l i o t t , E . G . D e x t e r , M . J . H o l m e s , e t a l . .

* F o u r t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 0 5 , P a r t I I - T h e P l a c e o f V o c a t i o n a l S u b j e c t s i n t h e H i g h - S c h o o l

Curriculum . J . S . Brown, G . B . M o r r i s o n , a n d E l l e n R i c h a r d s. . .

* F i f t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 0 6 , P a r t I-On the Teaching of English in Elementary and Hig hS c h o o l s . G. P . B r o w n a n d E m e r s o n D a v i si f t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 0 6 , P a r t I I - T h e C er t i f i c a t i o n o f T e a c h e r s . E. P . C u b b e r l e y0 . 6 4

* S i x t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 0 7 , P a r t I - V o c a t i o n a l S t u d i e s f o r C o l l e g e E n t r a n c e . C . A. H e r -

r i c k , H . W . H o l m e s , T . deLaguna, V . Prettyman, and W . J . S . BryanSixth Yearbook, 1907, Part II-The Kindergarten and Its Relation to Elementary

Education . Ada Van Stone Harris, E . A . K i r k p a t r i c k , M a r i e K r a u s - B o e l t 6 , P a t t y

S . H i l l , H a r r i e t t e M . M i l l s , a n d N i n a V a n d e w a l k e rS e v e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 0 8 , P a r t I - T h e R e l a t i o n o f S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a n d P r i n c i p a l s t o

t h e T r a i n i n g a n d P r o f e s s i o n a l I m p r o v e m e n t o f T h e i r T e a c h e r s . Charles D. Lowry

* S e v e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 0 8 , P a r t I I - T h e C o - o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e K i n d e r g a r t e n a n d t h e El e -

mentary School . B . J . Gregory, Jennie B . M e r r i l l , B e r t h a P a y n e , a n d M a r g a r e t

G i d d i n g s .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Eighth Yearbook, 1909, Part I - E d u c a t i o n w i t h R e f e r e n c e t o S e x : P a t h o l o g i c a l ,

E c o n o m i c , a n d S o c i a l A s p e c t s . C . R. Henderson5*Eigh t h Yea rbo o k , 1 90 9, P ar t I I -E du c at i o n w i t h Ref e r e n ce t o Se x : Agencies and

Methods . C . R. Henderson and Helen C . P u t n a mNinth Yearbook, 1910, Part 1 -He a l t h a n d E du c a t i o n . T . D. WoodN i n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 1 0 , P a r t II-The Nurse in Education . T . D. W o o d , e t a tTenth Yearbook, 191 1, Part I - T h e C i t y S c h o o l a s a C o m m u n i t y C e n t e r . H. C .

L e i p z i g e r , S a r a h E . Hyre, R . D . Warden, C . Wa r d C r a m p t o n , E . W . S t i t t , E . J .

W a r d , M r s . E . C . G r i c e , a n d C . A . P e r r y

*Te n th Yea rbo ok , 191 1 , P a rt I I -Th e R u r a l Sc h o o l a s a C o m m u n i t y C e n t e r . B. H .

C r o c h e r o n , J e s s i e F i e l d , F . W . Ho w e , E . C . B i s h o p , A . B . G r a h a m , O . J . K e r n ,

M , T . S c u d d e r , a n d B . M . D a v i s .

-Industrial Education : Typical Experiments De-

s c r i b e d a n d I n t e r p r e t e d . J . F . B a r k e r , M , B l o o m f i e l d B . W . J o h n s o n , P . J o h n s o n ,

L . M . L e a v i t t , G . A. Mirick, M . W . M u r r a y , C . I 3 . P e r r y , A. L. S a f f o r d , a n d

H. B . W i l s o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.

. .

*Eleventh Yearbook, 1912, Part II-Agricultural Education in Secondary Schools .

