the art of tactics

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Tactics is the employment of units in combat. It includes the ordered arrangement and maneuver of units in relation to each other, the terrain and the enemy to translate potential combat power into victorious battles and engagements. (Dept. of Army photo by Staff Sgt. Russell Bassett).

I. The Tactical Level of WarThe levels of war are doctrinal perspectives that clarify the links between strategic objectives and tactical actions. Although there are no finite limits or boundaries between them, the three levels are strategic, operational, and tactical. They apply to all types of military operations.The tactical level of war is the level of war at which battles and engagements are planned and executed to accomplish military objectives assigned to tactical units or task forces. Activities at this level focus on the ordered arrangement and maneuver of combat elements in relation to each other and to the enemy to achieve combat objectives. It is important to understand tactics within the context of the levels of war. The strategic and operational levels provide the context for tactical operations. Without this context, tactical operations are reduced to a series of disconnected and unfocused actions.

Individuals, crews, and small unitsIndividuals, crews, and small units act at the tactical level. At times, their actions may produce strategic or operational effects. However, this does not mean these elements are acting at the strategic or operational level. Actions are not strategic unless they contribute directly to achieving the strategic end state. Similarly, actions are considered operational only if they are directly related to operational movement or the sequencing of battles and engagements. The level at which an action occurs is determined by the perspective of the echelon in terms of planning, preparation, and execution.

I. The Art of TacticsRef: FM 3-90 Tactics, chap. 1 and FM 3-0 Operations (2008), chap. 6.

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Battles, Engagements and Small-Unit ActionsTactics is the employment and ordered arrangement of forces in relation to each other. Through tactics, commanders use combat power to accomplish missions. The tactical-level commander uses combat power in battles, engagements, and small-unit actions. A battle consists of a set of related engagements that lasts longer and involves larger forces than an engagement. Battles can affect the course of a campaign or major operation. An engagement is a tactical conflict, usually between opposing, lower echelons maneuver forces (JP 1-02). Engagements are typically conducted at brigade level and below. They are usually short, executed in terms of minutes, hours, or days.

II. The Science and Art of TacticsThe tactician must understand and master the science and the art of tactics, two dis-tinctly different yet inseparable concepts. Commanders and leaders at all echelons and supporting commissioned, warrant, and noncommissioned staff officers must be tacticians to lead their soldiers in the conduct of full spectrum operations.

A. The ScienceThe science of tactics encompasses the understanding of those military aspects of tactics—capabilities, techniques, and procedures—that can be measured and codi-fied. The science of tactics includes the physical capabilities of friendly and enemy organizations and systems, such as determining how long it takes a division to move a certain distance. It also includes techniques and procedures used to accomplish specific tasks, such as the tactical terms and control graphics that comprise the language of tactics. While not easy, the science of tactics is fairly straightforward. Much of what is contained in this manual is the science of tactics—techniques and procedures for employing the various elements of the combined arms team to achieve greater effects.Mastery of the science of tactics is necessary for the tactician to understand the physical and procedural constraints under which he must work. These constraints include the effects of terrain, time, space, and weather on friendly and enemy forces. However—because combat is an intensely human activity—the solution to tactical problems cannot be reduced to a formula. This realization necessitates the study of the art of tactics.

B. The ArtThe art of tactics consists of three interrelated aspects: the creative and flexible array of means to accomplish assigned missions, decision making under conditions of uncertainty when faced with an intelligent enemy, and understanding the human dimension—the effects of combat on soldiers. An art, as opposed to a science, requires exercising intuitive faculties that cannot be learned solely by study. The tactician must temper his study and evolve his skill through a variety of relevant, practical experiences. The more experience the tactician gains from practice under a variety of circumstances, the greater his mastery of the art of tactics.The tactician invokes the art of tactics to solve tactical problems within his com-mander’s intent by choosing from interrelated options, including—

• Types and forms of operations, forms of maneuver, and tactical mission tasks• Task organization of available forces, to include allocating scarce resources• Arrangement and choice of control measures• Tempo of the operation• Risks the commander is willing to take

(Tactical Mission Fundamentals) I. The Art of Tactics 1-3

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Aspects of the Art of TacticsRef: FM 3-90 Tactics, pp. 1-4 to 1-6. (Note: These aspects are not labeled in FM 3-90).

There are three aspects to the art of tactics that define a competent tactician:

1. Domain KnowledgeNote: For more complete discussion of domain knowledge, see The Leader’s SMARTbook or FM 6-22 Army Leadership, pp. 6-5 to 6-9.The first is the creative and flexible application of the tools available to the commander, such as doctrine, tactics, techniques, procedures, training, organizations, materiel, and soldiers in an attempt to render the enemy’s situational tactics ineffective. The tactician must understand how to train and employ his forces in full spectrum operations. The factors of mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops, time available, and civil consid-erations (METT-TC) are variables whose infinite mutations always combine to form a new tactical pattern.They never produce exactly the same situation; thus there can be no checklists that adequately address each unique situation. Because the enemy changes and adapts to friendly moves during the planning, preparation, and execution of an operation, there is no guarantee that a technique which worked in one situation will work again. Each tactical problem is unique and must be solved on its own merits.

2. Battle CommandThe second aspect of the art of tactics is decision making under conditions of uncer-tainty in a time-constrained environment and demonstrated by the clash of opposing wills—a violent struggle between two hostile, thinking, and independent opposing commanders with irreconcilable goals. Each commander wants to impose his will on his opponent, defeat his opponent’s plans, and destroy his opponent’s forces. Combat consists of the interplay between these two opposing commanders, with each com-mander seeking to accomplish his mission while preventing the other from doing the same. Every commander needs a high degree of creativity and clarity of thought to outwit a willing and able opponent. He must quickly apply his judgment to a less than omniscient common operational picture provided by his command and control (C2) system to understand the implications and opportunities afforded him by the situa-tion. The commander always uses the most current intelligence in order to facilitate his visualization of the enemy and environment. That same C2 system transmits the decisions resulting from his situational understanding to those individuals and units required to engage and destroy the enemy force.

3. The Human DimensionThe third and final aspect of the art of tactics is understanding the human dimension—what differentiates actual combat from the problems encountered during training and in a classroom. Combat is one of the most complex human activities, characterized by violent death, friction, uncertainty, and chance. Success depends at least as much on this human aspect as it does on any numerical and technological superiority.The tactician cannot ignore the human aspect. He seeks to recognize and exploit indicators of fear and weakness in his enemy, and to defeat the enemy’s will, since soldiers remain key to generating combat power. More than any other human activity, continuous combat operations against an intelligent enemy takes a toll on soldiers, severely straining their physical and mental stamina. This creates in soldiers the tan-gible and intangible effects of courage, fear, combat experience, exhaustion, isolation, confidence, thirst, and anger.Leaders must be alert to indicators of fatigue, fear, lapses in discipline standards, and reduced morale in friendly and enemy soldiers. These conditions can have a cumula-tive effect on units that can lead to collapse. The tactician must understand how they affect human endurance and factor them into his plans. He must understand the limits of human endurance in combat.

