The beginnings of modernization and secularization in the 19th century. Reformism, secularism, and Islamism in the 20th century. Stand-off between secularism and Islamism in the late 20th century, violent Islamism

Map of Egypt

Population growth (Approximate figures) 1800 2.5-3 million1900 10 million1950 20 million1977 40 million1985 50 million2008 80 million Food production has not kept up with this

1517-1798 Mamluke rule under Ottoman Empire1798-1801 French in Egypt1805-1849 Muhammad Ali, “the great modernizer”1863-71 Khedive Isma‘il, westernizer1875 European control of finances1881-2 ‘Urabi revolt1882-1922 British occupation1919 Nationalist movement inspired by Sa‘d

Zaghlul1922-1952 Monarchy1952 Revolution, Republic, Abdel Nasser president

(1954- 70)1967 Defeat by Israel in “Six Day War”1970- Post-Nasser period. Anwar Sadat (1970-81),

Husni Mubarak (1981-)1990s Islamist violence and harsh reprisals

Mamluke period

Political anarchy "We are all pillagers; you pillage, and [he]

pillages, and I pillage too." (One Mamluke to another, Jabarti)

Economic activity Egypt begins to export raw materials

to/import finished products from Europe Sufi ṭarīqas flourish ‘Ulamā’ flourish

Mediate between rulers and people Considerable land in awqāf

Napoleon and the French

Destroyed Mamluke power Announced he would grant liberty and

equality, respect Islam Brought scientists and scholars Formed council of ‘ulamā’ People revolted, put down

Al-Jabarti on the French incursion:

“The year 1213 (1798-9) was the first of many years of great battles and momentous events, of calamitous occurrences . . . of destruction everywhere and disasters unremitting. ‘And your Lord did not destroy the cities unjustly when their inhabitants were acting righteously.’ (Qur’an 11:117)”

“. . . Many of the mob united and proclaimed jihad and brought their hidden weapons of war and resistance . . . They were shouting 'God save Islam'. . . . when the French learned of their gathering, . . .[they] shelled the quarters that surrounded al-Azhar . . . . [Some people] ran away . . . [and some] went on fighting until their gun powder was exhausted . . . . (October, 1798. Messiri 29, wording modified.)

”They [the French scholars] were great scholars and loved the sciences, especially mathematics and philology. They applied themselves day and night to learning the Arabic language and conversation.” ( In Kritzek, 20)

Muhammad Ali and successors Destruction of Mamluk power; leaders slaughtered in 1811 Broke independent power of ‘ulamā’; exiled some Confiscated awqāf , weakening ‘ulamā’ instititions Direct taxation replaces tax farming (weakens ‘ulamā’) Peasant conscription Settled Bedouin Beginnings of state education (1833-) Some control/reform of Sufi movement Agricultural revolution, cash crops (e.g. cotton), private

ownership, new landowning elite Secularization of law (see below) Beginning of new occupations: journalists, engineers,

lawyers, doctors, etc., (outside ‘ulama’/sufi context or control).

Native Egyptians gain positions of importance (Arabic required for official correspondence in 1858; Turkish elite still strong till 1950s, however)

(Partial) Secularisation of Law 1805- Muhammad Ali did not openly reject Shari‘a but

ignored advice of ‘ulama’1850 Ottoman commercial code based on French Code

Napoleon applied in Egypt 1874 Egypt gains juridical autonomy within Ottoman

Empire1875/1883 Civil Codes, drawn mainly from Code Napoleon)1875 Penal Cole, largely French. 1875- Dual/tripartite system of courts Mixed Courts (1875) cases involving foreigners;

influential example for others, e.g. lawyers allowed there first Ahli Courts (1883) cases under penal and commercial laws Shari'ah Courts: personal status cases (marriage, divorce,

etc).

Secularisation of Law, ctd

1937 New criminal code, based largely on Italian law

1939 New civil code, some Shari‘a law included1956 Abolition of separate Shari'ah courts;

personal status law still applied but Ulama independence further decreased

1970- Pressures for more recognition of Shari'a content in laws and judicial decisions.