A. C . M o n a h a n , R . W . S t i m s o n , D . J . C r o s b y , W . H . F r e n c h , H . F . B u t t o n , F . R .

C r a n e , W . R . H a r t , a n d G . F . WarrenT w e l f t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 1 3 , P a r t I - T h e S u p e r v i s i o n o f Ci t y S c h o o l s . F r a n k l i n B o b b i t t ,

J . W . H a l l , a n d J . D . W o l c o t tT w e l f t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 1 3 , P a r t I I - T h e S u p e r v i s i o n o f R u r a l S c h o o l s . A. C . M o n a h a n ,

L . J . H a n i f a n , J . E. Warren, Wallace Lund, U . J. Hoffman, A . S . C o o k , E . M .

R a p p , J a c k s o n D a v i s , a n d J . D . W o l c o t tT h i r t e e n t h Ye a r b o o k , 1 9 1 4 , P a r t I - S o m e A s p e c t s o f H i g h - S c h o o l I n s t r u c t i o n a n d A d -

m i n i s t r a t i o n . H. C . M o r r i s o n , E . R . B r e s l i c h , W . A . J e s s u p , a n d L . D . C o f f m a n . .

* T h i r t e e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 1 4 , P a r t II-Plans for Organizing School Surveys, with a

Summary of Typical School Surveys . C h a r l e s H . J u dd a n d He n r y L . S m i t h* F o u r t e e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 1 5 , P a r t I-Minimum Essentials in Elementary School Sub-

jects-Standards and Current Practices . H B . Wilson, H . W . Holmes, F . E .

T h o m p s o n , R . G . J o n e s , S . A. C o u r t i s , W . S . G r a y , F . N . Freeman, H . C . P r y o r ,

J . F . H o s i c , W . A. Jessup, and W . C . B a g l e yourteenth Yearbook, 1915, Part II-Methods for Measuring Teachers' Efficiency .

Arthur C . B o y c e9* F i f t e e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 1 6 , P a r t I-Standards and Tests for the Measurement of the

E f f i c i e n c y o f S c h o o l s a n d S c h o o l S y s t e m s . G. D . S t r a y e r B i r d T . Baldwin~ B . R .

B u c k i ng h a m , F . W . B a l l o u , D . C . B l i s s H . G . C h i l d s , . A. C o u r t i s , E . Y . C u b -

b e r l e y , C . H . J u d d , G e o r g e M e l c h e r , E . h . O b e r h o l t z e r , J . B . S e a r s , D a n i e l S t a r c h ,

M. R. T r a b u e , a n d G . M . W h i p p l e2 3

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 325/327

3 2 4 PUBLICATIONS

P O ST PA I D

P R I C E

* F i f t e e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 1 6 , P a r t I I - T h e R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n P e r s i s te n ce i n S c h o o l

and H o m e C o n d i t i o n s . C h a r l e s E . H o l l e yF i f t e e n th Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 1 8 , Part III-The J u n i o r H i g h S c h o o l . Aubrey A. D o u g l a s s . .

* S i x t e e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 1 7 , P a r t I-Second Report o f t h e C o m m i t t e e on M i n i m u mE s s e n t i a l * i n E l e m e n t a r y - S c h o o l S u b j e c t s . W. C . B a g l e y , W . W . C h a r t e r s , F. N .

F r e e m a n , W . S . G r a y , Er n e s t Ho r n , J . H . H o s k i n s o n , W . S . M o n r o e , C . F - M u n -

s o n , H . C . P r y o r , L . W . R a p e e r , G. M . W i l s o n , a n d H . B . W i l so nS i x t e e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 1 7 , Part II-The E f f i c i e n c y o f C o ll e ge S t u d e n t s a s C o n d i t i o n e d

by Ago a t E n t r a n c e a n d S i z e o f H i g h S c h o o l . B . F . P i t t e n g e rS e v e n t e e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 1 8 , P a r t I - T h i r d R e p o r t o f t h e Committee on Economy ofTime i n E d u c a t i o n . W . C Ba . g l e y , B . B . B a s s et t , M . E . B r a n o m , A l i c e C a m e r e r ,

J . E . D ea l e y, C . A . E l l w o o d , E. B . G r e e n e , A . B . H a r t , J . F . H o s i c , E . T . H o u s h ,

W. H . M a c e, L . R . M a r s t o n , H . C. McKown, H . E . M i t c h e l l , W . C . R e a v i s , D . S n e d -

den, and H . B . W i l s o nS e v e n t e e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1918, Part II-The M e a s u r e m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n a l P r o d u c t s .