(Tactical Mission Fundamentals) II. FM 3-0 Full Spectrum Ops 1-5

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Ref: FM 3-0 Operations (2008), chap. 3. For complete discussion of full spectrum operations, see The Operations SMARTbook (4th Revised Edition), chap. 1.

The Army’s operational concept is full spectrum operations: Army forces combine offensive, defensive, and stability or civil support operations simultaneously as part of an interdependent joint force to seize, retain, and exploit the initiative, accept-ing prudent risk to create opportunities to achieve decisive results. They employ synchronized action—lethal and nonlethal—proportional to the mission and informed by a thorough understanding of all variables of the operational environment. Mission command that conveys intent and an appreciation of all aspects of the situation guides the adaptive use of Army forces.

Operations conducted outside the United States and its territories simultaneously combine three elements—offense, defense, and stability. Within the United States and its territories, operations combine the elements of civil support, defense, and offense in support of civil authority. Army forces operate using mutually supporting lethal and nonlethal capabilities.

Army forces use offensive and defensive operations to defeat the enemy on land. They simultaneously execute stability or civil support operations to interact with the populace and civil authorities. Three elements of full spectrum operations—offense, defense, and stability—are necessary in most campaigns and major operations conducted outside the United States and its territories. In most domestic operations, Army forces conduct only civil support tasks. However, an extreme emergency, such as an attack by a hostile foreign power, may require simultaneous combinations of offensive, defensive, and civil support tasks. Stability tasks typically characterize peace operations, peacetime military engagement, and some limited interventions.

Operations (FM 3-0)II. Full Spectrum

Full Spectrum Operations

Full spectrum operations require continuous, simultaneous combinations of offensive, defensive, and stability or civil support tasks. In all operations, commanders seek to seize, retain, and exploit the initiative while synchronizing their actions to achieve the best effects possible. (Ref: FM 3-0 Operations, fig. 3-1).

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Fundamentals Full spectrum operations require simultaneous combinations of four elements—offense,

defense, and stability or civil support.

A. Offensive OperationsOffensive operations are combat operations conducted to defeat and destroy enemy forces and seize terrain, resources, and population centers. They impose the commander’s will on the enemy. In combat operations, the offense is the decisive element of full spectrum operations. Against a capable, adaptive enemy, the offense is the most direct and sure means of seizing, retaining, and exploiting the initiative to achieve decisive results. Executing offensive opera-tions compels the enemy to react, creating or revealing weaknesses that the attacking force can exploit. Successful offensive operations place tremendous pressure on defenders, creating a cycle of deterioration that can lead to their disintegration. Note: For discussion of offensive operations, see chap. 2, pp. 2-1 to 2-34.

B. Defensive OperationsDefensive operations are combat operations conducted to defeat an enemy attack, gain time, economize forces, and develop conditions favor-able for offensive or stability operations. The defense alone normally cannot achieve a decision. However, it can cre-ate conditions for a counteroffensive operation that lets Army forces regain the initiative. Defensive operations can also establish a shield behind which stability operations can progress. Defensive operations counter enemy offensive operations. They defeat attacks, destroying as much of the attacking enemy as possible. They also preserve control over land, resources, and populations. Defensive operations retain terrain, guard populations, and protect critical capabilities against enemy attacks. They can be used to gain time and economize forces so offensive tasks can be executed elsewhere.Note: For discussion of defensive operations, see chap. 3, pp. 3-1 to 3-28.

Defensive OperationsPrimary Tasks

• Mobile defense• Area defense• Retrograde

Purposes• Deter or defeat enemy offensive operations• Gain time• Achieve economy of force• Retain key terrain• Protect the populace, critical assets and

infrastructure• Develop intelligence

III. The Elements of Full Spectrum OperationsRef: FM 3-0 Operations (2008), pp. 3-7 to 3-18 and fig. 3-2.

Offensive OperationsPrimary Tasks

• Movement to contact• Attack• Exploitation• Pursuit

Purposes• Dislocate, isolate, disrupt and destroy enemy forces• Seize key terrain• Deprive the enemy of resources• Develop intelligence• Deceive and divert the enemy• Create a secure environment for stability operations

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C. Stability OperationsStability operations encompass various military missions, tasks, and activities conducted outside the United States in coordination with other instruments of national power to maintain or reestablish a safe and secure environment, provide essential governmental services, emergency infrastructure reconstruction, and humanitarian relief (JP 3-0). Stability operations can be conducted in support of a host nation or interim government or as part of an occupation when no government exists. Stability operations involve both

coercive and construc-tive military actions. They help to establish a safe and secure environment and facilitate reconciliation among local or regional adversaries. Stability operations can also help establish political, legal, social, and economic institutions and support the transition to legitimate local governance. It is es-sential that stability opera-tions maintain the initiative by pursing objectives that resolve the causes of instability. Stability operations cannot succeed if they react only to enemy initiatives.Note: For discussion of stability operations, see chap. 4, pp. 4-1 to 4-12.

D. Civil Support OperationsCivil support is Depart-ment of Defense support to U.S. civil authorities for domestic emergencies, and for designated law enforce-ment and other activities (JP 1-02). Civil support includes operations that

address the consequences of natural or manmade disasters, accidents, terrorist attacks, and incidents within the United States and its territories. Army forces conduct civil sup-port operations when the size and scope of events exceed the capabilities or capacities of domestic civilian agencies. The Army National Guard is usually the first military force to respond on behalf of state authorities. In this capacity, it functions under authority of Title 32, U.S. Code, or while serving on state active duty. The National Guard is suited to conduct these missions; however, the scope and level of destruction may require states to request assistance from Federal authorities.Note: When published, FM 3-28 will discuss civil operations in detail.

Civil Support OperationsPrimary Tasks

• Provide support in response to disaster or terrorist attack

• Support civil law enforcement• Provide other support as required

Purposes• Save lives• Restore essential services• Maintain or restore law and order• Protect infrastructure and property• Maintain or restore local government• Shape the environment for interagency success

Stability OperationsPrimary Tasks

• Civil security• Civil control• Restore essential services• Support to governance• Support to economic and infrastructure development

Purposes• Provide a secure environment• Secure land areas• Meet the critical needs of the populace• Gain support for host-nation government• Shape the environment for interagency and

host-nation success

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IV. Lethal and Nonlethal ActionsRef: FM 3-0 Operations (2008), pp. 3-4 to 3-8.

There is an inherent, complementary relationship between using lethal force and applying military capabilities for nonlethal purposes. Though each situation requires a different mix of violence and restraint, lethal and nonlethal actions used together complement each other and create dilemmas for opponents. Lethal actions are critical to accomplishing offensive and defensive missions.

A. Lethal ActionsOffensive and defensive operations place a premium on employing the lethal effects of combat power against the enemy. In these operations, speed, surprise, and shock are vital considerations. Historically, the side better able to combine them defeats its opponent rapidly while incurring fewer losses. Such victories create opportunities for exploitation. In some operations, the effects of speed, surprise, and shock are enough to collapse organized resistance. Such a collapse occurred in the offensive phase of Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003.Speed is swiftness of action. It allows a force to act before the enemy is ready or before the situation deteriorates further. Surprise is achieved by acting at a time, in a place, or using methods to which the enemy cannot effectively react or does not expect. Speed contributes to surprise. Shock results from applying overwhelming violence. Combat power applied with enough speed and magnitude to overwhelm the enemy produces it. Shock slows and disrupts enemy operations. It is usually transient, but while it lasts, shock may paralyze the enemy’s ability to fight. Sometimes the psychological effects of threatening to use overwhelming violence can also produce shock.

