the batteries report 2018 - storelio · 18/04/2018 · 1- electric mobility, including vehicles,...

The Advanced Rechargeable & Lithium Batteries Association

The Batteries Report 2018

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RecyclingContent

2 Content

3 Executive Overview

4 Mission, Strategy, Governance of RECHARGE

5-11 Batteries Markets and Technology Trends

12-19 Legislation impacting batteries

Batteries in Europe: public initiatives and regulatory aspects - Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC

Regulation 493/2012 on Recycling Efficiency – Need for adaptation?

Other European Directives and Regulations impacting batteries

Key messages to the EU from Umicore

20-37Scientific & technological roadmap of advanced rechargeable batteries:research, materials, production, applications, projectsResearchUL Safety studies on aged lithium-ion cells and modules Root causes failure analysis for lithium-ion batteriesMaterialsAlbemarle Powering the World’s Future Energy PotentialUmicore Path forward for Sustainable Cobalt SourcingProSUM Batteries stocks and flows in EuropeProductionSAFT Advanced battery manufacturing: high-tech enabling a sustainable futurePanasonic Lithium battery porfolio – energizing tomorrow’s applicationsApplications Power tools EPTA Battery Technology, the new driver in the power tool market Stanley Black&Decker Sustainability through ExcellenceE-mobility Blue Solutions The Bluebus, 100% electric produced in FranceIT Varta Smaller and more powerful, coin cells for more design freedomESS FDK Advanced premium rechargeable batteries for special applicationsProjectBatteries Product Environmental Footprint - PEF

38-45 Transport & Safety

Battery Transport Regulation & Safety

REMONDIS New solutions for new problems

SAE G-27 Packaging Standard

IEC 62902 Marking Standard

ISO 17840 Standard for Information to emergency services

46-51 Recycling

BEBAT Belgian e-bike battery collection up by 75% in 2016

TOYOTA Environmental challenges towards 2050 – establishing a recycling-based society

ACCUREC Dynamic development in Li-ion battery recycling

SNAM You create, SNAM recycles

EBRA Recycling Efficiency for end of life batteries: what is the status?

52 Membership

3RECHARGE Report 2018

Executive Overview

Dear Reader,

The RECHARGE Report is meant to be a reference and overview document for the interested reader.

• The importance of advanced rechargeable batteries.

Advanced rechargeable batteries are the enablers of energy in multiple applications such as cordless power tools

(for household or professional use), e-mobility transportation (e-bikes, motorcycles, electric-type automobiles),

e-communication devices (i-pods, i-pads, PC, mobile phones), and in numerous stationary energy storage applications.

This ongoing development has triggered challenges for the economic operators and for legislators throughout the

complete value chain related to innovation, manufacturing, transport, collection, storage, treatment, recycling, whilst

taking into account the overarching regulatory, safety and health requirements.

• Circular Economy and the production of advanced rechargeable batteries in Europe.

As green as the electricity they are using, advanced rechargeable batteries are directly linked to key priorities for

Europe: climate change and the reduction of CO2, renewable and low-carbon energy, critical raw materials, and

resource efficiency. In line with the Circular Economy plans, it is critical that advanced battery development and

production in Europe becomes more mature and specialized.

The action plan of the European Union Battery Alliance to support battery manufacturing is very much welcomed by

RECHARGE.

• The need to bring legislation and regulation up-to-date with the market development.

A revision of the Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC and Regulation 493/2012 on Recycling Efficiency seems logic in view

of these market developments. The EU institutions should consider - in addition and in line with possible adaptations -

the assurance of sustainable competitiveness of companies in Europe.

Patrick de MetzSAFT & Chairman of RECHARGE

Key messages:• Recycling should become a real economic

opportunity in order to balance the burden of extended producer responsibility.

• Environmental ‘equivalent’ conditions for production and recycling of batteries outside the EU has to be supported and promoted.

• Re-use and second life of batteries has to be managed by professionals understanding the battery management systems (BMS) and all safety aspects, in addition to the regulatory requirements.

• Transport of waste batteries has to be harmonized and safety legislation enforced.

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Mission, Strategy, Governance of RECHARGE

Mission

The Mission of RECHARGE is to promote Advanced Rechargeable & Lithium Batteries as a technology that will contribute to a Sustainable Society, a Resource and Energy Efficient policy and to the achievement of a Green Circular Economy.

Strategy

RECHARGE members contribute to the EU policy framework and to the Circular Economy Package in order to promote the role of advanced rechargeable & lithium batteries in the society, to secure the development of an EU rechargeable battery industry and long-term sustainability. Recharging these batteries reduces the use of primary raw materials and recycling them in the EU brings secondary raw materials back into the EU economy.

Governance

The objective of the General Assembly of RECHARGE is to review and address, under the applicable confidentiality rules, issues concerning the program and its achievements. The minutes of the General Assembly will reflect all significant matters discussed between those member companies present.

No discussions will be held, formally or informally, during specified meeting times or otherwise, involving, directly or indirectly, express or implicit agreements or understandings related to: (a) any company’s price; (b) any company’s terms or conditions of sale; (c) any company’s production or sales levels; (d) any company’s wages or salaries; (e) the division or allocation of customers or geographic markets; or (f) customer or suppliers boycotts; or (g) any disclosure of information which may affect applicable rules on Competition Law.

RECHARGE members, as a group, will make no recommendations of any kind and will not try to reach any agreements or understandings with respect to an individual company’s prices, terms or conditions of sale, production or sales levels, wages, salaries, customers or suppliers. RECHARGE members agree to comply with the rules of the Antitrust Compliance Program communicated to them by the secretariat of RECHARGE

Claude Chanson

General Manager RECHARGE

The EU Commission wants to ensure that EU legislation is ‘fit for purpose’. This will be an important contribution to promoting a business-friendly environment by simplifying and streamlining legislation, supporting the Battery Alliance framework.The EU legislation should consider that the EU Industry cannot be placed in a less competitive position than its partners at a global scale. The EU should focus more on implementing policies rather that coming up with new policies that will be difficult to Member States to comply with. Striving towards implementation of European legislation in all Member States in a harmonized and uniform way is a key objective of RECHARGE.


Batteries Markets and Technology trends

This chapter presents the product trends for the batteries markets:• Changes in the demand for batteries, i.e. on the markets of the battery-containing products, which are mainly EEE,

electric vehicles and energy storage systems,• Technological changes of the electrochemical systems used to power a product or store energy and their characteristics

(battery weight, composition, lifespan etc.)

1. Batteries market trends

1.1. Decisive factors for changes on the battery market

The battery market is dependent on the product markets in which batteries are used. Changes at product function level, i.e. market changes due to new developments of the usages of the products, are the main drivers for changes on the battery markets and, therefore, changes of the batteries technologies. It also can be considered that the new battery technologies are enabling new products to be proposed to the public. Battery markets are at different stages on the S curve of market maturity. While the diffusion of batteries for electric mobility is increasing very rapidly, other markets like batteries for portable Electric Electronic Equipment are already very developed and slowly increasing or stagnating.In general, the decisive factors for changes of the batteries technologies are not changes of the composition of batteries with a specific electrochemical system, but market shifts from an electrochemical system to another. The following factors may have a significant influence:

• Technical requirements related to the function of the product in which the battery is used: o Battery specific energyo Charge/Discharge rate capabilityo Lifetime and calendar lifeo Battery volumetric energy

• Economic requirement: battery price. • Legislative requirements: Article 4 of the Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC prohibits the placing on the market of

portable batteries or accumulators that contain more than:o 0,0005 % of mercury by weighto 0,002 % of cadmium by weight including since January 1st 2017 for batteries used in cordless portable tools

According the Batteries Directive, the batteries placed on the market in EU are classified in 3 categories:

1. The industrial batteries (mainly corresponding to the electric mobility and energy storage markets), 2. The automotive batteries (mainly the lead acid batteries for the vehicles starting and lighting) 3. The portable batteries (neither industrial nor automotive, mainly corresponding to the portable equipment

applications like laptop, phones, powertools, cameras.., and most of the alkaline primary cells …)

1.2. Smaller, lighter, more powerful batteries

In general, there is a trend to more energy-efficient devices, which means either that the battery weight remains stable and the devices offer more functions, or the weight of the battery decreases (e.g. shift from an AA to an AAA battery, or to button cells, or use of lighter batteries) for the same product functionality. The changes can be very abrupt. A product-centric example of a rapid change of the technical requirements is the shift of portable PC towards thin and “ultraportable” notebooks, in which the traditional battery shape used since the 90’s (based on a standard cylindrical shape Li-ion cell having a diameter of 18 mm) cannot be used anymore. The new batteries designs are requiring a maximum thickness of 10 mm or less, and therefore, the usage of a new battery technology with a new material composition.

1.3. Divergence and convergence

The trends of Electric and Electronic Equipment are reflected on the battery markets.On the one hand, the trend towards ‘smarter’ hardware where products (including vehicles) are increasingly embedded with electronics, fitted with sensors, communication, data modules and other technologies results in the diffusion of batteries over new types of smart products. The consequence that products containing electronics and batteries will be ever more diffuse also increases the usage of advanced batteries. The further diffusion of batteries dominates the fact that, on the other hand, a convergence can be observed through the combination of products, causing recession on some markets of battery-containing products like digital cameras and MP3-players.

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1.4. Advanced Batteries technologies enabling new products and services

Advanced batteries technologies provide a combination of technical features progressively enabling new products. For example, the strong improvement of the life duration and the autonomy of the batteries, required by the electric-mobility, will probably in the future allow for the new usages in other autonomous equipement like robots for gardening or personal care.On the other hand, new miniaturized or flexible batteries will be used for new applications in wearables and internet-of-things.

2. Battery Market Data

Avicenne (2016) estimates that whereas electronic devices accounted for 50% of the sales of lithium-ion batteries in 2015, the largest application is expected to be electric mobility in 2025 with a share of 56% (Figure 1). This is in line with other estimates, who expect that, depending on the scenario and its underlying framework conditions, between 50 and more than 70 percent of lithium-ion batteries are expected to be used in electric mobility applications in the next 10 years, alongside stationary applications and mobile or portable electronic products (Prosum -2018).

Figure 1: Lithium-ion battery sales forecast in MWh, worldwide (Avicenne, 2016)

Based on this analysis and on a screening of the uses of batteries based on the available put on the market data (WP3), three battery applications were identified as keys for future trends:

1- Electric mobility, including vehicles, e-bikes, e-scooters etc. 2- Portable electric and electronic equipment3- Energy storage

Applications in military, wearables, robotics and internet-of-things are early adaptations that may become key in the future.

2.1. Electric mobility

Battery technologies for electric mobilityAccording to the E-mobility Battery R&D Roadmap 2030 of Eurobat (2015), three existing battery technologies are expected to have the greatest potential for further technological improvements over the next decade:• Advanced lead-based batteries – for start-stop vehicles and micro-hybrid vehicles• Lithium-ion batteries – for electric vehicles and all types of hybrid vehicles• Sodium nickel chloride batteries – for heavy duty electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid vehicles

Avicenne (2016) expects an increase of the market shares of advanced lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries between 2010 and 2020, related with an increase of the sales volumes of P-HEV and full HEV (Figure 2). Advanced lead-acid batteries are smaller, lighter batteries and offer an approximate 20% lead weight reduction. For example, valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA) batteries containing enhanced levels of carbon in the negative plate belong to the advanced lead-based batteries. In the European market, lead-based batteries are not considered as promising for traction purposes. Sodium nickel chloride



batteries have been commercialized since the 1990s and originally found application in electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles, mostly buses, trucks and vans.

Figure 2: Trends in the use of batteries in vehicles (Avicenne, 2016)

Current research activities aim at developing new or alternative technologies like lithium-air, lithium sulphur, lithium-polymer and solid-state lithium. A significant advancement in one or more of these chemistries could prove disruptive to the industry; however, the extensive testing needed to bring a new chemistry into a production vehicle makes it unlikely this would occur before 2020 or 2025, as there are no game-changing technologies approaching the consumer market (Navigant Research, 2015; Thielmann et al., 2012b; Blagoeva et al., 2016; Avicenne, 2016).

Laslau et al. (2015) forecast lithium-sulfur and solid-state batteries to reach 4% and 2% market penetration in 2030 in transportation, respectively, rising to 8% and 12% in 2035 (Figure 3). Until 2020, Li-ion will dominate, evolving to become advanced Li-ion, defined as a varied mix of higher-voltage and higher-capacity materials, a step beyond today’s NMC (Nickel Manganese Cobalt oxide) or NCA (Nickel Cobalt Aluminium oxide) paired with graphite.

Figure 3: Battery type market shares in transportation between 2015 and 2035 (Laslau et al., 2015)

Because the literature clearly states that li-ion technologies have the most competitive position in electric mobility and that this is not expected to change before 2025, a special focus was set during the data collection on lithium-ion batteries.

Focus on lithium-ion batteriesAccording a commercial report providing confidential global market forecasts until 2024 of Navigant Research (2015), the global market for Li-ion batteries in light duty and medium/heavy duty vehicles is expected to grow from $7.8 billion in 2015 to $30.6 billion in 2024. This development is pushed by national and European policies, including the setting of EV deployment targets by the Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) for 2020, the Paris Declaration on Electro-Mobility and Climate Change and Call to Action for 2030, and the IEA 2DS.


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The mass production of HEVs and small industrial trucks using lithium-ion batteries started approximatively in 2015. The forecast of the following products equipped with lithium-ion batteries:

• Between 2015 and 2020 for PHEV and BEV, scooters, hybrid forklift and 3.5 t vans• Approximatively 2020 for starter batteries and hybrid tractors• After 2020 for electric forklifts, electric buses and hybrid trains

An overview of the current and future uses of lithium-ion batteries for electric mobility is provided by Thielmann et al. (2015a) from Fraunhofer ISI (Table A). It shows the forecasted market development for electric mobility.

Table A: Global market for lithium-ion batteries

Application for electric mobility

2015 2020 2030 >2030

Current LIB technology

Market size Market size Market size Diffusion trend

Two-wheelers (ebikes, scooter, pedelecs, motorbikes etc.)