E. J . As hba u gh , W . A . A v e r i l l , L. P . A y e rs , F . W . B a l l o n Edn a Br y n e r , B . R .

Bu c k i n gh a m , S . A . C o u r t i s , M . E . H a g g e r t y , C . H . J u d d , Ueorge Meicher, W . S .

Monroe, E . A . N i f e n e c k e r , a n d E . L . T h o r n d i k eE i g h t e e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 1 9 , P a r t I-The Professional P r e p a r a t i o n o f H i g h - S c h o o l

T e a c h e r s . G. N . C a de , S . S . C o l v i n , C h a r l e s F o r d y c e , H . H . F o s t e r , T . S . G o s l i n g ,

W. S . G r a y , L . V . K o o s , A . R . Mead, H . L . M i l l e r , W . C . W h i t c o m b , a n d C l i f f o r d

W o o d yi g h t e e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 1 9 , P a r t I I - F o u r t h R e p o r t o f C o m m i t t e e o n Ec on om y o fT i m e i n E d u c a t i o n . F . C . A ye r , F . N . Freeman, W . S . G r a y , E r n e s t H o r n , W . S .

M o n r o e , a n d C . E . S e a s h o r e1 . 1 0

* N i n e t e e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 2 0 , P a r t I-New Material s o f I n s t r u c t i o n . P r e p a r e d b y t h e

S o c i e t y ' s Co m m i t t e e o n M a t er i a l s o f I n s t r u ct i o nN i n e t e e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 2 0, P a r t I I - C l as s ro o m P r ob l em * i n t h e E d u c a t i o n o f G i f t e d

C h i l d r e n . T. S . H e n r yT w e n t i e t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 2 1 , P a r t I-New Materials of I n s t r u c t i o n . S e c o n d R e p o r t b y

S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e eT w e n t i e t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 2 1 , P a r t I I - R e p o r t o f t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e o n S i l e n t

Re a di n g . M. A . B u r g e s s , S . A . C o u r t i s , C . E . Germane, W . S . G r a y , H . A . G r e e n e ,

Re gi n a R . H e l l e r J. H

. H o o v e r ,J . A

. O ' B r i e n , J. L

. P a c k e r , D a n i e l S t a r c h , W . W .

T h e i s e n , G . A . V o a k a m , a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f o t h e r s c h o o l s y s t e m sT w e n t y - f i r s t Y e a r b o o k 1 9 2 2 , P a r t s I a n d I I - I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t s a n d T h e i r U s e , Part

I - T h e N a t u r e , j i i s t o r y , and G e n e r a l P r i n c i p l e s o f I nt e ll i ge n c e T e st i ng . E. L .

T h o r n d i k e , S . S . C o l v i n , Ha r o l d R u gg, G . M . W h i p p l c Part II-The Administra

g i v e U s e o f I n t e l l i g e n c e T e s t s . H. W . H o l m e s , W . K . L a y t o n , H e l e n D a v i s , A g n e s

L. R o g e r s , R u d o l f P i n t n e r , M. R . T r a b u e , W . S . M i l l e r , B e s s i e L . Ga m b r i l l, a n d

o t h e r s . T h e t w o p a r t s a r e b o u n d t o g e t h e r

* T w e n t y - s e c o n d Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 2 3 , P a r t I - E n g l i s h C o m p o s i t i o n : I t s A i m s , Methods and

M e a s u r e m e n t s . Earl HudelsonT w e n t y - s e c o n d Y e a r b o o k , 1923, Part II-The S o c i a l S t u d i e s i n t h e E l e m e n t a r y a n d

Secondary S c h o o l . A . 8 . B a r r , J . J . C o s s , H e n r y H a r a p , R. W . H a t c h , H . C . H i l l ,

Ern e s t o r n , C . H . J u d d , L . C . M a r s h a l l , F . M . McMurry, Earle Rngg, H. O .