B. Nonlethal ActionsArmy forces employ a variety of nonlethal means. Stability operations often involve us-ing military capabilities to perform such tasks as restoring essential services. Civil sup-port operations are characterized by providing constructive support to civil authorities. However, demonstrating the potential for lethal action (by actions such as increased military presence in an area) often contributes to maintaining order during stability and some civil support operations. Other examples include such actions as pre-assault warnings and payments for collateral damage. Some nonlethal actions, such as infor-mation engagement, are common to all operations.Opposing forces wage a continuous struggle in the information environment simulta-neously with operations in the physical domains. Friendly actions in the information environment include attacking the enemy’s command and control system, defending against electronic attacks, and protecting friendly information. Nonlethal actions in combat include a wide range of intelligence-gathering, disruptive, and other activities. Furthermore, nonlethal means can mitigate the indirect effects on noncombatants of lethal actions directed against the enemy.Stability and civil support operations emphasize nonlethal, constructive actions by Soldiers working among noncombatants. Civil affairs forces have a major role. In stability operations, they work with and through host-nation agencies and other civilian organizations to enhance the host-nation government’s legitimacy. Nonlethal, con-structive actions can persuade the local populace to withhold support from the enemy and provide information to friendly forces. Loss of popular support presents the enemy with two bad choices: stay and risk capture, or depart and risk exposure to lethal ac-tions in less populated areas. Commanders focus on managing the local populace’s expectations and countering rumors. The moral advantage provided by the presence of well-trained, well-equipped, and well-led forces can be a potent nonlethal capability. It creates fear and doubt in the minds of the enemy and may deter adversaries.

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Ref: FM 3-90 Tactics, app. C. See also The Battle Staff SMARTbook.Tactical mission tasks describe the results or effects the commander wants to achieve - the what and why of a mission statement. The commander is not limited to the tactical mission tasks listed in this section or FM 3-90; there is no definitive list.

Reconnaissance Operations Zone Area (including point) Route Recon in force Forms of security - Screen - Guard - Cover - AreaSecurity OperationsInformation OperationsCombined Arms Breach OpnsPassage of LinesRelief in PlaceRiver Crossing OperationsTroop Movement Administrative Movement Approach March Road March

OpenEnvelopSurpriseCauseProtect

AllowCreateInfluenceSupport

Actions by Friendly Forces

Types and Forms of Operations

Purpose (in order to)

Movement to Contact Search and AttackAttack

AmbushDemonstrationFeintRaidSpoiling Attack

ExploitationPursuitOffensive Maneuver Envelopment

Frontal AttackInfiltrationPenetrationTurning Movement

Area DefenseMobile DefenseRetrograde Operations Delay Withdrawal Retirement

AssaultAttack-by-FireBreachBypassClearCombat Search and RescueConsolidation & ReorganizationControl

DivertEnableDeceiveDenyPrevent

CounterreconnaissanceDisengagementExfiltrateFollow and AssumeFollow and SupportLinkupOccupyReconstitution

ReduceRetainSecureSeizeSupport-by-FireSuppress

Effects on Enemy ForceBlockCanalizeContainDefeat

DestroyDisruptFixInterdict

IsolateNeutralizePenetrateTurn

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A. Effects on Enemy ForcesBlock

Contain

Canalize

Defeat

Destroy

Disrupt

Isolate

Fix

Neutralize

Interdict

Turn

Block is a tactical mission task that denies the enemy access to an area or prevents his advance in a direction or along an avenue of approach.

Canalize is a tactical mission task in which the commander restricts enemy movement to a narrow zone by exploiting terrain coupled with the use of obstacles, fires, or friendly maneuver.

Contain is a tactical mission task that requires the commander to stop, hold, or surround enemy forces or to cause them to center their activity on a given front and prevent them from withdrawing any part of their forces for use elsewhere.

Defeat occurs when an enemy has temporarily or permanently lost the physical means or the will to fight. The defeated force is unwilling or unable to pursue his COA, and can no longer interfere to a significant degree. Results from the use of force or the threat of its use.

Destroy is a tactical mission task that physically renders an enemy force combat-ineffective until it is reconstituted. Alternatively, to destroy a com-bat system is to damage it so badly that it cannot perform any function or be restored to a usable condition without being entirely rebuilt.

Disrupt is a tactical mission task in which a commander integrates direct and indirect fires, terrain, and obstacles to upset an enemy’s formation or tempo, interrupt his timetable, or cause his forces to commit prematurely or attack in a piecemeal fashion.

Fix is a tactical mission task where a commander prevents the enemy from moving any part of his force from a specific location for a specific period. Fixing an enemy force does not mean destroying it. The friendly force has to prevent the enemy from moving in any direction.

Interdict is a tactical mission task where the commander prevents, disrupts, or delays the enemy’s use of an area or route. Interdiction is a shaping operation conducted to complement and reinforce other ongoing offensive or defensive

Isolate is a tactical mission task that requires a unit to seal off-both physi-cally and psychologically-an enemy from his sources of support, deny him freedom of movement, and prevent him from having contact with other enemy forces.

Neutralize is a tactical mission task that results in rendering enemy person-nel or materiel incapable of interfering with a particular operation.

Turn is a tactical mission task that involves forcing an enemy element from one avenue of approach or movement corridor to another.

Block is also an engineer obstacle effect that integrates fire planning and obstacle effort to stop an attacker along a specific avenue of approach or prevent him from passing through an engagement area.

Fix is also an engineer obstacle effect that focuses fire planning and obstacle effort to slow an attacker’s movement within a specified area, normally an engagement area.

Disrupt is also an engineer obstacle effect that focuses fire planning and obstacle effort to cause the enemy to break up his formation and tempo, interrupt his timetable, commit breaching assets prematurely, and attack in a piecemeal effort.

Turn is also a tactical obstacle effect that integrates fire planning and obstacle effort to divert an enemy formation from one avenue of approach to an adjacent avenue of approach or into an engagement area.

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IV. Battle CommandRef: FM 3-0 Operations (2008), chap. 5 and FM 5-0, pp. 3-4 to 3-9. For complete discussion of battle command, see The Battle Staff SMARTbook.

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Battle command is the art and science of understanding, visualizing, describing, directing, leading, and assessing forces to impose the commander’s will on a hostile, thinking, and adaptive enemy. Battle command applies leadership to translate deci-sions into actions—by synchronizing forces and warfighting functions in time, space, and purpose—to accomplish missions. Battle command is guided by professional judgment gained from experience, knowledge, education, intelligence, and intuition. It is driven by commanders.

