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Mosaic di'(Great Palo

Duck : mosaic hornthe Chwch oj theMultiplication. Tabgah.

The healing oftheparalysed man, see.carrying his bed:a mosaicfromS. Apollinare Nuovo.

Ox cart : mosaicfrom S. Constanza.Rome.

BOSTONPUBLICLIBRARY

L^mmI Supper mosait fromHare Nuovo, Ravenna.

Charioteer

from Lampadim ' diptyi

Cupids fbhintmosait fromAauileia.

Duck : mosaic fromthe Church oj theMultiplication. (s //'Tahcnh

Mosaic from S. Apollinare

heep-shearing .from anIth. C. miniature in

te Homilies of S. Gregory

I Nazianzus.

Emperor Justinian :from S. Vitale, Ravenna.

Symeon of Bulgaria attackingConstantinople, after a 14th. C. illumination.

Shepherds : mosaic from theChurch of the Holy Apostles,Salonika.

m

Left : Digging in thevineyard : from an llth.C.illuminated Gospel.

Right: Masons at workfrom a mid- 1 1th. C.psalter.

C0NS1 i\ TINOPl I ( karioirat ing m the Hippodt

Also by Helen and Richard Leacroft

THE BUILDINGS OF ANCIENT EGYPTTHE BUILDINGS OF ANCIENT GREECETHE BUILDINGS OF ANCIENT ROMETHE BUILDINGS OF ANCIENT MANTHE BUILDINGS OF ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIATHE BUILDINGS OF EARLY ISLAM

Copyright ( 1977 by Helen and Richard LeacroftFirst published 1977 jointly by Hodder & Stoughton Children's Booksand Young Scott Books, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc..Reading. Massachusetts 01867, USA

UK ISBN 340 16426 3USA ISBN 201 09266 2

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproducedor transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,including photocopy recording, or any information storage and retrievalsystem, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed and bound in Great Britainby Morrison & Gibb Ltd, London and Edinburgh

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Leacroft. HelenThe buildings of Byzantium

Includes index.

Summary : Text and illustrations describe thecharacteristics of churches, palaces, basilicas.hospitals, markets, and fortifications built in the cityof Byzantium, now known as Istanbul, during theheight of its power.

1 Architecture. ByzantineJuvenile literature.[1. Architecture. Byzantine. 2. Istanbul

Antiquities] I. Leacroft, Richard, joint author. II.Title.

NA370.L4 1977 720.9496' 1 76-54979ISBN 0-201-09266-2

THE BUILDINGS OFBYZANTIUM

Helen and Richard Leacroft

HODDER & STOUGHTONLONDON LEICESTER SYDNEY AUCKLANDandADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY

ROSLINDALE

I Entrance doorway/>' ( ourtyard( Stairs to upper fiooi

P BaptisteryI Font

I "Sunday School"C Church".

MAK 19#

CHRISTIANCOMMl Ml) HOI MDura-Europos, Iraq. c. ad 2

B YZANTIU M, the cityfounded by the Greek. Byzaz, in the seventh centuryB.C.. stood on a peninsula ofland at the entrance to the Bosphorus | page 39 j.and was at the crossroads of eastern and western civilizations. By the thirdcentury A.D.. it had developed into a typical Roman city. It was therefore theideal place for Constantine the Great to develop as his new capital, when hebecame the ruler of the Eastern Roman Empire. The power of Rome haddeclined in the third century A.D. One reason for this was that barbarians wereconstantly attacking the frontiers ; another was that there were no rules laiddown regarding who should succeed an emperor when he died, so any powerfulcommander could march on Rome and set himself up as a ruler. It was EmperorDiocletian, A.D. 284-305, who, in an effort to strengthen the rule oflaw, decidedthat the Empire was too large for one man to control, so he divided it into twoparts, the West and the East. When he died, however, fighting broke out again,and it was Constantine who restored order in the East. Declaring that he ruled bythe will of God. and allying himself with the Christian Church, he dedicated hisEmpire on J I May, A.D. 330, in the city of Byzantium, later to be calledConstantinople, and now known as Istanbul.Most of the Byzantine buildings which can still be seen today are churches,

many richly decorated with mosaics. But the Byzantines also built palebasilicas, hospitals and markets which were all essential to a great tradingnation, whose culture was to have such an effect on our western world.

Early christian churchesEarly Christian groups in many towns and villages were often small. They didnot build special churches, but gathered to worship in private houses, whichwere adapted for use by the communities. Another reason for using this typeof building may have been that, before Constantine's Edict of Milan in a.d.313 which allowed people to worship as they wished, Christians sufferedperiods of persecution from the Roman emperors, and it was not advisablefor them to advertise their presence. The remains of such a private 'church'house - domus ecclesiae - have been excavated at Dura-Europos, a Romanlegionary fortress in Iraq. As well as a room converted into a church, twoother essential features were found - a baptistery and a font.When Christianity became the official religion of Constantine's empire,

churches had to be built. In the ancient world the pagan temples were thehomes of the gods, and people did not enter but worshipped in sacred spacesbefore the buildings. Christians, however, needed a place in which they couldmeet together for their worship, discussions and teaching, and they used theform of building developed by the Romans for their public gatherings - thebasilica. An example of a basilican-type ofchurch may be seen in S. Clemente.The semi-circular apse contained the bishop's throne - cathedra - and seatingfor the elders. A railed-off portion of the nave in front of the apse was used bythe clergy, while the congregation stood around the sides.

TRIUMPHAL ARCH

APSF

A : SANCTUARY, with Altar under Baldachino.B: PROTHESIS, or placefor the Preparation of the

Sacred Elements. C: DIACONICON or Vestry.D: CHANCEL or Choir. E: Epistle AMBO or

Pulpit. F: Gospel AMBO. G: CANCELLIor low screen walls.

AISLE

S. CLEMENTE, Rome, Italy, ATRI U M-A.D. 1084-1108. This church shows the typical layoutandfurnishings ofa developed Basilican Church of the 11 12th

>^-m j>frS_

IgggJP.

A TYPICAL BASILICAN CHURCHwas divided into three aisles, with a raised apse

covered by a semi-dome at the eastern end : this

sometimes projected beyond the building orcould be completely enclosed by it. The central

aisle or nave was usually broader and higher

than the side aisles and was lit by windows in a"clear storey" clerestory which was sup-

ported on columns linked by round-headed

arches. The building was covered by a pitchedtimber and tiled roof.

