the balkan piedmont

7/23/2019 The Balkan Piedmont

1/44

The Balkan Piedmont - Serbia and the Yugoslav Question

INTRODUCTION

All the crises in the 19th century Balkans stemmed from the Austro-Russian rivalry over the

Eastern Question i.e. the question of the succession to the Ottoman provinces in Europe.ational movements of the Orthodo! Balkan "hristians #the $er%s& Bul'arians& (reeks andRomanians) developed under the influence and active support of Russia. *he (reek nationalmovement o%tained the support of all the (reat +o,ers& due to its ellenic herita'e& consideredas the core of European civilisation. *he Romanian and Bul'arian national movements ,erestron'ly supported and also shaped %y tsarist Russia due to their 'eopolitical importance in the'lo%al strate'y of Russian forei'n policy - an e!it on ,arm seas.

*he $er%ian national movement& first to arise in the Balkans as a national and social revolution in1/0 under the leadership of arad2ord2e& ,as also supported %y the $lavonic and Orthodo!Empire. $ava'ely crushed in 113& it 'radually recovered after 114& esta%lishin' the nucleus ofthe rene,ed $er%ian state& encompassin' most of today5s "entral $er%ia& ,hich acquired in13/& throu'h decisive Russian diplomatic pressure on "onstantinople& an internationallyreco'ni6ed autonomy ,hich e!pressed $er%ia5s independent status ,ithin the Ottoman Empire.

*he +rincipality of $er%ia& %orderin' on the a%s%ur' monarchy ,ith a specific 'eopolitical andfra'ile political position& ,as not only dependent on the ,ill of the su6erain court& the +orte& %uton the influence of the t,o (reat +o,ers that dominated the Balkans. 7n the first half of the 19thcentury& the nei'h%ourin' a%s%ur' 8onarchy5s economic domination over the +rincipality5s trade,as less tan'i%le than the political protectorate of imperial Russia& at the time %oth the official andtraditional protector of all Orthodo! "hristians in *urkey. 7t ,as only after Russia5s defeat in the"rimean ,ar that $t. +eters%ur'5s am%itions to dominate the political developments takin' placeamon' the Balkan $lavs ,ere cur%ed. 7n 14& the *reaty of +aris placed the +rincipality of$er%ia under the protection of the European po,ers. $er%ia ,as thus forced to %alance %et,eenthe trian'le of interests #Ottoman& a%s%ur' and Russian Empire)& ,hich ,ere all& at various

times& opposed to $er%ia5s primary 'oal: the unification of the $er%s& dispersed as they ,ere invarious provinces ,ithin the Ottoman and a%s%ur' Empires. #1)

+rince 8ilos O%renovic #ruled 114-139 and 14-1/)& ,ho %ecame the official hereditaryruler of the autonomous principality& 2ust like arad2ord2e& tried to conduct a policy as independentas possi%le of the po,ers that tailored the fate of the Balkans& especially Russia ,hich treated$er%ia as its province. is national 'oals ,ere the same as those of arad2ord2e: $er%ia5s final'oal ,as to unite ,ith Bosnia& Old $er%ia& 8ontene'ro and 8acedonia. e called on their leadersto incite an uprisin': ;thus to li%erate yourselves from *urkish oppression and thus to unite ,ithus& $er%ia& so that ,e ,ill rene, the $er%ian in'dom that ,as destroyed at osovo.; *he British"onsul in Bel'rade& "olonel od'es& ,ho& at the time of the 2oint action aimed at limitin' Russia5s

influence in the principality& ,as acquainted ,ith 8ilos5s plans& and considered that the $er%ian+rince had the support of almatia& "roatia or Bul'aria ,ere only 'eo'raphical names or historical memories: e!cept forthe $er%s there ,ere no other profiled national identities amon' the predominantly $lavonicpopulations. #?)

THE NATIONAL PROGRAM OF SERBIA


2/44

*he $er%ian national pro'ram ,as dra,n up in 100& durin' the rule of +rince Ale!anderarad2ord2evic #10?-14)& at a time ,hen& after the topplin' of a%solutist ruler 8ilos O%renovic&li%eral ideas& accompanied %y administrative reforms in the or'ani6ation of the stateadministration& had rapidly penetrated the political life of the autonomous $er%ian principality.

*his ,as a consequence of the comin' to po,er of the enli'htened %ureaucratic elite #the so-called ;>efenders of the "onstitution;). Only a small circle of them& the +rince5s associates& kne,a%out the e!istence of the ;acertani2e; - the +ro'ram of $er%ia5s forei'n and national policy atthe end of 100& dra,n up %y +rince Ale!ander5s interior minister& 7li2a (arasanin& a politician of%road political visions. #3)

*he acertani2e ,as %ased on the model for the unification of the $outhern $lavs proposed to(arasanin %y the +olish emi'rants at the @tel am%ert in +aris they %elon'ed to the circlearound +rince Adam "6artoryski. +olish Cmi'rCs ,ith the financial and political support of the


3/44

140 sho,ed& accordin' to the lin'uistic principle& apart from $er%ia& 8ontene'ro and Bosnia ander6e'ovina and it also included $outh un'ary #the $er%ian Go2vodina part as from 10)& Old$er%ia #osovo ,ith sand2ak of ovi +a6ar and northern 8acedonia)& Gardar 8acedonia& alon',ith the $er%o-"roatian re'ion up to 7stria and northern Al%ania #the re'ion around $cutari).

7n contrast to the lin'uistic principle& there also e!isted a narro,er& almost confessional model of

$er%ian unification advocated mainly %y pan-slavist circles ,ithin the $er%ian Orthodo! "hurchand the politicians of the i%eral party ,ho dominated the forei'n policy of $er%ia durin' the late1/s and early 1H/s& durin' the minority of +rince 8ilan O%renovic. On a map sent to theRussian 'overnment in 1& askin' for help in resistin' a''ressive Roman "atholicpropa'anda& Bel'rade 8etropolitan 8ihailo mentioned as $er%ian lands mostly the re'ions underOttoman rule ,here the $er%ian Orthodo! population& accordin' to his sources& constituted ana%solute or relative ma2ority&: apart from the t,o principalities& 8ontene'ro and $er%ia& he alsomentioned Bosnia and er6e'ovina& Old $er%ia #includin' the sand2ak of is& osovo& thesand2ak of ovi +a6ar includin' today5s northern 8acedonia& and northern Al%ania #the re'ion of$cutari). #)

THE FEDERAL AND YUGOSLAV OPTIONS

+anslavist propa'anda comin' from Russia %ecame intense durin' the late 14/5s and early1/5s. *he esta%lishment of the $lavophile "ommittee in 8osco, in 14 and the visit ofleadin' slavophile ideolo'ist 7van Aksakov to $er%ia& 8ontene'ro& >almatia and "roatia in 1/'ave fresh impetus to plans for li%eration from Ottoman rule. +anslavist propa'anda ,as focusin'on $er%ia and then on Bosnia& ,here 'eneral insurrection ,as %ein' prepared.

$er%ia5s forei'n policy plans durin' the second rei'n of prince 8ichael O%renovic #1/-1) -the preparations for a simultaneous uprisin' %y the Balkan nations under Ottoman rule& ana'reement ,ith the leaders of the "roatian movement and the creation of an alliance of Balkan

states - ,ere %ein' carried out %y his


4/44

insurrection ,as concluded ,ith the tri%al leaders of northern Al%ania. *he 'oal of the a'reement,ith Bul'arian emi'rants in 1H ,as the creation of a $outhern $lavonic Empire.

*he alliance ,as cro,ned %y an a'reement ,ith (reece - first an a'reement on an alliance inAu'ust 1H& and then also a military convention in 2akovo& Fosip Fura2$trossmayer& a'reed in principle to the creation of a common& independent ;federal state;& andalso to the plan for the anne!ation of Bosnia to $er%ia& as the %e'innin' of the resolution of theissue of the future $outhern $lav unification. 7t ,as in Da're% that one of the importantcommittees of the future uprisin' in Bosnia ,as supposed to operate.

*he turna%out to,ards the final a%andonment of the ,ar for Bosnia& took place after the meetin'%et,een +rince 8ichael and "ount Andrassy& the un'arian +rime 8inister& in Au'ust 1H. 7norder to dissuade +rince 8ichael from relyin' for support on Russia and from esta%lishin' closerrelations ,ith the leaders of the "roatian movement& Andrassy promised him tacit diplomaticsupport in 'ettin' Bosnia peacefully on condition that $er%ia enter a political alliance ,ith

un'ary. *he assassination of +rince 8ichael in a local political conspiracy in Bel'rade& in Fune1& marked the end of the plans for a 'eneral uprisin' a'ainst Ottoman rule in the Balkans. A%road Balkan Alliance ,as esta%lished half a century later& in 191?.#)

*he Balkan Alliance and ne'otiations on a common state ,ith the "roats once a'ain raised theissue of a 'lo%al resolution of the u'oslav question. Accordin' to the vie,s of (arasanin& ,horelied on the theoretical postulates of the leadin' scholars of the time& this ,as one nation for,hich the $er%ian state& as the Balkan +iedmont& ,ould %e the main foundation. 7n his letter to$trossmayer in 1H& (arasanin pointed out: ;*he $er%ian and "roatian nationalities are one -the u'oslav $$lav" nationality reli'ion is not to interfere in the least %it in national affairs thestate is the only %asis of nationality reli'ion divides us and separates us into three parts $i.e.&Orthodo! "hristianity& Roman "atholicism& 7slam"& %ut it can never %e the principle of ourunification into one state it is our nationality& ,hich is the same& that can;. #9)

*he main precondition for the future unification of the $er%s and the "roats ,as the disinte'rationof the a%s%ur' 8onarchy alon' national lines ,hich& after the defeat of the Giennese Emperor5sarmy in 7taly and (ermany seemed possi%le at least for a ,hile. 7n a memoir su%mitted toapoleon 777 in 1& (arasanin ,arned him that the a%s%ur' 8onarchy ,as a stran'ea''lomeration of nations& ,hich should %e recomposed accordin' to the principle of nationality.(arasanin even envisa'ed the creation of a vast confederation of some 00&///&/// inha%itants&,hich ,ould encompass the space %et,een the Black $ea and the Adriatic $ea. *hat state&accordin' to (arasanin5s proposal& ,ith $er%ia as the +iedmont ,ould serve as a %uffer 6one%et,een Russia and (ermany.#1/)

Alon' ,ith the spread of the net,ork of political a'ents and the preparations for a 2oint stru''ledurin' the 1/s& propa'anda ,ork ,as %ein' carried out to acquaint Europe ,ith the $er%s5

desires and their vie,s on the resolution of the Eastern question. One of the leadin' $er%ianpoliticians in Go2vodina& 8ihailo +olit->esancic& pu%lished #in 1?) a study ;*he Eastern


5/44

Question and its Or'anic Resolution; #;>ie orientalische


6/44

preserve the valua%le national characteristics of the $er%s outside the $er%ian principality as,ell& and to stren'then %rotherly relations in the %i' family of $lav nations& and& alon' ,ith othernei'h%ourin' nations& on the %asis of mutual respect and support& to 'ive life and a meanin' tothe principle: the East %elon's only to the Eastern nations.;#13)

