THE ART OFTHE

ANCIENTKINGDOM

OF CHAMPAITS ORIGINALITY AND DIVERSITY

by Professor Jean Boisselier

A LECTURE GIVEN AT THE BANGKOK

NATIONAL MUSEUM ON 20 FEBRUARY 1990.

TRANSLATED FROM FRENCH TO ENGLISH BY

PROFESSOR M.C. SUBHADRADIS DISKUL

AND JANE PURANANANDA.

For those who have visited the Bangkok National Museum, the art,

or at least the sculpture, of ancient Champa is not completely

unknown. And while this art, which is at times so admirable, yet

often so perplexing, is not as well represented in the museum as

Javanese art, the six sculptures in the collection which were

presented to King Rama VII about seventy years ago (fig. 1), reveal

certain tendencies which are the most striking and the most

unvarying in Cham art. Dating from the 10th to 12th centuries,

these six pieces are almost sufficient in showing how different, both

in terms of aesthetics and popular themes, the schools of Cham art

are from the rest of Southeast Asia.

These sculptures testify to a vision of beings and ofobjects which is essentially decorative, and a denial ofthe existence of a division between what is real, or atleast what appears to exist, and that which isimaginary. And yet, this art, which is so profoundlyoriginal, is often nothing more than a sort ofplagiarism of sculptures from the various neighboringor distant regions with which Champa had more orless lasting relations. Yet, if the diverse sources ofinspiration or prototypes (whether successive orcontemporary) of Cham art, can generally be identifiedwithout difficulty, not once has a work of Cham artever been confusedwith its prototype.Through manycenturies, Chamsculptors haverevealed their ownunique personality,as well as havingshown muchrefinement in theirinterpretations. Thisrule holds trueduring the eleventroubled centuries ofCham history,whether the subjectis animal or human,real or mythical; aswell as for floralelements, borrowed from Indian art, the significance ofwhich art historians have forgotten, stressing insteadtheir decorative value.

But before trying to explain Cham art more precisely,without doubt it would be useful to recall in a fewwords, that this ancient kingdom, which today nolonger exists, was in 1177 AD "presumptuous" enough(according to inscriptions) to dare to attack the Khmercapital Angkor, which Chams were valiant enough toseize.

Before finally being absorbed and integrated intoVietnam at the beginning of the 19th century, andfollowing almost incessant conflicts and conquests whichlasted 850 years, (which occurred even after Vietnam

FIGURE 1. Six CHAM SCULPTURES EXHIBITED IN THE

BANGKOK NATIONAL MUSEUM

became independent) Champa remained the mostoriental of the Indianized kingdoms in the IndochinesePeninsula due to its direct contact with Chinese cultureand with Sino-Vietnam. Founded at the end of thesecond century, it was also — with the exception ofthe southern part of the Malay Peninsula — the onlyregion in the Indochinese Peninsula whose populationspoke an Austronesian language.

Without even taking into account geographicalconditions, which were hardly favorable for theestablishment of national unity (the Cham kingdom,

which extendedalong some 1,100kilometers, wasc o m p r e s s e dbetween themountains andthe sea, and thewhole regionconsisted of a series of smallplains withdifficult access toeach other exceptby sea, fig.2) itshould be notedthat Champaowed itsu n d e n i a b l eoriginality to a

collection of heterogeneous, or even at timesantagonistic components: an Austronesian base, a superimposed Indian culture, peaceful or morefrequently antagonistic contacts with China and laterwith Vietnam, contacts with Indonesia (in particularwith insular and peninsular Srivijaya), contacts with theKhmer kingdom (which followed the original contactswith Funan)...

With such a historical background and with its almostincessant warfare — which as one knows is neverfavorable for the flowering of a culture — what ismost remarkable is that Cham art was able to developas it did. If perhaps it lacks homogeneity (is there anart which is perfectly homogeneous?), still it hasproduced some of the most authentic masterpieces to

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FIGURE 3. BUDDHA

FOUND AT DONG-DONG.

BRONZE. FIRST HALF OF

THE FIFTH CENTURY A.D.