The position of the altar varied from church

to church. It could be sited against the rear wall

of the apse, as was often to be found in the

Byzantine churches of Syria, or at the edge of

the steps as seen above. Altars were also placed

below the steps (page 8). or even in the middle

of a domed sanctuary. The celebration of theMass was secret so it could not be \ iewed b> the

congregation. The altar was therefore often

covered by a canopy supported on column^

baldachino and curtains w ere draw n around it

when the bread and wine were consecratedduring the service. The clergy took their placeswithin the railings chancels and in somechurches the whole nave was used for pro-cessions which formed an important part of theservices. The pulpit - ambo - was used forsermons and the reading of the gospels, andwas usually to be found by one of the chancelrails, but sometimes it was placed farther downthe nave. Later, separate pulpits were pro-

vided, one for the reading of the gospel and one

for the epistle, as at S. Clemente (page 3) andabove as shown in the illustration.The lower walls were covered with marble,

and the upper walls glistened with mosaics. Asmost of the congregation could not read, thesemosaic pictures were used to teach them theBible stories. The mosaics also depicted saints,and the martyrs who had died for their Chris-tian faith; all leading up to a view of Paradiseor Christ in Glory (page 9) set in the semi-dome of the half-round apse.

/ i \/ i Rome,130

B IPTISTER] 01 I HIORTHODOX, Ramrna,Italy, i ./). 4(io 500

When a Roman emperor died the peoplebelieved that he became one of the gods, and atemple was dedicated to his memory whereofferings could be made. When Constantineadopted Christianity he realised that it wouldbe impossible to overthrow all pagan ideasimmediately, and so he kept and adapted suchbeliefs and buildings as could be used by thenew faith. The Roman basilica was at firstfound to be suitable for communal Christianworship, and the Roman funerary templedeveloped into the emperor's mausoleum ortomb. Constantine did not, of course, suggestthat he became one with God but, nevertheless,he expected his tomb and those of his family tobecome shrines to which people would come aspilgrims. Other holy sanctuaries were thetombs where the relics of the martyrs wereburied. A circular building was found to be thetype best suited to the requirements of thepilgrims. Here they could stand in circlesaround the central feature, the sarcophagus, amarble or stone coffin, and view it with ease.Such a building may still be seen today in the

church of S. Constanza in Rome (see abo\c>Originally built by Constantine as a mausol-eum for his daughter Constantina. it shows allthe necessary elements. In the middle was thesarcophagus on to which light flooded fromwindows set high up in the walls of the drumwhich supported a dome, representing theuniverse. Around the central area an ambu-latory, or walking way. was covered by vault-ing on which can still be seen mosaics of thefourth century a.d.. combining both Christianand pagan scenes of the wine harvest. Theoutside of the building was encircled b> a

colonnade flanking an entrance porch.

MA USOLEUM OF GALLA PLA CID1A

,

Ravenna, Italy. A.D. 440.

SS.SERGIUSANDBACCHUS.Constantinople

,

Turkey, c. A.D. 527.

As the crowds of pilgrims increased, shelterhad to be provided for them, so the domedsanctuary was often placed next to, or in-

corporated within, a basilican-type church. Anexample of such a building was Constantine'srotunda covering the Holy Sepulchre in Jer-usalem. Eusebius of Caesarea, an historian ofthe fourth century a.d., describes the maus-oleum built for Constantine, who consideredhimself to be the thirteenth apostle, as beingplaced within the Church of the Holy Apostles

BASILICA at Philippi,Macedonia, Greece.6th. C.a.d.

in Constantinople. This church, set in a court-yard, was cross-shaped with the sarcophagus,flanked by piers, placed in the crossing beneatha drum covered by a dome.

There was usually only one baptistery in atown, and it was attached to the principalchurch. It was generally a circular or octagonal

building. Here provision was made for manypeople as baptisms were carried out only threetimes a year, at Easter, Pentecost and Epi-phany, the Feast of the Wise Men.

s i // 1/ /.. Ravenna,

Italy, i D 526 547

< HOIKWOMEN'S _GALLERY \

AMBULATORY

Opposite

The Sane tuary.s I ITALE. Ravenna.

THE CHURCH OF S. VITA LE was builtby a rich banker for the Emperor Justinian,who reigned from a.d. 527-565. The main planwas similar to that of a circular mausoleum, forthe services now included singing and the domeserved to give resonance to the music. Thespace for the choir terminated in an apse andwas separated from the nave, at first, perhapsby curtains in the manner shown in the illus-tration on the right, and later by a screen -

iconostasis - which was covered with sacredpictures - icons.

Although the nave was greatly altered inRenaissance times, that is in the fourteenth andfifteenth centuries, the walls and ceiling of theapse are today still covered with the originalmosaics. Above the triple window. Christ, witha nimbus or halo behind his head, is seated on a

circular disc representing the earth. He isholding out a martyr's crown to S. Vitalis towhom the church is dedicated. On the right, afigure of a bishop carries a model of the church.1 1 was the custom for the Byzantine emperor tohave his portrait in the church, and that ofJustinian, together with important church andcivil dignitaries and guards, may be seen to theright of the window. On the wall opposite, theEmpress Theodora (see endpapers) and herattendants are depicted. The mosaics showdetails of the rich fabrics and decorations.Further mosaics in the apse show Biblicalscenes; the style of these is similar to thepaintings of the Greeks, showing realistic land-scape backgrounds such as are to be seen in S.Apollinare in Classe. Ravenna, but which wereto disappear in later Byzantine decoration.

8

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fejE^-^2Jiaiaspicplomm

ji'

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S.IRENl ( onstantinophTurkey i i D 552 56.

-***

The most difficult problem Byzantine build-ers had to overcome was how to support adome. It was easy to build a circular dome overa circular plan as at S. Constanza (page 6).and comparatively simple when an octagonalshape was used as in the church of SS. Sergiusand Bacchus at Constantinople (page 7). whereeight piers linked by arches formed an octagonwhich supported the dome. It was, however, adifferent matter to put a dome over a square.The difficulty was resolved by the use ofsquinches and pendentives (see pages 14-15,and The Buildings ofEarly Islam, pages 14-15),which made it possible to turn a square into acircle. Once this method was discovered domescould be placed not only over a square space,but even the nave could be divided into bayseach covered with a dome. The basilicanchurch at Philippi (page 7) incorporated a highbrick dome over the eastern end and a lowerone over the nave. A similar arrangement maystill be seen at S. Irene, Constantinople, wherethe nave is covered with two domes. One

Till. 1 11 11 1 \\l TROPOLk( 1 1 III DR 1/ Uhens,Greece. 4.1). 1250.

reason for this change ma\ have been that inthe Eastern Empire timber for building was notplentiful; the early churches of Syria had to beroofed with solid stone slabs (page 35) in amanner similar to the temples of AncientEgypt. The first church of S. Irene had beenstarted in Byzantium before Constantine evencame to the city, and until Hagia Sophia (seecover and pages 12-13) was built it may havebeen used as the cathedral. It was destroyed inthe riots of a.d. 532. The present church, thethird to be built, is. like that at Philippi. basedon a basilican plan with a porch - narthex - anave with aisles and a chancel with an apse.The type which was to become the basic form

of Byzantine church architecture w as the 'crossin square'. The central area is covered b\ adome carried on a high drum, which rests on acircle formed by pendentives. springing fromfour semi-circular arches, which were in turnsupported by piers or columns at each corner ofthe square. The arches are extended as barrelvaults to the outer walls, so forming the arms ofa cross. When this cross is fitted into a squarebuilding, the four small square corner bayswhich remain are covered, either with smalldomes or groined vaulting (see The Buildings ojAncient Rome, page 1 1). the whole forming a

10

CHURCHES at Hosios Loukas, Greece.