*he $er%ian i%erals& the oldest party in the country& ,hich& respectin' the principles of ,estern

democracies& persistently fou'ht& from the end of the 14/s& for the esta%lishment ofconstitutional rule and democratic institutions& formulated& in its 11 pro'ram its forei'n policy'oals& addin' a num%er of its o,n solutions to ;acertani2e5s; main postulates: ;$ince the mainprecondition for the survival of every nation and the development of its natural resources and itslivin' stren'th& is its unification& they $the li%erals"& 2ust like all 'ood patriots& consider that the$er%ian nation5s main concern and constant aspiration& as ,ell as the hi'hest and most sacred'oal& must %e: to unite its dismem%ered parts and lands of the Balkan peninsula ,ithin theirnatural ethno'raphic %orders& and in the frame,ork of the old historical 'lory and po,er& %oth onthe political and the reli'ious plane. *o achieve this aim& and for the purpose of ensurin' thefreedom and independence of the people& it must choose& as the shortest and %est road& 'reatercloseness and a confederation #alliance) of the Eastern nations that have a similar historical fateand the same political and cultural interests - and it must primarily ,ork on the esta%lishment of acustoms alliance ,ith these nations and states. 7n this re'ard& ,e think that the %est friends of$er%ia and the $er%ian nation are those states and nations ,hose political and economicinterests are not opposed to the determined aspirations and interests of Eastern nations. 7n thisrespect it is $er%ia5s duty and need to seek and preserve the friendship of the %i' andenli'htened nations& ,ithout ever for'ettin' those friendships and the assistance already ,rittenin the pa'es of contemporary $er%ian history.;#10)

Even after ne, redefinitions& %rou'ht a%out %y the chan'e of dynasty& and the esta%lishment offull parliamentary democracy in 19/3& party pro'rams did not considera%ly chan'e as re'ardspositions of principle concernin' forei'n policy. *he Radicals #after 19/3& the Old Radicals)& asthe stron'est party in the country& did not chan'e their pro'ram& ,hile& four years later& a ne,political party spran'-up from the faction that had separated in 19/1 - the 7ndependent Radicals#the oun' Radicals). Rallyin' mostly youn' intellectuals& educated at forei'n universities& the

7ndependent Radical party esta%lished lively ties ,ith the cultural and political Clite in "roatia&,here a u'oslav oriented "roato-$er% coalition had %een in po,er since 19/ ,hich in contrastto predominantly clerical circles& inspired %y the teachin's of "6ech li%erals led %y *omas8asaryk& placed its hopes for the li%eration of the $outhern $lav nations in a democratic andconstitutional $er%ia as the +iedmont of the u'oslav nations.

7n their political pro'ram& the 7ndependent Radicals included a para'raph a%out the need tocherish the spirit of to'etherness ,ith other u'oslav nations: ;*o cherish concord ,ith all kindredand nei'h%ourin' nations and 'ood political relations ,ith other states. *o ,ork on creatin' apolitical and economic alliance ,ith other Balkan nations under the slo'an: the Balkans to theBalkan nations. *o cherish the spirit of a u'oslav to'etherness.; o,ever& their conclusion ,aspractically the same as the one included in the Radicals5 pro'ram of 11: ;+articularly tomaintain and stren'then the cultural alliance ,ith and to increase assistance to the dismem%ered

and unli%erated parts of the $er%ian nation& and to keep a,ake the a,areness a%out the questionof national unity in distant $er%ian provinces& e!posed to the sur'e of forei'n elements - all this,ith the desire: for $er%ia& as the +iedmont of the $er%ian nation& to do everythin' it can in orderfor all parts of the $er%ian ation to unite.; #14)

*he spirit of ;acertani2e;& no, adapted to the ne, political realities& also im%ued the pro'ram ofthe 7ndependent Radicals& ,hich sho,ed their essential %elief that the unification of the $er%s,as not considered to %e contrary& %ut rather compati%le ,ith u'oslav co-operation in principle.*he influence of (arasanin5s ideas is also easily noticed in the other $er%ian state& 8ontene'ro&amon' the parties that ,ere founded after 19/4& ,hen the country 'ot its "onstitution.

7n its pro'ram of 19/H& the most influential amon' them& the ational +arty of 8ontene'ro#arodna stranka) defined its forei'n political 'oals in the same ,ay as the parties in $er%ia: ;*o

cherish concord ,ith all the Balkan nations accordin' to the principle: for everyone ,hat is his tomaintain and stren'then ties ,ith the oppressed $er%s $referrin' to Bosnia-er6e'ovina& Old


7/44

$er%ia& 8acedonia and >almatia" to ,ork in co-operation ,ith $er%ia and to aspire to,ards thereali6ation of national ideas: to cherish ideas a%out a u'oslav to'etherness;.#1)

THE EASTERN CRISIS

*he challen'e came ,ith the Eastern "risis #1H4-1H). *he uprisin' of the $er%s iner6e'ovina in the evesin2e re'ion #the evesin2ska puska)& and then in Bosnia in 1H4& fromsocial demands soon turned to national ones - anne!ation to $er%ia and 8ontene'ro. *he openair national assem%lies of the Bosnian $er%s in Fune and Fuly 1H proclaimed& in identicalproclamations& unification ,ith $er%ia: as the only ;le'itimate representatives of the $er%ian landof Bosnia& after much ,aitin' and ,ithout hope for any kind of help& ,e have decided - as oftoday and for all times& to %reak ,ith the non-"hristian 'overnment in "onstantinople& in thedesire to share the fate of our $er%ian %rothers& no matter ,hat it may %e;.#1H)

*he act of unification ,ith $er%ia ,as solemnly cele%rated in Bosnia& and on that occasion&

alle'iance ,as also pled'ed to $er%ian +rince 8ilan O%renovic #1-19). At the same time&the er6e'ovinian insur'ents proclaimed their unification ,ith 8ontene'ro. eadin' a unit ofinsur'ents and callin' himself +etar 8rkon2ic& there also appeared in Bosnia a pretender to the$er%ian throne from the rival dynasty - the 'randson of arad2ord2e& and the son of +rinceAle!ander - +eter arad2ord2evic.#1)

>isappointed in the policy of Budapest and Gienna to,ards the "roats& Bishop $trossmayer& theleader of the neo-7llyrian +eople5s +arty in "roatia-$lavonia ,rote in Octo%er 1H& in his letter toBritish +rime 8inister (ladstone: ;*he $er%s are a ,arriorlike and very enterprisin' race& full ofvitality. 7t ,ould %e a 2ust re,ard for their san'uinary sacrifices in a sacred cause& to put theautonomy of Bosnia under the protection of their ener'y and their fifty year5 e!perience;.#19)

$er%ia5s 'oal in the 1H ,ar ,as to proclaim& after the ultimate victory in li%erated osovo& the

unification of Bosnia and er6e'ovina and thus create a unified $er%ian kin'dom. Bein' militarilyunprepared ,ith only 0/&/// untrained soldiers dispersed on four fronts& $er%ia tried to make upfor its ,eakness ,ith Russian volunteers& $lavophiles ,ho rushed to help their endan'ered $lav%rothers #around ?&4// soldiers and // officers). *he $lavophiles %elieved that %y sendin'volunteers& their society ,ould ;,a'e a ,ar ,ithout the approval of its $Russian" 'overnment&,ithout any kind of state or'ani6ation in a forei'n country;.#?/)

*he command of the army ,as entrusted to Russian 'eneral 8.(."herniaev. ;the ion of*ashkent;& a hero from the ,ars in "entral Asia. *ryin' to penetrate in various directions& via$and2ak to,ards er6e'ovina& eastern Bosnia and southern $er%ia& the poorly or'ani6ed andeven more poorly led $er%ian troops e!perienced a failure on the southern front. >ue to theintervention of the (reat +o,ers& peace %et,een $er%ia and the Ottoman Empire on the %asis ofthe status quo ante ,as concluded in 8arch 1HH. *he lost ,ar caused much turmoil in $er%ia.

8ontene'ro ,ith 1H&/// soldiers ,as much more successful in the ,ar: it 2oined the insur'ents ineastern er6e'ovina and li%erated a considera%le part of the nei'h%ourin' territories.#?1)

*he fate of Bosnia and er6e'ovina& alon' ,ith the question of Bul'aria ,here an uprisin' %rokeout in April 1H& %ecame the concern of the (reat +o,ers. At a meetin' %et,een Russian *sarAle!ander 77 and Austro-un'arian Emperor


8/44

moment& the focal point of the %alance of forces in Europe and initiated an accelerated resolutionof the Eastern question. 7n "onstantinople at the end of 1H& there ,as a "onference of theam%assadors of the (reat +o,ers ,hich tried to impose its o,n solutions for the reformation ofthe Ottoman Empire& and this ,ould include the international supervision of the resolution of thequestion of Bosnia and er6e'ovina. #??)

7nformation a%out the $er%s in Bosnia %ein' massacred %y 8uslim troops did not easily reach theEuropean pu%lic appalled %y the atrocities committed %y the *urks in Bul'aria. evertheless& $irArthur Evans ,rote in the 8anchester (uardian that around &/// ;old people& ,omen andchildren ,ere cold-%loodedly murdered;& that around 3/&/// ,ere forced to leave their %urntdo,n villa'es& and that around ?4/&/// people fled to the Austrian side& across the $ava River.#?3)

Jhen Russia entered the ,ar ,ith *urkey at the end of April 1HH& this encoura'ed 8ontene'ro,hich& ,hen its ne'otiations ,ith *urkey failed& continued to fi'ht. 7t ,as not %efore mid>ecem%er that& after some hesitation& $er%ia en'a'ed in a ne, ,ar a'ainst *urkey and scoredimportant victories %y li%eratin' southern $er%ia #sand2ak of is). *he advance units of the$er%ian army 'ot to osovo& reachin' the monastery of (racanica near +ristina& ,here they ,ere'reeted ,ith 'reat popular enthousiasm. After the si'nature of the Russian-*urkish truce ,hich

also referred to $er%ia and 8ontene'ro #in Adrianople on Fanuary 31st 1H)& $er%ian units ,ereforced to ,ithdra, from osovo to the a'reed line of division.

*he army of 8ontene'rin prince icholas +etrovic 2e'os #1/-191) achieved even moreimportant successes. After difficult %attles& 8ontene'rin troops li%erated a ,hole series of to,nsand enlar'ed the territory of the small principality several times over.

*he $er%s in osovo and 8etohi2a #central part of vilayet of osovo)& %ein' under the constantpressure of %oth the Al%anian irre'ular units of plunderers& and the Ottoman authorities ,hich,ere not ,ell disposed to,ards their "hristian su%2ects& fled in lar'e num%ers #3/&///) to $er%ianterritory& and a similar num%er of Al%anians from southern $er%ia crossed over to osovo and8etohi2a& partly of their o,n ,ill and partly under the pressure of the $er%ian authorities. Alon',ith other Al%anians from the %order re'ions of the Ottoman Empire& they represented the

fi'htin' fist of the Al%anian ea'ue #1H-11)& a movement ,hich& requestin' the creation of aunified Al%anian vilayet ,ithin the Ottoman Empire& ,as resolutely a'ainst the territorial 'ains of$er%ia and 8ontene'ro.#?0)

After sei6in' northern Bul'aria and ,ith Romania enterin' the ,ar& after si! months of difficult%attles& on 8arch 3rd 1H& the Russian army imposed on the Ottoman Empire its o,n solutionsin the *reaty of $an $tefano. Even %efore it ,as si'ned& $er%ian +rince 8ilan had informedRussian diplomats that $er%ia requested territorial concessions in Bosnia #the re'ion %et,eenual 8onarchy.