FIGURE 2. MAP OF CHAMPA

4 SPAFA JOURNAL

be found in all of Southeast Asia. At the center of a production, which at times seems puzzling, and whichcontinued even during the kingdom's most destructiveand decadent periods, is an art which never leaves oneindifferent. The Chams observed all, copied all, withtheir own unique vision, often placing very little valueon 'classic' beauty, and instead giving grace to thatwhich is graceless, beauty to that which is ugly, and a serene grandeur to that which is nothing butridiculous.

Various writers have proposed that Cham art is theheir of the Dong-son culture (the civilization famousfor its bronze 'kettle' drums). This theory does not takeinto account all the facts, and if we raise the issuehere, it is because thismistaken idea continues toreappear from time to time.The bronze drum culture is a Vietnamese proto-historicculture, or to be moreaccurate, a Sino-Vietnameseculture, which was for themost part exported by searoutes as far as the MalayPeninsula, and towards theupper part of the Me NamKlong (Tham Ong Ba) inwestern Thailand, as well astowards Indonesia (where itbecame an aspect of the local'Bronze and Iron' culture). Yet Dong-son culture neverappeared in ancient Champa.

In the case of Cham art, it would seem that following a late neolithic period, characterized by ceramicproduction (the culture of Sahuynh), an Indianizedculture, no doubt transmitted through the intermediaryof Funan or directly from India by maritime routes,was superimposed in the region. In fact, the mostancient Sanskrit inscription of Southeast Asia, that ofVo-canh, dating at the latest to the 3rd century, andfound in situ near Nha-Trang, marked the farthest limitof Funan. This location would become one ofChampa's most sacred sites. But, in contrast, thefamous Buddha of Dong-Duong (fig. 3), attributed

rather vaguely to the southern Indian style of"Amaravati," and dated to approximately the first halfof the 5th century, could not have been carried towhere it was found except by a maritime route. Thisimage thus attests to the probable religiousdissemination in Champa of the teachings ofGunavarman (a Kashmiri prince who became a Buddhist monk). He travelled to Nanking at therequest of Emperor Wudi of the Sung dynasty in orderto teach dhyana (meditation) according to theSarvastivadin school. He must have arrived in Chinain 431 after having left Sri Lanka around 413-414 andstopping in Java and Champa.

The two historical 'boundary markers' just mentioned,serve above all in showingthe paths by whichIndianization left its markson Champa; they also helpto better explain the typesof contact establishedbetween those regions,either neighboring ordistant, with which Champahad relations.

However, even if from the4th century onwards(according to inscriptions),the Indianization of Champawas an established fact (at

least in part), we must wait until the second half of the7th century in order to find Cham art which can bedated with any certainty. And, there is a Khmerinfluence which seems to pervade in the Mi-son E. 1Cham sculptures of this period. This influence can beexplained by the existence of ancient ties with Funan,and even more so by relations with pre-AngkorianCambodia during the reign of King Isanavaraman(617-634) who was of sufficient notoriety to bementioned by the Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang andwith whom the surrounding kingdoms wished toestablish dynastic relations. Such relations were mostlikely desired by the kingdom of Dvaravati accordingto a bronze inscription found at U-thong in Thailand,and most certainly also desired by the Chams.

FIGURE 4. STONE STEPS FOUND AT MI-SON E.l.

SECOND HALF OF THE SEVENTH CENTURY A.D.

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FIGURE 5. GANESHA OF MI-SON

E.5. STONE. SECOND HALF OF

THE SEVENTH CENTURY A . D .

FIGURE 6. DHARMAPALA

(THE LAW GAURDIAN)

F R O M A VIH ARA A T

DONG-DUONG. 875

A.D.

FIGURE 7. DVARAPALA (DOOR

GAURDIAN) RIDING ON A BEAR AT

THE SECOND COPURA (GATE) AT

DONG-DUONG. STONE. 875 A.D.