THEOTOKOS,C. A.D. 1040.

KA THOLIKON,c. ad. 1020.

building of nine bays. Another name for thistype of building is quincunx.The church of the Little Metropole. Athens,

illustrates a stage in the development frombasilica to 'cross in square*, the aisles in this

case being still dearly visible. The monasterychurches of Hosios Loukas show how this plancould be elaborated and enlarged. In the smallchurch of the Theotokos. the dome is sup-

S. FRONT, Perigueux,France, A.D. 1120.

ported on four pillars set in a square, while in

the larger Katholikon it is carried on anoctagon on squinches.The church of S. Mark's in Venice was

modelled on the church of the Holy Apostles inConstantinople, but here each arm of the crosshas its own dome. The influence which theByzantine style had in western Europe may beseen in the church of S. Front in Perigueux.

II U.I A SOPH! \. IS I WHUL.Built for Justinian b> the architects

Anthemiusof rrallesand IsodorusofMiletus between \.i>. 532 537.

rhe dome collapsed during an earthquakein A.i). 55S. and was rebuilt In \.n. 563.

suffering further damage in \.i>. lJS^ and 1 346.In 1453 it was transformed into a Turkish

mosque, when four minarets were erected.

i Ml

Hagia Sophia, the Holy Wisdom, was theprincipal church of the Byzantine world; itsvast dome could be seen all over the city. Tenthousand workmen were employed on thebuilding. Materials were brought from all partsof the empire, even the lead conduits of Con-stantinople were melted down to make cover-ings for the domes. Justinian came every day tosupervise its progress. The basic plan was abasilica with a very wide nave, covered by acentral dome. This was buttressed by half-

domes on the east and west which roofed thespaces below. Beneath the great 'infilled* arches

on the north and south, openings between thecolumns led into the aisles. To support thegreat weight a bed of concrete twent> feet (6.09metres) thick was laid. The outer walls werebuilt of brick, with holy relics buried at ever)twelfth course. The central dome was carriedon massive piers of squared, smoothed, lime-stone, each stone being fastened in place withmolten lead: the four pendentives which sup-

12

ported it were each sixty feet (18.29 metres) inheight. The square bricks for the domes werespeciallymadein Rhodes. They werelighterthanthose used for the walls and varied in size. Eachbrick was stamped with the words "God foun-ded this work and God will come to its aid."

Paul the Silentiary, an important official ofJustinian's court wrote a poem describing thebuilding. He said that when the first rosy lightof morning, driving away the dark shadows,leaped from arch to arch, and the princes and

people singing songs of prayer and praise cameinto the sacred areas, it seemed as if the mightyarches were set in heaven. At night a thousandlamps, hanging by chains, showed their gleam-ing lights, and through the spaces of the greatchurch came rays of light expelling clouds ofcare and filling the mind with joy. The sailor onhis dangerous course amidst rocks and creekswas guided safely into harbour by the twinkl-ing of the lights which showed him not only theway to safety, but the way to the living God.

13

II YOANh is, Ligourio, Greece, c. i D 1080.

S. FOSCA, Torcello, Italy, c. i D 1008.

Squinches andpendentivesIn earl) times man had learned to cover a building b>placing layers of stones in circles, each layer of stonesprojecting slightl) in front o\ the one below I hisprocess o\ 'corbelling

1

was continued until a 'dome'had been constructed (see The Buildings oj AncientGreece, page 7). As already noted, it was easy enoughto put a circular dome on a round building, but not soeasj when the building was square. Some way had to befound to fill in the corners, and in a small building onesimple solution was to place a stone slab across the

corner angle of the walls, and then place further stoneson top which corbelled out to cover the new anglesuntil the square began to approach a straight-sided"circle". Another method which was used was to buildan arch across the corner to support the upper slabs Vdomes were made larger, additional small arches couldbe introduced arranged on one or more levels as at S.Fosca in Torcello. or a single large arch could be built

across each corner containing what amounts to a vaultin the form of a half dome, as ma\ be seen at Daphniand in the Theotokos at Hosios Loukas ( page 1 1 ). Thisarched vault construction was called a squinch.

CHURCH OF THE MOS ASTER Y,Daphni, Greece. AD. 1080.

S. JOH.X OE THE HERMITS.Palermo. Sicily. A.D. 1 132 48.

-'.' UK-

Romans, but later more use was made of thin shells olbrick in the form of barrel or groin vaults. I he roofol

i lie meat underground cistern oftheJere Batan (below >is made of bricks laid on edge with mortar betweenthem; each of the four sections of the vault is shaped as

a curved triangle meeting in the middle and being held

in place b\ a kej stone. Domes were built of brick, asshown on the previous pages, but to lighten theconstruction main domes, such as that of the Or-thodox Baptistery in Ravenna, were built from hollow

terracotta tubes which, as the) were open at one end.

could be interlocked to form a ring, each of which

rested on the ring below

.

The domes themselves were often covered with semi-circular tiles of terracotta. The church ofthe monaster)of the Brontocheion at Mistra (left) shows the way inwhich the tiles overlocked each other. The windowswere narrow arched openings in the drum. A simpleround-headed arch was constructed on timber center-

ing, and further arches were built out from this until thethickness of the wall was reached. Sometimes theopening was filled with a round-headed pierced slab.

VA LLT: JERE BA TAN CISTER \Constantinople. Turkey. 5th. C. i.D.

I AULTING: ORTHODOX BAPTISTERY.Ravenna. Italy, c. A.D. 450.

18

CAPITAL: S. LEONIDAS,Corinth, Greece, c. A.D. 450.