9/44

Russia5s representative& "ount $houvalov& instructed Ristic to reach a'reement ,ith Gienna&consolin' him that& in fifteen years time at the latest& Russia ,ould have its sho,do,n ,ith the>ual 8onarchy. *he $er%s ,ere especially disappointed in the $t.+eters%ur' $lavophiles. $eein'that Russia supported the occupation of Bosnia-er6e'ovina in order to %e free to create a'reater Bul'arian state& a $er%ian emissary in the Russian capital complained to the Bel'rade'overnment that ;there are no,here in the ,orld such snakes as our $lavophiles have turned out

to %e.;#?)

UNDER AUSTRIA-HUNGARY'S DOMINATION

*he *reaty of Berlin #1H) 'ave a mandate to Austria-un'ary to occupy the re%ellious Ottomanprovinces& Bosnia and er6e'ovina& and to have its troops enter into the %orderin' ovi +a6ar$and2ak. *he >ual 8onarchy considera%ly stren'thened its shaken reputation in Europe.+enetration into the Balkans ,as a lon' a,aited compensation for territorial losses in the ,ars in7taly #149) and (ermany #1). *he first ideas a%out a penetration into the Balkans had %een

formulated t,enty years %efore the Berlin "on'ress in a memoir prepared %y 8arshal Radet6kyin 1?& the iet5s request for Bosnia and er6e'ovina to %e 2oined to "roatia-$lavonia& a province under un'ary& ,as resolutely re2ected %y Emperor


10/44

the last quarter of the 19th century. 7n 1H& Russian *sar Ale!ander 77 resi'nedly toasted8ontene'rin +rince icholas as his ;one and only true friend; in the Balkans.

>espite the depression that ,as felt in the Balkan countries due to Austria-un'ary5s domination&$er%ia placed 'reat hopes in the ual 8onarchy had a direct link ,ith the Al%anians& a nation that had acquiredan important place in its plans. E!pectin' the demise of *urkish rule in its European provinces&Austria-un'ary ,as preparin' a plan for marchin' into osovo& Al%ania and 8acedonia& ,ithEurope5s mandate& on the model applied in Bosnia and er6e'ovina. *he creation of a lar'eAl%anian state under Gienna5s protectorate ,ould form a ,ed'e that ,ould definitely separate$er%ia from 8ontene'ro and avert the dan'er of the formation of a stron' and united $er%ian

state. urin'the disputes on the necessity for a reform pro'ramme for the protection of "hristians endan'ered%y Al%anian outla,s in osovo and 8acedonia& the Russian Am%assador in "onstantinoplenoticed that ;for the Austrian am%assador Al%anian atrocities do not e!ist& for they are notcommited a'ainst the "atholics - ,ho& like the Al%anians& 'o a%out armed and en2oy all privile'es- %ut a'ainst the Orthodo! $er%s& ,ho are treated like serfs that have no ri'hts.; *he RussianAm%assador also stressed that Austria-un'ary ,as not displeased to see the 'radualdisappearance of the $er%ian population in the vilayet of osovo #Old $er%ia):;c5est sansdCplaisir qu5elle en voit disparaMtre peu N peu la population orthodo!e ser%e.;#33)

*he %elatedness in the Al%anians5 national inte'ration ,as favoura%le as re'ards a %road action

%y the >ual 8onarchy: the Al%anian Clite& divided amon' three reli'ious communities& consistedof people of different social status and speakin' different dialects. 7n order to overcome thee!istin' differences& Gienna launched important cultural initiatives: %ooks a%out Al%anian history


11/44

,ere printed and distri%uted& national coats-of-arms ,ere made and various 'rammars ,ere,ritten in order to create a unified Al%anian lan'ua'e. *he atin alpha%et& supplemented ,ith ne,letters for non-resoundin' sounds& ,as envisa'ed as the future common script.

*he most important cultural initiative ,as the 7llyrian theory a%out the Al%anians5 ori'ins. *hetheory a%out the Al%anians5 alle'ed 7llyrian roots ,as launched from the ca%inets of Giennese and

(erman scholars ,here& until then& it had only had the form of a narro, scientific de%ate& and it,as skilfully propa'ated in a simplified form. Accordin' to this theory& for ,hich relia%le scientificevidence has not %een found to the present day& the Al%anians are the oldest nation in Europecreated throu'h a mi!ture of pre-Roman 7llyrian and +elas'ian tri%es from an Aryan flock -;Golkssch,arm;. #30)

THE FAILURE OF THE "BOSNIAN NATION"

Jhile politically neutrali6ed $er%ia ,as seethin' after a lost ,ar #,ith Bul'aria 14) and internal

%attles for a parliamentary re'ime a'ainst the a%solutist rule of 8ilan #*imok re%ellion 13) andhis son Ale!ander O%renovic #ruled 19-19/3)& in the occupied provinces of Bosnia ander6e'ovina& the >ual 8onarchy5s ;civili6in' measures;& aimed primarily a'ainst the $er%s& alsoaffected the 8uslims. Reluctant to accept European education and technolo'y& 8uslims ,hoconsisted 9/ percent of the land-o,nin' %eys& althou'h favoured %y the authorities started toemi'rate to nei'h%ourin' provinces under direct Ottoman rule. Accordin' to the first populationcensus in 1H9& of the 1&14&10 stron' population& Orthodo! $er%s accounted for a relativema2ority: 09&04 #0?. percent& ,hile in 191/& of the 1&9&/00 inha%itants& the $er%s oncea'ain represented the most numerous part of the population - ?4&91 #03.09 percent). >espitemi'rations #over 0/&/// of them had emi'rated %y 1910) the $er%s ,ere& due to their hi'h %irthrate& ,ith the a'rarian population accountin' for H.9? percent& a population in constantdemo'raphic e!pansion. Accordin' to Austro-un'arian sources& the $er%s dominated Bosniaand er6e'ovina not only in the demo'raphic& %ut also in the economic sense #in the small %ut'ro,in' capitalist sector)& althou'h the 8uslims ,ere still more numerous in the to,ns. At the%e'innin' of the ?/th century& out of the 19 millionaires in $ara2evo& 1H ,ere $er%s. *he num%erof 8uslims& due to their sli'htly lo,er %irth rate and lar'e-scale emi'ration to *urkey& keptdroppin': the authorities feared that& in time& the Orthodo! $er%s ,ould totally prevail in Bosnia.*o prevent this& the authorities constantly kept settlin' ne, people& mostly Roman "atholics& forthe needs of their economy and the %ureaucratic and police apparatus. *he "roats& consideredas a a%s%ur'treu nation ,ere quietly %ut systematically settled in those re'ions: around ?3/&///people& mostly Roman "atholics and predominantly "roats& came to live in Bosnia ander6e'ovina %y 1910. 7n 191/& there ,ere 1?0&491 people livin' in Bosnia-ere'ovina ,ho didnot have Bosnian citi6enship& and %y 1910 around 1/&/// people had %een settled in re'ions%orderin' on $er%ia. Around 10/&/// people& mostly $er%s and Bosnian 8uslims& ,erestimulated& %y various means& to emi'rate.#34)

*he proclamation of the application of the 8ilitary a, #creatin' conscription) for Bosnia ander6e'ovina& at the end of 11& provoked& at the %e'innin' of 1?& an uprisin' %y the $er%s iner6e'ovina ,hich ,as supported %y 8ontene'ro and even %y the Ottoman 'overnment. $omelocal 8uslims also took part in the re%ellion. *he uprisin' spread across the eretva river iner6e'ovina to central Bosnia& and then also to the re'ion of eastern Bosnia around the >rinariver. As the insur'ents ,ere ,ithout many ,eapons and sufficient forei'n support& the uprisin',as severely crushed %y H/&/// Austrian soldiers. *he Austro-un'arian forei'n ministerconsidered that ;this uprisin' ,as the last cry of fatally ,ounded $lavism in the Balkans;. *herevolt perhaps did have a certain ne'ative impact on ideas a%out the anne!ation of Bosnia ander6e'ovina and the a%andonment of dualism& ,hich Gienna thou'ht a%out in 1? and 13.#3)

An authority on $er%ian affairs - the consul in Bel'rade 1-1H4& a un'arian no%lemanBen2amin allay& ,as appointed 'overnor of Bosnia and er6e'ovina in 1?. 7n order to


12/44

definitely separate Bosnia-er6e'ovina from $er%ia& allay carefully developed the theory a%outa separate Bosnian nation& ,hose %earers ,ould %e the Bosnian 8uslims& alle'edly thedescendants of the old Bo'omil no%ility of the 8iddle A'es ,hich had retained its old privile'es%y acceptin' 7slam. $ince it ,as kno,n that ma2ority of the Bosnian no%ility had %een destroyeddurin' the Ottoman onslau'ht& and that the 8uslims ,ere mostly the descendants of 7slami6ed$er%s or "roats #nearly every 8uslim family kno,s its ori'in)& allay5s ne, ideolo'y& despite

'reat efforts& did not encounter a si'nificant response.

7nstead of the $er%o-"roat lan'ua'e& the official lan'ua'e %ecame ;Bosnian;& the "yrillic scriptused %y the $er%s and 8uslims kept %ein' systematically pushed out& and $er%ian elementaryschools had to face numerous pro%lems in their ,ork. *he Austro-un'arian ideolo'y a%out aseparate Bosnian nation ,as propa'ated %y richly su%sidi6ed ne,spapers& ,ith the intention ofrevivin' Bosnian individuality #;$ara2evski list;& the official ;Bosnische +ost;& the 8uslim;Bosn2ak;). 7t ,as strictly for%idden to %rin' any $er%ian ne,spapers printed in 8ontene'ro&Go2vodina& >almatia or $er%ia into Bosnia allay even %anned his o,n %ook ;*he istory of the$er%ian ation;& %ecause in it the $er%s ,ere descri%ed in a much too positive ,ay.#3H)

7n 19& a special coat of arms and a red and yello, fla' ,ere introduced in Bosnia ander6e'ovina. *he occupied provinces ,ere covered ,ith a net,ork of forei'n officials #4K) and

police officers #mostly from "roatia) some "atholics ,ere settled in $er%ian-inha%ited areasalon' the >rina river so that the ethnic continuity alon' the %order ,ith $er%ia ,ould %einterrupted.


13/44

CROATIA-SLAVONIA: "STATE RIGHTS" AGAINST NATIONAL RIGHTS

Another un'arian aristocrat& huen edervary& ,ho administered "roatia-$lavonia #13-19/3)&skilfully took advanta'e of the "roat open intolerance of the $er%s& ,hich had 'radually acquireda social dimension. Bein' more or'ani6ed and enterprisin' in economic affairs& the $er%s had a

disproportionately important position in trade& industry and %ankin'. After the anne!ation of the8ilitary ual 8onarchy).