Rugg, Emma Schweppe, Mabel S n e d a k e r , a n d C . W . WashburneT w e n t y - t h i r d Y e a r b o o k , 1924, Part I-The E d u c a t i o n o f G i f t e d C h i l d r e n . R e p o r t o f

t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . G u y M . W h i p p l e , C h a i r m a nT w e n t y - t h i r d Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 2 4 , P a r t I I -Vo c a t i o n a l Guidance a n d V o c a t i o n a l E d u c a -

t i o n f o r I n d u s t r i e s . A . H . E d g e r t o n a n d O t h e r sw e n t y - f o u r t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 2 5 , P a r t I - R e p o r t o f t h e N a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e on Reading .

W. S . G r a y C h a i r m a n , F . W . B a l l o u , Rose L . H a r d y , Er n e s t H o r n , F r a n c i s J e n k -

i n s , 8 . A . L e o n a r d , E s t a l i n e W i l s o n , a n d L a u r a Z i r b e s. 5 0* T w e n t y - f o u r t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 2 5 , P a r t I I - A d a p t i n g t h e S c h o o l s t o I n d i v i d u a l D i f f e r -

e n c e s . R e p o r t o f t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . C a r l e t o n W . Washburn, Chairman . . . .

* T w e n t y- f i f t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 2 6 , P a r t I-The Present S t a t u s o f S a f e t y E d u c a t i o n . R e p o r t

o f t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . Guy M . W h i p p l e , C h a i r m a nT w e n t y - f i f t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 2 6 , P a r t I I - E x t r a -C u r r i c u l a r A c t i v i t i e s . R e p o r t o f t h e S o -

c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . Leonard V . K o o s , C h a i r m a nT w e n t y - s i x t h Ye a r b o o k , 1 9 2 7 , P a r t I-Curriculum-making : P a s t a n d P r e s e n t . R e p o r t

o f t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . Harold O . R u g g , C h a i r m a nT w e n t y - s i x t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 92 7, P a r t I I -Th e F o u n d a t i o n s o f C u r r i c u l u m - m a k i n g . P r e -

p a r e d b y i n d i v i d u a l m e m be r s o f t h e S o c i et y ' s C o m mi t t e e . H a r o l d O . Rugg, C h a i r m a nT w e n t y - s e v e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 2 8 , P a r t I -Na tu re an d Nurtur e : T h e i r I n f l u e n c e upon

I n t e l l i g e n c e . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . Lewis M . T e r m a n , C h a i r m a n . . 1 . 7 5

T w e n t y - s e v e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 2 8 , P a r t II-Nature and N u r t u r e : T h e i r I nf l u en c e uponA c h i e v e m e n t . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e Lewis M . T e r m a n , C h a i r m a n . . 1 . 75

T w e n t y - e i g h t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 2 9 , P a r t s I a n d II-Preschool and P a r e n t a l E d u c a t i o n .

P a r t I ~ - O r g a n i z a t i o n a n d D e v e l o p m e n t . P a r t I I -Res ea r ch a n d M e t h o d . P r e p a r e d

b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . Lois H. Meek, Chairman . Bound in one volume .

C l o t h. 0 0Paper. 2 5

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 326/327

PUBLICATIONS3 2 5

P O B T P e

PRICE

T w e n t y - n i n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 3 0 , P a r t s I a n d I I - R e p o r t o f t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e o n

A r i t h m e t i c . P a r t I - S o m e A s p e c t s o f M o d e r n T h o u g h t o n A r i t h m e t i c . P a r t I I -R e s e a r c h i n A r i t h m e t i c . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . F . B . K n i g h t ,

C h a i r m a n . B o u n d i n o n e v o l u m e . C l o t h5 . 0 0

T h i r t i e t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 3 1 , P a r t I - T h e S t a t u s o f Ru r a l E d u c a t i o n . F i r s t R e p o r t o f

t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e o n R u r a l E d u c a t i o n . O r v i l l e G . B r i m , C h a i r m a n . C l o t h . . 2 .5 0

T hi rt i et h Ye ar b oo k, 1 9 3 1 , P a r t I I - T h e T e x t b o o k i n A m e r i c a n E d u c a t i o n . R e p o r t o f

t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e o n t h e T e x t b o o k . J . B . E d m o n s o n , C h a i r m a n . C l o t h. 5 0

P a p e r. 7 5

T h i r t y - f i r s t Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 3 2 , P a r t I - A P r o g r a m f o r T e a c h i n g S c i e n c e . P r e p a r e d b y

t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e o n t h e T e a c h i n g o f S c i e n c e . S . R a l p h P o w e r s , C h a i r m a n .