6 SI'AFA JOURNAL

Although certain Khmer influences are undeniable, theseare not sufficient in explaining what constitutes the realbeauty of the Mi-son E. 1 works and their indisputableoriginality. In addition to the compositions beingunknown in Khmer art (low pediments, bases withpedestals which are monumental and narrative), theirdecorations have only slight connections with pre-Angkorian art, and hardly more with so-called"Dvaravati" art. But even this double ancestry does notsuffice in explaining everything, because the figuresdecorating the steps (fig. 4)as well as the compositionsof the frame-work of thestaircases suggest a connection with southeastIndia or even Sri Lanka(although Mi-son E. 1 isindisputably Brahmin inoutlook.) From suchcomplex sources ofinspiration, combined withthe undeniable talent ofCham sculptors —a talentwhich is doubled by a sensibility that is rarelyfound elsewhere— emergesthe true beauty of these 'first'Cham sculptures. The onlystatue which can beattributed to the same period,the Ganesha of Mi-son E. 5.which is hierarchical andmonumental in spite of itssmall dimensions (fig. 5),does not come close to thesame beauty. In fact, thisstatue confirms how limitedCham dependency on pre-Angkorian iconography was.As it is not a question here of summarizing the historyof Cham art, but only to draw attention to whatconstitutes its originality, we will pass over twocenturies without stopping, in order to briefly discussthe art of Dong-duong, an important Buddhistmonument. Founded in 875 AD, this edifice givesbirth to a style whose power, and at times, whoseheaviness and even ugliness, does not limit itsoriginality nor its grandeur (fig. 6). A number of

unique characteristics found here led Ph. Stern, one ofthe rare scholars of Cham art, to write that this art,which is extremely original, was without a doubt themost profoundly Cham in nature. Although hisproposal is seductive, it is not acceptable, unless onebelieves that the originality of Cham art is due to themost diverse borrowings, which have been remodeledby a very specific type of aesthetics and subjected toprofound changes. If one takes into account thisreservation, then it is possible, and only then, to regard

the style of Dong-duong asthe most authentically Cham.In fact, there is no other artstyle that has received somany foreign influences-Indonesia, Dravidian, andabove all Chinese (figs. 7,8)— in a manner which is sopersonal, so obviouslyunrestrained, and yetwithout altering the mostuniversally acceptedaesthetics.

FIGURE 8. BASE OF THE PRINCIPAL SANCTUARY AT DONG-

D U O N G , SHOWING ON THE TOP PANEL: THE CUTTING OF THE

HAIR OF THE BUDDHA, AND ON THE LOWER PANEL: THE

GREAT DEPARTURE. STONE. 875 A.D.

As it would have beendifficult to develop anyfurther in the directiondescribed above, the 10thcentury (style of Tra-Kieu)bears witness to a radicalchange in Cham art and a return to a conception ofbeauty which is closer tomore generally acceptedideals. In this case,Indonesian influencesprevail, leading to a search

for beauty, or for a charm, which is more humane.This profound change induces one to speak of a 'Second Golden Age' of Cham sculpture, the first havingbeen represented by the works of Mi-son E. 1 style.However, such an idea is based on subjectiveconsiderations influenced by our Greco-Roman aesthetic.It is certainly permissible to doubt whether the Chamshad in mind the same criteria because, during the 10thcentury, as well as the 9th century, they were notlooking to create mere menial copies of their models.

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FIGURE 9. BASE OF THE DIVINITY

OF Po NAGAR AT NHA-TRANG.

965 A.D.

FIGURE 10. STANDING LION

FROM TRA-KIEU. NINTH-TENTH

CENTURY A.D.

FIGURE 11. FRAGMENT FROM A BASE FROM

TRA-KIEU. NINTH-TENTH CENTURY A.D.

8 SPAFA JOURNAL

No amateur, even the least knowledgeable, couldconfuse a sculpture form Mi-son or Tra-Kieu with anauthentic Javanese piece. Always drawing from thesame source — their simple, innate sense of decor —they were inspired to create a number of exceptionalpieces, which as a result are superior to the modelsfrom which they were copied, as for example the baseof the divinity of Po Nagar of Nha-Trang, whichprobably dates to 965 AD. (fig. 9).