Alon' ,ith the stren'thenin' of the economic po,er of the $er%s in "roatia& the $er%ianpopulation also 're,. At the %e'innin' of the ?/th century& in "roatia #,ith $lavonia and ra2ina)there lived H/&993 $er%s& compared to 0H&?0H $er%s ,ho lived throu'hout un'ary. Around19// amon' $er%s Da're% took over the position of economic supremacy from ovi $ad& capitalof Go2vodina& %ecomin' the $er%s5 main centre in Austria-un'ary. *he foundation of thecraftsmen5s society ;+rivrednik; #;Entrepreneur;)& then ;the Alliance of $er%ian


14/44

autonomy& %ut they ,ere not 'ranted the ri'ht to call their Orthodo! "hurch $er%ian& %ut rather(reeco-Eastern. 7n return& the $er%s started to co-operate ,ith the =nionist party in "roatia&,hich sponsored %y "ount edervary& ,as advocatin' closer ties ,ith Budapest.#01)

7n Octo%er 194& durin' a visit %y Emperor


15/44

of the advocates of closer u'oslav co-operation& ,rote in his memoirs: ;7n the ,inter of 19/H&there ,as a %i' %attle in the "roatian >iet for the term ;$er%ian nation; to %e erased from thename of the "oalition. 7n that de%ate& ,hich lasted for almost a month every day& the ,hole dayuntil late at ni'ht& and then a'ain from early in the mornin'& the $er%s in "roatia ,ere discussedfrom all possi%le standpoints and ,ith the use all possi%le ar'uments. #...) $ome tried to provethat there are no $er%s in "roatia at all& that the Orthodo! element& ,hich had no, 'iven itself the

$er%ian name& had %een "roatian since time immemorial until priests tau'ht it the $er%ian namealon' ,ith the reli'ion& ,ith the assistance of the 'overnment ,hich& in that ,ay& ,anted to divideand ,eaken the "roats that& at the time of Ottoman rule& elements of the Orthodo! reli'ion didflee to "roatia from the Balkans& %ut& accordin' to the interpretation of these speakers& part ofthose from Bosnia ,ere "roatian& ,hile the rest ,ere mostly the (reeks& *6int6ars& Romanianscalled Jallachians& that is Jlachs.#...) Others kept provin' that there have %een $er%s in $rem$today5s ,estern part of Go2vodina" for as lon' as our nation has %een present in these re'ionsthat these Orthodo! elements settled as the $er%s in $lavonia and "roatia proper that this has%een ackno,led'ed %y 7mperial privile'es and patents that for the four or five centuries that theyhave %een there& the $er%ian name has al,ays consistently %een propa'ated amon' them in,ays that ,ere possi%le at the time& either throu'h the name of the people or the lan'ua'e& orthrou'h reco'nition %y civilian or church districts therefore& today5s $er%s do not ori'inate from

Orthodo! "roats. #...) almatia& ,here the traditions of the national renaissance o,ed more tothe 7talian Risor'imento than to un'arian-"roatian feudal le'itimism. 7n >almatia& to'ether ,iththe "roats& especially in >u%rovnik& Dadar& $i%enik and $plit& the %earers of "roato-$er% concord,ere Roman "atholic $er%s& mostly the descendants of the old >u%rovnik no%ility #even includin'some Roman "atholic priests like don 7vo $to2anovic) and the %our'eoisie from the coastal cities&from Antun almatian parliament #the ;e, "ourse;) laid the

foundations for co-operation and& in time& instead of Budapest and Gienna& it started increasin'lyturnin' to,ards Bel'rade& as the pillar of the future u'oslav assem%la'e after 19/3. 7n the"roatian >iet& the "roato-$er% coalition - ,ith the constant support of its $er%ian part led %y


16/44

$veto6ar +ri%icevic - thanks to a limited franchise& ,on a relative ma2ority so soon as the 19/elections& ,hich& despite 'reat challen'es& it kept maintainin' until the =nification in 191.#0H)

*he "roato-$er% co-operation& esta%lished in 19/4& ,as orientated a'ainst the common enemy -the un'arians& ,ho& at the internal level ,ere endan'erin' "roat and $er%ian individuality& in"roatia-$lavonia and Go2vodina as ,ell - and a'ainst the Austro-un'arian 8onarchy as a ,hole.

$u%stantial differences ,hich e!isted ,ithin the $er%ian and "roatian national movements&reli'ious affiliation& uneven social and political %ack'rounds& ,ere& for the moment put aside& forthe sake of the closer political co-operation of the li%eral %ranches of the t,o national movementsa'ainst the political forces ,hich menaced their development - the "ommon 8inistry in Giennaand the un'arian 'overnment in Budapest.

o,ever& Gienna had on its side the ,hole of the clerically %ased part of the "roatian nationalmovement& ,hich rallied different political currents. Jithout the secularisation of the nationalideolo'y& as had %een done at the $tate level in ra'a 8asin ,ere killed in a conspiracy or'ani6ed %y a 'roupof Bel'rade officers ,ho ,ere assisted %y several political fi'ures from the i%eral party.

=nder the rule of the ne, kin'& +eter 7 arad2ord2evic #19/3-1910& formally up to 19?1)& from therival dynasty& the parliamentary rC'ime ,as re-esta%lished ,ith the reinstatement of the sli'htlymodified 1 "onstitution. Jith its li%eral institutions& its unhindered political life and almostunlimited freedom of the press& the parliamentary monarchy in $er%ia released the lon' stiflednational ener'y. *he principle of ;the Balkans - to the Balkan nations; - ,hich all the politicalparties from the i%erals to the +ro'ressists and from the Old to the 7ndependent Radicalsadvocated in their pro'rammes on forei'n policy - a principle %ased on the ri'ht to self-determination of nations - ,as e!perienced in Gienna as a direct threat to the very e!istence ofthe a%s%ur' multi-ethnic empire. After initial difficulties ,ith the (reat +o,ers #(reat Britainrene,ed relations ,ith $er%ia only in 19/& after the retirement of the most influential officer-conspirators)& +eter 7 arad2ord2evic& the first truly constitutional ruler in $er%ian history& 'raduallystren'thened his unsta%le position.#0)

*he operetta-like Balkan kin'dom& kno,n in Europe& in the last decades of the 19th century& forits court scandals& du%ious financial affairs and a picturesque mi!ture of Balkan-oriental customsand European influences& a state ,hose not so hi'h reputation seemed to %e permanentlycompromised %y the %loody chan'e of dynasties on the throne in 19/3& sho,ed& in an unusuallyshort period of time& the a%ility to under'o an essential political transformation. in' +eter 7arad2ord2evic5s accession to the $er%ian throne marked the %e'innin' of the most li%eral periodin $er%ian history. is re'ime ,as often descri%ed as a ;repu%lican monarchy; or a ;peasants5democracy;. 7n 19/0& the percenta'e of the population ,ho had the ri'ht to vote ,as the thirdhi'hest percenta'e in Europe& 2ust after


17/44

#191?-1913) ,ere also ,a'ed under a homo'eneous Old-Radical ca%inet. *he 7ndependents&'atherin' to'ether mostly ur%an intelli'entsia& had only one homo'eneous ca%inet for less than ayear #19/4-19/).

Both Radical factions ,ere a,are of the importance of $er%ia5s further democratic transformationfor the 'lo%al settlement of the $er%ian question in the Balkans. *he leader of the Old Radicals&

ikola +asic laid emphasis on this in his pro'ram speech at the party5s assem%ly held inovem%er 1911: ;7t is %elieved profoundly that a $er%ia ,ith a constitutional and parliamentaryorder can %ecome the +iedmont of the $er%s& that only an open-minded $er%ia attracts the$er%s& and that only %ein' armed and ,ell prepared can it fulfil its +iedmont-type vo,.; #09)

*he period %et,een 19/3 and 1910 marked $er%ia5s return to the independent forei'n policydescri%ed in 7li2a (arasanin5s ;acertani2e;& adapted to the ne, international frame,ork therenovation of the stru''le for national unification throu'h an independent forei'n policy. Relianceon the ,estern democracies&


18/44

*he policy of ;the e, "ourse; and the theory a%out a national unity #narodno 2edinstvo) of the$er%s& "roats and $lovenes invented %y "roatian +ro'ressive outh #;apredna omladina;)encountered a si'nificant response from intellectual circles in $er%ia& especially amon' the ranksof the second stron'est party in $er%ia - the 7ndependent Radicals. *he 7ndependent5s leader2u%omir $to2anovic& met ,ith the leader of the >almatian "roats&


19/44

7n autumn of 19/& "ount Aehrenthal& the Austro-un'arian efense founded itscommittees in other lands under Otoman and a%s%ur' rule and in Bosnia as ,ell& %ut after thereco'nition of the anne!ation #8arch 19/9)& their activities ,ere reduced to those of a culturalnature and to educational and national propa'anda. *he presti'e of the ational >efense& andespecially Gienna5s fear of its conspiratorial role& ,ere overestimated 'iven the predominantlyceremonial activities it carried out until 19/9& ,hen its ,ork ,as revived.#4H)

A ,ave of stormy protests a'ainst the anne!ation also spread throu'hout 8ontene'ro. 7t ,asconsidered that the anne!ation had endan'ered the future of the $er%ian idea& and that thesurvival of %oth $er%ian states ,as made directly dependent on the ,ill of the hostile military-administrative %ureaucracy in Gienna. 7n "etin2e& 8ontene'ro5s capital& in front of the Royal "ourt&

demonstrators called on in' icholas +etrovic 2e'os ;to lead them to ,ar for the $er%ian landsand $er%ian ri'hts;& and the 8ontene'rin parliament adopted a resolution concludin' that theanne!ation had ;dealt a lethal %lo, to the interests of the entire $er%ian nation;.#4)

Bosnia and er6e'ovina itself seemed to %e ,atchin' the happenin's concernin' the anne!ationpassively& %ut the Austro-un'arian authorities admitted that there ,as a lot of a'itation in thecountry and that ;almost the entire population ,as on $er%ia5s side;. *he $ara2evo 'arrison ,asimmediately mo%ili6ed and ?9 ne, %attalions ,ith 3/&/// reservists ,ere %rou'ht in. Elevenspecial ;flyin' units; ,ere formed from 8uslim and "roatian volunteers.


20/44

*he third attempt at eliminatin' ;the (reat $er%ian dan'er; ,as made throu'h the persecution of$er%s in "roatia-$lavonia. +u%lic opinion there ,as prepared for the anne!ation throu'h a;ri''ed; trial in Da're% of 43 $er%ian politicians for their alle'ed conspiratorial activities a'ainstthe 8onarchy in colla%oration ,ith the 'overnment in Bel'rade. *he Austro-un'arian'overnment& helped %y a special a'ent >2ord2e astic& a Bosnian $er% infiltrated into 8ontene'roand $er%ia& prepared a series of false documents and pu%lished several %rochures. "har'es

,ere %rou'ht a'ainst the leadin' fi'ures of the $er%ian 7ndependent +arty #;$rpska samostalnastranka;) ,hich acted ,ithin the "roato-$er%ian coalition. *he trial %e'an prior to the elections in"roatia-$lavonia and its 'oal ,as to %reak up and topple the "roato-$er%ian coalition. *heindictment ,as %ased on the statutes of an ephemeral revolutionary $er%ian or'ani6ation ,ithoutfollo,ers& ,hich ,as in favour of a u'oslav repu%lic and not of the monarchy under the rule of+eter 7 arad2ord2evic& as the indictment claimed. *he indictment ,as also to serve as proof thatthe $er%s did not e!ist as a nation in "roatia and $lavonia #around ? percent of the population)&%ut rather that they had %een created from the Orthodo! population of various ori'ins %ypersistent propa'anda from $er%ia. *he trial %ecame pointless ,hen there ,as no lon'er anyneed for it to 2ustify a possi%le ,ar a'ainst $er%ia. *he accused ,ere pardoned %y a decree ofemperor


21/44

%order could turn into a ,ar. E!pectin' an invasion& the $er%ian 'overnment transferred the statearchives and the ational Bank5s safes to the country5s interior.#?)