NMC ~5 Mio, ~10 GWh~10 Mio, ~ kWh, >10 GWh

~x*10 Mio, ~ kWh, ~x*10 GWh

Diffusion

HEV LFP, NCA, NMC~1,5 Mio, ~1 kWh, 1-1,5 GWh (NiMH + LIB)

~1 Mio, je ~1 kWh, ~1 GWh (NiMH + LIB)

<1 Mio, je ~1 kWh,<GWh LIB Market

~100 % LIBHEV disappear

PHEV NMC, NCA, LFP~200-250 Tsd., ~10 kWh, 2-3 GWh

~0,5-1,5 Mio, je ~10 kWh, 5-15 GWh

~1,5 Mio, je ~10 kWh, <100 GWh

Saturation, decline

BEV NMC, NCA, LFP~200-250 Tsd., ~25 kWh, 5-7 GWh

~0,5-1,5 Mio, 25-40 kWh, 20-60 GWh

~5-10 Mio, 25-60 kWh, 0,1-1 TWh

Diffusion (global change)

Utility vehicles (light vehicles, trucks, busses)

LFP, NMC, NCA~x Tsd., ~50-250 kWh,~ GWh

~x*10 Tsd., ~50-250 kWh, ~x GWh

~1 Mio?, ~50-250 kWh, ~100 GWh

Diffusion (follows BEV)

Avicenne (2016) assumed that the sales volumes for HEV will increase from 4.8 million HEV/year in 2020 (35% lithium-ion batteries) to 6.8 million HEV in 2025 (90% lithium-ion batteries). For BEV, 1.6 million BEV are expected to be sold in 2020, and 2.5 million in 2025 (90% lithium-ion batteries). Anderman (2015) publishes lower forecasts for 2020 (1.9 million unit cells for HEV, 0.85 million unit cells for PHEV and 0.78 million unit cells for BEV sold worldwide). Other forecasts based on different scenarios were published by Blagoeva et al. (2016). According to Anderman, until field data for 2020 confirm reliability, it is risky to forecast sales volumes after 2025. He forecasts that the competitive position of li-ion versus all other technologies will continue to improve.

2.2. Portable Electric and Electronic Equipment - EEE

The data collected shows that the volumes of zinc-based batteries and NiMH are expected to remain stable or decrease in the next years, but the volumes of lithium-ion batteries increase continuously and are expected to continue growing.According to Avicenne (2016), the sales volumes of portable devices are expected to increase by 6% per year between 2015 and 2025. Thielmann et al. (2015a) also mention expected market growth rates of 5 to 10%. For instance the applications of lithium-ion batteries which sales volumes are increasing are cellular phones and other portable electronics (Figure 4). The share of the products classified as “other portable electronics” is significantly increasing, showing a diversification of the usage of the batteries, since a variety of traditionally plugged products like vacuum cleaners are increasingly becoming cordless and use a battery, which is linked to the trends towards digitalization. In addition, the world of power tools and gardening tools is also moving fast toward electrification.



Figure 4: 2000-2025 lithium-ion batteries market, MWh, by application (Avicenne, 2016)

The portable applications, because of their low but steady market growth, can be classified as large and reliable markets, even though the markets for some consumer electronics applications like digital cameras and camcorders are stagnating (Thielmann et al. 2015). Large numbers from 10 million to several billions of products using Li-ion batteries with less than 100 Wh are sold each year, for instance mobile phones (100 % li-ion batteries), tablets (100 % li-ion batteries) and laptops (100 % li-ion batteries). They represent 10 GWh markets having, for tablets and mobile phones, a dynamic development. Further portable products using small batteries with markets up to 1 GWh are Power Tools (50 to 70 % li-ion batteries, increasing), cordless phones (15 to 35 % li-ion batteries, beside Ni-MH), camcorders und video games (100 % li-ion batteries), digital cameras and MP3-Players (90 to 100 % li-ion batteries, beside primary batteries), toys with electronics (40 to 60 % li-ion batteries, beside NiMH and primary batteries) as well as household appliances, and medical devices (Thielmann et al. 2015).

2.3. Energy Storage Systems - ESS

Energy Storage Systems can provide a variety of application solutions along the entire value chain of the electrical system, from generation support to transmission and distribution support to end-customer uses (EPRI, 2010). The roadmap of Thielmann et al. (2015) distinguish (1) decentralised photovoltaic battery systems, (2) optimisation of electricity consumption with larger energy storage including peak shaving, (3) direct marketing of renewable energies and (4) balancing power. According to Avicenne (2016), the market of energy storage systems will increase from 36 GWh in 2015 to 65 GWh in 2025.

Figure 5: Forecast of the market of energy storage systems (Avicenne, 2016)

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The main technology used today in ESS is the Lead acid batteries. The mass production of Energy Storage Systems using Li-ion batteries is expected to be achieved between 2015 and 2020 for decentralised photovoltaic battery systems, which already entered the market, around 2020 for larger energy storage between 100 kW and 1 MW, direct marketing of renewable energies and balancing power, and between 2020 and 2030 for energy storage over 5 MW (Thielmann et al., 2015).

Lithium-ion batteries will increasingly replace the lead-acid batteries until 2020. Most energy storage systems for decentralised photovoltaic battery systems currently use LFP/graphite-based lithium-ion batteries. Li-ion batteries with NMC, NCA, LCO and LMO cathodes, LFP batteries with LTO anodes and lead-based batteries represent in total less than half of the market. Costs, efficiency, cyclical and calendar lifetime are the main factors influencing the choice of one or another battery type.Several other technologies are available, such as sodium sulfur or sodium nickel chloride batteries. Research is currently conducted to reduce the heat losses by developing low temperature systems, which mass production may be expected after 2020 (Thielmann et al., 2015). Also redox flow batteries with a low energy density such as the vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFB) may be relevant for instance for large stationary storage applications after 2020 (Thielmann et al., 2015). EPRI forecasted in 2012 that batteries using the electrochemical systems sodium-sulfur, sodium-nickel chloride, advanced lead-acid and lithium-ion will be deployed the mature technologies available on the market in 2020.

Figure 6: Technology Readiness of Energy Storage Technologies as depicted by EPRI in 2012 and cited by Baxter (2016)

2.4. Market maturity

The findings of the market analysis are summarised by Figure 7, which provide a snap-shot of the market penetration of different battery electrochemical systems in the main applications of the sectors electric mobility, portable EEE and energy storage in 2017. The figure shows the dynamism of the li-ion markets over the three sectors. A limitation of the figure is that even though the S-curve theory is expected to be applicable to all products, the speed of the progress along the S-curve and the existence of enhancements cannot be estimated or forecasted with the available data.



Figure 7: Market penetration of battery electrochemical systems in applications of the sectors electric mobility, portable EEE and energy storage in 2017

References

Avicenne (2016). The Rechargeable Battery Market and Main Trends 2015-2025. Presentation by Christophe Pillot at the Batteries congress 2016, September 28th, 2016, Nice, France.

Baxter, R. (2016). Energy Storage Financing: A Roadmap for Accelerating Market Growth. A Study for the DOE Energy Storage Systems Program. Worldwide, Sandia National Laboratories. Available online: www.sandia.gov/ess/publications/SAND2016-8109.pdf

Blagoeva, D. T.; Alves Dias, P.; Marmier, A.; Pavel, C.C. (2016) Assessment of potential bottlenecks along the materials supply chain for the future deployment of low-carbon energy and transport technologies in the EU. Wind power, photovoltaic and electric vehicles technologies, time frame: 2015-2030; EUR 28192 EN; doi:10.2790/08169

EPRI (2010). Electricity Energy Storage Technology Options. A White Paper Primer on Applications, Costs, and Benefits. Technical Update, December 2010. Available online: http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2012/ph240/doshay1/docs/EPRI.pdf

Laslau, C.; Xie, L.; Robinson, C. (2015). The Next-Generation Battery Roadmap: Quantifying How Solid-State, Lithium-Sulfur, and Other Batteries Will Emerge After 2020. Lux Research Energy Storage Intelligence research sample, October 2015

Navigant Research (2015). Advanced Energy Storage for Automotive Applications. Available online: www.navigantresearch.com/research/advanced-energy-storage-for-automotive-applications

Chancerel P., Chanson C., Peck D., European funded program Prosum, 2017.

Recharge (2013). E-mobility Roadmap for the EU battery industry. The European Association for Advanced Rechargeable Batteries. Available online: www.rechargebatteries.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Battery-Roadmap-RECHARGE-05-July-2013.pdf

Thielmann, A.; Sauer, A.; Isenmann, R.; Wietschel, M.; Plötz, P.; Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research ISI (Karlsruhe) (Hrsg.): Product roadmap lithium-ion batteries 2030; Karlsruhe: Fraunhofer ISI, 2012. Available online: www.isi.fraunhofer.de/isi-en/t/projekte/at-lib-2015-roadmapping.php

Thielmann, A.; Sauer, A.; Isenmann, R.; Wietschel, M. (2012b). Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research ISI (Karlsruhe) (Hrsg.): Technology roadmap energy storage for electric mobility 2030; Karlsruhe: Fraunhofer ISI, 2012.

Thielmann, A.; Sauer, A.; Wietschel, M. (2015a); Fraunhofer-Institut für System- und Innovationsforschung ISI (Karlsruhe) (Hrsg.): Gesamt-Roadmap Lithium-Ionen-Batterien 2030; Karlsruhe: Fraunhofer ISI, 2015. Available online: www.isi.fraunhofer.de/isi-en/t/projekte/at-lib-2015-roadmapping.php

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Legislation impacting batteries

Batteries in Europe: public initiatives and regulatory aspects - Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC.

1. The creation of an European Union Battery Alliance to support battery manufacturing

In a press conference on 11 October 2017, Mr. Maroš Šefčovič, Vice-President of the European Commission, in charge of the Energy Union stated that batteries are at the heart of the ongoing industrial revolution. They represent a key enabling technology in the context of the Energy Union. Their development and production play a strategic role in the ongoing transition to clean mobility and clean energy systems. Batteries embody the EU ambition to help our industries remain or become world leaders in innovation, digitization and decarbonization.

The lack of a domestic, European cell manufacturing base jeopardizes the position of EU industrial customers because of the security of the supply chain, increased costs due to transportation, time delays, weaker quality control or limitations on the design.The strong and weak points of the EU manufacturing industry have been clearly analyzed in the 2017 JRC report (1): the battery assembly for e-mobility application is already widely developed in EU, and closely linked to the vehicles architecture decisions, under the OEM control. Therefore, the main focus of an action plan should be to support the development in Europe of Li-ion components and cells manufacturing, for integration in the Eu e-mobility batteries and vehicles.

Key enablers to support the industry investment in EU have been identified in the conclusions of JRC report (1):• Considerations on EU competitiveness in LIB cell manufacturing should target innovation in cell chemistries, formats

and manufacturing technologies/processes.• Efforts for establishing LIB cell manufacturing capacity in the EU should primarily target LIB cells of generation-2b and

beyond and should focus on production stages which are critical for LIB quality, performance and safety.• Competing with non-EU LIB cell producers on cost-only basis is unlikely to be successful. A competitive EU LIB cell

production should offer added value beyond cost, in terms of enhanced sustainability, safety and performance.

RECHARGE supports these recommendations. A further study from CEPS(2) presents 2 scenarios (low and high collection and recycling rates) where the economical and employment benefit of Co and Li recycling are presented. It indicates that the recycling is possible in an economical approach, but significant investment are needed, and the process cost ensuring the payback is uncertain. This European competitive disadvantage needs to be overcome and the EU should capitalize its leadership in many sectors of the battery value chain, from materials to system integration and recycling. As this cannot be done in a fragmented manner, a Europe-wide approach is promoted by the Commission.Members of the EU industry and innovation community will be working in close partnership with the European Commission, the European Investment Bank and interested Member States, to establish a competitive manufacturing chain, capture sizeable markets and boost jobs, growth and investment across Europe.A strategic plan will be developed in 2018, in the form of a comprehensive roadmap for an EU Battery Alliance. A number of working groups will be organized starting 2018, to the supply chain, investment financing and engineering, trade issues, research and innovation, with participation of industry.RECHARGE will be actively involved in this process.

2. The Revision of the Batteries Directive

The Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council was published in the Official Journal of the European Union on 6 September 2006.

Since then, the Directive has been amended with important changes for the whole industry, such as:1. The removal of the exemption for the use of Mercury in button cells as of 1 October 2015. 2. The removal of the exemption for the use of Cadmium in cordless power tools as of 1 January 2017. 3. Changes were made to provisions on placing on the market (article 6.2) and the removability of batteries (article 11).

References:(1) JRC report: EU Competitiveness in Advanced Li-ion Batteries for E-Mobility and Stationary Storage Applications –Opportunities and Actions Steen, M. Lebedeva, N. Di Persio, F. Boon-Brett, L., 2017, JRC (https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/lithium-

ion-battery-value-chain-and-related-opportunities-europe ).

(2) CEPS report: Circular economy perspectives for future end-of-life EV batteries, Eleanor Drabik, Vasileios Rizos, The Center for European Policies Studies 2017.



The purpose of the Batteries Directive was the protection of health and environment through improved environmental performance of batteries and of the activities performed on batteries during their life cycle, i.e. reduce the quantities of hazardous substances in waste, aid consumer choice by providing end-users with transparent, reliable and clear information, ensure efficient use of resources, improve recycling.

What has the Batteries Directive made possible so far?• A clear assignment of responsibilities through the EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility) concept • An operational definition of battery categories • A dedicated network of CROs (collection & recycling organizations) and take back systems• A substantial volume of collected End of Life batteries • A well-established industry of Battery Recyclers • A substantial volume of SRM (secondary raw materials)

Can the Batteries Directive be improved to respond better to the changed market conditions since 2006?In view of a possible revision of the Batteries Directive, the EU Commission over the years conducted several ex-post evaluations of the Directive (fitness check) and detailed evaluations on coherence, relevance, effectiveness, efficiency and EU added value, in combination with other waste stream Directives, and in view of the Circular Economy approach. A Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) document on the Batteries Directive was updated by the EU Commission in 2014.