CAPITAL : PHILIPPI BA SILICA

,

Macedonia, Greece, c. A.D. 540.

which would have served as the centering for the first arch. Asdomes and vaults were very light, they could be supported on thincolumns, with or without an impost. An impost was a stonecushion, or half an inverted cone, which was placed between thecapital and the arch or vault that it supported; an example isshown above from Philippi. By the sixth century the impost andcapital were often combined to form one unit, as at Hagia Sophia.The skill of the Byzantine sculptors may be seen in the carving ofthe acanthus leaves which formed the pattern on the capital. Bydeep undercutting the design of white marble stood out from thedarker undersurface. Sometimes they pierced the leaves withsmall holes to give light and shade. Often a cross or monogramwas carved in the middle of the leaves.

Inside the buildings, marble sheets were attached to the wallsby bronze clamps, while the outer walls were decorated by layingthe bricks in bands and patterns. Where masonry was used, brickswere sometimes placed around each block of stone, either insingle or double courses ; this type of work was called cloisonne, asmay be seen at S. Paraskevi (left).

WALL FINISHES. Left : Internal, Marble slabsfixed towall with bronze clamps. Right : External, use of stone and brick.

.

,-)

H. SOPHIA. Constantinople,Turkey. A.D. 532-537.

19

WaTERWORKS. I he watersuppl) for Constantinople came from the rivers andreservoirs in the lulls beyond the city, it was carrieddown b) moans of aqueducts, and the people went tothe public fountains to get their water. During thesummer the tlou dried up, so to make sure that therewas a sufficient suppl] lor everyday needs and torindustry and agriculture, the emperors built vastunderground cisterns where water could be storedwhen it was flowing freely. This provided an emergencysupply m times of siege, and helped to prevent evap-oration in hot weather.

The water was carried from the aqueducts into thecisterns in earthenware or lead pipes, which were alsoused to bring the supply to the public fountains, bathsand the fonts of baptisteries. The cost of providingwater came from the dues which the merchants paid forusing the city wharves. All the services were under thecontrol of the Praefectus Praetoria. the chief magis-trate, who was also responsible for seeing that thecanals carrying water to the fields were kept in order.

FONTAh D I'i LP1T. ORTHODO IBAPTISTERY,Ravenna, 5th. C. pulpit, medieval font.

L WDERGROUND CISTERN B1S-BIR-DIREK, Constantinople, Turkey. 6th C. AD

20

BA SILICA OFMAXENTIUS& CONSTANTINE, Rome, Italy,c. A.D. 300.

Law and politicsIn Rome basilicas were large halls where public business was transacted,agreements and contracts were signed, and where magistrates administeredthe justice to which all freemen were entitled. Such halls were also animportant part of the official palace of the emperor, to whom appeal could bemade if a man felt that he had not received justice in a lower court.

During his reign, Maxentius, emperor of Rome in a.d. 307-312, hadstarted to build a vast basilica in that city (see The Buildings ofAncient Rome,page 20), which was altered and completed by Constantine before he set uphis new capital at Constantinople, where he introduced the types of buildingsto which he was accustomed. When the Romans developed the use of greatvaults made of concrete, it became possible for them to change the form of the

21

B is///( 10FC0NSTANTINIfrier, France, < i./>. 310.

early basilicas with their long rows of columns,and cover them instead with several largevaults having their points of support at eachcorner. This arrangement set a precedent forthe domed naves of churches (page 10). Theaisles now became a series of interconnectingrectangles, separated from one another bycross-walls and from the nave by a single greatarch. Each rectangular compartment wascovered by a barrel vault. The walls were linedwith slabs of coloured marble, and largewindows in the arches of the nave vaults lit thegreat hall. In the apse, now at one end of thegreat nave, was the seat for the magistrate -

praetor - the emperor's representative. Astatue, or in later times a picture, of theemperor himself, was also always placed in thesemi-circular apse.

The people who came for justice stood on thefloor of the hall below the steps. While the

magistrate was hearing legal cases or argu-ments, other business could be conducted inthe compartments around the nave. In thepalace basilica, the emperor's throne was

placed in the apse with benches for highimperial officers set around the wall.

In the provinces of the Empire, the basilicawas the headquarters of the administration.

Although not so magnificent in appearance asthe buildings of the capital, sometimes being asingle nave without aisles as at Trier, thebasilicas were sufficiently imposing to impressthe native population with the might andpower of their rulers. When the basilica becamethe pattern for the early Christian churches, the

statue of the emperor, overseeing civil affairs,

was replaced by a representation, in mosaic orfresco, of Christ as the Pantocrator. that is, as

ruler of the world, holding a Bible in one handand the other raised in blessing.

22

Towns

FORTIFIED TOWN:from 6th. C. manuscript

:

the Vienna Genesis.

ted3F

ALEXANDRIA:froma mosaic of A.D. 500.Church of S. John,Jcrash , Transjordan

The geographical position of the Byzantine Empire (page 39) was suchthat it was surrounded by enemies and could be attacked from all sides.The towns, therefore, were fortified with walls and towers, and thegreat gates were closed at night to ensure the safety of the inhabitants.

Such a town was Nicaea. shown below, but even the strength of thesefortifications did not prevent its capture by the Crusaders in 1097.Many of the town-dwellers were highly skilled craftsmen. Under the

direction of the state they were obliged to manufacture the gold andsilverware, the jewellery, vases and ornaments, and the rich brocadesand damasks that were required by the Church, the Court and thewealthy owners of great estates. Such goods were also in demand byforeign countries, and so the wealth of the Byzantines depended upon ahighly developed trade and commerce. Officials were needed to directthe production of goods and make sure that taxes were paid, and thequality approved. For example, any silk merchants who did not showto the magistrate goods which were to be exported to foreign countries,so that they could receive his official seal, were liable to be punishedseverely. There were many such regulations which had to be obeyed,and offices were needed where the officials could work. The state alsobuilt warehouses where the finished merchandise could be stored. Eachparticular craft was to be found in its own area in the town, workingunder the direction of a guild. Special quarters were set aside inConstantinople for foreign merchants, as may be seen in the illus-tration on the next page, numbers 19-23.

NICAEA. Turkey, became known asIznik when captured by Turks. A.D. 1326.

23

THE CITY OF CONSTANTINOPLEAerial view in thcearlv twelfth century, A. I).

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.

H>W/s o/ Theodosius.2. Walls of Constantine.3. Church of Theodora.4. Monastery of Constantine Lips.5. Church of the Holy Apostles.6. Church of S. Christopher.7. Monastery ofS. Polyeuctes.8. Church of Christ Pantopoptos.9. Church of Christ Pantocrator.