Backed %y (ermany& Austria-un'ary o%tained reco'nition of the anne!ation. Althou'h unfamiliar,ith the preparations for the anne!ation& Berlin soon supported the action of its ally& and on8arch ??nd 19/9& ,ith an ultimatum to Russia& it neutrali6ed any European intervention. *he

other po,ers of the Entente ,ere unprepared for ,ar: anu%e rivers. After 1H Bul'aria ,as created andthrou'h it the Bul'arian national idea& parallel to the $er%ian& ,as reali6ed.


22/44

THE MACEDONIAN LABYRINTH

*he anne!ation of Bosnia and er6e'ovina& in the vie, of Bel'rade and "etin2e& permanentlyendan'ered $er%ian interests in the Balkans. 7n order to prevent the further spreadin' of Austro-un'arian influence& $er%ia needed a Balkan alliance for 2oint resistance to the >ran' nachOsten. "loser ties %et,een Gienna and $ofia ,ould mean the further encirclement of $er%ia andit ,ould mark an introduction to the loss of its independence. 7nitiatives for the creation of a ne,Balkan alliance - on the model of the alliance from the time of +rince 8ichael O%renovic in 1 -,ere launched& several times& %y $er%ia - in 19/9 and 191/& and attempts ,ere made toesta%lish close co-operation ,ith (reece and Romania.

8ean,hile& the situation in 8acedonia - ,here the $lav population5s national a,areness ,as stillnot clearly defined - constantly kept deterioratin'. By the time the +atriarchate of +ec ,asa%olished in 1H most of the population in Gardar 8acedonia& accordin' to the testimony offorei'n ,riters ,ho had travelled there& felt themselves to %e $er%s or ethnically close to the$er%s. *he attempts at definin' a separate 8acedonian individuality& linked to the local tradition&

,ere supported %y Bishop $trossmayer ,ho helped& in Da're%& the pu%lication of 8acedonianepic poetry selected %y the 8iladinov %rothers. By supportin' their localism& the "roatian %ishop,anted the $lavs in 8acedonia& dissatisfied %ecause the "hurch or'ani6ation ,as under the2urisdiction of the +atriarchate of "onstantinople and %ecause the services ,ere in the (reeklan'ua'e& to accept& in time& a union ,ith the Roman "atholic church.

>ifferent re'ions in $lavonic parts of 8acedonia spoke different dialects - the ,estern re'ions adialect closer to $er%ian& and the eastern closer to Bul'arian. *he $er%ian criteria for determinin'nationality ,as the custom of cele%ratin' a slava #the day of the acceptance of "hristianity) ,hichforei'n and domestic travel ,riters noticed amon' the population of northern& central and ,estern8acedonia& ,hile the cele%ration of the name-day #a custom characteristic of the Bul'arians) ,as,ide-spread in the south-eastern re'ions #+irin 8acedonia). *he do6ens of requests for theunification of certain re'ions ,ith $er%ia that ,ere sent to Bel'rade durin' the 19th century also

contained the claims that the population of those re'ions had %een $er%ian since timeimmemorial. At the end of the 19th century& from various re'ions similar petitions ,ere also sentto $ofia. o,ever& the ethnic composition of 8acedonia ,as much more comple!: apart from the$lavs ,ho ,ere in a dilemma over ,hether they %elon'ed to the Bul'arians or the $er%s& there,ere also many *urks& 7slami6ed $lavs& *sintsars& Jallachians and Fe,s.

Bul'arian policy to,ards 8acedonia ,as simple: it requested the esta%lishment of anautonomous 8acedonia ,ithin European *urkey& ,hich ,ould then& at an appropriate moment&like Eastern Rumelia in 14& proclaim its unification ,ith Bul'aria. A po,erful ,eapon in thehands of Bul'arian propa'anda ,as the creation of the E!archate in 1H/& ,hich let Bul'ariahandle "hurch and educational affairs in 8acedonia. *his ,as done ,ith the %lessin' of the$er%ian 'overnment - it ,as considered in Bel'rade that it ,as important to introduce a $laviclan'ua'e instead of (reek in "hurch services. Amon' the illiterate population desirous of

$lavonic services in the "hurch and an elementary education& the E!archate had a 'reat effect.Bul'arian a'itators also skilfully eradicated the traces of a $er%ian feelin' amon' the8acedonian $lavs - they systematically destroyed old $er%ian %ooks and manuscripts& evenscratchin' frescoes ,ith the ima'es of $er%ian saints in the numerous monasteries %uilt at thetime of $tefan >usan and his successors in the 10th century. *he traditional pil'rima'e of8acedonian $lavs to $er%ian monasteries in osovo completely died out at the end of the 19thcentury.

Another po,erful ,eapon of Bul'arian propa'anda ,as the 78RO #the 7nternal 8acedonianRevolutionary Or'ani6ation) ,hich& financed %y $ofia& conducted a campai'n& and sometime ,aseven en'a'ed in armed clashes ,ith the *urkish authorities& for 8acedonia5s autonomy. *he78RO ,as divided into several factions and e!perienced a num%er of successive divisions. *he

7linden uprisin' #19/3) ,hich ended in disaster& ,as an attempt at castin' off *urkish oppression%y revolutionary methods. *he 78RO ,as in essence& a most useful tool for the 'oals of the'overnment in $ofia.


23/44

=ntil the %e'innin' of the ?/th century $er%ia passively and resi'nedly ,atched $ofia5s campai'naimed at Bul'ariani6in' 8acedonia. *he dissatisfaction ,ith the 'overnment5s passivenessstimulated private circles in Bel'rade to found& in 19/0& the "hetnik movement ,hich& usin'8acedonian mi'rant ,orkers in $er%ia and its follo,ers in the re'ions of $kopl2e and ,estern8acedonia& opposed the Bul'arian komitad2i and created a $er%ian nucleus for the stru''le forli%eration from *urkish domination #re'ion of +orec). *he "hetniks ,ere trained in army camps

alon' the %order ,ith the Ottoman Empire& %ut armed units sent to 8acedonia failed to diminishthe stron'ly esta%lished Bul'arian influence in southern& central and eastern re'ions. +arallely,ith this& the reform action of the (reat +o,ers in 8acedonia #19/3-19/)& ,hich ,as to ensurethe equality of the "hristians and the 8uslims& produced no tan'i%le results. *he oun' *urkRevolution in Fune 19/ eventually ended all the efforts at further reforms %y the Europeanpo,ers ,hich aimed at preventin' severe national and reli'ious clashes in Old $er%ia and8acedonia. *he +an-Ottoman policy of the oun' *urks provoked durin' the follo,in' years a'ro,th of ethnic and reli'ous tensions& follo,ed %y a rene,ed persecution of "hristians in Old$er%ia and 8acedonia.#4)

*he advocates of unification ,ith $er%ia ,ere most numerous in the north-,estern part of8acedonia& in the re'ion %et,een umanovo& $kopl2e& *etovo and Geles& ,here $er%ian unitsoperated #the dialect there ,as closest to the $er%ian lan'ua'e)& ,hile the pro-Bul'arianscontrolled parts of eastern 8acedonia up to the Gardar river& in areas ,here the dialectaldifferences vis-N-vis the Bul'arian lan'ua'e ,ere not 'reat. Bet,een them an Al%anian nationalmovement operated& and it ,as especially stron' in the south-,estern part of 8acedonia& around(ostivar& icevo and >e%ar& ,here most of the Al%anians lived. (reece also 2oined in theresolution of the 8acedonian question throu'h the rene,al of the or'ani6ation +hiliki etaeria,hich sent its units& the so-called Andartes& to operate mostly in (reek 8acedonia. $er%iaconsidered the >ual 8onarchy5s desire to create a (reat Al%ania that ,ould spread from theAdriatic $ea to the Gardar river as %ein' especially dan'erous& %ecause that state ,ouldendan'er $er%ia5s independence from the south. *he Al%anian revolts #19/9-191?) ,hich ,erepartly su%sidi6ed %y $er%ia and 8ontene'ro& in order to avoid complete control over theinsur'ents %y Austria-un'ary& proved such fears to %e 2ustified.

*he enormous literature on the 8acedonian question created 'reat confusion& %ecause $er%ian&*urkish& Bul'arian and (reek statistics concernin' 8acedonia5s ethnic composition differedconsidera%ly. *he estimate of Fovan "vi2ic& at the time the top authority on Balkan ethno'raphy&caused stormy disapproval amon' %oth the $er%s and the Bul'arians. oticin' the multitude ofdifferent customs& traditions and the lack of a firmly founded national identity& "vi2ic concluded:;the popular masses of the 8acedonian $lavs have no determined national feelin' or nationala,areness& either $er%ian or Bul'arian& even thou'h they are quite close to %oth the $er%s andthe Bul'arians;& and that& essentially& they are ;in the national sense& fluctuatin' masses ofpeople ,ith an ethnic predisposition to %ecome either $er%s or Bul'arians.; #)

THE BALKAN ALLIANCE

*he political climate in Europe ,as favoura%le for the creation of a Balkan alliance %ecauseRussia and


24/44

either autonomy or a division in ,hich $er%ia ,ould 'et the ,estern part #the dia'onal from riva+alanka in the north-east to Ohrid in the south-,est). 7n the event of a dispute& the final ar%itratorre'ardin' the division of territories ,ould %e the Russian *sar. *his ,as follo,ed %y the creationof a (reek-Bul'arian alliance on 8ay ?9th 191?& in ,hich the possi%ility of the central parts ofGardar 8acedonia acquirin' autonomy - ,hich (reece ,as most resolutely a'ainst - ,as noteven mentioned the question of the final territorial division ,as left open. *he alliance ,as

rounded off& first of all& ,ith an oral a'reement %et,een 8ontene'ro and Bul'aria& and then also,ith a $er%o-8ontene'rin a'reement si'ned on $eptem%er ?Hth.#H)

Austria-un'ary ,arned all the other (reat +o,ers that it ,ould not allo, a chan'e of thee!istin' territorial situation& ,hile Russia firmly stood %ehind the Balkan states. Ri'ht after anultimatum ,as issued to *urkey demandin' an immediate proclamation of reforms under thesupervision of the Balkan states and protection of the "hristians& a ,ar %roke out after thedeclaration of ,ar %y 8ontene'ro. On Octo%er 1th& the $er%ian& (reek and Bul'arian armiescrossed the %order. 7n the %attle of umanovo #Octo%er ?3th-?0th)& $er%ian troops& under thecommand of "ro,n +rince Ale!ander& heavily defeated the *urkish forces and entered $kop2e#skL%). At ual8onarchy. *he dan'er of a European ,ar %reakin' out forced the (reat +o,ers to react quickly.