An EU Commission public consultation started in September 2017 and ran until the end of November 2017 as a first step of a review process, in which the Commission assesses whether the Directive meets its objectives and contributes to the general objectives of the EU environmental policy. The results of this public consultation will be available in 2018 and the review and assessment might bring proposals for a revision & implementation of the changes to the Batteries Directive at Member State level towards the period 2020-2022.

Extending the product life of batteries as a waste prevention measure in support of the circular economy.The EU Commission acknowledges that extending the product life of batteries through better re-use of batteries or providing used batteries a second life are possible new markets, which fully complies with the thinking of the circular economy principles:

1. Circular Economy keeps the added value in products for as long as possible and eliminates waste. 2. Member States shall take measures to promote re-use activities and the extension of the life span of products,

provided the quality and safety of products are not compromised, by encouraging the establishment and support of recognized re-use networks and by incentivizing remanufacturing, refurbishment and repurposing of products.

From numerous contacts, presentations and congresses, it seems that the priorities of the legislator regarding batteries is now evolving into the direction of: 1. Extension of the product’s service life 2. Re-use and second life 3. Use of recycled components and materials

The lack of definition for re-use and second life. RECHARGE has on numerous occasions highlighted the lack of coherence in a number of definitions across the waste stream Directives, or even indicated a complete absence of definitions. It has requested the EU Commission and EU Parliament to introduce a much clearer stance on producer responsibilities, particularly concerning the second life of products, and to ensure that the Batteries Directive prevails over other waste stream Directives at any time reference is made to batteries.

In this regard, it is important for defining re-use and second life to make first a clear distinction between the different types of batteries (portable, automotive, industrial) as some legal requirements are different per type (collection or take-back obligations), and to clearly understand and accept the borderline between a battery as a product, and a battery as a waste.

A Portable battery is any battery, button cell, battery pack that is sealed, can be hand-carried, is neither an industrial nor an automotive battery. There is a collection obligation by producers, with a collection target by Member State of 45% as of September 2016.

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An Automotive battery is any battery used for automotive starter, lighting or ignition power (SLI). There is also a collection obligation by producers. Most of the automotive batteries are lead acid (Pb-Acid) batteries and traditionally have a very high collection rate because of the positive value of lead. However, the use of lead in general is under much scrutiny by authorities and environmental groups.

An Industrial battery is any battery designed for exclusively industrial or professional uses or used in any type of electric vehicle. Here a take-back obligation by producers applies.

The difference between collection and take-back.Collection means that Member States shall ensure that appropriate collection schemes are in place for waste portable and automotive batteries. Take-back means that Member States shall ensure that producers of industrial batteries shall not refuse to take back waste industrial batteries from end-users, regardless of chemical composition and origin.

Is a battery at collection or at take-back a product or a waste? A rather important observation is to be made here. It concerns batteries which already are in a waste status. Because waste is defined as any substance or object which the holder discards or intends or is required to discard (Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC - WFD). A waste battery is a battery which is waste within the meaning of ‘waste’ in the WFD.

For a portable battery used mostly in household appliances, the user decides when/if/how the battery can/will be discarded, the battery has no monetary or economic value or need any more for the user who wants to discard it as waste.

For an industrial battery (heavier, larger volume, long service life, expensive in purchase) the decision whether a battery (or components of that battery) still has a monetary or economic value (re-useable) is taken after a diagnose by a professional. The decision whether that battery can be discarded as waste or can be re-used as a product is mostly taken in a business to business (B2B) context.

In this regard, it is interesting to note that according to the EU Council Presidency compromise text on amending Directive 2008/98/EC on waste of 6 January 2017, an object can be transferred from one holder to another holder without the intention to discard. This implies that the take-back of an industrial battery should not – by default – be regarded as a waste generation. In addition, and according to the Compromise Amendments of 11 January 2017 on the Waste Framework Directive, re-use is a process entailing the treatment of products to prevent waste generation. As such, the refurbishment or remanufacturing of an industrial battery should therefore be regarded as a specific waste prevention measure.

Based on the above, RECHARGE is proposing the following definitions:• Re-use means any operation by which batteries or accumulators that are not waste are used again for the same purpose

for which they were conceived, with the understanding that a repair of a battery is considered a sub-set of re-use, and does not change the extended producer responsibility (EPR) for the producer/importer having placed that battery on the market for the first time.

• Second life means any operation by which batteries or accumulators that are not waste are used for a different purpose for which they were conceived and placed on the market for the 1st. time, with the understanding that a remanufacturing of a battery for a second life does change the EPR, as the battery will be used for a different purpose (application) than after its first placing on the market. The importer/producer/remanufacturer of the second use battery has now the EPR obligation (and other obligations of the Batteries Directive and Regulation on the calculation of RE), irrespective of a new label or not.

This should be addressed in a potential future revision of the Batteries Directive. Because the absence of this legal background for the re-use and the second life of batteries creates a grey zone full of different interpretations amongst EU Member States, and fundamentally raises the issue of applying correctly the Extended Producer Responsibility.


RECHARGE position:

1. Assure that reporting is harmonized across EU member States according to the requirements of this Regulation. Alignment with EUROSTAT reporting documents is requested to avoid confusion for Member State Competent Authority responsible for the reporting.

2. 50% RE is considered an excellent result for Lithium batteries.3. No distinction should be made between exclusive battery recyclers and WEEE recyclers who also recycle batteries.

In case the EU Commission proposes modifications to the recycling efficiency calculations, RECHARGE is open for discussion and for offering advice.

Regulation 493/1012 on Recycling Efficiency – need for adaptation? The Commission Regulation (EU) No 493/2012 that was published in the Official Journal of the European Union on 11 June 2012 is laying down detailed rules regarding the calculation of recycling efficiencies of the recycling processes of waste batteries. This was followed by a publication in May 2014 of a Guidance document on the application of the Regulation on the Recycling Efficiency Calculation methodology.

Some of the key issues identified when introducing the Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC were the hazards represented by the heavy metals Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg) and Cadmium (Cd) in case of lack of end-of-life process control. Two major targets have been set up or this purpose:

1. Collection target for portable batteries, to avoid incineration or landfill with household waste.2. Recycling Efficiency (RE) target for a minimum recovery of the heavy metals.

The Recycling Efficiency targets to be achieved at the recycling process level as described in the Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC are 65% for lead-acid batteries, 75% for Nickel-Cadmium batteries, and 50% for other types of waste batteries, amongst others Li-ion and Ni-MH batteries.

The first reporting by the recyclers on RE took place in 2015 covering the calendar year 2014.

For the calculation of the RE, there is a need to distinguish between the treatment of portable battery packs and industrial batteries:1) Portable battery packs RE is calculated on the weight of cells entering the Recycling process as an input fraction.

The weight of the plastic outer casing of a portable battery pack is not considered as an input fraction of the recycling process (Annex 1 § 6 of Commission Regulation 493/2012).

2) Industrial batteries Recycling Efficiency is calculated on the total weight of the industrial battery, including the external jacket as indicated in Annex 1 § 6 of Commission Regulation 493/2012.

Should the Recycling Efficiency definition and measurement be updated?

These are some of the questions raised during the 2017 International Congress of Battery Recycling in Lisbon: • What is a the meaning of qualifying output fractions?

The end of waste criteria should be clarified?• How to properly trace the chain of recycling subcontractors throughout

the complete value chain? • Should the energy efficiency of recycling be measured, or should other

parameters be used?


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Other European Directives and Regulations impacting batteries The Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC has a large interface with other waste stream Directives.

Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC (WFD)

This Directive published in November 2008 lays down measures to protect the environment and human health by preventing or reducing the adverse impacts of the generation and management of waste and by reducing overall impacts of resource use and improving the efficiency of such use. Some general definitions , such as “waste”, “extended producer responsibility”, etc.. ,are defined in the WFD. In addition, its annex 3 presents the “List of Waste”.

List of Waste

In May 2015, the battery industry in Europe was informed that the technical adaptation committee (TAC) on batteries has been requested to re-assess the classification of waste batteries under the List of Waste. This is a very important exercise which could lead to significant changes in the transport of waste batteries, cross-border transfers of waste and recycling permits. All actors involved in the end-of-life management of waste batteries will be affected.

Several battery industry associations, including RECHARGE, have advocated that any changes to the List of Waste should be based on a coherent methodology. This will require a proper impact assessment to evaluate the consequences of any proposal in terms of modifying the classifications which should in particular look into the administrative and economic consequences for waste batteries and WEEE industries.

Due to the diversity, complexity and constant evolution of the composition of batteries and the wide range of composition observed, it will be justified to include some mirror entry classifications (both hazardous and not hazardous), codes (AH= absolute hazardous, ANH= absolute non hazardous, MH and MNH= mirror codes for hazardous or non hazardous waste).

The proposal was to develop a methodology to properly classify waste batteries and mixtures of various types of waste batteries in the List of Waste and to assess the overall impact and consequences.

The process for identification of the waste status relies first on the existence of waste codes. It is the case for the batteries: 3 codes for AH (16 06 01* Lead, 16 06 02* Cd , and 16 056 03* Hg containing batteries) and 2 codes for ANH (16 06 04 alkaline batteries without mercury, 16 06 05 other batteries).

In addition, in the definition of the waste category 16 01, batteries are excluded from the category 16 01: “end-of-life vehicles from different means of transport (including off-road machinery) and wastes from dismantling of end-of-life vehicles and vehicle maintenance (except 13, 14, 16 06 and 16 08)”.Consequently, the category 16 01 21* should not be used for the batteries dismantled from the car, but only 16 06, and particularly 16 06 05 for the Lithium batteries. It is an ANH (absolute non-hazardous classification, no mirror code).

End-of-Life Vehicles Directive 2000/53/EC (ELV)

This Directive published in 2000 covers certain categories of vehicles, including their components such as batteries. Batteries in vehicles covered by the ELV Directive should fall within the scope of the Batteries Directive, unless there are specific provisions in the ELV Directive that apply to batteries used in such vehicles.

There is a distinction between the Recycling Efficiency targets of the Batteries Directive (a RE target based on the recycling process) and the ELV Directive targets (re-use, recycling, and recovery based on total average vehicle weight). The batteries in the ELV account for 100% in weight into the calculation of the re-use & recycling (target of 85%), and re-use & recovery (target 95%).

To further reduce the use of hazardous substances, the EU Commission has in the meantime also started with the 9th. Revision of the End-of-Life Vehicle Directive 2000/53/EC relating to the use of lead in batteries.



A recent press release from Bosch promotes the use of a 48 Volts lithium-ion battery to replace the lead SLI (starting, lightning, ignition) automotive battery. This alternative and advanced technology will of course put pressure on the lead battery industry to remove the exemption for lead batteries usage in vehicles.

Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive 2012/19/EC (WEEE)

Batteries used in electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) fall within the scope of the Batteries Directive unless there are specific provisions in the WEEE Directive that apply to batteries if the batteries are part of the EEE when it becomes waste. Portable batteries, including those incorporated into appliances, should be reported as specified in Article 10(3) of the Batteries Directive.

The WEEE Directive regulates the end of life management of batteries contained in equipment. The WEEE Directive requires the selective treatment of materials and components of WEEE and, as a minimum, the removal of components such as batteries.

The Batteries Directive mentions that where batteries are collected together with WEEE, batteries shall be removed from the collected WEEE, but flexibility is provided for the process to remove the battery, as long as recycling is achieved in an identified flow.

When an EEE is containing a battery, the complete battery weight (100%) should count towards achieving the targets under the WEEE Directive 2012/19/EU.

When a battery is at its end-of-life and is made available for recycling, the WEEE recycler should record & report evidences about the recycling efficiency according to the requirements of the Battery Directive 2006/66/EC and of the Commission Regulation 493/2012.

Restriction of the use of certain Hazardous Substances in electrical and electronic equipment. Directive 2011/65/EU (RoHS 2)

RoHS 2 provisions apply to all EEE placed on the EU market regardless of whether they are produced in the EU or in third countries. RoHS 2 affects mainly industrial manufacturers, importers and distributors of EEE, as well as EEE customers.

REACh Regulation 1907/2006/EC on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and restriction of Chemicals

Batteries are classified as Articles under REACH and not as Chemicals in a container. When batteries are containing Substances of Very High Concern SVHC which are placed on the authorization list, they are subject to notification.REACh is of major importance to the battery manufacturers due to the chemical management of producing batteries and also because of the incentive for substitution of SVHC.

Eurometaux promotes a ‘risk-controlled cycle situation’ whereby the use of hazardous substances is safely controlled. RECHARGE supports that approach.


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Key messages to the EU from Umicore

What can the EU policy making do to promote and facilitate the creation of a European knowledge-anchored rechargeable battery production?

1. Consistently support the creation of a local market for de-fossilized mobility 2. Increase and focus Research & Innovation support to prepare Europe for industrialisation of next generation

rechargeable batteries 3. Encourage and facilitate the creation of a European “Battery Value Chain Project of common strategic interest” 4. Promote sustainable and responsible sourcing of raw materials 5. Include the principles of circular economy

1. Consistently support the creation of a local market for de-fossilized mobility

De-fossilized mobility (including electro-mobility, H2-technology, bio- and synthetic fuels) has to be encouraged, further developed and promoted. As the advantages are mainly societal (clean air, lower CO2) and the possible disadvantages directly felt by the consumer (lower driving range, limited charging infrastructure, higher upfront cost), government support for de-fossilized mobility is needed to take off. Financial and non-financial incentives have to be considered. Especially investment in public charging infrastructure is needed.

2. Increase and focus Research & Innovation support to prepare Europe for industrialisation of next generation rechargeable batteries

In line with 2016’s European Commission Communication “Accelerating Clean Energy Innovation” as well as Action 7 “Batteries for e-mobility and stationary storage” of the Integrated SET Plan, R&I support at European level should be increased and focussed to develop next generation batteries in Horizon 2020 and forthcoming FP9.

Industrial Research & Demonstration to develop ‘Advanced Li-ion Batteries’:

Development of large format (> 150 Ah) cells with high energy density (> 300 Wh/kg) could make ‘Advanced Li-ion Batteries‘ a reality. Smart combination of high energy density active materials (cathode and anode) operated under challenging conditions (e.g. charging at > 4.5 V) will enable significant gains in driving range of electric vehicles. Smart combination will require though a full Li-ion battery cell ‘system’ approach to optimize all material components of the battery cell (i.e. electrolyte, anode, cathode, separator, current collectors, can,…).