10. Aqueduct of Valens.

11. Church of Christ Akataleptos. 21.12. Forum ofArcadius. 22.13. Forum of the Ox. 23.14. Harbour oj Eleutherius. 24.15. Monastery oj Myrelaion. 25.16. Harbour of Heptaskalon. 26.17. Monastery of S. Zachary. 27.

18. Forum of Theodosius. 28.19. Quarter ofthe Egyptians. 29.20. Quarter ofthe Venetians. 30.

Quarter oj Amalfi.Quarter of Pisa.Quarter of Genoa.Gala la and tower of AnostaskGreat Colonnades oj DomnimBaths oj Dagistheus.Palace of Nicephonu 111.Forum oj Constantine.Harbour oj Kontoskalion.Harbour of Julian.

24

BOSPHORUS

3 1

.

Palace called Porphyra.

32. Cistern of Philoxenus.

33. Palace of Antioch.

34. Church ofSS. Sergius and Bacchus.

35. Palaces ofBucoleon and Justinian 1.

36. Hippodrome.37. Great Palace.

38. Church ofHagia Sophia.

39. Church of S.Irene.

40. Acropolis. Ancient Greek.

This illustration of Constantinople clearlyshows the way in

which the city developed over the centuries.Lined by colonnades

to make shady walking ways, the main street- the mese - from

which all other roads radiated, ran throughthe various fora

which the early emperors had set upin their own honour

following the custom of the Romans.The barrel vaults of the

great warehouses may be seen in the quartersnear the harbours.

On the far side of the Golden Horn was theregion of Galatea

where the farm land which surrounded thefortihed settlement

was given to soldiers who had retired from the army,but who

could be called upon to fight if necessary.

25

in iMMMiiinriTiKiniiniMTrrmiiwiii

Houses and palacesIn towns winch developed from earlier settle-ments, people still lived in houses built in theGreek and Roman way. Bj the sixth century,houses of carefully-finished stone wore to befound in Syria. At Refadeh the two-storeyedhouse, built to face a courtyard, had threerooms on the ground floor, two of which wereconnected h> an archway. A covered walkingwa> stoa ran along the front. On theopposite side of the courtyard, two towers werejoined b\ a two-storeyed stoa. which, because itfaced west, would have provided shade duringthe heal of the day. This house, standing on itsown. must have been the property of a wealthyman. Town houses, usually built on either sideof the straight streets, were entered throughnarrow doorways. On the ground floor was alarge apartment spanned by an arch, andbehind this was a stable with a ceiling of stoneslabs, above which was another long room. Thestable and room over were together the sameheight as the front apartment on the groundfloor. The living quarters were on the first floor,reached by an outside stair. The flat roof wassometimes used by the occupants to catch thecool evening breezes. Where timber was moreplentiful pitched roofs were used.By the ninth century the Emperor. Leo the

HOI SI MedjdelS Syria, i /> 4M.

S Re hutch,via. a.D. 516.

CHI RCH A.XD PALACE.Kasr ibn Wardan, N. Syria, A.D. 561-4.

26

PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN, Split, Yugoslavia, late 3rd. C. A.D.

Wise, realised that planning was needed, andregulations were laid down. It was forbidden tobuild an oven or hearth in a party wall, that is, acommon wall separating two dwellings, be-cause fire might injure it. Citizens were requiredto keep their hay, rags and paper in unroofed,stonelined places to prevent fires. A man couldnot build a house in a position that would takeaway his neighbour's light. As in AncientRome, many people lived in blocks of flats, andit was an offence to throw water or slops out ofthe windows and so injure those below.

In the third century the Emperor Diocletianbuilt a palace on the edge of the Adriatic Sea,where the town of Split now stands, much of itbeing actually inside the remains of the palacewalls. The Golden Gate in the north wallopened on to a colonnaded road which ransouth, with domestic quarters on either side.Beyond the crossing was a colonnaded court-yard leading to a domed vestibule opening

into the Throne Room, behind which were theprivate apartments. Justinian's great palace ofConstantinople (page 25, number 37) wasdescribed by Procopius as consisting of manybuildings, needed to house the court officialsand servants, who numbered several thousand.The main entrance was in the Forum Augustus,where a large archway led into the Chalke, orBrazen House, so called because its bronzedoors and gilded roof tiles glittered in the sun.The emperor gave audiences in the ThroneRoom; steps of porphyry led up to the ivoryand jewelled throne standing beneath a silverbaldachino from which hung purple curtainsthat could be drawn when the emperor spokewith his ministers. Although this palace hasdisappeared, remains of the palace at Kasr ibnWardan can still be seen. This palace unlikeany other remains found in Syria closelyresembles the plans and construction used inthe imperial buildings of Justinian.

27

THE PALACE OF THEODORIC. ad.495 526, who became Emperor of the West byconquest and set up his capital at Ravenna, isshown in a mosaic on the wall of the church ofS. Apollinare Nuovo. It illustrates a courtyard- atrium - such as might have been seen in frontof the Throne Room in Diocletian's palace inSplit. The central area was surrounded byarcades of round-headed arches supported oncolumns with Corinthian capitals. The abacus,the fiat slab forming the top of the capital, had

a rosette or cross carved on it. A large triplearch led into the Throne Room which was abasilica, probably similar in appearance to thatat Trier (page 22). The plan of the ThroneRoom of the Great Palace of Constantinople,the Chyrosotrikinlos, was an exact cop\ of thechurch of S. Vitale in Ravenna (pag^

During the winter months audiences wereheld inside, but in the warm summer weather

they often took place in the courtyard. TheEmperor, dressed in silk robes which glittered

28

with jewels and wearing a diadem on his head,was attended by leading church dignitaries andhis principal ministers. The court ceremonialwas laid down in every detail. If a man ofimportance wished to approach to make arequest, he had to kneel before the ruler. Thevery lowest people were obliged to prostrate

themselves, that is, lie flat on the ground beforehim with their arms outstretched. The reasonfor this was that the Byzantines believed thatGod had set the Emperor apart from ordinary

men as a divine being; mosaics often show thisidea by placing a nimbus behind the Emperor'shead (see endpapers). As may be seen in theillustration, people from all parts of the Empiregathered in the palace. Some came to pursuelaw suits, others hoping to be noticed by theEmperor and given advancement. When Jus-tinian was Emperor, so many people throngedto his palace that he made a special magistrateresponsible for seeing that those whose busi-ness was finished returned to their homes.