At the ondon "onference #191?-1913)& convened at the initiative of ecem%er 1Hth 191?& the conference adopted the decision to reco'ni6e theindependence of Al%ania and this resolved the issue of $er%ia5s ,ithdra,al from the Adriatic,ithout a de%ate. 7n contrast to Austria-un'ary& Russia& alon' ,ith efeated %y the $er%s in the %attle of the Bre'alnica river& Bul'aria


25/44

found itself in a ne, ,ar not 2ust a'ainst its Balkan allies& %ut also a'ainst *urkey ,hich ,on %ackEdirne #Adrianopole). A peace a'reement ,hich approved Bul'arian losses ,as si'ned inBucharest in Au'ust 1913. #H/)

*he une!pectedly 'reat victories of the $er%s in the Balkan ,ars increased $er%ia5s presti'e inthe u'oslav provinces of Austria-un'ary.


26/44

accordin' to the principles of 8asonic lod'es. ed %y charismatic officer >ra'utin >imitri2evic -Apis& head of the $upreme "ommand5s 7ntelli'ence $ervice& the Black and 'radually infiltratedits mem%ers into various important or'ani6ations& includin' the ational >efense ,hose activities,ere& until then& mostly of a cultural nature. >ra'utin >imitri2evic Apis personally approved theline of division ,ith Bul'aria in 8acedonia.#H0)

*he or'ani6ation5s principles ,ere not& ho,ever& strictly and consistently respected. 7ts e!istence,as no secret to the pu%lic ne, mem%ers ,ere semi-pu%licly recruited from the army& and evensome u'oslav-oriented "roats ,ere admitted into its ranks. *he influence of the Black and're, especially after the Balkan ,ars ,here its mem%ers& throu'h heroic accomplishments onthe front& acquired a 'reat reputation ,ithin the officer corps. +rior to the second Balkan ,ara'ainst Bul'aria the +iedmont ne,spaper openly ,arned the 'overnment concernin' %orders in8acedonia that if it let Bul'aria take part of the territory& it ,ould %e accused of treason.Accordin' to British sources& the apparent aim of the Black and ,as to ;sacrifice everythin' tothe %uildin' up of a po,erful army for an ultimate ,ar ,ith Austria and the consolidation of aunified $lav in'dom.;#H4)

*he conflict ,ith the 'overnment& over ,hether it ,as the military or civilian authorities thatshould have had supremacy in 8acedonia in 1910& sho,ed that the Black and& tactically

supported %y the opposition& had ;praetorian desires; that ,ere contrary to the democratic order.*he crisis caused %y the dispute over the supremacy of either the military or the civilianauthorities ended in a constitutional crisis: the dissolution of the +arliament and the schedulin' ofelections& 2ust %efore the assassination in $ara2evo. in' +eter& una%le to protect the army5sinterests& under the 2oint pressure of the Radicals and Russian diplomacy& quietly a%dicated onFune ?0th 1910& handin' the royal prero'atives over to his youn'er son& "ro,n +rince Ale!ander.#H)

THE ROAD TO SARAJEVO

Bet,een the anne!ation of Bosnia-er6e'ovina and the Balkan ,ars& the position of the $er%s inBosnia had rapidly deteriorated. >ue to political violence& persecutions& imprisonment& theo%struction of the ,ork of cultural and educational associations and their ina%ility to act politically&in 1911& youth or'ani6ations like ;oun' Bosnia;& created on the model of 8a66ini5s oun' 7taly&decided to shorten the road to freedom ,ith individual sacrifices. On the day of the openin' of theBosnian >iet& in Fune 191/& after an unsuccessful attempted assassination of the Austro-un'arian 'overnor& the leader of oun' Bosnia& Bo'dan Dera2ic& committed suicide& thus 'ivin'the entire 'eneration an e!ample of heroic self-sacrifice for the sake of national freedom.

7n the years that follo,ed& the persecution of the $er%s acquired vast proportions& creatin' anatmosphere of un%eara%le pressure. *he arrival of the Austro-un'arian Archduke ual 8onarchy: a) thedefinite loss of the status of a (reat +o,er %) proof of her incapacity as the ally of the (ermanReich c) the permanent endan'erment of the 8onarchy5s u'oslav re'ions %y the stren'thenedBalkan states.#H)

*he Giennese 'overnment persistently tried to prove the $er%ian 'overnment5s involvement in theassassination. Even thou'h they had received ,eapons from the ;Black and; leaders& and


27/44

althou'h they had %een transferred& ,ith its help& from $er%ia to Bosnia& the assassins %elon'in'to oun' Bosnia acted independently. *he assassination of issatisfaction ,ith the response ,as taken as an e!cuse for declarin' ,ar on $er%ia on Fuly?th 1910. 7n his proclamation& 8ontene'rin in' icholas said that ;the pride of the $er%iannation #;pleme;) did not permit further& yieldin'; and stressed: ;8y 8ontene'rins are ready to die

in defense of our independence;.#?) 7n his proclamation to the nation& $er%ian Re'ent Ale!anderstressed that ;thirty years a'o& Austria-un'ary conquered $er%ian Bosnia and er6e'ovina;&provinces ,hich ;it finally and ille'itimately appropriated si! years a'o;& and he called on thepeople to defend ;,ith all their stren'th& their homesteads and the $er%ian nation; #pleme)#3).

TOTAL WAR: REPRESSION AND MASSACRES

*he ,ay in ,hich the ,ar a'ainst $er%ia ,as ,a'ed and& at the same time& the persecution ofthe $er%s in the >ual 8onarchy& clearly sho,ed that this ,as an attempt at totally crushin'$er%ian resistance and definitely closin' the $er%ian question in the Balkans. *he repressiona'ainst the civilian population durin' the short-lived Austro-un'arian occupation of $er%ianterritory at the end of 1910& included the perpetration of serious ,ar crimes: the most activeperpetrators ,ere soldiers of un'arian and "roatian nationality under the command of Austrianofficers. On the prete!t that they ,ere preparin' and offerin' resistance& lar'e num%ers of$er%ian civilians ,ere e!ecuted or %rutally killed in cold %lood& re'ardless of their a'e: the victims,ere ,omen& old people and children alike authori6ed officers ,arned the $er%ian "hief of $taffa%out the lar'e num%er of mutilated %odies of ,omen and children& and a completedocumentation ,as collected in the field %y >r. Rudolf A. Reiss& a $,iss scholar of (ermandescent& in his capacity of an independent researcher. #0)

One internal and confidential instruction ,ritten in (erman and si'ned %y 'eneral orstein for his

troops& found on a ,ounded Austro-un'arian soldier& sho,ed& in a ,ay& the 'eneral army policyto,ards the $er%ian civilian population: ;Brother soldiers& ,e ,ill soon enter into a country ,ithpeople ,ho are ,orse than the most terri%le %ar%arians if you unfortunately fall into their hands


28/44

the most shameful thin' ,ill happen& they ,ill cut off your ears and noses& put out your eyes&poison the ,ater and food. *herefore 7 command you not to treat these %andits ,ith humanity %utto destroy everythin' of $er%ian ori'in& and every person speakin' the $er%ian lan'ua'e is to %eshot ,ithout mercy. After enterin' the $er%ian cities and villa'es all the prominent personsincludin' clerks& priests and teachers should %e arrested& and in the presence of the localpopulation three persons from each 'roup should %e han'ed.; #4) *he names of the officers ,ho

committed the most %rutal e!ecutions and ,ar crimes and ,ho came from the ?1st& ?4th& ?th&?9th& 3Hth and H9th infantry divisions of the Austro-un'arian army ,ere after,ards pu%lished ina %ook %y "lara $tur6ene'er.#)

Jithin Austria-un'ary all the $er%s in Bosnia and $rem ,ho had ,elcomed the $er%ian and8ontene'rin troops as li%erators durin' their 2oint offensive in eastern Bosnia and the re'ionaround $ara2evo in summer 1910 ,ere arrested or interned. Over a hundred $er%ian civilians,ere e!ecuted or %ayoneted in the re'ion %et,een $ara2evo and the >rina river in the first ,aveof retaliation $alone. *he 'overnor of Bosnia-er6e'ovina& Oskar +otiorek made plans durin'1910 to repatriate all the $er%ian Orthodo! population from Eastern Bosnia. Afraid of a potential$er%ian insurrection +otiorek planned to use domestic 8uslims as armed volunteers #;Bur',ehr;and ;$chut6,ehr;) a'ainst unrelia%le Orhthodo! $er%s in Bosnia. +otiorek5s successor $t2epan$arkotic in order to limit e!pression of $er%ian national identity in Bosnia& ,anted to su%mit the$er%ian Orthodo! "hurch to the military authorities& as ,as the practice in the 8ilitary ual 8onarchy started immediately afterthe assassination of


29/44

$pecial paramilitary forces called the ;$chut6korps; ,ere created of 8uslim and "roatianvolunteers& ,ho in the villa'es of Bosnia and er6e'ovina killed $er%s concernin' ,hom theyhad dou%ts ,ithout a trial. >urin' the ,ar& the num%er of $chut6korps mem%ers rose to 11&///people. 7n order to prevent ;an armed re%ellion in the country;& 9&/// rifles ,ere distri%utede!clusively to 8uslims and Roman "atholics: it ,as considered %y the local 'overnment thatthere ,ere a%solutely no loyal $er%s in Bosnia and er6e'ovina.#9/)

*he esta%lishment of a court martial in the first months of the ,ar& made possi%le the unhinderede!ecution of a lar'e num%er of $er%s. *heir peaceful conduct& it ,as reported from certainre'ions in Bosnia& ;is not to %e ascri%ed to the $er%ian population5s loyalty& %ut rather to theeffects of - the 'allo,s;. "ertain repressive measures ,ere also taken a'ainst Fe,s. At the very%e'innin' of the ,ar& the Austro-un'arian army e!ecuted $er%s ,ithout a trial& especially in there'ions %orderin' on $er%ia #iet) ,ere convicted ,ithout real evidence 1 ,ere sentenced to death& ,hile the others 'otmany years of imprisonment. =nder the pressure of ,orld pu%lic opinion& the ne, Austro-un'arian Emperor& "harles 7& released them in order to present his re'ime as li%eral at the time

of the talks on a separate peace a'reement ,ith


30/44

*he $er%s in Go2vodina like their kinsmen in Bosnia e!perienced similar persecutions& arrests ande!ecutions& trials ,ithout real evidence and internment. Apart from $rem& ,here terri%leretaliations& arrests and e!ecutions ,ere carried out after the $er%ian offensive in 1910& Banatsuffered the same fate ,here only a fe, advance parties of the $er%ian army appeared. $er%ianpolitical parties ,ere dis%anded& and a num%er of proceedin's ,ere instituted a'ainst school%oysin ovi $ad& ikinda& $om%or and other to,ns. 7n the un'arian parliament& (yula Andrassy

,arned that the ;(reat $er%ian movement; had acquired such dan'erous proportions that arevolution could %reak out any moment& and that the movement5s 'oal ,as the unification of the1? million $er%s disunited throu'hout the 8onarchy and the in'dom of $er%ia& as ,ell as thecreation of a %i' $lavic state to the detriment of un'ary. As a counter-measure& he proposedthat the separate nationalisms of the $lovenians& "roats and $er%s in the 8onarchy %e favouredas opposed to the u'oslav movement.#94)

*he Austro-un'arian military and civilian authorities tried especially hard to a,aken disputes%et,een the $er%s and the "roats.