Understand, Visualize, Describe, Direct, Lead and AssessCommanders understand, visualize, describe, direct, lead, and assess throughout the operations process. First, they develop a personal and in-depth understanding of the enemy and operational environment. Then they visualize the desired end state and a broad concept of how to shape the current conditions into the end state. Com-manders describe their visualization through the commander’s intent, planning guid-ance, and concept of operations in a way that brings clarity to an uncertain situation. They also express gaps in relevant information as commander’s critical information requirements (CCIRs). Direction is implicit in command; commanders direct actions to achieve results and lead forces to mission accomplishment.

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Battle Command

Ref: FM 3-0 Operations (2008), fig. 5-1, p. 5-3.


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• Running estimates• The common operational picture• Their experience and judgment• Subject matter experts

Visualization allows commanders to develop their intent and planning guidance for the entire operation, not just the initial onset of action.

A. Commander’s VisualizationCommander’s visualization is the mental process of developing situational under-standing, determining a desired end state, and envisioning the broad sequence of events by which the force will achieve that end state. It involves discussion and debate between commanders and staffs. During planning, commander’s visualiza-tion provides the basis for developing plans and orders. During execution, it helps commanders determine if, when, and what to decide as they adapt to changing conditions. Commanders and staffs continuously assess the progress of operations toward the desired end state. They plan to adjust operations as required to accom-plish the mission.Subordinate, supporting, adjacent, and higher commanders communicate with one another to compare perspectives and visualize their environment. Commanders increase the breadth and depth of their visualizations by collaborating with other commanders and developing a shared situational understanding. Likewise, staff input, in the form of running estimates, focuses analysis and detects potential effects on operations. Commanders direct staffs to provide the information necessary to shape their visualization.Commanders consider the elements of operational design as they frame the prob-lem and describe their visualization. However, the utility and applicability of some elements are often limited at the tactical level. Commanders use the elements that apply to their echelon and situation.

B. Area of Influence An area of influence is a geographical area wherein a commander is directly capable of influencing operations by maneuver and fire support systems normally under the commander’s command or control (JP 1-02). The area of influence normally sur-rounds and includes the area of operations. Understanding the command’s area of influence helps the commander and staff plan branches to the current operation that could require the force to use capabilities outside the area of operations.

C. Area of InterestAn area of interest is that area of concern to the commander, including the area of influence, areas adjacent thereto, and extending into enemy territory to the objec-tives of current or planned operations. This area also includes areas occupied by enemy forces who could jeopardize the accomplishment of the mission (JP 2-03). The area of interest for stability or civil support operations may be much larger than that associated with offensive and defensive operations.

D. Mission Variables: The Factors of METT-TCMETT-TC is a memory aid that identifies the mission variables: Mission, Enemy, Terrain and weather, Troops and support available, Time available, and Civil con-siderations. It is used in information management (the major categories of relevant information) and in tactics (the major variables considered during mission analysis). Mission analysis describes characteristics of the area of operations in terms of METT-TC, focusing on how they might affect the mission. Note: See p. 1-31.

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III. DescribeRef: FM 3-0 Operations (2008), pp. 5-9 to 5-9.

After commanders visualize an operation, they describe it to their staffs and subordi-nates to facilitate shared understanding of the mission and intent. Commanders ensure subordinates understand the visualization well enough to begin planning. Commanders describe their visualization in doctrinal terms, refining and clarifying it as circumstances require. Commanders express their initial visualization in terms of—

• Initial commander’s intent• Planning guidance, including an initial concept of operations• Information required for further planning (CCIRs)• Essential elements of friendly information (EEFIs) that must be protected

1. Initial Commander’s IntentCommanders summarize their visualization in their initial intent statement. The purpose of the initial commander’s intent is to facilitate planning while focusing the overall opera-tions process. Commanders develop this intent statement personally. It is a succinct description of the commander’s visualization of the entire operation, a clear statement of what the commander wants to accomplish. The initial commander’s intent links the op-eration’s purpose with the conditions that define the desired end state. Usually the intent statement evolves as planning progresses and more information becomes available.The initial commander’s intent statement focuses the staff during the operations process. The staff uses this statement to develop and refine courses of action that contribute to establishing conditions that define the end state. Planning involves developing lines of effort that link the execution of tactical tasks to end state conditions. A clear initial intent statement is essential to this effort.

2. Planning GuidanceCommanders provide planning guidance with their initial intent statement. Planning guid-ance conveys the essence of the commander’s visualization. Guidance may be broad or detailed, depending on the situation. Effective planning guidance is essentially an initial concept of operations that includes priorities for each warfighting function. It reflects how the commander sees the operation unfolding. It broadly de-scribes when, where, and how the commander intends to employ combat power to accomplish the mission within the higher commander’s intent. Commanders use their experience and judgment to add depth and clarity to their plan-ning guidance. They ensure staffs understand the broad outline of their visualization while allowing the latitude necessary to explore different options. This guidance provides the basis for a detailed concept of operations without dictating the specifics of the final plan. As with their intent, commanders may modify planning guidance based on staff and subordinate input and changing conditions.

3. Commander’s Critical Information Requirements (CCIR)A commander’s critical information requirement is an information requirement identified by the commander as being critical to facilitating timely decisionmaking. The two key ele-ments are friendly force information requirements and priority intelligence requirements (JP 3-0). A CCIR directly influences decisionmaking and facilitates the successful execu-tion of military operations. Commanders decide whether to designate an information requirement as a CCIR based on likely decisions and their visualization of the course of the operation. A CCIR may support one or more decisions. During planning, staffs recommend information requirements for commanders to designate as CCIRs. During preparation and execution, they recommend changes to CCIRs based on assessment.


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A CCIR is—• Specified by a commander for a specific operation• Applicable only to the commander who specifies it• Situation dependent—directly linked to a current or future mission• Focused on predictable events or activities• Time-sensitive—the answer to a CCIR must be reported to the commander immedi-

ately by any means available• Always promulgated by a plan or order

Commanders limit the number of CCIRs to focus the efforts of limited collection assets. Typically, commanders identify ten or fewer CCIRs. The fewer the CCIRs, the easier it is for staffs to remember, recognize, and act on each one. This helps staffs and subor-dinates identify information the commander needs immediately. The staff’s first priority is to provide the commander with answers to CCIRs. While most staffs provide relevant information, a good staff expertly distills that information. It identifies answers to CCIRs and gets them to the commander immediately. It also identifies vital information that does not answer a CCIR but that the commander nonetheless needs to know. A good staff de-velops this acumen through training and experience. Designating too many CCIRs limits the staff’s ability to immediately recognize and react to them. Excessive critical items reduce the focus of collection efforts. The list of CCIRs constantly changes. Commanders add and delete individual require-ments throughout an operation based on the information needed for specific decisions. Commanders determine their own CCIRs but may select some from staff nominations. Staff sections recommend the most important priority intelligence requirements (PIRs) and friendly force information requirements (FFIRs) for the commander to designate as CCIRs. Once approved, a CCIR falls into one of two categories: PIRs and FFIRs.