29

HOSPITALS AND MONASTERIESVs Christians, the Byzantines wore concernedwith the care of the poor, the elderlj and thesick Hospitals and hostels were set up forthem, sometimes attached to monasteries. Intheinfirmarj zenon of the Monaster) of thePantocrator in Constantinople, there was a

dispensary for medicines and an out-patientsdepartment, as well as fiftj beds in Bve sections.\ stall o\ si\t\ doctors, some of whom werewomen to deal with female patients, was

HOSPITAL. BARLAAMMONASTERY.Meteora, Greece. 16th. C.

employed to care for the sick, there were alsonurses and orderhc No expense was sparedfor the patients' comfort I he\ were given ioo ( \and a little wine, and comfortable bedding wasprovided. Each ward had copper basins for thedoctors to wash their hands m alter the) hadfinished work on a patient. At nighl time thewards and corridors were lighted, and a triplelamp was placed over the doctor's desk so thatmedicine and drugs could be dispensed withsafety. Each hospital included a chapel, withpriests assigned to it. where services were heldfor those who were well enough to attend.Other buildings included kitchens, a mill, abakery, a laundr\ and stables.

In the very earl) days of Christianit) a holyman would often find a cave or build a simpleshelter where he could live a life of pra\er.Gradually followers gathered around him toshare his life. Each of them would live alone,but they would meet together for w orship in thechurch. This form of community, known as alavra, continued throughout the Byzantineperiod. However, as these monks were notsubject to any discipline, some groups ofmonks also became organised under a coen-

MONASTERY,Umm il-Kutten, S. Sx

30

REFECTORY, Gt. LA VRA,Ml. Athos, Greece. 11th. C.

KITCHEN, CHURCH OFTHE EVANGELIST,Skiathos, Greece.

iTower'REFECTORY & KITCHEN,

MONASTER Y OF SAGMA TA , Boetia, Greece. Monastery of the Theotokos, Greece.

obial system and buildings were needed forthem. They lived together obeying a code ofrules under the discipline of an abbot. Themonastery, with a church in the middle of acourtyard, was surrounded by a high wall withonly one door, guarded by an older monk.Against the inside of the walls were the monks'cells, storerooms and workshops. In additionto prayer, one of the monks' most importanttasks was the copying and illuminating ofmanuscripts. Quarters were also set aside for

pilgrims, travellers and the poor. The monkswould meet for meals in the refectory, a longroom with an apse at one end, where there wasa reading desk to hold the book which was readaloud as the monks ate. They sat at a tablewhich ran the length of the room with benchesdown cither side, or at tables set into niches inthe walls as may be seen above. The kitchenwith its hearth was sometimes attached to therefectory, or, because of the risk of fire, was aseparate building close by.

31

MARKETS. The buying andselling of goods of all descriptions took placeunder the direct supervision of the state.Foreigners had their own quarters in Con-stantinople (page 25). where they bought andstored the luxury goods made by the Byzan-tines, which were eagerly sought after bywealthy men in Asia and Europe.The quarters of the craftsmen, who made

and sold goods, were to be found in greatcovered markets. These buildings, very like the

32

markets of Rome, were built of brick andcovered by barrel vaults or domes | see also TheBuildings ofEarly Islam, pages 18 19). Here, asin all buildings with large domes or vaults, thebuilder was required by law to exercise skill andcare to prevent weak foundations or crookedor uneven walls. If a building of this typecollapsed within ten \ears. except b\ an Act of

God such as an earthquake, the builder wasrequired to replace it at his ow n expense.

Traders making and selling certain coods

*gathered together in their own quarters, as wasthe custom in Eastern Bazaars and also in thetowns of medieval Europe. The jewellers andworkers in enamel were to be found in one partof the market, while in another were thepotters, and in yet another the sellers of silks.The craftsmen's workshops were set behindopen arches, in front of which goods weredisplayed and the merchants stood calling theirwares to encourage people to buy. Stateofficials mingled with the crowds to see that the

correct prices were charged. A merchantcaught cheating and raising the agreed pricecould be fined. The family lived over theworkshop, reaching their quarters by means ofwooden ladders set up at the back of thepremises. This made the most use of theavailable space, the floors of this upper levelresting on timber beams. Daylight came intothe building through the open ends and fromopenings set high up in the walls; at night oillamps hanging from great chains lit the scene.

33

:tO

/ eft: Dancer, from an1 1 ill. C. manuscript.

Ri^/it: Scene froman ivory reliquary.

C. i 11 370.

Entertainment and innsIn Constantinople the Hippodrome, similar tothat of Ancient Rome, had seating for someforty thousand spectators to watch the chariotracing. Displays of wrestling, mimes and danc-ing took place between the races. Fights be-tween gladiators, such as might have been seenin Rome, were not permitted. The ivory casket(above) shows a theatrical arrangement whichmay have been the forerunner of a type of

staging used in the presentation of Miracle andMorality plays in medieval Europe.

Inns were built to lodge the many peoplewho thronged the cities. In Syria, the largerones were two-storeyed with an open stoa infront. The space inside was divided up intolarge rooms, each with a row of mangers setacross one end to form a stable, so that a mancould keep an eye on his animals.

INN, Kefr Nabo.N. Syria. A.D. 504-5

34

FORTRESS, Der il-Kahf,N. Syria. A.D. 367-375.

FARMHOUSE,Gasr Duib, Tripolitaniac. A.D. 244-6.

FortificationsTo protect the great caravan routes of theEmpire, Justinian set up chains of small forts.These had only one gate which was protectedby towers; the surrounding walls were abouttwenty-five feet (7.62 metres) high and weresometimes as thick as ten feet (3.048 metres).The living quarters were placed against theinner face of the wall, and in the middle of thecourtyard there was often a church. In additionto such military outposts, farmers in outlying

areas built fortified farmhouses, many of whichfollowed the pattern used earlier by theRomans. One entrance in the strong, window-less, walls led to a courtyard around whichwere the rooms. Wooden stairs led to an upperstorey where all the rooms opened off eachother, only one door giving access to the stairs.Lookout towers might be one or two storeys.

THE BLACK TOWER,Rimeli Hisar,

Constantinople.

A.D. 1100.

35

From the late seventh century Byzantium andIslam were continuously at war with eachother ; it is not surprising therefore to find manysimilar features in their fortifications. Outlyingworks controlling the Bosphorus had beenbuilt from the earliest times. The Black Tower(page 35) has been reconstructed to show whatit looked like in Byzantine times. Used as afortress and a prison, it was known as one ofthe towers of Lethe or oblivion, as little lightreached the interior. In 1454 the Turks added

two further storeys to the top of the tower.Constantine had built sea-walls around the

peninsula and across the neck of land toenclose his capital. However, during the reignof Theodosius II. a.d. 408 450. a further wall(above and page 24. no. 1) was built on thelandward side to accommodate the growingcity. This new wall was about thirty feet (9. 144metres) high, sixteen feet (4.87 metres) thickand some four and a half miles (7.24 kilo-metres) in length. The wall had six gates

36

'>dL^-j4j(fam

leading into the city and ninety-six towersprojecting from it. It was constructed of con-crete faced with small limestone blocks andreinforced at intervals by bands of five coursesof thin bricks set in thick beds of mortar. Infront of the main wall was an advance wall, thetwo being separated by a moat sixty feet ( 1 8.28metres) wide. Outside the advance wall was anembankment and broad ditch. This was thefirst time that the use of two walls as a means offortification had been employed.