31/44

*he u'oslavs ,ere descri%ed as ;a nation in creation; #8ilan 8ar2anovic - a "roat& $ukri2aurtovic - a $er%-8uslim) that ,ould represent a synthesis of the East and the Jest in the$lavonic $outh. $to2an ovakovic& a historian and diplomat& predicted that a unified u'oslavstate ,ould %e created in the future and that it ,ould spread from $plit in the ,est& to $u%otica inthe north& and from Ohrid in the south& to 8ari%or in the north. Amon' the "roats& the %earers ofthe u'oslav ideolo'y ,ere national leaders from >almatia& ,hich& unlike "roatia& formed ,ithin

the "entral European cultural circle& developed under the influence of the 8editerraneanherita'e& inspired %y 8a66ini5s model of unification around a +iedmont.


32/44

*he ,ar 'oals ,ere pu%licly proclaimed already at the very %e'innin' of the ,ar& after the 'reatvictories a'ainst Austro-un'arian troops on the >rina river and on "er mountain in the summerand autumn of 1910. *he ,ar 'oal ,as epitomi6ed in the $er%ian 'overnment5s declarationpresented %efore the +arliament in is& on >ecem%er Hth 1910:

;"onvinced that the entire $er%ian nation is determined to persevere in the holy stru''le for the

defense of their homesteads and their freedom& the 'overnment of the in'dom #of $er%ia)considers that& in these fateful times& its main and only task is to ensure the successfulcompletion of this 'reat ,arfare ,hich& at the moment ,hen it started& also %ecame a stru''le forthe li%eration and unification of all our unli%erated $er%ian& "roatian and $lovenian %rothers. *he'reat success ,hich is to cro,n this ,arfare ,ill make up for the e!tremely %loody sacrifices,hich this 'eneration of $er%s is makin';.#1/3)

*he proclamation of $er%ia5s ,ar 'oals ,as aimed at acquaintin' the Allies ,ith its ,ish to createa u'oslav state& %ecause there ,as fear amon' the $er%ian leadership that Russia and (reatBritain ,ould make efforts to ,eaken Austria-un'ary considera%ly& %ut not to %reak it up. (reatBritain considered that& due to the reli'ious differences& the unification of the $er%s and the"roats ,ould %e the source of ne, insta%ility in the common state and in the entire re'ion& and it,as %elieved in Russia that the reli'ious differences ,ere such that it ,ould %e %etter to create a

;(reat $er%ia;. Accordin' to certain researchers& the creation of a ;(reat $er%ia; #occasionallyidentified ,ith u'oslavia)& ,as advocated %y the Black and ,hich& in this re'ard& perhaps hadthe support of certain military circles in Russia.#1/0)

Accordin' to private information o%tained %y the $er%ian ra'utin>imitri2evic-Apis. #Artamanov also told "ro,n-+rince Ale!ander that the future state should %e afederation %ecause of British attitudes). On the other hand the +iedmont ne,spaper of the Blackand advocated& durin' 1910& the unification of the $er%s and "roats usually ,ithout mentionin'the $lovenes: ;=nity means that ,e - the $er%s and "roats are one nation& unification means: ,eshould %e one state& ,hile unity is a fact& unification is our ideal.; *he destruction of Austria-

un'ary ,as the primary 'oal: ;Austria is a state ,ithout national foundations and ,ithout acultural mission.


33/44

Austria-un'ary on a trialist %asis #Austrian& "6ech and un'arian lands)& ,hile $er%ia ,ould 'etBosnia and er6e'ovina& >almatia and northern Al%ania& ,ith "roatia and $lovenia remainin',ithin the a%s%ur' Empire. >urin' the crisis over Bul'aria5s en'a'ement in the ,ar& Russiandiplomats requested that a considera%le part of 8acedonia - the apple of discord %et,een the$er%s and Bul'ars ever since the Balkan ,ars - %e 'iven to Bul'aria.#1/H)

*he $er%ian 'overnment& ho,ever& persistently kept refusin' to 'ive part of the territories in8acedonia to Bul'aria& considerin' that 8acedonia ,as the key to strate'ic influence in theBalkan peninsula. $er%ian officials& relyin' on (reece5s support& reacted %y esta%lishin' closerties ,ith


34/44

*he issue of the %orders %et,een $er%ia and 8ontene'ro is to %e considered an internal $er%ianaffair;.#11?)

On the international plane& the successful repellin' of t,o Austro-un'arian offensives in 1910&and the heroic %attles a'ainst the several times more numerous enemy& raised $er%ia5s presti'eamon' the Allies to a hi'h level& especially in ay& and the follo,in' year& similar events also took place in (reat Britain.e, challen'es follo,ed the %reak of the $er%ian defense in autumn 1914: the 2oint Austro-(erman offensive from the north& and the Bul'arian offensive from the south-east& forced the$er%ian army to ,ithdra, to,ards the south-,est. "ut off from (reece %y Bul'arian advances in8acedonia& the $er%ian army started movin' to,ards the Al%anian coast& partly via 8ontene'ro&and partly via Al%ania& in order for Allied ships to transfer it to a safe place. >efendin' the flank ofthe ,ithdra,in' $er%ian troops& on Orthodo! "hristmas >ay on Fanuary Hth& the 8ontene'rinarmy heavily defeated Austro-(erman troops at 8o2kovac& %ut it could not resist a ne, attack.*he 8ontene'rin +arliament decided to follo, $er%ia5s e!ample& to ,ithdra, in the face of theenemy& %ut in' icholas& crushed and demorali6ed& left the country and crossed to 7taly at the%e'innin' of 191& after ,hich 8ontene'ro ,as forced to si'n a capitulation. +art of its army2oined the $er%ian troops ,ho& accompanied %y a multitude of civilian refu'ees& ,ere forced& dueto the 7talians5 o%struction& to fi'ht their ,ay throu'h to the southern port of Al%ania& ,here


35/44

;*he $tate of the $er%s& "roats and $lovenes& kno,n as the $outhern $lavs or u'oslavs& ,ill %ea free and independent in'dom ,ith a unified territory and unified citi6enship. 7t ,ill %e aconstitutional& democratic and parliamentary monarchy ruled %y the arad2ord2evic dynasty& ,hichhas offered proof that in its thou'hts and feelin's it is not separated from the people and that itplaces the people5s ,ill and freedom a%ove everythin'... *he "onstitution ,hich& after the si'nin'of a peace a'reement& ,ill %e adopted %y a "onstituent Assem%ly& elected on the %asis of the

'eneral& equal& direct and secret votin' ri'ht& ,ill %e the %asis for the functionin' of the state& thesource and last resort of all competences and ri'hts& and the entire life in the $tate ,ill %ere'ulated accordin' to it. *he "onstitution ,ill also 'ive the people the possi%ility to develop theirener'ies in self-'overnin' units %earin' the hallmark of their natural& social and economiccircumstances. *he "onstitution is to %e adopted in its entirety& %y the "onstituent Assem%ly& ,itha numerically qualified ma2ority. Both the "onstitution and other la,s that the "onstituentAssem%ly adopts come into effect ,hen the in' sanctions them;.#114)

Jith a special statement& the "orfu >eclaration ,as also accepted %y the 8ontene'rin"ommittee for ational =nification. 7t ,as only in' icholas5s 'overnment in e!ile that re2ectedthe "orfu >eclaration in a sharply ,orded communiquC.

*he u'oslav "ommittee& ho,ever& ,as not a representative %ody of the "roatian and $lovenian

nations. 8ost of its mem%ers& apart from the $er%s from Bosnia& ,ere "roatian politicians from>almatia #at the time separated from "roatia and under the direct 2urisdiction of Gienna& ,ith itso,n Assem%ly)& ,ho considered the u'oslav unification to %e the %est defense a'ainst 7talianpretensions to,ards >almatia. Jith financial support from the $er%ian 'overnment& the u'oslav"ommittee successfully resolved all the questions& e!cept the issue of the future u'oslavia5sconstitutional structure.

>isa'reements ,ith the $er%ian 'overnment over a series of questions characteri6ed the ,ork ofthe u'oslav "ommittee5s "roatian mem%ers. almatia. Jon over %y the stands of t,oBritish e!perts #enry Jickham $teed and Ro%ert Jilliam $eaton-Jatson)& that the focal point ofthe future federal state should %e Roman "atholic "roatia& in a memorandum to the British'overnment he asked for 'uarantees that the ne, state ,ould not %e of a predominantly $er%ian

and Orthodo! nature and that& %efore the creation of a unified state& all the forces that sa,"roatia as their cultural and political centre& ,ould %e %rou'ht to'ether around Da're%. Before hisdeath in 191H& $upilo once a'ain turned to co-operation ,ith the $er%ian 'overnment.#11)

*he $er%s had t,o opposed concepts: the first one& ,hich& apart from +asic& ,as advocated %ymost of their political leaders& envisa'ed that the $er%ian lands unite first& and& only then& that acommon state ,ith the "roats and the $lovenes %e created. *he second& less ,ide-spread one&advocated mostly %y leaders of the 7ndependents and part of the scholarly Clite considered thatthe state that should %e created first and that its structure should %e determined after,ards.$ome amon' them advocated federal reor'ani6ation of the future u'oslav state. #11H)

*he "orfu declaration completely shook the positions of the representatives of the $lovenes and"roats ,ho tried to preserve Austria-un'ary. Even %efore it ,as adopted& noticin' the mood

amon' certain layers of the population& Anton orosec& the leader of the $lovenian +eople5s+arty& underlined& in his report to the Austrian +rime 8inister& that& in the south of the 8onarchy&the ;(reat $er%ian idea is the stron'est; and he proposed that it %e opposed %y the unification of$lovenia and "roatia. At orosec5s initiative& in 8ay 191H& the u'oslav clu% of "roatian and$lovenian mem%ers of the Giennese parliament adopted a declaration ,hich& ;on the %asis of thenational principle and the 5"roatian $tate Ri'ht5& called for the unification of all the lands in the8onarchy inha%ited %y the $lovenes& "roats and $er%s into one independent state %ody that,ould %e free from the no%ility of the other nations and %ased on democratic foundations& underthe sceptre of the a%s%ur'-orraine dynasty& and it ,ould invest all its efforts in order for thisrequest of its 5one-and-the-same nation5 to %e achieved.; ual 8onarchy ,ould


36/44

create a vacuum in central and south-eastern Europe. *he version ,hich& in 191H& seemed morepro%a%le to the Allies ,as the >ual 8onarchy5s federali6ation. Jith the disappearance of Russiaas a rival in the eastern question& (reat Britain 'radually started acceptin' u'oslav unificationas a possi%le& %ut still distant option. At the %e'innin' of 191& the statements made %y the British+rime 8inister and ;the is'raceful& ?&/// $er%sdecided the ,ar;.#1?/)

*he $er%ian and Allied successes on the $alonika front intensified the already e!istin' anti-a%s%ur' mood ,ithin the %orders of Austria-un'ary. Already in almatia and ika& Backa and Banat and Baran2a& from $er%ia


37/44

and then to have them form a front a'ainst $er%ia.; #1?3) +asic su%mitted the resi'nation of theentire 'overnment& thus annullin' the a'reement& and after,ards& at the initiative of its $er%ianmem%ers& the ational "ouncil in Da're% ,hich& like the u'oslav "ommittee& ,as not arepresentative %ody of the $lovenes& $er%s and "roats from the territory of the former 8onarchy&also renounced the a'reement. *he Allies refused to reco'ni6e the Da're% ational "ouncil as apartner at the +eace "onference: this dispute ,as ironed out much later %y $er%ian diplomacy

,hen Ante *rum%ic ,as appointed as the 8inister of almatia to 7taly as compensation for enterin' the ,ar on the side of the Entente+o,ers. Jhile the 7talians insisted on the fulfilment of the a'reement& $er%ia& alon' ,ith theu'oslavs in Austria-un'ary& referred to the ri'ht to self-determination ,hich& alon' ,ith otherconditions& +resident Joodro, Jilson accepted several months after proclaimin' his anu%e& $ava and >rina& started preparin' already durin' the rule ofmy 'randfather +rince Ale!ander of %lessed memory and +rince 8ichael $O%renovic".;#1?)