Advanced Research to develop ‘Solid State Li-ion Batteries’:

Identifying the suitable active materials and better understanding the battery electro-chemistry and physicochemical properties of the material interfaces is absolutely needed to develop batteries with higher energy density. Solid state Li-ion batteries offer the potential to overcome the range issue, limiting full development of electro-mobility. Targeted R&I efforts as well as adapted education programs at European level as well as in Member States will position Europe as a front runner and industrial player in field of new battery technologies while enabling full realization of European Energy Union.

3. Encourage and facilitate the creation of a European “Battery Value Chain Project of common strategic interest”

At least the large EU car manufacturing countries should join forces to create a full battery production value chain. The EU has a lot of competences in the battery value chain: fundamental battery research, materials technology, pack assembly, information technology and recycling. The missing link is battery cell production. Pilot and demonstration projects for improved mass production of new generation battery cells need support. So far, the EU missed the opportunity to create mass scale production technology of today’s Li-ion battery cells. Significant support to develop mass production processes for advanced Li-ion technology (and in a later phase for solid state batteries) could reshore battery cell production to the EU.



4. Promote sustainable and responsible sourcing of raw materials

Batteries contain several ‘technology metals’ like Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel,... Some of them are classified as ‘critical raw materials’ and/or are sourced from regions with delicate human right situations (armed conflicts, social rights, environmental issues). The EU should support a dynamic responsible sourcing culture, in order to avoid supply chain disruptions as a result of public scandals and geopolitical tensions. As not all risks can be mapped, nor foreseen in future, a strict regulatory framework might not be the best approach. Voluntary schemes in co-operation with field experts, may generate more concrete results.

5. Include the principles of circular economy

Facilitate the deployment of the circular economy principles; non-efficient administrative hurdles to reuse and recycle batteries should be removed. Extended Producer Responsibility for refurbished batteries has to be made clear; reversed logistics to refurbishment and recycling plants should be simplified. The resource intensity of mobility can be reduced considerably by promoting car sharing and intermodal transport (using the optimized transport mode for the individual mobility need).


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ResearchUL - Safety studies on Aged Commercial Lithium-ion Cells and Modules

Introduction

Lithium-ion batteries have the highest energy density of rechargeable battery systems in the market. With the service life and calendar life associated with them, their use has extended from portable electronic applications to electric vehicles and stationary energy storage systems. The reuse of automotive batteries in stationary energy storage installations is a new trend. But the safety of the aged cells and batteries has not been studied well. The current study focused on studying the safety of aged cells and modules. The tests carried out focused on understanding not only capacity loss and internal resistance changes but also on cell component changes. The aged cells and modules were tested for safety using external short and overcharge conditions and compared to the characteristics of the fresh cells and modules. The objective of the study was to determine if safety changes with cycle life aging, if certain parameters need to be characterized after first life and before installation in the second life application and what parameters need to be studied closely during usage in second life.

Experimental

Lithium-ion 18650- model cells of 3.35 Ah capacity purchased in a single lot from one manufacturer were tested. The cells had the internal PTC and CID devices. The separator had a ceramic coating on the sides facing the cathode. Cycle life tests

were carried out with a charge and discharge rate of 1C. In this case, testing was stopped at 10%, 15% and 20% capacity loss. The voltage range for the cycle life testing included that recommended by the manufacturer (4.2 V to 2.7 V), as well as a reduced range of 4.0 V to 2.9 V. Cells were also subjected to a Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) protocol until 25% capacity loss at three different temperatures of 10 °C, 25 °C and 40 °C. Fresh cells as well as cells subjected to every condition mentioned above were opened and the components studied to characterize the changes due to the cycle life aging process. Three cells were tested under each of these conditions. Modules of a 3P9S configuration were also cycled to 25% capacity loss and safety tests carried out on fresh and cycled modules.

Results and Discussion

The cycle life studies indicated that the number of cycles obtained at 20 to 25% capacity loss more than doubles if the voltage range is reduced by 200 mV at each end. The external short and overcharge tests did not show any significant changes in temperature although it was consistently observed that under the overcharge test, the CID activated much faster in the cycled cells than with the fresh cells which may be due to the collection of gases during the cycling process. Under the various temperatures and HEV profile, the number of cycles obtained at 25% capacity fade decreased by 17% at 40 °C and by 55% at 10 °C. The destructive analysis of the cells showed that with just cycle life aging, there was some delamination of the electrodes and the ceramic coating on the cathodes. The aged cells that were subjected to the external short and overcharge tests showed significant delamination of the cathode electrodes and the ceramic coating. The most significant observations were found in the cells that underwent the HEV cycling where the electrodes showed a lack of lithiation in the center of the entire electrode length (Figure1a) and several areas showed lithium plating and delamination (Figure 1b). Finally, it was observed that fresh modules underwent complete thermal runaway as expected, while the cycled modules did not exhibit any catastrophic event.

Scientific & technological roadmap of advanced rechargeable batteries: research, materials production, applications, projects

Figure 1. Destructive analysis of cells under HEV protocol showing a) unequal lithiation and b) lithium plating.


Summary and Recommendations

The results obtained in this study are based on one cell model from a single manufacturer but several observations were made that would be beneficial when cells or modules are used for a second life application. Decreasing the voltage range used by 200 mV at each end, increases cycle life significantly. Cycled modules that do not have sufficient energy (> 20% capacity loss) do not undergo catastrophic thermal runaway. The observation from these studies is that although the cells and modules from a used battery can be reused for a second life application, sample cells from various locations in the battery should undergo meticulous and extensive electrochemical and physical (destructive) analysis to baseline the changes in the cells. If the changes are significant such as lithium plating or extensive delamination, damage to the electrodes, separator or other cell components, the cells and modules should not be reused. In addition, a baseline on capacity, charge/discharge curves, internal resistance, etc. should be recorded before second use and the characteristics tracked to confirm their safety during second life.

Root Causes Failure Analysis for Lithium-ion Batteries

Nowadays, the lightweight, high-energy and high power lithium-ion batteries are being used for more and more applications, users can sometimes experience safety problems while using the powerful energy source. Although lithium-ion batteries are designed with integrated passive safeguards and active safeguards for cell, module and pack level designs, these batteries have been involved in incidents involving overheating and fire that, while very rare, have put these batteries in the public spotlight due to the high severity of failure mode. To understand the root cause(s) of a field accident in lithium-ion battery product is therefore critical because we always need to know what to result in the unexpected failure in order to solve the safety problem.

It’s a usually a challenge for the root causes analysis on a battery field incident as the key evidence may be burned or destroyed while the failure occurs. And sometimes, the failure scenario may not be easily duplicated if the incident was caused by a randomly occurred quality defect. However, there are still ways to identify the potential failure mechanism and normally forensic analysis techniques would be the best approach to dig out the solution. A good example of root cause analysis is the Boeing 787 battery investigation project1. In this study, the battery was burned so only the failure mode of the field event battery can be observed. There are very limited clues or information can be learned if the investigation scope is limited on the field failure battery only. Hence the study on normal battery samples is also helpful and necessary to investigate the weakness of battery designs or any potential quality issue that might be the contributing factors to cause the battery failure. For example, the single cell design used in the Boeing 787 is three flattened windings connected in parallel. The uneven stress issue is almost inevitable in such a winding design and it can cause non-uniform distribution of current density especially for a battery with big size electrode sheets. Sometimes, the consequence of non-uniform current density could be lithium plating or dendrite (Figure 1), which is one of a well-known safety issues to cause the battery failure.

In summary, the most likely failure mechanism and failure mode for a lithium-ion battery could be sometimes expected by forensic analysis approaches. Every battery design will have its own weakness and the weakness point(s) is very likely to be the key factor to dominete battery safety characteristics.

Research

Figure 1. Dendrite formation can be possibly observed at wrinkle of winding in battery

Reference:1 Full report of Boeing 787 Dreamliner battery failure investigation project:https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Documents/UL_Forensic_Report.pdf

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Powering the World’s Future Energy PotentialIntroduction

Albemarle is a leader in the specialty chemicals industry. We work to meet the needs of our customers by developing value-added solutions based on best-in-class advanced technology and sustainable processes.

Albemarle is also the industry leader in lithium and lithium derivatives. We operate the only producing lithium extraction and production operation in North America in addition to operations on the Salar de Atacama in Chile and a joint venture in Greenbushes, Australia.

Due to the global demand for lithium, the market is growing at an exciting and sustained rate and remains one of the highest growth markets in the specialty chemicals industry. Our unique natural resource position, derivatization capabilities and technology leadership gives us a sustainable competitive advantage.

With more than 50 years of direct experience in the lithium industry, we have amassed a wealth of proprietary knowledge in extracting and derivatizing this critical element. This has enabled us to deliver a robust portfolio of lithium compounds and components used in a host of applications including energy storage, glass, ceramics, lubricants and chemical synthesis and of course batteries.

Lithium-ion batteries enable high energy density for storage capacity and specific power for power bursts than competing technologies, making it the battery technology of choice to power our future. These batteries offer a sustainable and affordable energy storage technology that promotes e-mobility, reduces global greenhouse gasses and diversifies the world’s energy position.

Our ongoing operations and continuous investments have served as a positive economic stimulus in the communities in which we operate. Our established lithium extraction facilities in Nevada, Chile and Australia provide a large number of stable employment opportunities in otherwise remote areas.

These employment opportunities, combined with substantial investments with local infrastructure, have created mutually-beneficial partnerships with local municipalities assuring them we will be a productive corporate citizen for years to come.

Lithium is not a speculative endeavor for us, it is a critical, core business.

Materials

Lithium operations in Salar de Atacama/Chile. We also have capacity in Australia and China.


Path forward for Sustainable Cobalt SourcingUmicore, the global materials technology and recycling group and one of the leading lithium-ion battery materials companies, is aware of the risks that are linked to the sourcing of cobalt, one of the key elements in Li-ion batteries. Infringements of human rights, occurrence of child labour and environmental issues, as well as the lack of sufficient health and safety protection are reported to occur in certain parts of the cobalt supply chain. To avoid the occurrence of these practices in Umicore’s supply chain, and consequently that of its customers, Umicore has created a dedicated Sustainable Procurement Framework for Cobalt. This framework is based on the OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals (OECD, 2013). Umicore was the first company in the world to have introduced such a framework for cobalt supply and the first to obtain external validation for its ethical procurement approach in this area. Since 2016, Umicore is reporting on its cobalt due diligence via the company’s annual report. By sharing the compliance report of its yearly audit, Umicore is showing a high level of transparency to its customers and stakeholders.

Commenting on the framework Marc Van Sande, Executive Vice-President of Umicore’s Energy & Surface Technologies business group said: “Our customers have valuable brands to protect. Umicore’s unique approach provides comfort to customers about the provenance and the ethical nature of the cobalt used in the materials they source. We will continue to make improvements to our framework and I firmly believe that this type of approach should become the norm in the industry. We look forward to working with other stakeholders such as governments, civil society and other industrial players in order to drive broader improvements in the sector.”

It is believed that Umicore’s preference for those suppliers that have sustainable practices, motivates other suppliers to improve the environmental, health and social aspects in their own production process. In this way, Umicore believes it is actively contributing to the further development of a sustainable supply chain of cobalt.

A detailed description of Umicore’s Sustainable Procurement Framework for Cobalt can be found online via the company’s website: http://www.umicore.com/en/cases/sustainable-procurement-framework-for-cobalt/

Materials

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Materials

ProSUM: Batteries stocks and flows in Europe

Background

ProSum – as the Latin word prosum indicates ‘I am useful’ stands for: Prospecting Secondary raw materials in the Urban mine and Mining waste.

The ProSUM project has established a European network of expertise on secondary sources of critical raw materials (CRMs), vital to today’s high-tech society. ProSUM directly supports the European Innovation Partnership (EIP) on Raw Materials and its Strategic Implementation Plan calling for the creation of a European raw materials knowledge base. ProSUM intends to be an inventory of the “urban mine”, including stock and flows of End of Live vehicles, Waste Electric and Electronic equipment and Batteries, and mining wastes.

The project started on 1 January 2015 and ran for 36 months until the end of 2017.

ProSUM and Batteries

For batteries, the objective is to identify and assess the available data sources on stocks and flows of batteries and their material content to support possible policy making decisions for a sustainable management of batteries.

The project has established a list of batteries chemistries, and assessed the typical chemical composition for each category, for the main materials (see figures 1 and 2).

Fig 2: Typical chemical composition of non-lithium

Figure 1: typical chemical composition of Lithium batteries


The data of products placed on the market has been provided to the project. Finally, the life duration and hoarding time has been has been assessed for the various chemistries, allowing for the calculation of a stock and flows model. The output of this model for the waste generation can be compared to the real waste collection data available in Europe.

Example of calculation below for the cobalt contained in the portable batteries placed on the market in Eu.

Results of the project and future steps

The first results indicate that this was a good exercise in clarifying what are the data sources and their content. It was a comprehensive and global approach to define public database requirements. The project also demonstrated the need of complementary information, as for example industrial batteries are not well characterized.

The ProSUM data base is publicly available http://www.urbanmineplatform.eu/homepage.

Materials

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Advanced batteries manufacturing: High-Tech enabling a sustainable futureBatteries technologies have been since ever identified by their chemistries: as rechargeable batteries have successively appeared the Lead acid, Nickel-cadmium, Nickel – metal-hydride, and more recently the lithium batteries.

It is less known that in parallel to this evolution, the manufacturing processes and equipment have sustained an large evolution. The major field of competences for the batteries manufacturing was in the past similar to chemical industry , where key knowledge was chemical preparations of metals and metal components to obtain active materials in form of powder or slurries. These active materials were then initially filled in steel “pockets”, then later pasted on strong steel shits or other grids supports to manufacture electrodes. The size range for the thickness of these components, as well as the separator was the millimeter.