The invention in the early seventh century of'Greek Fire', a mixture which was inflammableeven under water, had saved Constantinoplefrom the attacks of the Arabs when theyblockaded the city from a.d. 655 to 677. Thisfire could be thrown by catapults, and later atype of rocket tube was used to propel it.

It was, however, Christians from the westwho sacked the city in the Fourth Crusade in1204. Many of the churches and rich palaceswere burnt and plundered by the Crusaders.

37

IVORY VIRGINfrom 10th. C.Triptych.

After the fall of the capital, the rest o\ the Empire was divided among thevarious countries thai had taken pan in the ( rusade. In 1 2M . however, theconquerors were put to flight and a new emperor was acclaimed inConstantinople. The Empire managed to exist for another two hundred years,but it was never again to become a great power Danger from the east was aconstant threat. During the thirteenth century the Turks had captured mostof Asia Minor and then turned towards Europe. Finally Constantinople wasencircled by conquered territories, and on 29 May. 1453. the city fell to theTurkish Army of Mehmet II.Many Byzantine churches were turned into mosques, and this is one reason

why so many have survived. Hagia Sophia itself became a mosque, but todayit has been turned into a museum where it is possible to see both Christian andIslamic religious architecture side by side. Turkish home life was ver\different from that of the Byzantines, so most of the dwelling houses wereallowed to decay and fall into ruins.The fall of the Byzantine Empire had an unexpected effect on Europe.

Scholars who possessed priceless manuscripts, many written before the birthof Christ, fled to the west. So it was that the ideas of the Ancient Greeks andRomans became known once more. The rebirth of these ideas, known as theNew Learning, caused men to start thinking for themselves, and led to theperiod called the Renaissance when modern scientific thought was born.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe authors wish to thank M. E. Martin, R. J. Hopper and thelibrarians of Leicester Polytechnic, the Barber Institute and theschool of Oriental and African Studies of the University ofLondon for their invaluable help. They would also like to thankthe authors of the many books which have formed the back-ground to this study, including: Abbate. F.. Christian Art,London. 1972; Baynes. N. H. and Moss. H. St. L. B.. Byzantium.Oxford. 1961 ; Beckwith, J., The Art of Constantinople, London.1961; Bovini. G., Ravenna Mosaics. London; Boyle. L.. StClement's. Rome, Rome, 1963; Browning. R.. Justinian andTheodora. London. 1971 ; Butler. H. C, Ancient Architecture inSyria, sects. A & B, Leyden, 1907 21; Codellas. P. S.. ThePantocrator, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, xii. 1942:Constantelos, D.. Byzantine Philanthropy and Social Welfare.New Brunswick, 1968; Goodchild. R. G.. The Limes TripolitanusII, Journal of Roman Studies, xl, 1950: Gough. M., The OriginsofChristian Art, London. 1973: Grabar. A.. Byzantium, London.1966; Hamilton. J. A.. Byzantine Architecture and Decoration.London. 1933; Haussig. H. W.. A History oj Byzantine Civiliz-ation. London, 1971; Haynes, D. E. L., The Antiquities ofTripolitania, Libya, 1959; Hearsey. J. E. N.. City of Con-stantinople. London. 1963; Jones. A. H. M.. The Decline of the

Ancient World. London. 1968; Kostof. S. K... Orthodox Baptist-ery of Ravenna. Yale. 1965; Krautheimar. R . Early Christianand Byzantine Architecture, London. 1975; Lassus. J.. The EarlyChristian and Byzantine World. London. 1966; Lethab>. W. Rand Swainson. H.. The Church oj Sanaa Sophia. London. 1894;Macdonald. W. L.. Early Christian and Byzantine Achitecture.New York. 1962; Mesini. G.. Ravenna. Ravenna. 1961; Millet.G.. Monuments Byzantine de Mistra. Paris. 1910: Orlandos. A.K... Monastiriaki Architektoniki. Athens. 1926: Monastery ofSagmata. Archeion. vii. 1951 : Reusch. W.. Die Basilika in Trier.Trier. 1956; Rice. D. T.. Art of the Byzantine Era. London. 1963:Byzantine Art, Harmondsworth. 1968: Monasteries of Ml Athos.Antiquity, vol. 2. 1928; Rostoutzeff. M.. Dura-Europos and itsArt, Oxford, 1938; Schneider. A. M. and Karnapp. W.. DieStadtmauer von Iznik | Nicaea), Berlin. 1938; Schneider. A. M..The City Walls ofIstanbul. Antiquity, vol. xi, 1937; Sherrard. P..Constantinople, London, 1965; Stern. H.. Santa Constanza.Dumbarton Oaks Papers, vol. 12. Washington. 1958: Stewart.A.. Procopius. Of the Buildings of Justinian. London. 1886;Stewart. C. The Great Palace ofthe Byzantine Emperors. London.1947: Toy. S., The Castles of the Bosphorus. Archaelogia. vol.lxxx, 1930; West, A.. All about the Crusades. London. 1967.

38

THE BYZANTINEEMPIRE in the time ofJustinian.

THE EMPIRE, circa a.d. 1025.Venice (Torcello)

MEDITERRANEAN SEA SYRIA>

39

INDKX

Aisle 3 5, 10 13.22Altar 3 4Apse 3 5,8, 10 12,22.31Aqueduct 20. 24Arab 37Arcade 28Arch 3 4. 10. 12-15. 18-19,22,26, 28,

33Athens 10 11,39Atrium 3. 12.28

Baptistery 2 3.6 7. 15, 18,20Basilica 2 4.6-7, 10-13. 19,21 2.28Bible 5. 8. 22Bosphorus 2. 24. 39Brick 12. 15-20,32 3.35.37Byzantium 2. 10, 36

Capital 19,28Cathedral 10Chancel 5. 10Chapel 30Church 2-15, 18-19, 22-5. 28, 31, 35.