1972 Constitution: "The principles of the Islamic Shari‘ah are a principle source of legislation."

1980 Constitution: "The principles of the Islamic Shari‘ah are the principle source of legislation." 

(Partial) Secularisation of Education

Decline in traditional Madrasas due to fewer resources Muhammad Ali’s specialist schools Primary schools from 1833, 30 by 1878 Foreign sponsored schools: 146 by 1878 (mostly for non-

Muslims) Dar al-‘Ulum, 1872 Efforts to reform Azhar, from 1872.

Some improvement of administrative structure Teaching methods not changed

University (private) founded 1908, government run from 1925

Rapid growth of state schools from 1919; free compulsory education for all (in theory) from 1925

Azhar reformed, made part of the state system, 1961 Secular faculties added: e.g. Engineering, Medicine

Al-Azhar, 1977

Sufis: Reform and (some) regulation  In early 19th virtually all Egyptian Muslims connected with a

tariqa. In 1812 Muhammad Ali put Bakri family in limited control of

tariqas; regulations for tariqas promulgated beginning 1895; in the 20th century the High Council of Sufi Tariqas was formed.

In 1974 c. 64 of c. 130 tariqas were affiliated with the Council. Reforms from the later 19th century saw a decrease in the

more dramatic manifestations, e.g. dawsa Since 1970 tariqas have continued to be popular and have

shared in the Islamic “resurgence”. A number of walis from the 1960s on have been recognized.

Ahmad Radwan (1895-1967) said to have advised Abdel Nasser.

Sufi thinking influences many who are not Sufis. In the 1980s estimates ran from 3 million members to half the

population having some connection with a tariqa.

Tanta mawlid Maulid of Ahmad al-Badawi at Tanta (1977). Large field where tariqas and other

groups provide hospitality. Lighted tent belongs to the municipal government.

Tanta mawlid. Procession with the Shaykh of the Ahmadiyya tariqa.

Muhammad ‘Abduh

Disciple of al-Afghani and supporter of ‘Urabi; later cooperated with British

Judge, member of Legislative Council (Advisory), member of Administrative Council of al-Azhar, Mufti of Egypt

Worked for administrative reforms of Azhar Modernist fatwas as Mufti Some views:

Salafi: only Qur‘an and sound Sunna must be followed Non-mutawātir ḥadīth are not obligatory Need not accept miracles of walis Stress human capacity, validity of reason Islam is a rational religion

‘Abduh ctd

[Abduh held a] “view of a reformed Islam as a system of social discipline and instruction with which an intellectual and political elite would organise the country's 'political education' and thus assure its stability and its evolution." (T. Mitchell,125)

Some early 20th century figures

Mustafa Kamil (1908): urged immediate independence (‘Abduh favored gradualism)

Qasim Amin (1865-1908): Liberation of Women (1899) The New Woman (1901)

Sa‘d Zaghlul (1857-1927): Leader of independence movement Cooperation of Copts and Muslims in this movement “Religion is for God but the fatherland is for all”

(Binder 271) Hoda Sha‘rawi: founds Egyptian Feminist Union

and removes her veil (1923)

Highpoint of Secularist ideological confidence: 1920s-30s ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Rāziq (1888–1966), Islam and the Bases of

GovernmentSome points:  Caliphate is not clearly stipulated in the Qur’an or the

Sunna, So called ijmā‘ on it was compelled and never unanimous. Welfare of the community does not require a particular

form of government. Caliphate has often been oppressive. Government was not an essential part of Muhammad’s

mission. His governmental activities were only to protect his

preaching. Generally, a prophet’s authority is spiritual not material

(e.g. Jesus). Muhammad’s mission was to unify humankind; not possible

politically.

Secularism ctd

Abd al-Raziq, "I feel that I am, first of all, an Egyptian,

an Arab, an Oriental, and, with the permission of our reverend religious leaders - also a Moslem.' (Address Nov. 24, 1927,quoted by Gibb)

Secularism ctd.