A battery manufacturing plant is now completely different, particularly when considering lithium-ion batteries manufacturing. The “chemical recipe” of the active material has become Materials Science, associating various synthesis methods and manufacturing processes to obtain the “hosting materials” enabling the lithium ion shuttle between each “intercalation electrode”. The key processes for lithium-ion electrode manufacturing are closer to high precision ink printing on ultra-thin substrate, and require high precision automated mechanical handling of fragile electrodes (as thin as paper, in the range of the tenth of mm thick).

The assembly of the high density electrodes coils or stacks is realized by high precision robots, installed in automatic assembly lines. Human intervention is not required anymore, and would even not be possible due to the components miniaturization.

For reliability and quality reasons, these sensitive processes are now realized in dry and white rooms, very similarly to the one used for the electronics industry.

Production


Saft has a long experience of handling in cleanrooms, required to achieve the reliability and quality expected for example for satellite batteries. Indeed, Saft is a pioneer in lithium-ion batteries for space applications and offers advanced battery solutions with very long shelf-life (up to 20 years). As no two space missions

are the same, so no two space-application batteries are. Saft knows this and always works with customers to design a solution for their specific space needs. The most powerful lithium-ion batteries are also made by Saft, offering solutions with many different electro chemistries such as NMC, NCA, NMC/NCA and SLFP. They can discharge in less than 10 minutes and can provide emergency power for the Joint Strike Fighter Aircraft F-35, for example, at -40°C, when most batteries would be frozen. At the other end of the scale, they can also function at extremely high temperatures – in Formula One cars, for example.

In addition, these requirements for “dustfree” and dry rooms environments have contributed to the achievement of environmental emissions control, and clean manufacturing. The advanced batteries manufacturing plants have complete set of equipment for gaz emissions collection, recycling and reuse of solvents, dust filters, etc..

As a result, the main environmental impact resulting from advanced batteries manufacturing is associated to the energy sources used. In this respect, the future development of decarbonized energy can largely contribute to the development of a sustainable battery manufacturing in Europe.

Production

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Production

Lithium Battery Portfolio - Energizing Tomorrow’s Applications

Introduction

The limited nature of energy resources and the need to decrease greenhouse gas emissions, means renewable energy has to considered on a grand scale and the use of hybrid and electric vehicles will have to become widespread. Due to the intermittent and/or diffuse nature of these renewable sources, however, efficient storage and mobile systems are a must. Panasonic is one of the leading Lithium-Ion battery manufacturers in the world and is very well positioned to meet the requirements of the future with a product portfolio which emphasizes high energy density, safety and long life. The company has a particular focus on enhancing safety through technologies such as “Panasonic Solid Solution” (PSS) which adopts nickel and manganese in a new positive electrode and its “Heat Resistance Layer” (HRL) technology.

Li-ion Cathode Design

One of the most successful Li-ion systems is a cathode combination of nickel-manganese-cobalt (NCM) which raises the energy density up to 250Wh/kg. Similar to Li-manganese, these systems can be tailored to serve as energy cells or power cells. Combining the metals produces a synergistic effect. Panasonic’s NCM battery, for example, is the optimum choice for power tools, e-bikes and other electric powertrains. Ni-MH (nickel–metal hydride) battery technology has now succeeded Ni-Cd (Nickel-Cadmium) technology for rechargeable and portable devices. These batteries are ideal for less complex and cost-sensitive applications and meet most standard customer needs. Ni-MH batteries have been developed and manufactured with nickel hydroxide for the positive electrode and hydrogen-absorbing alloys, which are capable of absorbing and releasing hydrogen at high density levels, for the negative electrode. All Panasonic’s Ni-MH batteries are cadmium-free, so are harmless to human beings and our environment. NCA (lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide) is still a key technology, especially in the electromotive market, due to its unparalleled energy density. Panasonic uses a cathode mixture based on a combination of lithium, nickel, minimal cobalt and aluminum oxide.

Li-ion Anode Design

Silicon has recently emerged as a strong candidate to improve existing graphite anodes due to its inherently large specific capacity and low working potential. However, pure silicon electrodes have shown poor mechanical integrity due to the dramatic expansion of the material during battery operation. This results in high irreversible capacity and short life cycle. Although various advances using porous silicon, silicon nanoparticles, and silicon-coated carbon nanofibres have been investigated, they have shown limited improvements in cycling stability and capacity. The advantage of graphite is that Li-ions can intercalate in between the basal planes of the crystal structure.

HRL Technology

A Lithium-ion battery cell is very sensitive. Overcharging, short circuits, or physical damage results in a risk of overheating and igniting. Any electrical device, especially notebook PCs, mobile phones, medical equipment and power-tools require more robust and safer batteries. Increasing energy density, however, raises the risk of overheating and igniting due to short-circuits. Panasonic uses HRL (Heat Resistance Layer) Technology which improves the safety of Lithium-Ion batteries significantly. This heat resistant layer consists of an insulating metal oxide on the surface of the electrodes which means the battery will not overheat even if a short-circuit occurs.


Applications

Metabo Large Angle Grinder

Battery Technology - the new driver in the Power Tool market

The European Power Tool Association was formed in 1984 to represent the interest of the European power tool manufacturers. The 27 EPTA members employ approximately 20.000 people and show an annual power tool sale of more than € 5 bn in Europe. Power tools are used by professionals, skilled tradesmen and also private consumers.

For the last 5 years the European power tool market has shown on average an annual growth of rd. 5 % . This positive development was mainly driven by two factors. The overall improving economical situation in most of the European countries and a strong increase in use of battery driven tools. While the market for corded tools in this period has contributed to the growth only with rd. 1 % p.a., the segment cordless tools has grown disproportionately with 9 % p.a. What are the reasons behind this market trend?

More than 30 years ago the first cordless tools coming on the market were light duty drills and screw drivers mainly driven by NiCad- batteries. For heavy duty applications or other practice, the power provided by this technology did not lead to satisfactory work results and machine runtime. In the meantime, NiCad has been completely replaced by Li – Ion creating tools with a much better performance. As a consequence, today most of the drilling and screw driving is done cordless and corded tools get more and more replaced. Furthermore, in other product groups like small angle grinders, jig – and circular saws or small hammer drills the number of battery driven tools has constantly increased.

Today the development goes one step further. The new generation of battery cells allows enough power storage for tools in heavy duty applications as well. Therefore, all power tool manufacturers strongly extend their offer for cordless tools in all segments. The use of battery driven products becomes more and more common.

What does this mean for the overall power tool market? Is it perhaps just a few more products replacing previous versions or technology? No, it is not. It is a game changer bringing new elements to the users purchase decision.

In the past professional users were mainly looking for specialized tools offering them the best performance for the work they had to do. Previously power supply was not an issue because all of them were corded. Hence, most of the craftsmen had various types of tools from many different brands.

In the world of cordless tools, the situation is different. Professional users prefer to have one battery system for all cordless tools they use. This is partly learned, based on the confidence to a brand and its battery system they have built up over the years. Secondly, they want to avoid complexity for their work on jobsite. Battery technology, battery system and a wide range of products working with the same system have become new important elements of the purchase decision. This is a new dimension in the market and economical- and technical - wise a big challenge for all manufacturers.

What do we expect for the future? In 2016 for the first time in history the market for cordless power tools reached a share of 51% of the total market. Due to further development in Li – Ion technology and the extended possibilities to use the progress in technology for power tools we assume a disproportionate high growth for this segment in the next years. This will drive and could change the power tool market and his industry.

EPTA Member Showcase

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Applications

Sustainability through excellence - the power of corded with the freedom of cordless

At Stanley Black & Decker we believe in excellence in our products, our people and our practices we are committed to sustainable business policies and initiative that reduce our environmental impact and improve the quality of life in every community we reach.

We recognize that it is critically important for our company to take responsibility and control for the development of sustainable products so using our EcoSmart philosophy we are embedding sustainable practices into our product design processes. Our customers know our products inside and out. They respond to our innovation with brand loyalty so we are in the best position to provide a sustainable value solution for our customers by emphasizing the sustainable benefits of our products.

In 2016 Stanley Black & Decker was included in the Dow Jones Sustainability Index for the sixth consecutive year and was awarded added to the ‘A list’ by the CDP Climate Change programme. This is a listing of those companies from around the world that have been identified as leading in their efforts and actions to combat climate change so emphasizing our sustainability credentials and commitment to supplying our customers with products that not only meet their business and operational needs but also meet the needs of the environment.

In 2016 we launched our DeWalt XR FlexVolt lithium ion battery range. The DeWalt XR FlexVolt is a convertible 18/54 volt battery: completely backwards compatible with existing 18 volt DeWalt products, yet with the option to amplify its voltage to an unprecedented 54 volt to be used on bigger construction power tools. Traditionally, when compared with corded power tools, even the most efficient cordless system provided a compromise between increased portability and reduced power, between greater ease-of-use and reduced runtime. DeWalt have recognised the daily frustrations these limitations cause our end-users,

and engineered the DeWalt XR FlexVolt system to eliminate any and all restrictions, to provide a cordless system that offers zero compromises. DeWalt XR FlexVolt has the dual advantage of unbeatable runtime in all existing DeWalt 18 volt power tools, as well as the power necessary to access applications completely unheard of for cordless technology. With this one innovation, DeWalt have finally unlocked the full potential of cordless, and now possess the unique ability to power even heavy duty construction power tools using nothing but a battery.


Applications

The Bluebus - 100% electrical buses - equipped with LMP® batteries

Manufactured by the Bolloré Group, Bluebus is an ideal solution for collective urban and sub-urban transport. Bluebus responds to environmental and technical demands regarding design and performance.

Bluebus is fully commercialized with charging system and services included.

Bluebus is produced in France at integrated production facilities in Bretagne and employs over one hundred employees. The principle components of the vehicles have been designed and are manufactured locally: battery, cabin structure, body frame, interior, electric architecture, transmission, tires. The charging posts is being made in Besançon.

Lithium Metal Polymer battery unit from the Bolloré Group of 30 kWh and 410 V.Weight: 300 kg.

Bluebus equipped with 8 batteries : 240 kWh offering a range of 180 to 250 km.

Charging time : 6 hours.

Length : 12.0 mHeight : 3.10 mWidth : 2.55 mCapacity : 91 to 101 passengers

On the roads since end 2016 in Paris, Rennes (France)

Minibus equipped with 3 batteries : 90 kWh offering a range of 120 km.

Charging time : 8 hours.

Length : 5.46 mHeight : 2.97 mWidth : 2.19 mCapacity : 22 passengers

On the road since 2012 in many cities in France, as well as Luxemburg, Ivory Coast, Brussels…

These busses are very ergonomic with a low platform and wide doors for easy access and allowing an enjoyable ride.They have a rather long autonomy with a small turning circle allowing for perfect urban and sub-urban use. They are equipped with high-performance innovative LMP® batteries which are locally produced by Bolloré Group.They are extremely environmental-friendly by construction (aluminum, steel, composites recyclable up to 98%) and for utilization (hardly any emissions).

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Applications

VARTA Microbattery GmbH Smaller and more powerful: coin cells for more design freedom

The CoinPower series from VARTA Microbattery

Designers of portable medical devices and electronic products are familiar with their challenges of space and weight reduction. There seems no limit to consumers’ requirement for devices to be thinner, lighter, and sleeker. Consider an in-ear speaker or earbud. Its form factor is constrained by the size of the human ear and for this article provides a stand in for a medical device.

Nevertheless, innovation in battery technology still provides answers to OEMs’ demand for more energy in less volume.

From the pocket-style battery to the coin cell

In medical and consumer electronics, various types of lithium-ion technology have been widely adopted: lithium-ion chemistries for rechargeable batteries provide better ratios of energy capacity to volume and energy capacity to weight than any other battery chemistry in mass production. This is why most portable products with requirements for small size and light weight most contain lithium-ion rechargeable cells.

Wireless headsets would use a custom lithium-ion battery assembly in which the cell was enclosed in aluminium foil to form a pouch. The pouch enclosure is prone to premature failure when subjected to shock and vibration. This is undesirable in earphones which might be frequently dropped during fitness activities.

These drawbacks led VARTA Microbattery to the development of an alternative for tiny devices such as wireless headsets. This was the VARTA CoinPower product: the industry’s first rechargeable lithium-ion battery in a coin cell form factor to offer the energy capacity required by small wireless consumer devices. The first generation of these coin cells was available in 12 and 16-mm diameter versions and provide an average 3.7V output.

Behind the introduction of the CoinPower cells lay technologies patented by the company which allows for the automated production of coin cells with coiled electrodes. These technologies provide a higher energy density than previous li-ion coin cells with conventional stacked or layered electrodes.

The higher capacity of the CoinPower product provides a crucial advantage to manufacturers of Bluetooth headsets.

A coin cell with high capacity offers further advantages: Easy assembly into end equipment with almost no risk of damage, and a high level of precision in the mechanical design of the battery assembly, and high tolerance of shock and vibration.

It is important to note that a supporting electronic circuit is also small. A CoinPower cell requires only a standard circuit protection device, available at low cost from suppliers such as Seiko and Mitsumi, plus two passive components. A wide range of ICs for standard battery chargers can control the cell’s charging process. The footprint of this circuitry is considerably smaller than the complex PCB generally implemented in custom battery packs. What’s more, the supporting circuitry need not be close to the battery, giving system designers freedom to optimise their board layout and mechanical design.

Device manufacturers can avoid the design, production cost, and risk associated with custom battery packs because the battery is a standard part, and the supporting circuitry is easily implemented using standard components.

There is another important reason for the wide use of the first-generation product: safety. Most lithium-ion batteries work safely within their rated voltage and current limits. But over-current or over-temperature conditions can cause thermal runaway, leading the device to explode or catch fire. For this reason, a lithium-ion battery requires safety and protection circuitry to electrically disconnect the cell when it exceeds safety thresholds.

Higher security due to Current Interruption Device

The advantage of the VARTA CoinPower cell is that it offers an integrated protection mechanism, independent of external circuitry, which shuts the cell down before it enters an unsafe, over-current condition. This provides an extra level of protection for the user’s safety. This Current Interruption Device is a mechanical fuse: when the pressure inside the cell rises above a certain level – as happens when the cell is charged at an excessive current or voltage – the upper and lower casings come apart by a small, controlled amount sufficient to break the circuit and permanently disconnect the battery. CoinPower cells are actually rated to withstand extreme 12V/3C over-charging conditions, which put a far greater stress on the cell than industry standards specify.