37Cistern 18.20,25Clerestory 3, 4Colonnade 6. 24-5. 27Column 4. 10, 12. 16. 19,22,28Concrete 12, 16, 18, 21,37Corinth 19. 39Constantine 2-3. 6-7. 10, 21. 24. 36Constantinople 1-2, 7, 10, 12, 15-16,

18-20, 23-5, 27-8. 30, 32. 35-9.endpapers

Courtyard 2, 26-8, 31,35Crusade 23, 37-8

Daphni 14, 39Diocletian 2, 27-8Dome 4-8. 10-17. 19. 22, 27, 32Dura-Europos 2-3

Egypt 10, 39Eusebius 7

Fire 26, 30-1,37Font 2-3, 20Fortifications 23, 25, 35-7Forum 24-5, 27

Gate 23. 27, 35-7Gospel 5, endpapersGreece 7. 10, 14. 18-19, 30-1, 38^*0Greek Fire 37

Hagia Sophia. 1. 10. 12. 19.25. 38. andcover

Hippodrome 1, 25, 34HosiosLoukas 11. 14-15,39Hospital 2. 30House 2-3. 26-7, 35, 38

Inn 34Islam 10, 32, 36, 38

Jerusalem 7

Justinian 8, 12 13, 25. 27. 29. 35, 39,endpapers

Kitchen 30 I

1 amp 13.30.33Libya 39Ligouno 14. 39

Magistrate 20 3.29Manuscript 23, 31,34,38Marble 5 6. 16. 19.22Market 2. 32-3Mausoleum 6-8, 15Merchant 20. 23. 33Meteora 30, 39Mistra 18.39-40Monastery 1 1. 14, 18, 24. 30 1Mortar 16. 18.37Mosaic 2. 5 6, 8. 12, 22-3, 28-9.endpapers

Mosque 38Mount Athos3 1.39

Narthex3. 8. 10. 12Nave 3-5. 10, 12,22Nicaea 23. 39

Palace 1-2, 21-2. 24-9, 37, endpapersPalermo 14.39Pendentive 10. 12, 14-16Perigueux 1 1, 39Philippi 7. 10. 19,39Pilgrim 6-7, 31Porch 6, 10Procopius 27Pulpit 4-5, 13.20

Ravenna 6-9. 15, 18. 20. 28. 39.endpapers

Refectory 3

1

Renaissance 38Rhodes 13.39Rome 2-3, 6. 10, 18, 21. 27, 32. 34. 39.endpapers

Salonika 39, endpapersSanctuary 3^1. 6-8Split 27-8. 39

Squincb 10 II. 14 15Stable 26, M) I. 34Stair 26,35Stone 6. 10, 12. 14 19,26, 34,37Syria 10,26 7, M)

Temple 3,6, 10Theodora 8, 24. endpapersTheodoric 2SThrone RoomTile 16. is. 27Timber 10. 16. 18.33.35[brcdlo 14.39Tower 23, 26, 31, ;Town 7. 23 4. 26. 33Trammel 16 17Trier 22. 28. 39Turks 23. 36. 38

Vault 6. 10. 14. 18 19.21 2,25,32Venice 11. 15. 39

Wall 13. 16-17.22-4.28.31 2Warehouse 23. 25Water 20, 27,37Window 4. 6. 8. 14-15. 18.22.27

THEPANTANASSA,Mistra, Greece. 15th. C.

40

Books by Helen and Richard Leacroft

THEBUILDINGSOFANCIENT EGYPT

KARNAK. Temple oj Khons

".. . well written and authoritative and covers much in

the way of social history. No other juvenile bookcovering ancient Egypt gives anything comparable tothese informative illustrations. . . . Meets curriculumrequests for material on architecture of homes throughthe ages." Library Journal

THE BUILDINGS OF ANCIENTMESOPOTAMIA

BABYLON. /shiarGaie

".. . The text is clear and efficient. . . . The diagrams are

clear, well labelled, and closely fitted to the text. Thedrawings are also clear and evocative, and the colourspreads are impressive. . . . The publishers must becongratulated on using every square inch of space, end-papers, covers and all, yet without giving the book acluttered appearance." The Junior Bookshelf

THE BUILDINGSOFANCIENT ROME

N1MES. Maison Carree

"Should be in every school library, if not in everyclassroom." School Librarian"It is easy to become absorbed in the past, and theLeacrofts present an enticing opportunity to indulge.The superb illustrations of Roman public and privatebuildings spark the imagination. They lead one toreconstruct the lives of the people. With scrupulousattention to detail the Leacrofts depict the Romans'technological inventiveness, peerless practicality, andadaptive skill ... its pages are packed withinformation." Christian Teacher

THE BUILDINGSOFANCIENT MAN

STONEHENCE

"The text ... is once again interesting and informativeand includes clear explanations of many archaeologicaland technical terms. This would be a good introductionto the subject for people of nine and upwards." TheTimes Educational Supplement"The text is well written . . . informative illustrations,many of which are in full color . . . this book is excellentfor its information on early buildings and theirconstruction." School Library Journal

THEBUILDINGSOFANCIENTGREECE

A THENS. The Parthenon

"It could scarcely be better as a library reference forimaginative and recreative work by the pupils." TheTeacher"An informative text complements the excellentillustrations on every page which consists ofinterpretations of Greek life, mostly in color and precise,carefully labelled drawings showing architectural details.Like the Leacrofts' THE BUILDINGS OF ANCIENTEGYPT . . . valuable in the study of a civilization and ofarchitecture in general." The Booklist (American LibraryAssociation)

THEBUILDINGSOFEARLYISLAM

BURSA. Mosque ulAlaeddin Bey

"The illustrations are clear and informative, coveringevery surface including the serviceable strong binding.The excellent text makes this a fascinating source bookwhich must surely catch the interest of the reader andprovide a comprehensive base from which to explorefurther a culture and civilisation which has had such animpact on Western Europe." The Junior Bookshelf

ABOUT THE A UTHORS

Richard Leacroft trained as an architect andscene designer and is now Principal Lecturerin the School of Architecture, LeicesterPolytechnic where he teaches the history ofarchitecture. Helen Leacroft trained as anactress at RADA, but later turned to teaching,and is now Deputy Headmistress of asecondary school.

41

H -JESS.Mosaic decoration from theGreat Palace at Constantinople

The Last Supper mosait fromS. Apollinare NtlOVO, Ravenna.

Duck : mosaicfromthe Church oftheMultiplication, Tabgah

Munvn Rnvenna. Italy.

wpherds: mosaicfrom thehurch of the Holy Apostles,

Sheep-shearing: from anJ lth. C. miniature in

he Homilies of S. Gregoi

f Nazianzus.

.LA ^^

287 10*6 5

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Please do not remove cards from thispocket.

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