*he unification ,as ,elcomed in all the re'ions. An attempt at offerin' armed resistance ,asmade only in Da're% ,here several do6en soldiers& follo,ers of the ational "ouncil& provokedclashes in ,hich 14 people ,ere killed. Behind the unrest stood 7taly ,hich& throu'h $t2epanRadic& the leader of the "roatian +eople5s +easant party tried to prevent the unification andproclaim an independent "roatian repu%lic. Radic ,as preparin' a petition for the creation of anindependent "roatia& claimin' that he had collected as many as ?//&/// si'natures& %ut theAllies5 reports confirmed that there ,as no 'reat resistance to the unification in "roatia. A


38/44

"atholic population #"roats and $lovenians) ,ho approved of the unification #e!cept for >almatia,here& accordin' to Austro-un'arian estimates& almost 1// percent of the population ,as infavour of the unification ,ith $er%ia) ,as not determined. Accordin' to an American report& theproclamation of unification in Bel'rade ,as accepted ,ithout resistance in $lovenia: ;7t seemsthat the $lovenes are takin' as somethin' natural the necessity to preserve and consolidate theunification.;#1?H)

Another attempt at challen'in' the ne, state took place in Fanuary 1919:


39/44

0) 8. andelsman& ;a question d5Orient et la politique du prince "6artoryski aprUs 10/;& in:$Cances et travau! de l5AcadCmie des sciences morales et politiques& +aris 19?9& pp. 390-0/9.

4) >. $tran2akovic& ako 2e postalo (arasaninovo ;acertani2e;& Bel'rade& $pomenik $A& volT"7 1939& pp. 0-114.

) 8. Ekmecic& =stanak u Bosni 1H4-1H& $ara2evo& Geselin 8aslesa 19/& pp. 01-0.

H) "f. >. $tran2akovic& $r%i2a& +i2emont Fu6nih $lovena 100-143& Bel'rade 193?& idem&;+oliticka propa'anda $r%i2e u 2u6noslovenskim pokra2inama #100-14);& (lasnik 7stori2sko'drustva u ovom $adu& vol 7T& pp. 144-1H9.

) (. Faksic& G. F. Guckovic& $pol2na politika $r%i2e 6a vlade kne6a 8ihaila. +rvi Balkanski save6&Bel'rade& 7stori2ski institut& 193.

9) G. F. Guckovic& +oliticka akci2a $r%i2e u 2u6noslovenskim pokra2inama a%s%urske monarhi2e&Bel'rade& $A=& 194& p. ?H0.

1/) 7%id.

11) "f. >. >2ord2evic& ;+ro2ects for the federation of $outh-East Europe in the 1/s and 1H/s;&

Balcanica& vol 7 #19H/)& pp. 11-109.1?) arodna Radikalna stranka. +ro'ram& $tatuti& Bel'rade& 1?.

13) Gidelo& Bel'rade& Fanuary ?V10 1/.

10) $rpska ne6avisnost& Bel'rade& W 1& Octo%er 1V13 11.

14) $amostalna radikalna stranka. acela& +ro'ram. $tatut. asa Rec& Bel'rade 19/4.

1) +ro'ram arodne stranke u "rno2 (ori& >u%rovnik& $rpska du%rovacka stampari2a& 19/H. Allparty pro'rams are reprinted in: G.restic-R.2usic& +ro'rami i statuti srpskih politickih stranakado 191. 'odine& Bel'rade& n2i6evne novine 1991.

1H) 8. Ekmecic& =stanak u Bosni 1H-1H& p. ?31.

1) "f. ;+etar 8rkon2ic #+etar arad2ord2evic)&>nevni 6apisci 2edno' ustasa o %osansko-herce'ovackom ustanku 1H4-1H;& edited %y 8.$tevcic and 8.Radevic& in: 8iscellanea&Bel'rade& vol G77#19/)& pp 9-109.

19) R.J.$eaton Jatson& *he $outhern $lav Question and the aps%ur' 8onarchy& e, ork&o,ard . 8acen6ie& *he $er%s and the Russian +anslavism 1H4-1H& 7thaca ..& 19H.

??) "f. 8. >. $to2anovic& *he (reat +o,ers and the Balkans 1H4-1H& "am%rid'e& 1939& pp.?/9-?33.

?3) A. Evans& 7llyirian etters. A Revised $election of "orrespondance from the 7llyrian +rovincesof Bosnia& er6e'ovina& Al%ania& >almatia& "roatia and $lavonia& adressed to the 8anchester(uardian& ondon 1H& pp. 03-44.

?0) >. *. Batakovic& *he osovo "hronicles& Bel'rade& +lato 199?& pp.H4-?.

?4) G. $to2ancevic& $r%i2a i Bu'arska od $anstefansko' mira do Berlinsko' kon'resa& Bel'rade&7stori2ski institut 19& pp. 1-4.

?) 8. Ekmecic& =stanak u Bosni 1H4-1H& p. ?9/.

?H) G. "orovic& Bor%a 6a ne6avisnost Balkana& Bel'rade& Balkanski institut 193& p.4.

?) "f. (.Faksic& Bosna i erce'ovina na Berlinskom kon'resu& 1H& Bel'rade& $A& 1944.

?9) By Article 77 of the $ecret "onvention $er%ia undertook the o%li'ation ;not to permit anypolitical& reli'ious or other intri'ue ,hich mi'ht %e directed from her territory a'ainst the Austo-


40/44

un'arian 8onarchy& includin' Bosnia& er6e'ovina and the $and2ak of ovi +a6ar.; *he article7G of the same "onvention o%li'ed Bel'rade to act so that ;,ithout previous a'reement ,ithAustria-un'ary& $er%ia shall not ne'ociate nor conclude any political treaty ,ith any other+o,er.; Only %y Article G777 ,as it allo,ed to e!pand such that if ;$er%ia should %e in a position toe!pand in the direction of her southern frontiers #,ith the e!ception of the $and2ak of ovi +a6ar)&Austria-un'ary ,ill not opose this& and ,ill intervene ,ith the other +o,ers to incline them to

adopt an attutude favoura%le to $er%ia.; 7n 19 ,hen the "onvention ,as rene,ed& Article G777,as made more precise: instead of ;her southern frontiers;& it stated e!plicitly ;in the direction ofthe Gardar valley& and added that the e!pansion ,as to e!tend ;as far as circumstancespermitted;. #"f. (. Faksic& ;7stori2a *a2ne onvenci2e;& in: Arhiv 6a pravne i drustvene nauke& vol7T& o 3& 19?0& pp. ?H/-?H0).

3/) G."orovic& Bor%a 6a ne6avisnost Balkana& p. 9?.

31) "f. 8. 8ilovanovic& asa spol2na politika& Bel'rade 190.

3?) "f. 8. $t. +rotic& Radikali u $r%i2i.7de2e i pokret 11-19/3& Bel'rade& >osi2e -Balkanoloskiinstitut 1991.

33) "f. . >. $chanderl& >ie Al%anienpolitik Xsterreich =n'arns und 7taliens 1HH-19/&

Jies%aden& O.arasso,it6 19H1 >ocuments diplomatiques franYais& ?e sCrie& vol 77& p. H?.30) Austro-un'arian documentation quoted in: 8. Ekmecic& $tvaran2e Fu'oslavi2e 1H9/-191&vol 77& pp. 041-044.

34) 7stori2a srpsko' naroda& vol GV1& Bel'rade& $rpska kn2i6evna 6adru'a 191& pp. 4/-44.

3) . apid6ic& erce'ovacki ustanak 1?.'odine& $ara2evo& Geselin 8aslesa 19H3

3H) *. ral2acic& ala2ev re6im u Bosni i erce'ovini 1?-19/3& $ara2evo& Geselin 8aslesa 19H&pp. ?10-?H?. "f. also B.allay& (eschichte den $er%en von den Altesten Deiten %is 114& Jien1H& p. 1H.

3) 8. Ekmecic& $tvaran2e Fu'oslavi2e 1H9/-191& vol 77& pp. 01-0?/.

39) $. urtovic& O nacionali6ovan2u 8uslimana& $ara2evo 1910 "f. R. F. >onia& 7slam under the>ou%le Ea'le: *he 8uslims of Bosnia-er6e'ovina 1H-1910& Boulder "olorado 19/.

0/) "f. G. restic& 7stori2a $r%a u rvatsko2 i $lavoni2i 10-1910& Bel'rade& +olitika 199?& p. 4passim.

01) 7%id.& ?91 passim

0?) 8. $. $palatin& ;*he "roatian ationalism of Ante $tarcevic 104-1H1;& *he Fournal of"roatian $tudies& vol 1 #19H4)& pp. 1/4-10.

03) "f. more details in: 8.Artukovic& 7deolo'i2a srpsko-hrvatskih sporova& ;$r%o%ran; 10-19/?&Da're%& apri2ed 1991.

00) 7. rsn2avi& Dapisi i6a kulisa hrvatske politike& vol 77& Da're%& (lo%us 19& p. ?1?.04)


41/44

Austro-='arske u TT veku& Beo'rad 193 A. 8itrovic& +rodor na Balkan. $r%i2a u planovimaAustro-='arske i emacke 19/-191& Bel'rade& olit 191& p. H4 passim.

41) >. >2ord2evic& ;Austro-srpski suko% oko pro2ekta ovopa6arske 6ele6nice;& 7stori2ski casopis&vol G77 #19H)& pp. ?13-?0 idem& ;+ro2ekt 2adranske 6ele6nice u $r%i2i 19-191?;& 7stori2ski'lasnik& vol 3-0 #194)& pp. 3-34.

4?) >. Fankovic& ;Fu'oslovenstvo u $r%i2i 19/3-191?;& Anali +ravno' fakulteta u Beo'radu& vol:TG77 #199)& pp. 4?3-434.

43) "f. >. >

the balkan piedmont

Documents