The li-ion coin cell, then, has become the preferred battery choice for manufacturers of extremely space-constrained, portable devices which require a high energy capacity of 50 mAh or more. It has found uses in consumer devices, and medical and industrial equipment, in which durability, high capacity and long cycle life are important.

The advantages of the original CoinPower product now have been extended with the introduction of the ‘A2’ and ‘A3’ series of cells. Improvements to the chemistry and production techniques of CoinPower cells have increased their capacity, as well as extending their cycle life. The dimensions and energy capacity of these cells provide the best fit for the size and shape of the human ear, and for the requirements of manufacturers of earphones and ‘true wireless’ technology.

Standard cycle life ratings for rechargeable batteries measure the fully charged capacity of the cell, as a percentage of its capacity when new, after 500 charge/discharge cycles at an operating temperature of 20°C. The formal specifications supplied by VARTA Microbattery show that, when stressed by executing 500 fast charge/fast discharge (1C/1C) cycles in the laboratory, the CoinPower A3 cells still retain more than 80% of their original capacity. Under gentler operating conditions (0.2C/0.2C), this value for remaining capacity rises to more than 85% after 500 cycles. In real-world applications, users are able to achieve outstanding cycle-life performance: customers typically report cells lasting for more than 1,000 cycles when mounted in an end product. Future trends in small form-factor lithium coin cells

Consumer device manufacturers’ demand for higher capacity in a small space is not easing up. One recent device which is stretching the limits of cell capacity is the so called ‘true wireless’ headset: twin wireless ear buds without cable connections. In this product, each earbud has a radio – rather than the single radio in a conventional wireless headset. Hence, each earbud requires a battery.

To meet the product requirements, VARTA Microbattery was developing a third generation of its CoinPower product for launch in Dec 2016. The cell provides an additional 20% more capacity and energy density thanks to improvements in the battery chemistry, electrode design, and production techniques. This new product is also available in a 14mm diameter cell, adding to the 12mm and 16mm diameter versions available already.

This and other developments will meet the requirement for robust, easy-to-assemble batteries with a high capacity in the coin-cell form factor. The CoinPower cell will ensure that patients and other equipment users can enjoy long run-times between charges, long cycle life and at the same time enjoying the advantages of precise, highly automated cell production in Germany.

‘A true wireless’ headset: twin wireless ear buds without cable connections – made by the start-up company Bragi” (picture: Bragi)

The CoinPower series of cells from VARTA Microbattery come in three sizes.

Applications

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Advanced premium rechargeable batteries for special applications.FDK Ni-MH battery systems are chosen to DC Small Cell Power Supply and Industrial Panel Computer as Build-in battery

When a major supplier of DC power systems set to develop a new innovative power solution for outdoor small cells, Alpha Technologies Ltd. (“Alpha”) conceptualized a low-cost system with limited battery reserve sufficient to feed almost 90 percent of its power outage period. It is much smaller than traditional telecom backup systems.

Since outdoor small cells are typically deployed on utility poles, street lights or on the side of buildings, other key requirements also needed to be considered; aesthetics, space, weight, operating temperature range, deployment in harsh environments, safety, mounting flexibility and minimum maintenance including preventive maintenance features. Based upon FDK‘s premium and advanced Ni-MH (nickel-metal hydride) cells, Alpha chose a low-profile solution using an integrated battery system with on-board battery management circuit. The resulting Cellect600 product weights less than 11 kilograms and occupies less than 15 L in physical size, with the capability to power loads up to 600W at ambient temperatures ranging from -40 to 65 °C. The decision for FDK Ni-MH was based upon its long history of dependability including safety aspect and reliable performance in other demanding applications.

CONTEC Co., Ltd. (“CONTEC”) has newly developed an industrial touchscreen PC called “Panel Computer PT-970 series” that can be installed on a desktop and equipped with FDK compact and lightweight Ni-MH battery UPS.

The UPS function enables this product to operate for 5 minutes or longer after a power failure occurs. The included utility software can be used to automatically shut down the Operating System. FDK Ni-MH rechargeable battery not only provides a sufficient length of time for the power supply backup to protect the system from unexpected power outages such as blackouts and momentary power failure but also makes the panel computer compact. The display has a range of movement of 140 degrees to the front and back, which makes it possible to adjust the angle of the display. The display can be folded down by 90 degrees to the front, which is the same as a notebook computer with its display closed. The included rubber feet can be used to install the product on a desktop. Additionally, this product can be screwed into a device just like an embedded computer.

One of basic policies in these companies’ corporate code of conduct is that of “Contributing to society through corporate activities”. FDK Ni-MH battery was chosen that met its corporate code. It is environmentally friendly and most suitable to the obsolescence management. To meet this objective, FDK group promotes its green procurement guideline. It means that FDK focuses on environmental sensitivity and safety, and develops and provides products and systems that contribute to the creation of a comfortable and affluent society. It procures materials that can reduce the environmental impact preferentially in order to provide environmentally friendly products based on the environmental policy.

DC Small Cell Power Supply

Industrial Panel computer(1) Open display (2) Closed display

(Images courtesy Alpha Technologies Ltd. and CONTEC Co., Ltd.)

(1)

(2)

Applications


Batteries Product Environmental Footprint - PEF

Background

In April 2013 the EU Commission launched an action ‘a single market for green products’ with the general objective to improve the availability of clear, reliable and comparable information on the environmental performance of products and organizations to all relevant stakeholders, including to players along the entire supply chain.

To achieve this objective, the EU Commission initiated in 2013 the Product Environmental Footprint (PEF) project. RECHARGE was the selected partner to prepare a PEF methodology for high specific energy rechargeable batteries.

PEF and PEFCR

The PEF is obtained while applying a method called PEFCR (Product Environmental Footprint Category Rules). PEFCR is a set of defined common rules, applicable for the analysis of any of the product in the scope, in order to calculate the environmental impacts. The method is similar to a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) approach, but within a more strictly defined frame. The aim of the EU Commission with this project was to define the PEF of a representative number of products and organizations, and assess wether is would be possible to extend the approach to all products placed on the market in Europe

PEF and Batteries

The ‘representative product’ for batteries is a virtual product calculated based on the typical characteristics and composition of the different products available on the market (weighted average based on market share value). For this project, 4 types of application where selected, and the environmental impact of a representative product for each application was calculated in the “screening study”:

1. Li-ion for cordless power tools, 2. Li-ion for ICT products (cellphone, tablets, PC)3. Ni-MH for portable applications (single cell mainly)4. Li-ion for E-mobility (large electric vehicle battery).

The PEF is the result of the calculation of the 16 environmental impact categories selected. As all the models used to calculate the impacts haven’t the same quality, a robustness factor has been determined for each, as indicated below.

Project

36

The weighted sum of all the environmental impacts is the Product Environmental Footprint.

The PEF project is now at the end of a 6 steps process

1. Definition of scope and boundaries, calculation of representative products. For batteries, the pilot has analyzed the “High Specific Energy Rechargeable Batteries for Mobile Applications “

2. Analysis of the representative products to identify the main sources of environmental impacts (PEF screening study).3. Creation of a draft PEFCR to define the applicable rules for the generation of a PEF.4. Test of the PEFCR methodology with some real products (3 supporting studies were conducted by RECHARGE members). 5. Final PEFCR and proposal/test of the support for the communication of the PEF results. 6. 2017: Remodeling with updated PEFCR (Guidance 6.3) including new end-of-life model, and based on new Commission

database. The final PEFCR for the batteries is published.

Transition phase until 2020

The objectives for this phase are a further clarification of the identified issues in the PEF methodology and to discuss policy options.

The structure for this phase has been set with 3 meetings a year, with a new Steering Committee with participation of the EU Commission, Members states (IPP/SCP Expert groups) and industry representatives.

The work will be organized in 7 clusters (electrical and electronic products, chemistry based products, retailers, Intermediate products, apparel & footwear, construction product, food and drinks). An additional cluster for SMEs might be considered.

RECHARGE has proposed to participate in 2 clusters, namely chemistry based products, and electric-electronic products.

The benefits of the batteries PEF for RECHARGE

An in-depth knowledge of the PEF methodology and usage.

• An expert position in the Committee deciding about the validity of the future developments (communication, benchmark, toxicity impacts).

• RECHARGE can communicate on the reduction of the environmental impact of batteries with the change toward renewable energies: over 80% of the impact is due to energy usage.

Batteries with recycled metals are as green as the energy they are using.

Project


Project

The future usages of the PEF in Europe:

The PEF usage for batteries should be considered in the broad field of the European legislation.

It includes the Batteries Directive, but also number of other legislative and regulatory requirements at EU, Member State or regional level.

There is a need to define a coordinated approach for the environmental management of batteries, and the PEF approach may bring clarification for number of questions:

• The Batteries Directive is about environment protection. Its revision will bring up the discussion about Recycling volume (collection targets) but also about recycling “quality” (recycling efficiency)? The usage of environmental impacts as indicators of the recycling quality may be discussed.

• The PEF pilots have demonstrated that the environmental models for the toxicity needed significant improvement before public usage. Health (workers protection) risk of using chemicals should be kept within REACH. It is considered that the question of the environmental impacts consequences on health are also part of REACH.

• Carbon emissions are already in the ETS (Emissions Trading Scheme). Using it as environmental indicator for batteries in the Batteries Directive would represent a duplication? On the other hand, using selected environmental impact models as an indicator may help:

o Move to a “scientific” calculation of the indicator, less subject to arbitrary judgement, favorable to a level playing field within and outside EU.

o Allow to benefit of the already regulated requirements about emissions in EU manufacturing/recycling.o Provide a technical base for the calculation of targets, whatever based on environmental cost/value or economical

cost.o Open the possibility to associate financial incentives to environmental benefits.o Avoid the “dilution” of the important impacts in a possible future “global PEF” identification/labelling.

As a conclusion, the batteries PEF will likely be used every time there is a need to calculate environmental impacts, and possibly used for mandatory environmental communication allowing for product benchmark. RECHARGE has analyzed the complexity of this tool, identified strength and weaknesses. The goal is now to anticipate future changes (i.e. inclusion of toxicity models) and prepare the opportunity to improve the environmental batteries image and avoid unfair treatment in the European regulation?

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Battery Transport Regulation & Safety

Background.

Batteries are classified as ‘Dangerous Goods for transport’ (all modes of transport : road, rail, air, water) by the United Nations Sub-Committee of Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods (UN SCETDG), which is part of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE).

see also: http://www.unece.org/trans/danger/danger.html

The classified technologies include Lead acid and Nickel Cadmium batteries are classified as Class 8 (Lead acid batteries because they contain acid electrolyte and Nickel Cadmium batteries because they contain alkaline electrolyte) and Lithium (Lithium-ion and Lithium-metal) and Nickel Metal Hydride batteries are classified as Class 9, to cover their dual electrical and chemical hazard, properties which are not covered by any other Class.

The regulation covers the transport of new cells and batteries contained in or packed with equipment. There are additional Special Provisions for transport for waste and damaged & defected Lithium batteries, with very specific packaging and labelling requirements.

For international transport the applicable regulations are the ICAO (International Civil Air Organization) technical instructions for air transport, IMDG (International Maritime Dangerous Goods) code for sea transport and ADR-RID for the road transport. In Europe, batteries which are transported shall also comply with the Directive 2008/68/EC on the inland transport of Dangerous Goods, similar to the UN ADR regulation.

What are the consequences for the transport of classified batteries?

There is a legal obligation for any classified battery transport (except for private individual use) to adhere to the transport requirements and conditions described in the UN Model Regulation.

This legal condition is enforced worldwide with significant fines attached to it in the case of non-respect.

Transport & Safety

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Transport & Safety

RECHARGE Report 2018

To whom does the regulation apply?

‘These Regulations prescribe detailed requirements applicable to the transport of dangerous goods. Except as otherwise provided in these Regulations, no person may offer or accept dangerous goods for transport unless those goods are properly classified, packaged, marked, labelled, placarded, described and certified on a transport document, and otherwise in a condition for transport as required by these Regulations.’

The regulation concerns all batteries technologies of the identified classifications: rechargeable and non-rechargeable, all formats and shape, all batteries containing liquid alkaline or acid electrolyte, all Li-ion, Li-metal, Li- polymer, Sodium, or other chemistries.

The regulation is applicable in all cases of professional transport: new and used batteries, prototypes, small production runs, damaged and defectives batteries, waste batteries transported for disposal, waste batteries transported for recycling.

Each battery identified with a UN number is classified as “Dangerous Good for Transport”:

Class 8UN 2794: Wet lead acid batteriesUN 2795: Wet Nickel Cadmium batteriesUN 3292: Sodium nickel chloride batteriesUN 2800: Batteries Wet, non spillableUN 3028: Batteries, dry containing KOH solid

Class 8 HazardCorrosive substances

(No. 8)Symbol (liquids, spilling from two glass vessels

and attacking a hand and a metal); black;Background: upper half white;

lower haf black with white border;Figure “8” in bottom corner

Class 9:UN 3090: LITHIUM METAL BATTERIES (including lithium alloy batteries)UN 3091: Lithium metal batteries contained in equipment, or packed with equipment,UN 3480: LITHUM ION BATTERIES (including Li polymer batteries)UN 3481: Lithium ion batteries contained in equipment, or packed with equipment,UN 3171: Battery powered equipment and vehicleUN 3496: Nickel metal hydride batteriesUN3499: CapacitorsUN3508: Asymmetric capacitors

Class 4.3UN 3292: Batteries containing sodium

Substances which, in contact with waternemit flammable gases

(No. 4.3)Symbol (flame) black or white;

Background: blue;Figure ‘4’ bottom corner

(label 9A for lithium batteries)

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Transport & Safety

Which are the Requirements for UN Transport Dangerous Goods Regulation?