P a p e r. 7 5

T h i r t y - f i r s t Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 3 2 , P a r t I I - C h a n g e s a n d E xp e r i m e n t s i n L i b e r a l - A r t s E d u -

c a t i o n . P r e p a r e d b y K a t h r y n M c H a l e , w i t h n u m e r o u s c o l l a b o r a t o r s . C l o t h. 5 0

P a p e r. 7 5

T h i r t y - s e c o n d Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 3 3 - T h e T e a c h i n g o f G e o g r a p h y . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o -

c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e o n t h e T e a c h i n g o f G e o g r a p h y . A . E . P e r k i n s , C h a i r m a n . C l o t h 4 . 5 0

P a p e r. 0 0

T h i r t y - t h i r d Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 3 4 , P a r t I - T h e P l a n n i n g a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n o f S c h o o l

B u i l d i n g s . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e o n S c h o o l B u i l d i n g s . N . L . E n g e l -

h a r d t , C h a i r m a n . C l o t h. 5 0

T hi rt y- th ir d Y ea rb oo k, 1 93 4 , P ar t I I - T h e A c t i v i t y M o v e m e n t . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o -

c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e o n t h e A c t i v i t y M o v e m e n t . L o i s C o f f e y M o s s m a n , C h a i r m a n .

C l o t h. 5 0

P a p e r. 7 5

T h i r t y - f o u r t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 3 5 - E d u c a t i o n a l D i a g n o s i s . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m -

m i t t e e o n E d u c a t i o n a l D i a g n o s i s . L . J . B r u e c k n e r , C h a i r m a n . C l o t h. 2 5

P a p e r. 0 0

` T h i r t y - f i f t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 3 6 , P a r t I - - T h e G r o u p i n g o f P u p i l s . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o -

c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . W . W . C o xe , C h a i r m a n . C l o t hT h i r t y - f i f t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 3 6 , P a r t ll--Mn8LC E d u c a t i o n , P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s

C o m m i t t e e . W . L . U h l . C h a i r m a n , C l o t hT h i r t y - s i x t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 3 7 , P a r t I - T h e T e a c h i n g o f R e a d i n g . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o -

c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . W. S . G r a y , C h a i r m a n . C l o t hT h i rt y - s i xt h Y ea rb o o k, 1 93 7 , P a r t I I - I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h r o u g h t h e

P u b l i c - S c h o o l C u r r i c u l u m . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m mi t t e e . 1 . L . K a n d e l ,

C h a i r m a n . P a p e rh i r t y - s e v e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 3 8 , P a r t I - G u i d a n c e i n E d u c a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t i o n s . P r e -

p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m mi t t e e . G . N . K e f a u v e r , C h a i r m a n . C l o t h.50T hi r ty - se ve n th Y ea rb o ok , 1 9 3 8 , P a r t I I - T h e S c i e n t i f i c M o v e m e n t i n E d u c a t i o n . P r e -

p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m mi t t e e . F . N . F r e e m a n , C h a i r m a n . P a p e r. 0 0

T h i r t y - e i g h t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 3 9 , P a r t I - Ch i l d D e v e l o p m e n t a n d t h e C u r r i c u l u m . P r e -

p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . C a r l e t o n W a s h b u r n e , Ch a i r m a n . Pa p e r. 5 0

T h i r t y - e i g h t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 3 9 , P a r t I I - G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n i n t h e Am e r i c a n C o l l e g e .