Simultaneously, the traditional interest in Champa foranimal figures (with the exception of the horse, whichfor some reason was generally poorly modeled) led tothe limits of reality, often creating a mimicry of animalswhich is most unexpected,(fig.10) especially in the case oflions. These are mimicked ina manner which appears to bea predecessor of Walt Disney— a style not found elsewherein the arts of Southeast Asia.This interest pushed theChams to enrich their list ofnew and fantastic animals, andas a result they borrowed fromthe repertoire of Sino-Vietnamese animals, althoughtheir interpretations werealways quite liberal incomparison to the originalmodels (fig.11).

Advancing more than a century, we stop at thesculptures of Thap-mam, a vast monument, which hadalready begun to fall apart before it was finished, andwhich was only discovered in 1934. The sculpture ofthis unfinished temple dates to approximately the 12thcentury and is of rich iconographical interest. Inspiredby traditional sources, both Indonesian and Sino-Vietnamese, the sculpture is characterized bycontradictory tendencies, which however remain withinCham tradition: a search for decorative styles which arepuzzling in their excesses (a misuse of heavyornamentation, sculptural intrusions leading to divinitiesor fantastic animals being endowed with too heavytrappings) (fig. 12); a contempt for reality in the

FIGURE 12. DRAGON FROM THE SIDE OF A STAIRCASE,

FROM THAP-MAM. 12TH-13TH CENTURIES A.D.

representation of animals (whether concerning themorphology or posture of real or mythical animals.)This leads to a certain dryness in representation ofhuman or divine figures. And yet, certain dancingfigures— although unfinished— present a new paradoxin Cham art, as they can be singled out as the mostfreely rendered in this school of art (fig.13).

Yet one of the most surprising aspects of this art, ofwhich the influence was the strongest in themonuments of the region of Vijaya, the Cham capitalfrom 1000 to 1477 AD, which was founded afterIndrapura was abandoned due to Vietnam's movementtowards the south, is that Cham art also held some

influence on Khmericonography, in particular inthe representations of theGaruda (fig. 14). That Chamart helped to promote theevolution of one of the mostfavored themes in Angkorianart, is not really unexpected.We have already alluded tothe conquest of Angkor byChampa in 1177, an exploit,the consequences of whichwere more disagreeable forthe conqueror than for thevanquished becauseJayavaraman vii was to inflicta brilliant vengeance(according to Chinese texts)on Champa, the country beingmore or less completely

occupied by the Khmer until 1200 AD... From thisChampa was definitely left weaker and poorer, andbecame an easy prey for Vietnam which seized Vijayain 1471.

We could stop our discussion of Cham sculpture at thispoint, as it is never agreeable to dwell on a decline andits agony... However, we will continue because even upuntil its last manifestations, although suffering from a mediocrity of technique, the art of Champa maintainedsome of its more profound qualities. We can no longerlook for Brahmanic sources of inspiration, because these,as in Indonesia, were exhausted, and in addition

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FIGURE 13. UNFINISHED FIGURE 14. GARUDA FROM FIGURE 15. KUT. LATE CHAM ART

DANCING FIGURE FROM T H A P - T H A P - M A M . 1 2 T H - 1 3 T H

MAM. 1 2 T H - 1 3 T H CENTURIES CENTURIES A.D.

A.D.

sources of inspiration, because these, as in Indonesia,were exhausted, and in addition Champa had beencompletely cut off from these sources because thecontrol of maritime routes had fallen into other hands.Thus it is perhaps in the very final works that the trueCham aesthetic ideals appear. It is an art which ismore concerned with grandeur, (and the ornamentswhich evidence this grandeur: it must not be forgottenthat statues of divinities were also ornamented withreal jewelry) than with correct physical anatomy (fig15).

Arriving at the end of this discussion, it must beunderlined that never has an art, except perhaps, in a very different manner, the diverse pre-Columbian arts,more clearly shown how purely subjective the conceptof beauty is, nor how much a personal vision of thingsand their interpretation could replace the creativeimagination...The problem is being able to understandthe true significance of 'creation' in artistic terms. Inany case, it is possible to like the art of Champa in itsentirety or to appreciate only certain works...but ineither case it is an art which will never leave oneindifferent.

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