The regulation describes General Requirements: 1. Identified products (classification, labelling, declaration)2. Tested products (safety test according UN Manual of Tests and Criteria, Part III, sub-section 38.3)3. Qualified packaging (UN group II performance level or others when applicable)4. Transport documentation (different models for road, sea or air transport mode)5. Trained operators for packaging and transport

Besides these General Requirements, there are also Specific Requirements for each battery technology, according their UN number.

Additional mandatory packaging requirements exist for each UN number, referring to UN qualified packaging (Packing Group II performance level in general is applicable for Class 9 batteries).

The Regulation is further amended with Special Provisions in specific cases (small batteries, small quantities, damaged and defectives, waste).

For air transport, Important regulatory changes are applicable since 2016: - Banned: the transport of consignments of lithium metal batteries on passenger aircraft from 1 January 2015.- Required that all lithium ion batteries carried in bulk on freighter aircraft are shipped in no greater than 30% state of

charge.- Banned: the transport of consignments of lithium ion batteries on passenger aircraft from 1 April 2016.

More changes are expected in the coming two to three years for the safe transport and storage of Li batteries. Particularly, an informal working group has been mandated by the UN SCETDG for preparing a new classification of the lithium batteries based on their hazards.

It is mandatory to maintain practical and affordable transport conditions for the development of the Li-batteries. To do so, there is a strong industry involvement in standardisation processes, and RECHARGE, on behalf of its industry members is:

• Co-chair of the mandated SAE G-27 working group on a new standard for the test of safe packaging in air transport protection

• Member of the committee for IEC 62902 new marking standard of batteries• Member of the committee ISO 17840 for rescue sheets and emergency response guidance• Co-organizer of the UN informal working for the classification of Lithium batteries.

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Transport & Safety

RECHARGE Report 2018

Conclusions

• The expectations from authorities for safe packaging of Lithium batteries during transport are increasing.

• All modes of transport are considering more protective packaging for the Li batteries transport. Practical solutions are proposed on the market which can answer the need, but with the risk of a high cost packaging.

• Industry must stay involved in order to safeguard practical and affordable transport conditions for the development of the Li-batteries.

• It is in the interest of the industry to promote the safe transport of the Li batteries: cost efficient solutions should be looked for, tested, and validated by the competent authorities.

RECHARGE supports a strict enforcement of the UN Transport Regulation.

Most of the few incidents identified are linked to a non-respect of the regulation, or not following to good practices recommendations.

RECHARGE is supporting IATA’s (International Air Transport Association) call to governments for a stricter implementation of the regulation (August 2016):

An e-Book has been published to identify the applicable requirements and packaging for classified batteries (author: Marco Ottaviani): on line access: www.transbatteries.com

Safety of Lithium-ion batteries.

The safety aspects of Li-Ion batteries are regulated at three levels for industrial and consumer products.1. The battery manufacturing level.2. The equipment manufacturing level.3. The transport of Lithium batteries

1. At the battery manufacturing level, batteries are delivered to an Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) with a list of specifications about their use. A technical datasheet is supplied by the manufacturer of the battery to his client: the OEM who will incorporate the battery in an equipment. In addition the batteries are complying with international safety standards.

2. At the equipment manufacturing level. An OEM delivering a battery powered device to the consumer market has to comply with the European General Directive for Product Safety where the safety aspects of the equipment are regulated at consumer level.

3. The transport of lithium batteries. When transported, such Li-batteries or equipment containing Li-batteries are subject to the United Nations Model Regulation for the Transport of Dangerous Goods. They can only be transported under strict packaging requirements and testing conditions that are described in Chapter 38.3. of the Manual of Tests and Criteria.

When the conditions required by these Legal or Regulatory acts are fulfilled, the individual user is protected as it receives a product manufactured and transported in conformity with the best and safest practices.

We emphasize that the interests of safety are best served by the strict enforcement of the existing regulatory framework. The development of further and increasingly

draconian regulation will only penalize legimate law-abiding manufacturers.

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Transport & Safety

New solutions for new problems

Solving people’s problems has always been part of the REMONDIS business model. Whether it is the collection of municipal waste, the treatment of water or the collection of unidentified chemicals in schools and universities, REMONDIS brings qualified personnel and equipment for the task at hand.

Being the last link in a circular economy is not only a great responsibility but also gives us the opportunity to stay in touch with the past owners of the devices and vehicles, which are no longer wanted. Private customers come to our local civic waste collection points to rid themselves of all sorts of residues and things. Companies great and small seek advice on how to handle their waste correctly. We offer our expertise to help find the optimal solution in any case.

The progressing electrification of devices advances further as we move towards a seemingly brighter future. Automated lawn-mowers and vacuum cleaners, cordless power tools & appliances as well as electrified vehicles from e-bikes to semi-trucks and even planes all have one thing in common: Lithium-ion batteries.As with every new and promising technology, lithium-ion batteries bring along new challenges that have to be overcome. While we reap the energetic benefits of a battery during its lifetime, we have to dispose of it in an appropriate way at the end of its life. Recent events like major product callbacks have introduced the public to the notorious properties of lithium-ion batteries. Burning phones and cars have made the news and sensitized lawmakers to create and revise existing regulations in order to increase safety. Transport regulations have been a focus point of these reactions and this is where things are getting increasingly complicated.While the transport of new goods and worn out batteries is still manageable for most businesses, regulations for batteries in defective condition and batteries that are liable to rapidly disassemble, dangerously react, produce a flame or a dangerous evolution of heat or a dangerous emission of toxic, corrosive or flammable gas or vapours under normal condition of transport (ff. critical condition) present an obstacle that sets the bar too high for many. The current legislative and regulatory framework is so complex that particularly small and middle-sized companies have considerable difficulties following, not to mention carrying the financial burden when trying to comply with the regulations. Frustration, ignorance and faulty, hence dangerous packing are the results that we encounter on a daily basis.

Relying on two of the most predominant values of REMONDIS, “Safety First” and “Easy Handling”, we have developed a new type of storage and transport system. The foremost important feature is the complete lack for necessity of inert bulk materials (e.g. vermiculites / perlites) whilst ensuring the highest possible safety for anyone that will be in contact with the batteries.In January 2017, REMONDIS acquired a general permit (specification according to Special provision 376, ADR) for transportation of lithium-ion batteries in defective and critical condition from the German federal institute of materials research and testing (BAM) in Berlin.

The RETRON storage and transport system is set for the future and incorporates all upcoming changes to the agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR) that will take place in 2019 with the introduction of the new packing instruction P911.These features include a gas management system and a tough steel casing (4A) that offers protection from projectiles and flames. The outside temperature of the package will not reach a temperature of more than 100 °C in case of a lithium-ion battery thermal runaway. Cells or batteries in defective or critical condition will additionally be protected by our RETRON Safety Bag, which prevents the propagation of thermal runaways within the container.

We are confident that with the introduction of the RETRON storage and transport system we can offer our clients a solution which will cut through the regulatory jungle and reduce the stigma that has developed around the collection and treatment of lithium-ion batteries.


Transport & Safety

SAE G-27 Packaging Standard

The UN regulation for the transport of dangerous goods has seen in the recent years number of changes for lithium batteries. Particularly, the Council of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) established a prohibition on the transport of lithium batteries as cargo on passenger aircraft as a temporary measure until controls were put into place which establish an acceptable level of safety.

A performance-based packaging standard was identified as one of the controls.

Why is a committee SAE G-27 formed?

SAE G-27, Lithium Battery Packaging, is a technical committee in SAE with the responsibility for the development and maintenance of minimum performance package standards that support the safe shipment of lithium batteries as cargo on aircraft. The committee works in conjunction with related bodies such as the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), International Air Transport Association (IATA), International Federation of Airline Pilots Association (IFALPA), International Coordination Council for Aerospace Industry Association (ICCAIA), European Association for Advanced Rechargeable Batteries (RECHARGE), Rechargeable Battery Association (PRBA), Battery Association of Japan (BAJ), and regulatory authorities. The co-chairs of this committee are D. Fergusson (Boeing) and C. Chanson (RECHARGE).

The objectives of the G27 Committee

Develop Aerospace Standards for minimum performance packaging requirements to safely ship lithium batteries as cargo on aircraft. The standard may include packaging design, qualification, test procedures and any other related tasks.Upon completion of the standard, ICAO will reference the standard in ICAO’s Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air Packing Instructions for Lithium Batteries. The Committee also provides a forum for the exchange of technical information related to lithium battery packaging for transportation by air.

What are the requirements?

Controlling the consequences of a failure within the package is intended to prevent uncontrolled fire and pressure pulses that may compromise current fire suppression systems within the cargo compartment. When considering an approval, the following criteria at the cell/battery or package level should be considered

• No hazardous amount of flame is allowed outside the package; • The external surface temperature of the package cannot exceed the amount that would ignite adjacent packing material

or cause batteries or cells in adjacent packages to go into thermal runaway; • No hazardous fragments can exit the package and the package must maintain structural integrity; • The quantity of flammable vapor must be less than the amount of gas that when mixed with air and ignited could cause a

pressure pulse that could dislodge the overpressure panels of the compartment or damage the cargo liner.

What is the content of the Standard?

• This standard provides a test method to demonstrate and document the control of the potential hazards from Lithium metal batteries (UN 3090) and Lithium ion batteries (UN 3480) when transported as cargo on aircraft. It addresses the need to control the hazards which might arise from a failure of an individual cell by containing the hazards within the package.

• The intent of this test is to severely abuse a single cell such that it is most likely to enter thermal runaway with the presumption that a single cell may enter thermal runaway during transport.

• In addition to the “baseline procedure” for testing (a specific cell /battery in a specific packaging) the Committee has recognized the need to clarify specific testing conditions for various categories of cells/batteries or packaging: large batteries, cells and batteries that are “non-hazardous” (do not result in a hazard when tested, regardless of packaging), packaging applicable to any type of batteries, etc.. Additional testing procedure are developed for this purpose.

The standard is expected to be published in 2018.

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Transport & Safety

IEC 62902 Marking Standard

Background and objective

Fire incidents have been observed when Li-ion batteries are mixed with lead acid batteries in the recycling flows. On the other hand, the lead batteries are a poison for the Lithium batteries recycling processes.The objective of this Standard is then to clarify the identification rules of the different batteries chemistries to avoid mixing up battery chemistries at the collection and recycling stages, and facilitate sorting.

Achievements during the standard writing process:

• The labelling will concern all rechargeable batteries for their chemical identification.• It is recognized that the identification is necessary to help sorting during the processes of dismantling, collection, and

recycling.• Identification of battery chemistries is useful during the use phase, but not considered as mandatory. • For practical reasons, the scope should exclude small cells and batteries where placing an identification mark of label

would be difficult.

Actual situation and result

• No consensus on the content of the Standard was reached, particularly about the mandatory specific color per chemistry. It is unclear whether the color coding brings benefits or not ( no agreement for a supporting study or trial on a better identification in the recycling process with color coding or without color coding)

• On the other hand, color coding can represent an additional burden:o often in conflict with established safety labels,o risk of mixing orange color for Ni-MH chemistry with orange color for high voltage label,o risk of mixing blue color and the health hazards identification in the NFPA 704 hazard Identification System

(NFPA = National Fire Protection Association – USA).

It is of key importance that the Standard is supported and implemented by a large majority of the industry, in order to achieve the expected harmonization of identification and marking.

Further discussion will be needed to identify a marking solution that would be supported by the whole industry.


Transport & Safety

ISO 17840 Standard for information to emergency services

Objective of creating this Standard

To protect emergency responders and users during an intervention at an incident/accident with e-mobility vehicles or with batteries in storage facilities. Provide access for emergency services to correct and standardized information about the hazards from the battery used to power electric vehicles.

The ISO 17840 Standard is divided into 4 parts:1. Part 1: Rescue Sheet for passenger cars & light commercial vehicles.2. Part 2: Rescue sheet for busses, coaches, and heavy commercial vehicles.3. Part 3: Emergency Response Guide Template.4. Part 4: Propulsion energy identification.

For first and second responders initiating a rescuing action at a traffic accident site it is of utmost importance to make the correct decisions quickly in order to save lives of the traffic victims, and to avoid risking their own lives in the rescuing activity.

A first responder is an individual who is authorized, trained and qualified to provide primary response to victims of a traffic accident, fire or submersion. This includes fire departments, rescue squads, emergency medical personnel, law enforcement personnel, and in some military personnel.

A second responder is an individual who is authorized, trained and qualified to take care of vehicles after they have been subject to a traffic accident, fire or submersion. This includes tow/recovery personnel, vehicle storage operators, repair/service technicians, dismantlers and auto salvage personnel.

To cope with this situation, it is necessary to have immediate access to unambiguous information about the vehicles involved - especially in the case of vehicles with new technology. This does not only concern information about the location of the components (given in the rescue sheet) but the concept to be dealt with (e.g. fire in vehicle, fire in battery, dangerous products in vehicle, submersion, new/unknown technology).

There are clear benefits of having a common template, using standardised colours and pictograms making it easier for first and second responders and vehicle manufacturers to understand each other. It will also facilitate for the vehicle manufacturers to know what and how the first and second responder workers want their crucial information.

This is how the Emergency Response Guide template (part 3) is structured:

0. Rescue sheet(s)

1. Identification / recognition

2. Immobilisation / stabilisation / lifting

3. Disable direct hazards / safety regulations

4. Access to the occupants

5. Stored energy / liquids / gases / solids

6. In case of fire

7. In case of submersion

8. Towing / transportion / storage

9. Important additional information

10. Explanation of pictorgrams used

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATIONOF FIRE AND RESCUE SERVICE

46

Recycling

Belgian e-bike battery collection up by 33% in 2017E-bikes are rapidly becoming a common sight in the streets of Belgium. Bebat takes a look at this rapidly expanding battery market.

In Belgium, the collection, sorting and processing of used batteries is organised and reported by Bebat vzw. Consumers can hand in their batteries free of charge in one of 24,000 collection points. This extensive collection network consists of retail, container parks, schools and companies. The network is open to all types of batteries, but Bebat recommends that bike batteries are preferably taken back to bicycle stores or container parks.