P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y 's C o mm i t t e e . A l v i n E n r i c h , C h a i r m a n . C l ot h.75P a p e r. 0 0

T h i r t y - n i n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 4 0 , P a r t I - I n t e l l i g e n c e : I t s N a t u r e a n d N u r t u r e . C o m -

p a r a t i v e a n d C r i t i c a l E x p o s i t i o n . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . G . D

S t o d d a r d , C h a i r m a n . P a p e r. 2 5

* T h i r t y - n i n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 4 0 , P ar t I I- In t el l i g e n ce : I t s N a t u r e a n d N u r t u r e . O r i g -

i n a l S t u d i e s a n d E x p e r i me n t s . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m mi t t e e . G . D . S t o d -

d a r d , C h a i r m a n . P a p e rF o r t i e t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 4 1 - A r t i n A m e r i c a n L i f e a n d E d u c a t i o n . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o -

c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . T h o m a s M u n r o , C h a i r m a n . C l o t ho r t y - f i r s t Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 4 2 , P a r t I - P h i l o s o p h i e s o f E d u c a t i o n . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o -

c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . J o h n S . B r u b a c h e r , C h a i r m a n . C l o t h. 0 0

P a p e r. 2 5

F o r t y - f i r s t Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 4 2 , P a r t I I - T h e P s y c h o l o g y o f L e a r n i n g . P r e p a r e d b y t h e

S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . T . R . M c C o n n e l l , C h a i r m a n . C l o t h. 0 0

P a p e r. 2 5

F o r t y - s e c o n d Y e a r b o o k 1 9 4 3 , P a r t I - V o c a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s

C o m m i t t e e . F J . k e l l e r , C h a i r m a n . C l o t h. 2 5

P a p e r. 5 0

F o rt y - s e co n d Y e ar b o o k, 1 9 43 , P a r t IT-The L i b r a r y i n G e n e r a l E d u c a t i o n . P r e p a r e d

b y t h e S o c i e t y C o m m i t t e e . L . R . W i l s o n , C h a i r m a n . C lo t h. 0 0

F or ty - th ir d Y ea rb oo k, 1 94 4, P a r t I - A d o l e s c e n c e . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m -

m i t t e e . H a r o l d E . J o n e s , C h a i r m a n . C l o t h. 0 0

P a p e r. 2 5

8/2/2019 The Changing American School-Editor John Goodlad-1966-328pgs-EDU

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-changing-american-school-editor-john-goodlad-1966-328pgs-edu 327/327

3 2 6 PUBLICATIONS

POSTPAID

PRICE

F o r t y - t h i r d Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 4 4 , P a r t I I -Te a c h i n g La n gu a ge i n t h e E l e m e n t a r y S c h o o l .

P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . M . R . T r a u b e , C h a i r m a n . C l o t h2 . 7 5

Paper. 0 0F o r t y - f o u r t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 4 5 , P a r t I - A m e r i c a n Education in the Postwar Period :

Curriculum R e c o n s t r u c t i o n . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i tt e e . Ra l p h W . T y l e r ,

C h a i r m a n . C l o t h. 0 0P a p e r. 2 5F o r t y - f o u r t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 4 5 , P a r t II-American Education i n t h e P o s t w a r P e r i o d :

S t r u c t u r a l R e o r g a n i z a t i o n . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m mi t t e e . B e s s G o o d y k o o n t z ,

C h a i r m a n . Paper. 2 5F o r t y - f i f t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 4 6 , P a r t I - T h e Measurement of Understanding . Prepared byt h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . W i l l i a m A . B r o w n e l l , C h a i r m a n . P a p e r. 2 5F o r t y - f i f t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 4 6 , P a r t II-Changing Conceptions i n E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a -

t i o n . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . Alonzo G . G r a c e , C h a i r m a n . C l o t h . . 2 . 5 0

Paper. 7 5F o r t y - s i x t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 4 7 , P a r t I-Science Education in American Schools . P r e -

p a r e d b y t h e So c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . V i c t o r H . N o l l , C h a i r m a n . P ap e r. 2 5F o r t y - s i x t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 4 7 , . ' a r t II-Early Childhood Education . Prepared by the

S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . N . S e a r l e L i g h t , C h a i r m a n . C l o t h. 5 0Paper. 7 5F o r t y - s e v e n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 4 8 , P a r t I-Juvenile Delinquency and the Schools . P r e -

p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . Ruth Strang, Chairman . C l o t h. 5 0F o r t - seventh Yearbook, 194 8, Part I I - R e a d i n g i n t h e Hi gh Sc h o o l a n d C o l l e g e .