 “We Egyptians must not assume the existence of intellectual

differences, weak or strong, between the Europeans and ourselves or infer that the East mentioned by Kipling in his famous verse "East is East and West is West, and never the twain shall meet" applies to us or our country. [Khedive] Isma‘il's statement that Egypt is a part of Europe should not be regarded as some kind of boast or exaggeration, since our country has always been a part of Europe as far as intellectual and cultural life is concerned, in all its forms and branches . . . .

“In order to become equal partners in civilization with the Europeans, we must literally and forthrightly do everything that they do; we must share with them the present civilization, with all its pleasant and unpleasant sides, and not content ourselves with words or mere gestures.”

Taha Hussein, The Future of Culture in Egypt (1938)

Secularism ctd.

 Secularism with Muslim and Arab orientation 

Biographies of Muhammad and other early figures: e.g. Al-Aqqad, The Genius of Muhammad, The Genius

of Imam ‘Ali, The Genius of Mu‘awiya, The Life of Christ, etc.

Islam as turāth (heritage)"The term turāth is not so simple and one-sided in its meaning in the contemporary ideological context of the Arab countries. The term turāth provides a way of attaching oneself to the religious heritiage of Islam without declaring oneself a true believer; it is a ground on which secularists and religionists may meet, but not without many opportunities for misunderstanding and disagreement." (Binder, 281)

Islamism: The Muslim Brothers (Al-Ikhwān al-Muslimūn)

Founded 1928 by Hasan al-Banna (1906-49) Banna was a school teacher, graduate of Dar al-‘Ulum, had

Sufi connection Activist, socially oriented, mass organization

At first educational, social; later politically active Social base: lower middle class. Strong leadership structure (Sufi model? Fascist model?) Youth wing, women’s activities, unions, factories, etc By late '40's a major contender for power

Secret Apparatus; bombings, etc. Banned; Assassination of prime minister, 1948; Banna

assassinated, 1949; Legal again 1950-1 Supported Free Officers’ govt 1952-3. Government bans, imprisons many 1954

“The Muslim Brothers do not demand power for themselves; if they find anyone capable of carrying this burden and of fulfilling the trust of government in accordance with a program based on Islam and the Qur’an, then they will be his soldiers, supporters, and helpers. But if they do not find such a man, then power is included in their program and they would strive to seize it from the hands of any government that does not fulfil Allah’s commands.” (Hasan al-Banna, in Sharabi, 110)

“The Arabs are the core and guardians of Islam . . . . Arab unity is an essential prerequisite for the restoration of Islam’s glory . . . .” (ibid.)

“Few will dispute the claim that Nasserism significantly changed Egyptian society. By uprooting the old landed class and the foreign community, effecting a modest redistribution of their property, and extending educational opportunity to all Egyptians, Nasserism destroyed he rigid class structure that separated pasha from peasant, hastened a transition to industrialism, and gave Egypt sovereignty over its resources. . . . Pan-Arabism, nonalignment, and anti-imperialism changed the way Egyptians looked at themselves and their neighbours.” (Gordon, 197-8)

Our entire world had gone through the trauma of the June war; now it was emerging from the initial daze of defeat . . . . The general consent was that we had been living through the biggest lie in our entire lives. . . . My beliefs in everything were completely shattered. I had the feeling that I’d lost everything. (Character in Karnak by Najib Mahfouz)

Mahmud Shaltut (Rector of al-Azhar)Summary of the Islamic Principles of Government (selected)

1. Sovereignty: belongs to God alone because He is the creator and owner; within each people it belongs to the people themselves after God who has made them khalīfas (cf. Qur’an 2:30) within their country.

3. The ruler: is an agent of the nation (umma); he has no sovereignty over it but rather it is his master and he is its trustworthy servant.

4. Consultation (shūrā): is the basis of government; any government which is not based on consultation is not legitimate.

5. Collective solidarity: all individuals have collective responsibility for their welfare and the welfare of religion and state.

7. Removal of the khalīfa: by the nation if he is unjust and oppressive and his tyranny becomes evident, . . . if he refuses to step down he may be removed by force even if this leads to warfare and armed revolt, if the nation sees this to be in its interest.