Belgian law requires sellers of e-bikes to take back and recycle their used batteries. In addition, the take-back obligation also includes an active commitment to prevention and awareness raising, as well as an obligation to report to the three regional governments in Belgium. By joining Bebat producers can conveniently fulfill all of these obligations.

Bebat developed a specialised collection network for e-bike batteries. Special UN-approved collection recipients are made available to collection points and the waste batteries are collected free of charge. Bebat provides tailor-made safety advice to bike retailers. In 2017, the number of bicycle dealers in Bebat’s battery collection network rose by 15 %.

Facts and figures

Put on market

Bebat records show that e-bike sales in Belgium soared in 2017, with over 141,028 units sold. In addition, some 27,000 bike batteries were sold in the replacement market. This means that almost 19% of e-bike batteries sold in Belgium are replacement batteries. 95 % of those new e-bikes run on a lithium-ion battery.

Bebat also maintains statistics on e-bike battery sales in weight. In 2017 some 446 tons of e-bike batteries were sold. E-bike batteries accounted for 24% of all Li-ion batteries in Belgium (excluding batteries for electric cars). The average weight per battery was 3.2 kg.

Replacement market Built-in Total

QuantityWeight (in kg)



NiMH Electric Bicycle 1,674 1,781 320 358 1,994 2,140

Lithium Electric Bicycle 21,169 60,817 112,881 362,625 134,050 423,443

Lead Electric Bicycle 4,619 18,033 365 2,575 4,984 20,607

Total Rechargeable Electric Bicycle 27,462 80,631 113,566 365,558 141,028 446,190

Batteries sold separately or built- in

Collection

Collection of e-bike batteries in Belgium has also increased. In 2017 we registered a 33% hike in collected weight compared to 2016. While the sales of e-bike batteries in 2017 consisted for about 95% of Li-ion batteries, the mix of batteries collected is quite different. In 2017, of all e-bike batteries collected by Bebat (in weight) 65% was Li-ion, down from 75% in 2016 and from 66 % in 2015.

Recycling

RECHARGE Report 2018 47

Recycling

The difference in mix between batteries sold and batteries collected illustrates that bike batteries have a long life. Most of the bike batteries collected by Bebat in 2017 were actually sold in 2012-2013. This indicates a lifecycle of 4 to 5 years for an average bike battery.

The average weight of an e-bike battery collected in 2017 was 3.4 kg.

Bebat expects the growth of e-bike battery collection to continue.

Prevention and awareness

Bebat actively communicates to both bicycle dealers and consumers. The communication has a broad focus. It gives tips & tricks on how to extend e-bike battery life, it appeals to hand in used bike batteries, or promotes safe storage and handling of used bike batteries by bicycle dealers. Some of our tips for e-bikers:

• Do not discharge a bike battery completely; be sure to charge it before it is completely empty.

• Never store a bike with a completely discharged battery and use it regularly.

• Store the battery in a cool and dry environment if the e-bike is not used for any length of time.

• Never charge a bike battery in sub-zero temperatures. In this case take the battery inside and charge it at room temperature.

E-bike batteries are an important part of battery sales and collection today and in the future. Collection of e-bike batteries in Belgium is rapidly increasing. Bebat looks forward to continue growing in this market together with e-bike producers and to give e-bike batteries a new life.

Example online & offline awareness campaign

Bebat vzw – Walstraat 5, 3300 Tienen

[email protected] www.bebat.be

Collected e-bike batteries mix per chemical family in weight in 2017

Lead 3%

Ni-Cd 3%

Li-ion 65%

Ni-Mh 29%

Weight mix of e-bike batteries collected in 2017

4-5 kg 24%

Other 11%

2-3 kg26%

3-4 kg 39%

48

Recycling

Environmental Challenges towards 2050 – establishing a recycling-based society

To go beyond zero environmental impact and achieve a net positive impact, Toyota has set itself six challenges. All these challenges, whether in climate change or resource and water recycling, are beset with difficulties, however we are committed to continuing toward the year 2050 with steady initiatives in order to realize sustainable development together with society.

By Life Cycle Zero CO2 Emissions Challenge (challenge 2), we mean efforts to completely eliminate CO² emissions not only while driving and in production, but also in the processes of materials production, disposal, and recycling of vehicles.

For instance, there are some next-generation technnologies that do achieve reduced CO2 emissions when driven, but actually cause increased CO2 emissions at the material and vehicle production stages.

Because of this, we will further promote environmentally friendly design such as by choosing appropriate materials. In this way, we are going to pursue “ever-better cars.”

For example, we will develop and expand the use of materials with lower CO2 emissions during their production and will reduce the quantity of materials and number of parts used in a vehicle.

We will also adopt more recycled materials and so on for vehicle production and enhance initiatives aimed at designing vehicles for easy disassembly.

In this respect, since launching the Prius, the world’s first mass-produced hybrid electric passenger vehicle in 1997, Toyota has built its own recovery network to collect and recycle end-of-life hybrid vehicle (HV) batteries.

HV batteries contain precious resources such as nickel. In order to deal efficiently with resources, Toyota Motor Europe started recently in partnership with other related companies research on ‘battery to battery’ recycling, enabling these precious resources to be reused in new batteries.


Recycling

Dynamic Development in Li-Ion Battery Recycling Sales of Li-Ion batteries have increased again significantly in 2016, showing 10,000 tons put on market in Germany, approximately 40,000 tons in EU28. This trend is mostly driven by consumer applications, but also based on multiple power storage application in industrial sector. A moderate growth is still contributed to automotive electric powering in Europe, but the potential market of SLI (starting – lightning – ignition of cars) and electric powered compulsion can outrun the consumer market in a few years’ time.

Internal investigation of discarded Li-Ion batteries earlier this year by identifying production date and chemistry have confirmed that average life time is about 6 years, mostly between 4 and 8 years. This retention time between purchase and collection has been approx. 7-10 years for prior battery systems like NiCd and NiMH. Due to shorter life time design of products and technical characteristics of Li-Ion batteries, the overall life time has been shorted. Although collection rate for Li-Ion batteries is expected to stay lower than mandatory targets – collection schemes and recyclers need to consider fast growing EOL-tonnages.

As a consequence, all stakeholders need to improve knowledge and practical measures in the entire value chain. Most urgent issues cover:

• Aspects of safe handling and storage of collection points with concentrated Li-Ion batteries• Safe and affordable packaging and transportation (B2B)• Adequate and safe intermediate storage• Energy and material efficient recycling with lowest environmental impact

Considering these challenging conditions, CROs (Collection and Recycling Organizations) and recyclers need to improve selective attention, awareness and an enlarged budget. Fair competition will foster the variety of basic approaches and solutions.

Accurec is a medium sized recycling company, dedicated to battery recycling since 20 years. At its original facility, Accurec is recovering industrial metals from 3,000 tons of NiMH and NiCd batteries a year with its state of art vacuum distillation technology. Preparing for future recycling challenges, Accurec has started intensive research on Li-Ion battery recycling in 2013. The federal supported R&D project “EcoBatRec”, in cooperation with University of Aachen, has successfully confirmed a safe and material efficient recovery method for discarded consumer and automotive Li-Ion batteries. In parallel, a new industrial site to enlarge capacities and install its technique has been searched and found in Krefeld/DE. After 2 years’ time of permit approval, construction and installation, the dedicated Lithium battery recycling facility has been ready to start from scratch. Since inauguration, already more than 5 million kg of Lithium batteries have been recycled. With move of general administration to Krefeld, Accurec has shown the emphasis of its future growth. The facility integrates a battery sorting and packaging building and a 3,000 sqm mechanical treatment building for thermal deactivated Li-batteries. The 8.5 mio Euro investment covers also a high end safety storage building, providing 600 cbm (cubicmeter)/h fire fighting water and a 24h/7d infrared and individual related temperature monitoring. Thermal treatment, today still done in cooperation with Bayer industries, will be integrated until 2019. Accurec is going to invest another 5 Mio Euro in thermal deactivation and treatment of Lithium batteries, including upgrade of material efficiency, focusing on Graphite and Lithium. Considering these currently prepared constructions, Accurec will facilitate one of the largest Lithium recycling locations in the world.

Key data:

Turnover: 12 Mio EuroPersonnel: 55Legal/technical capacity Mülheim: 4,000/3,000 tons NiCd/NiMHLegal/technical capacity Krefeld: 60,000/4,000 tons Li-primary/secondaryHead quarter: Accurec Recycling GmbH, Bataverstr. 21, 47809 Krefeld

50

Recycling

You create, SNAM recycles

SNAM, Société Nouvelle d’Affinage des Métaux is a French facility classified for Environment, subject to SEVESO authorization which manages the recycling of batteries including the administration, the logistic, the treatment and the production of secondary raw materials. It manages the sorting of batteries collected from household and industrial waste and recycles:• alkaline – zinc/carbon, • Nickel Cadmium,• Nickel-Metal Hydride,• and Lithium-Ion batteries.

The batteries treated may be portable or industrial :

SNAM has engaged major investments on its two facilities to cope with the treatment of increasing volumes of hybrid and electric vehicle batteries.

Collection and traceability

SNAM has set up a collection system for industrial batteries from pick-up to issuance of the recycling certificate. The traceability is operated at the battery level (serial and reference number) and a web platform for Battery Collection Request Order called WorkFolloW has been developed.

SNAM is able to propose packaging solutions for damaged and defective Li-Ion batteries, including the sale or renting of special packaging such as secured metal boxes, and manages their delivery and pick-up. SNAM has a network of certified logistic partners authorized for the transportation of dangerous and non-dangerous waste in compliance with the local regulations.

Recycling

SNAM vision is the limitation of landfill and the production of secondary raw materials which will be reinjected in circular economy. To this end, it has invested in the optimization of its recycling process “PROMETHEE” (mechanical, thermal and hydrometallurgical) in order to increase the quantity and the quality of the recovered materials.

The two pillars of SNAM activity are the Ultimate Recycling with a return to the secondary raw material and the proposal of solutions for a Second Life of the Batteries.

Second life

• An ever increasing demand for Energy.• The development of renewable energies which calls for the construction of infrastructures using batteries.• The necessity to reduce the volume of waste and extend long service life products.

» SNAM meets these needs with the production of fully remanufactured batteries. The batteries are commercialized under its Extended Responsibility of Producer. The Extended Responsibility of the original producer has been released with the emission of the Certificate of Recycling after full dismantling of the generic battery.

More than 80% of spent batteries come from the Europe zone.

Industrial batteries Portables batteries

AeronauticsRailwayUrban transportEV, HEV, PHEV,HandlingTelecommunications…

Security lightMobile phonesCamerasMobile appliancesElectrical models…


Recycling

Recycling Efficiency for end of life batteries: what is the status?

The Battery Directive requires to achieve a certain recycling efficiency (RE) during the end-of-life management of batteries. Three targets have been set in the Directive 2006/66/EC. They are valid for all battery chemistries and whether the batteries are consumer, industrial or automotive. The calculation method and reporting means have been further described in Regulation (EU) 493/2012.

What is the status regarding the reported RE?

The first reporting year was related to batteries recycled in 2014. Today we are in the third year of reporting the achieved RE. Moreover, there is not much transparency built into the reporting system. Recyclers must report the RE they achieved to their competent authorities, with little to no public reporting by Member States, at the EU level or by other actors involved in the battery recycling value chain.

Consequently, there is no clear picture of the RE achieved per recycling processes or battery types for the time being.

The battery industry is also a very innovative sector. We all want batteries with a longer life, more energy per kg and faster charging time. The electric mobility is a huge driver of innovation for batteries. If innovation is welcome, it also brings some challenges along for recyclers. Battery composition is changing over time, consequently recycled materials are also changing with time.

The first lessons we can draw from the reporting of RE are:

• Output fractions from the recycling process are changing. A reporting based on elemental mass balance composition is not always the most appropriate way of reporting RE.

• Not all output fractions from a recycling process can be accounted for in the RE. Some conditions need to be respected. It would help to have clearer rules to determine when a recycled material is no longer a waste. In this respect, the end-of-waste criteria are essential. To avoid any misunderstanding, it would help to get the End-of-Waste status for some output fractions. EBRA encourages the Competent Authorities to grant this status for battery output fractions when requested and properly justified by recyclers.

• It is common for a battery recycling process to have several steps, not all of them performed by the same recycler. In a multi-step recycling process, each actor must report its achieved RE to the first recycler in the chain. The question is when the reporting chain is ending, i.e. when an output fraction can be considered as fully recycled and therefore can be fully taken into account in the calculation of RE. For example: How an output fraction should be considered if there is no market or use as such for it and it must undergo further treatment before finding a use/market ?

Battery recycling is a very competitive business. Creating a level playing field for battery recycling is essential to avoid market distortions and competitiveness issues.

This level playing field should be international. Batteries (or fraction thereof) collected or produced in Europe and recycled outside Europe should all follow the same principles when it comes to calculate and report the RE.

To create this level playing field, some essential conditions need to be met:

1. A more transparent reporting of the RE per battery types by the Competent Authorities (CA) should be made available, including for fractions recycled outside Europe.

2. A more straightforward and transparent system for granting EoW status to output fractions from battery recycling when a set of conditions are met

3. Mutual recognition by Member States of the EoW status

EBRA is currently developing a set of conditions to satisfy for output fractions to be fully accounted for in the calculation of the RE.

In this respect, EBRA is in favour of not changing the recycling targets or the method for calculating the RE as long as the conditions of a fair competition between battery recyclers are not implemented.

Published by Willy Tomboy – [email protected] | 168 Avenue de Tervueren, box 3 | B-1150 Brussels | BELGIUM www.rechargebatteries.org | Phone: +32 2 777 05 67

53520-1711-1001

RECHARGE represents the advanced rechargeable battery industry in Europe. Its credibility is recognized and valued through in-depth expertise and detailed reports provided on key issues for the rechargeable batteries industry, which the reader will find back in this report:

• The importance of advanced rechargeable batteries in today’s society.• A sustainable battery industry in Europe contributing to the circular economy.• International Regulation on the transport of Lithium batteries.• Safety aspects raised by the market development of Lithium batteries, related to storage, transport,

packaging, and the protection of workers handling these batteries.

The Advanced Rechargeable & Lithium Batteries Association

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