• Priority Intelligence Requirement (PIR). A priority intelligence requirement is an intelligence requirement, stated as a priority for intelligence support, that the com-mander and staff need to understand the adversary or the operational environment (JP 2-0). PIRs identify the information about the enemy, terrain and weather, and civil considerations that the commander considers most important. Lessons from recent operations show that intelligence about civil considerations may be as critical as intelligence about the enemy. Thus, all staff sections may recommend informa-tion about civil considerations as PIRs. The intelligence officer manages PIRs for the commander.

• Friendly Force Information Requirement (FFIR). A friendly force information requirement is information the commander and staff need to understand the status of friendly force and supporting capabilities (JP 3-0). FFIRs identify the informa-tion about the mission, troops and support available, and time available for friendly forces that the commander considers most important. In coordination with the staff, the operations officer manages FFIRs for the commander.

4. Essential Elements of Friendly Information (EEFI)An essential element of friendly information is a critical aspect of a friendly operation that, if known by the enemy, would subsequently compromise, lead to failure, or limit success of the operation, and therefore should be protected from enemy detection. Although EEFIs are not CCIRs, they have the same priority. An EEFI establishes an element of information to protect rather than one to collect. EEFIs identify those elements of friendly force information that, if compromised, would jeopardize mission success.EEFIs help commanders protect vital friendly information. Their identification is the first step in the operations security process and central to information protection. (FM 3-13 addresses the operations security process.) EEFIs are also key factors in formulating military deception operations. Operations security, information protection, and military deception all contribute to information superiority.


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Concept of Operations (Direct)Ref: FM 3-0 Operations (2008) p. 5-11 to 5-12.The concept of operations is a statement that directs the manner in which subordinate units cooperate to accomplish the mission and establishes the sequence of actions the force will use to achieve the end state. It is normally expressed in terms of deci-sive, shaping, and sustaining operations. The concept of operations expands on the commander’s intent by describing how the commander wants the force to accomplish the mission. It states the principal tasks required, the responsible subordinate units, and how the principal tasks complement one another. Normally, the concept of opera-tions projects the status of the force at the end of the operation. Note: Small-unit commanders and leaders usually do not describe their concept of operations in terms of decisive, shaping, and sustaining operations; they simply assign tasks to subordinates using main effort as required. (FM 5-0 discusses the concept of operations in detail.)

1. Decisive OperationsThe decisive operation is the operation that directly accomplishes the mission. It deter-mines the outcome of a major operation, battle, or engagement. The decisive opera-tion is the focal point around which commanders design the entire operation. Multiple units may be engaged in the same decisive operation. Units operating in non contigu-ous areas of operations may execute the tasks composing the higher headquarters’ decisive operation simultaneously in different locations. Commanders visualize the decisive operation and then design shaping and sustaining operations around it.

2. Shaping OperationsA shaping operation is an operation at any echelon that creates and preserves condi-tions for the success of the decisive operation. Shaping operations establish condi-tions for the decisive operation through effects on the enemy, population (including local leaders), and terrain. Shaping operations may occur throughout the operational area and involve any combination of forces and capabilities. Shaping operations may occur before, during, or after the decisive operation begins. Some shaping opera-tions, especially those executed simultaneously with the decisive operation, may be economy of force actions. However, if the force available does not permit simultane-ous decisive and shaping operations, the commander sequences shaping operations around the decisive operation.

3. Sustaining OperationsA sustaining operation is an operation at any echelon that enables the decisive opera-tion or shaping operations by generating and maintaining combat power. Sustaining operations differ from decisive and shaping operations in that they are focused inter-nally (on friendly forces) rather than externally (on the enemy or environment). Sus-taining operations cannot be decisive. They determine the limit of operational reach. At the tactical level, sustaining operations determine the tempo of the overall operation; they ensure the force is able to seize, retain, and exploit the initiative.

Main EffortThe concept of operations identifies a main effort unit if required; otherwise, the priori-ties of support go to the unit conducting the decisive operation. The main effort is the designated subordinate unit whose mission at a given point in time is most critical to overall mission success. It is usually weighted with the preponderance of combat power. Designating a main effort temporarily prioritizes resource allocation. Com-manders may shift the main effort several times during an operation. A unit conducting a shaping operation may be designated as the main effort until the decisive operation commences. However, the unit with primary responsibility for the decisive operation becomes the main effort upon execution of the decisive operation.


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The Six Warfighting Functions (Direct)Ref: FM 3-0 Operations (2008), pp. 4-3 to 4-7.The battlefield operational systems (BOS) or battlefield functional areas (BFA) have been replaced with six warfighting functions. The warfighting functions, when com-bined with a seventh element, leadership, are the elements of combat power. Commanders use the warfighting functions to help them exercise battle command. A warfighting function is a group of tasks and systems (people, organizations, informa-tion, and processes) united by a common purpose that commanders use to accom-plish missions and training objectives. Decisive, shaping, and sustaining operations combine all the warfighting functions to generate combat power. No warfighting func-tion is exclusively decisive, shaping, or sustaining. The Army’s warfighting functions are fundamentally linked to the joint functions.

Movement and ManeuverThe movement and maneuver warfighting function is the related tasks and systems that move forces to achieve a position of advantage in relation to the enemy. Direct fire is inherent in maneuver, as is close combat. The function includes tasks associ-ated with force projection related to gaining a positional advantage over an enemy. The movement and maneuver warfighting function does not include administrative movements of personnel and materiel. These movements fall under the sustainment warfighting function. FM 3-90 discusses maneuver and tactical movement. FMI 3-35 and FMs 100-17-1 and 100-17-2 discuss force projection. When published, FM 3-35 will supersede FMI 3-35.

IntelligenceThe intelligence warfighting function is the related tasks and systems that facilitate understanding of the enemy, terrain, weather, and civil considerations. FM 2-0 describes the intelligence warfighting function. Several unit-level manuals provide supplemental doctrine on surveillance and reconnaissance.

FiresThe fires warfighting function is the related tasks and systems that provide collective and coordinated use of Army indirect fires, joint fires, and command and control war-fare through the targeting process. When published, FM 3-09 will contain doctrine on fires. When revised, FM 3-13 will address command and control warfare.

SustainmentThe sustainment warfighting function is the related tasks and systems that provide support and services to ensure freedom of action, extend operational reach, and prolong endurance. FM 4-0 describes the sustainment warfighting function.

Command and ControlThe command and control warfighting function is the related tasks and systems that support commanders in exercising authority and direction. FM 6-0 describes command and control warfighting doctrine.

ProtectionThe protection warfighting function is the related tasks and systems that preserve the force so the commander can apply maximum combat power. When published, FM 3-10 will establish doctrine for protection. When revised, FM 3-13 will address information protection.


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Principles of War and Operations

Ref: FM 3-0 Operations (2008), app. A.(Visualize)The nine principles of war represent the most important nonphysical factors that affect the conduct of operations at the strategic, operational, and tactical levels. The Army published its original principles of war after World War I. In the following years, the Army adjusted the original principles modestly as they stood the tests of analysis, experimentation, and practice. The principles of war are not a checklist. While they are considered in all operations, they do not apply in the same way to every situation. Rather, they summarize characteristics of successful operations. Applied to the study of past campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements, the principles of war are powerful analysis tools. Joint doctrine adds three principles of operations.