Arab Nationalism, An Extreme Statement: Ibrahim Jum‘a (1960)

 "Arab nationalism was an existing reality

before the emergence of Islam . . . achieved its completed form with the creation of the Arab state by Islam . . . .the genuine Arab code of morality graced and systematized by a divine message, restored dignity to mankind. . . . . Arab nationalism derived its existence from the very depths of the Arab spirit and the nature of Arab life. It is furthermore, a body of truths that transcend all discussion and argument . . . . Arab nationalism is a comprehensive, deeply ingrained faith . . . . (Karpat 48-49)

Anti Nationalism, An Extreme Position: Muhammad al-Ghazzali (1953)

 “Nationalism has only lost for us our Islamic

unity and enabled Christians and the Zionist imperialism to rob us of our most sacredrights. . . . The truth is that the growth of nationalism, racism and infidel patriotism is a loss of Islamic faith as well as a loss of Islamic rule. The revival of such evil fanaticism is a plot against God’s religion – a return to the first Jahiliyya with all its injustice and crime” (Browers, 70-1, wording modified)

Sayyid Qutb (1906-66)

Till 1948, secularist, colleague of Aqqad, Taha Husayn et al.

From 1948 Islamist, joined Muslim Brothers in 1950s

Imprisoned 1954, became very radical, martyred 1966.

Radical stage: Jāhiliyya: actively anti-Islamic, all so-called Muslim

governments are jāhilī. Jihād: revolutionary action after preparation is the

answer. Very influential for later radicals

“The Muslim society comes into existence only when individuals or groups of people turn from serving something other than God . . . to serving God alone with no associate and when these groups decide to organize their life on the basis of this service. At that point there takes place a new birth of a new society, which splits off from the old jāhilī society and confronts it with a new creed and . . . a new order of life . . . usually the jāhilī society wages relentless war, both against the vanguard of this society . . . and against this society itself when it has actually been established. . . .” (Qutb, Milestones)

After Abdel Nasser: Resurgence

Anwar al-Sadat (president 1970-81) “Resurgence” of Islam in society “Government of science and religion”,“Believer

President” 1972 Constitution: "The principles of the Islamic

Shari‘a are a (the, 1980) principle source of legislation."

Encouraged Islamist groups to counter the left. Muslim Brothers, released from prison or return from

exile, allowed to function but not recognized (1971-) now older, some wealthier, more conservative, gradualist concentrate on da‘wa

sporadic harassment or persecution Islamic Student groups, Jama‘āt Islamiyya (1972-1979,

then banned)

Anwar al-Sadat ctd.

Extremist groups (roots in prison experience) “Military Academy group”, failed putsch 1974 “Takfir wa-al-Hijra” (Jama‘at al-Muslimin): very

separatist: all of society is kāfir. (Other groups say on leadership is kāfir)

Islamic Group (Jamā‘a Islāmiyya) Jihad Organization. Faraj, The Forgotten

Obligation Rapproachment with Israel (1977-),

crackdown on opposition; Sadat assassinated by Jihad member, 1981

Mubarak: balance secularist and Islamist

People may call for radical Islamization but not threaten the political system.

Claims made that Egyptian law is 70-90% consistent with Shari‘a

Muslim Brothers are the strongest opposition group Participate in most elections 1984-2005 (gained over 20% of

parliamentary seats in 2005) Brothers and other Islamists take control of professional

syndicates (1987-92); government acts against this; Islamists still represented on governing boards

Violence by Islamic Group and Jihad Organization 1990s Controversy over Hamid Abu Zayd (1993-) Formation of Wasat party by members of Muslim Brothers

(1996), more moderate; registration as a political party rejected

Kifaya movement (2004); secular but some Islamists involved.

Wasat 2006 

“Although the party seeks to ‘make the Shari‘a part of the very fabric of daily life,’ they do not do not view Islamic law as a fixed set of rules and guidelines to be applied. Rather, they see it as ‘an authoritative framework of values and standards’ articulated through ‘human interpretations.’ The task, they argue, ‘is to select interpretations of Islamic law which contribute towards, rather than obstruct, the development of society’”

“The platform asserts that there exists a ‘common human civilization’ and calls for recognition of ‘the cooperation, mutual knowledge and complementarity of all cultures’” (Browers, quotes are from Wasat platform.)