P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y 's C o m m i t t e e . W i l l i a m S . Gray, Chairman . C l o t h. 5 0Paper. 7 5F o r t y - e i g h t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 4 9 , P a r t I - A u d i o - v i s u a l M a t e r i a l s o f I n s t r u c t i o n . Prepared

b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . Stephen M . Corey, Chairman . C l o t h. 5 0F o r t y - e i g h t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 4 9 , P a r t I I - Re a d i n g i n t h e E l e m e n t a r y S c h o o l . P r e p a r e d

b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . A r t h u r I . G a t e s , C h a i r m a n . C l o t h. 5 0Paper. 7 5

F o r t y - n i n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 5 0 , P a r t I-Learning and Instruction . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o -

c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . G . Lester Anderson, Chair man . C l o t h. 5 0Paper. 7 5

F o r t y - n i n t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 5 0 , P a r t I I - T h e E d u c a t i o n o f E x c e p t i o n a l C h i l d r e n . P r e -

p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . Samuel A . K i r k , C h a i r m a n . C l o t h. 5 0Paper. 7 5S o c i e t y ' s B o a r d o f D i r e c t o r s . Ra l p h W . T y l e r , C h a i r m a n . C l o t h. 5 0F i f t i e t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 5 1 , P a r t I - G r a d u a t e S t u d y i n E d u c a t i o n . P r e p a r e d by t h e

Paper. 7 5Fiftieth Yearbook, 1951, Part II-The T e a c h i n g o f A r i t h m e t i c . P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o -

c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . G . T . Buswell, Chairman . C l o t h. 5 0P a p e r. 7 5F i f t y - f i r s t Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 5 2 , P a r t I - G e n e r a l Education . Prepared by the Society'sCommittee . T . R. McConnell, Chairman . C l o t h. 5 0Paper. 7 5

F i f t y - f i r s t Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 5 2 , P a r t I I -E du c a t i o n i n R u r a l C o m m u n i t i e s . P r e p a r e d by

t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . Ruth Strang, Chairman . C l o t h. 5 0

Paper. 7 5F i f t y - s e c o n d Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 5 3 , P a r t I-Adapting t h e S e c o n d a r y - S c h o o l P r o g r a m t o t h e

Need, of Youth P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . William G . B r i n k , C h a i r -

m a n . C l o t h. 5 0Paper. 7 5F i f t y - s e c o n d Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 5 3 , P a r t I I - T h e Community School . Prepared by the So-c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . Maurice F . Seay, Chairman . C l o t h. 5 0Paper. 7 5F i f t y t h i r d Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 5 4 , P a r t I - C i t i z e n C o - o p e r a t i o n f o r B e t t e r P u b l i c S c h o o l , .

P r e p a r e d b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . Edgar L . Morphet, Chairman . C l o t h. 5 0Paper. 7 5F i f t y - t h i r d Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 5 4 , P a r t I I - M a s s M e d i a and Education . Prepared by the

S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . Edgar Dale, Chairman . C l o t h. 5 0Paper. 7 5

F i f t y - f o u r t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 5 5 , P a r t I-Modern Philosophies and Education . P r e p a r e d

b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . J o h n S . Brubacher, Chairman . C l o t h. 5 0Paper. 7 5F i f t y - f o u r t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 5 5 , P a r t II-Mental Health in Modern Education . Prepared

b y t h e S o c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . Paul A . W i t t y , C h a i r m a n . C l o t h. 5 0Paper. 7 5F i f t y - f i f t h Y e a r b o o k , 1 9 5 8 P a r t I-The Public Junior College . Prepared by the So-c i e t y ' s C o m m i t t e e . B . f .amar Johnson, Chairman . C l o t h. 5 0Paper. 7 5