• Objective. Direct every military operation toward a clearly defined, decisive, and attainable objective.

• Offensive. Seize, retain, and exploit the initiative.• Mass. Concentrate the effects of combat power at the decisive place and time.• Economy of Force. Allocate minimum essential combat power to secondary ef-

forts.• Maneuver. Place the enemy in a disadvantageous position through the flexible

application of combat power.• Unity of Command. For every objective, ensure unity of effort under one respon-

sible commander.• Security. Never permit the enemy to acquire an unexpected advantage.• Surprise. Strike the enemy at a time, place or in a manner for which he is unpre-

pared.• Simplicity. Prepare clear, uncomplicated plans and clear, concise orders to en-

sure thorough understanding.

Additional Principles of Joint OperationsIn addition to these nine principles, JP 3-0 adds three principles of operations—per-severance, legitimacy, and restraint. Together with the principles of war, these twelve make up the principles of joint operations.

• Perseverance. Ensure the commitment necessary to attain the national strategic end state. Commanders prepare for measured, protracted military operations in pursuit of the desired national strategic end state. Some joint operations may require years to reach the desired end state. Resolving the underlying causes of the crisis may be elusive, making it difficult to achieve conditions supporting the end state.

• Legitimacy. Develop and maintain the will necessary to attain the national stra-tegic end state. For Army forces, legitimacy comes from three important factors. First, the operation or campaign must be conducted under U.S. law. Second, the operation must be conducted according to international laws and treaties recognized by the United States, particularly the law of war. Third, the campaign or operation should develop or reinforce the authority and acceptance for the host-nation government by both the governed and the international community.

• Restraint. Limit collateral damage and prevent the unnecessary use of force. Restraint requires careful and disciplined balancing of security, the conduct of military operations, and the desired strategic end state. Excessive force antago-nizes those friendly and neutral parties involved. Hence, it damages the legiti-macy of the organization that uses it while potentially enhancing the legitimacy of any opposing party.

(Tactical Mission Fundamentals) V. Troop Leading Procedures 1-25

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Ref: FM 5-0 Army Planning and Orders Production, chap. 4 and FM 3-21.10 The Infantry Rifle Company, chap. 2, section II. For complete discussion of the military decision making process (MDMP) to include troop leading procedures, see The Battle Staff SMARTbook.

Troop leading procedures (TLP) provide small unit leaders a framework for plan-ning and preparing for operations. Leaders of company and smaller units use TLP to develop plans and orders. This section describes the eight steps of TLP and its relationship to the military decision making process (MDMP). The TLP is applicable to all types of small units.

V. Troop Leading

TLP extend the MDMP to small unit level. The MDMP and TLP are similar but not identical. Commanders with a coordinating staff use the MDMP as their primary planning process. Company-level and smaller units do not have formal staffs and use TLP to plan and prepare for operations. This places the responsibility for plan-ning primarily on the commander or small unit leader.Troop leading procedures is a dynamic process used by small unit leaders to analysis a mission, develop a plan, and prepare for an operation. These procedures enable leaders to maximize available planning time while developing effective plans and adequately preparing their unit for an operation. TLP consist of the eight steps. The sequence of the TLP steps is not rigid. They are modified to meet the mission, situation, and available time. Some steps are done concurrently while others may go on continuously throughout the operations.

Procedures (TLP)

Leaders project their presence and guidance through troop leading procedures. TLP is the process a leader goes through to prepare the unit to accomplish a tactical mission. It begins when the mission is received. (Photo by Jeong, Hae-jung).

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1-26 (Tactical Mission Fundamentals) V. Troop Leading Procedures

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I. Performing Troop Leading ProceduresTLP provide small unit leaders a framework for planning and preparing for opera-tions. This section discusses each step of TLP. Army leaders begin TLP when they receive the initial WARNO or perceive a new mission. As each subsequent order arrives, leaders modify their assessments, update tentative plans, and continue to supervise and assess preparations. In some situations, the higher headquarters may not issue the full sequence of WARNOs; security considerations or tempo may make it impractical. In other cases, Army lead-ers may initiate TLP before receiving a WARNO based on existing plans and orders (contingency plans or be-prepared missions), and an understanding of the situation.

1. Receive The MissionReceipt of a mission may occur in several ways. It may begin with the initial WARNO from higher or when a leader receives an OPORD. Frequently, leaders receive a mission in a FRAGO over the radio. Ideally, they receive a series of WARNOs, the OPORD, and a briefing from their commander. Normally after receiving an OPORD, leaders are required to give a confirmation brief to their higher commander to ensure they understand the higher commander’s concept of operations and intent for his unit.Upon receipt of mission, Army leaders perform an initial assessment of the situa-tion (METT-TC analysis) and allocate the time available for planning and prepara-tion. (Preparation includes rehearsals and movement.) This initial assessment and time allocation form the basis of their initial WARNO. Army leaders issue the initial WARNO quickly to give subordinates as much time as possible to plan and prepare.Ideally, a battalion headquarters issues at least three WARNOs to subordinates when conducting the MDMP. WARNOs are issued upon receipt of mission, comple-tion of mission analysis, and when the commander approves a COA. WARNOs serve a function in planning similar to that of fragmentary orders (FRAGOs) during execution.

Planning at Company and Below

Ref: FM 5-0, fig. 4-3, p. 4-5.

Plan DevelopmentTroop Leading Procedures

Issue Warning Order

Initiate Movement

Supervise and Refine

Complete Plan

Receive Mission1

2

4

Make Tentative Plan3

5

6

Conduct Recon

Issue OPORD7

8

4

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Mission Analysis • Analysis of the Mission

- Purpose - Tasks – Specified, Implied, Essential - Constraints - Write Restated Mission

• Terrain and Weather Analysis • Enemy Analysis • Troops Available • Time Available • Risk Assessment

Course of Action Development • Analyses Relative Combat Power • Generate Options • Array Initial Forces • Develop Scheme of Maneuver • Assign Headquarters • Prepare COA Statement and Sketch

COA Analysis • Hasty War Game

COA Comparison COA Selection


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A. Perform an Initial AssessmentThe initial assessment addresses the factors of mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available, time available, and civil considerations (METT-TC). The order and detail in which Army leaders analyze the factors of METT-TC is flex-ible. It depends on the amount of information available and the relative importance of each factor. For example, they may concentrate on the mission, enemy, and terrain, leaving weather and civil considerations until they receive more detailed information. Often, Army leaders will not receive their final unit mission until the WARNO is dis-seminated after COA approval or after the OPORD. Effective leaders do not wait until their higher headquarters completes planning to begin their planning. Using all information available, Army leaders develop their unit mission as completely as they can. They focus on the mission, commander’s intent, and concept of operations of their higher and next higher headquarters. They pick out the major tasks their unit will probably be assigned and develop a mission statement based on information they have received. At this stage, the mission may be incomplete. For example, an initial mission statement could be, “First platoon conducts an ambush in the next 24 hours.” While not complete, this information allows subordinates to start prepa-rations. Leaders complete a formal mission statement during TLP step 3 (make a tentative plan) and step 6 (complete the plan).

B. Allocate the Available TimeBased on what they know, Army leaders estimate the time available to plan and pre-pare for the mission. They begin by identifying the times at which major planning and preparation events, including rehearsals, must be complete. Reverse planning helps them do this. Army leaders identify the critical times specified by higher headquarters and work back from them, estimating how much time each event will consume. Leaders ensure that all subordinate echelons have sufficient time for their own planning and preparation needs. A general rule of thumb for leaders at all levels is to use no more than one-third of the available time for planning and issuance of the OPORD. Leaders allocate the remaining two-thirds of it to subordinates.

2. Issue a Warning Order (WARNO)As soon as Army leaders finish their initial assessment of the situation and available time, they issue a WARNO. Leaders do not wait for more information. They issue the best WARNO possible with the information at hand and update it as needed with additional WARNOs.The WARNO contains as much detail as possible. It informs subordinates of the unit mission and gives them the leader’s time line. Army leaders may also pass on any other instructions or information they think will help subordinates prepare for the new mission. This includes information on the enemy, the nature of the higher headquar-ters plan, and any specific instructions for preparing their units. The most important thing is that leaders not delay in issuing the initial WARNO. As more information becomes available, leaders can -- and should -- issue additional WARNOs.

Warning Order (WARNO)Normally an initial WARNO issued below battalion level includes:

Mission or nature of the operationTime and place for issuing the OPORDUnits or elements participating in the operationSpecific tasks not addressed by unit SOPTime line for the operation


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Based on what they know, Army leaders estimate the time available to plan and pre-pare for the mission. They begin by identifying the times at which major planning and preparation events, including rehearsals, must be complete. Reverse planning helps them do this. Army leaders identify the critical times specified by higher headquarters and work back from them, estimating how much time each event will consume. Critical times might include aircraft loading times, the line of departure (LD) time, or the start point (SP) time for movement. By working backwards, Army leaders arrive at the time available to plan and prepare for the operation. Leaders ensure that all subordinate echelons have sufficient time for their own plan-ning and preparation needs. A general rule of thumb for leaders at all levels is to use no more than one-third of the available time for planning and issuance of the OPORD. Leaders allocate the remaining two-thirds of it to subordinates. Below is a sample time schedule for an infantry company. This tentative schedule is adjusted as TLP progresses.

0600 - Execute mission0530 - Finalize or adjust the plan based on leader’s recon0400 - Establish the objective rallying point; begin leaders recon0200 - Begin movement2100 - Conduct platoon inspections1900 - Conduct rehearsals1800 - Eat meals (tray packs)1745 - Hold backbriefs (squad leaders to platoon leaders)1630 - Issue platoon OPORDs1500 - Hold backbriefs (platoon leaders to company commander)1330 - Issue company OPORD1045 - Conduct reconnaissance1030 - Update company WARNO1000 - Receive battalion OPORD0900 - Receive battalion WARNO; issue company WARNO

An example patrol timeline is below:11:00 Patrol secures OBJ [END]10:45 Patrol starts actions on OBJ10:30 Patrol passes through release point10:10 Patrol departs ORP10:00 Leader’s recon returns to ORP09:30 Leader’s recon departs ORP09:15 Patrol occupies ORP08:15 Patrol conducts passage of line through FLOT08:00 PL links up with forward unit commander/guide07:45 Patrol occupies AA07:30 Patrol begins movement to AA.07:15 Leaders conducts PCI07:00 Patrol conducts rehearsals06:30 PL issues OPORD06:00 PL issues WARNO [START]

Allocate Available Time


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To frame the tentative plan, Army leaders perform mission analysis following the METT-TC format, continuing the initial assessment performed in TLP step 1:

M - MissionArmy leaders analyze the higher headquarters WARNO or OPORD to determine how

their unit contributes to the higher headquarters mission:• Higher Headquarters Mission and Commander’s Intent• Higher Headquarters Concept of Operations• Specified, Implied, and Essential Tasks• Constraints

The product of this part of the mission analysis is the restated mission. The restated mission is a simple, concise expression of the essential tasks the unit must accom-plish and the purpose to be achieved. The mission statement states who (the unit), what (the task), when (either the critical time or on order), where (location), and why (the purpose of the operation).

E - EnemyWith the restated mission as the focus, Army leaders continue the analysis with the

enemy. For small unit ops, Army leaders need to know about the enemy’s composi-tion, disposition, strength, recent activities, ability to reinforce, and possible COAs.

T - Terrain and WeatherThis aspect of mission analysis addresses the military aspects of terrain (OKOCA):

• Observation and Fields of Fire• Key Terrain• Obstacles• Cover and Concealment• Avenues of Approach

There are five military aspects of weather: visibility, winds, precipitation, cloud cover, and temperature/humidity (see FM 34-130). The analysis considers the effects on soldiers, equip., and supporting forces, such as air and artillery support.Note: See pp. 1-32 to 1-33 for additional information on OCOKA.

T - Troops and Support AvailablePerhaps the most important aspect of mission analysis is determining the combat potential of one’s own force. Army leaders know the status of their soldiers’ morale, their experience and training, and the strengths and weaknesses.

T - Time AvailableArmy leaders not only appreciate how much time is available; they understand the time-space aspects of preparing, moving, fighting, and sustaining. They view their own tasks and enemy actions in relation to time. They know how long it takes under such conditions to prepare for certain tasks (prepare orders, rehearsals, etc).

C - Civil ConsiderationsCivil considerations are how the man-made infrastructure, civilian institutions, and

attitudes and activities of the civilian leaders, populations, and organizations within an area of operations influence the conduct of military operations (FM 6-0). Civil considerations are analyzed in terms of six factors (ASCOPE): areas, structures, capabilities, organizations, people and events.

II. METT-TC (Mission Analysis)Ref: FM 5-0, pp. 4-7 to 4-10.


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III. OCOKA - Military Aspects of the TerrainRef: FM 34-130 Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield, pp. 2-10 to 2-21 .

Terrain analysis consists of an evaluation of the military aspects of the battlefield’s terrain to determine its effects on military operations. The military aspects of terrain are often described using the acronym OCOKA.

• Vegetation or building height and density

• Canopy or roof closure• Relief features, including micro-relief

features such as defiles (elevation tint-ing techniques are helpful).

• Friendly and threat target acquisition and sensor capabilities

• Specific LOSs

C - Concealment and CoverConcealment is protection from observa-tion. Woods, underbrush, snowdrifts, tall grass, and cultivated vegetation provide concealment.Cover is protection from the effects of direct and indirect fires. Ditches, caves, river banks, folds in the ground, shell craters, buildings, walls, and embankments provide cover. The evaluation of concealment and cover aids in identifying defensible terrain, pos-sible approach routes, assembly areas, and deployment and dispersal areas. Use the results of the evaluation to:

• Identify and evaluate AAs• Identify defensible terrain and potential

battle positions• Identify potential assembly and disper-

sal areas

O - ObstaclesObstacles are any natural or man-made terrain features that stop, impede, or divert military movement.An evaluation of obstacles leads to the iden-tification of mobility corridors. This in turn helps identify defensible terrain and AAs. To evaluate obstacles:

• Identify pertinent obstacles in the AI• Determine the effect of each obstacle

on the mobility of the evaluated force• Combine the effects of individual ob-

stacles into an integrated product

O - Observation and Fields of FireObservation. Observation is the abil-ity to see the threat either visually or through the use of surveillance devices. Factors that limit or deny observation include concealment and cover. Fields of fire. A field of fire is the area that a weapon or group of weapons may effectively cover with fire from a given position. Terrain that offers cover limits fields of fire.Terrain that offers both good observa-tion and fields of fire generally favors defensive COAs.The evaluation of observation and fields of fire allows you to:

• Identify potential engagement ar-eas, or “fire sacks” and “kill zones”

• Identify defensible terrain and specific system or equipment positions

• Identify where maneuvering forces are most vulnerable to observa-tion and fire

Evaluate observation from the perspec-tive of electronic and optical line-of-sight (LOS) systems as well as unaided visual observation. Consider systems such as weapon sights, laser range finders, radars, radios, and jammers.While ground based systems usually require horizontal LOS, airborne sys-tems use oblique and vertical LOS. The same is true of air defense systems.If time and resources permit, pre-pare terrain factor overlays to aid in evaluating observation and fields of fire. Consider the following:


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Some examples of such key terrain are:

• Terrain that gives good observation over AAs to and into the defensive position

• Terrain that permits the defender to cover an obstacle by fire

• Important road junctions or commu-nication centers that affect the use of reserves, sustainment, or LOCs

Additional Considerations:• Key terrain varies with the level

of command. For example, to an army or theater commander a large city may afford marked advantages as a communications center. To a division commander the high ground which dominates the city may be key terrain while the city itself may be an obstacle.

• Terrain which permits or denies maneuver may be key terrain.

• Major obstacles are rarely key terrain features. The high ground dominating a river rather than the river itself is usually the key terrain feature for the tactical commander. An exception is an obstacle such as a built-up area which is assigned as an objective.

• Key terrain is decisive terrain if it has an extraordinary impact on the mission.

• Decisive terrain is rare and will not be present in every situation.

A - Avenue of Approach (AA)An Avenue of Approach (AA) is an air or ground route that leads an attacking force of a given size to its objective or to key terrain in its path.During offensive operations, the evalua-tion of AAs leads to a recommendation on the best AAs to the command’s objective and identification of avenues available to the threat for withdrawal or the movement of reserves.During the defense, identify AAs that sup-port the threat’s offensive capabilities and avenues that support the movement and commitment of friendly reserves.

If DMA products are unavailable, and time and resources permit, prepare terrain fac-tor overlays to aid in evaluating obstacles. Some of the factors to consider are:

• Vegetation (tree spacing/diameter)• Surface drainage (stream width, depth,

velocity, bank slope, & height)• Surface materials (soil types and condi-

tions that affect mobility)• Surface configuration (slopes that af-

fect mobility)• Obstacles (natural and man-made;

consider obstacles to flight as well as ground mobility)

• Transportation systems (bridge classi-fications and road characteristics such as curve radius, slopes, and width)

• Effects of actual or projected weather such as heavy precipitation or snow

K - Key TerrainKey terrain is any locality or area the seizure, retention, or control of which affords a marked advantage to either combatant. Key terrain is often selected for use as battle positions or objectives. Evaluate key terrain by assessing the impact of its seizure, by either force, upon the results of battle.A common technique is to depict key terrain on overlays and sketches with a large “K” within a circle or curve that encloses and fol-lows the contours of the designated terrain. On transparent overlays use a color, such as purple, that stands out.In the offense, key terrain features are usually forward of friendly dispositions and are often assigned as objectives. Terrain features in adjacent sectors may be key terrain if their control is necessary for the continuation of the attack or the accom-plishment of the mission. If the mission is to destroy threat forces, key terrain may include areas whose seizure helps ensure the required destruction. Terrain that gives the threat effective observation along an axis of friendly advance may be key terrain if it is necessary to deny its possession or control by the threat.In the defense, key terrain is usually within the AO and within or behind the selected defensive area.


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6. Complete the PlanDuring this step, Army leaders incorporate the result of reconnaissance into their se-lected COA to complete the plan or order. This includes preparing overlays, refining the indirect fire target list, coordinating combat service support and command and control requirements, and updating the tentative plan as a result of the reconnais-sance. At lower levels, this step may entail only confirming or updating information contained in the tentative plan. If time allows, Army leaders make final coordination with adjacent units and higher headquarters before issuing the order.

7. Issue the OrderSmall unit orders are normally issued verbally and supplemented by graphics and other control measures. The order follows the standard five-paragraph format OPORD format. Typically, Army leaders below company level do not issue a com-mander’s intent. They reiterate the intent of their higher and next higher commander.Note: See pp. 1-37 to 1-44 for a sample order formats. The ideal location for issuing the order is a point in the AO with a view of the objec-tive and other aspects of the terrain. The leader may perform a leader’s reconnais-sance, complete the order, and then summon subordinates to a specified location to receive it. Sometimes security or other constraints make it infeasible to issue the order on the terrain; then Army leaders use a sand table, detailed sketch, maps, and other products to depict the AO and situation.

8. Supervise and RefineThroughout TLP, Army leaders monitor mission preparations, refine the plan, perform coordination with adjacent units, and supervise and assess preparations. Normally unit SOPs state individual responsibilities and the sequence of preparation activities. Army leaders supervise subordinates and inspect their personnel and equipment to ensure the unit is ready for the mission.Army leaders refine their plan based on continuing analysis of their mission and updated intelligence. Most important, Army leaders know that they create plans to ensure all their subordinates focus on accomplishing the same mission within the commander’s intent. If required, they can deviate from the plan and execute changes based on battlefield conditions and the enemy. Army leaders oversee preparations for operations. These include inspections, coordination, reorganization, fire support and engineer activities, maintenance, resupply, and movement. The requirement to supervise is continuous; it is as important as issuing orders. Supervision allows Army leaders to assess their subordinates’ understanding of their orders and determine where additional guidance is needed. It is crucial to effective preparation.

Rehearsals Note: See pp. 1-51 to 1-54 for a complete discussion of rehearsals.A crucial component of preparation is the rehearsal. Rehearsals allow Army leaders to assess their subordinates’ preparations. They may identify areas that require more supervision. Army leaders conduct rehearsals to:

• Practice essential tasks• Identify weaknesses or problems in the plan• Coordinate subordinate element actions• Improve soldier understanding of the concept of operations• Foster confidence among soldiers


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IV. Composite Risk Management (CRM)Ref: FM 5-19 Composite Risk Management. For more complete discussion of CRM and CRM steps, see The Leader’s SMARTbook (3rd Revised Edition), chap. 6.

1. Identify hazardsA hazard is a condition with the potential to cause injury, illness, or death of personnel; damage to or loss of equipment or property; or mission degradation. Hazards exist in all environments—combat operations, stability operations, base support operations, training, garrison activities, and off-duty activities. The factors of mission, enemy, ter-rain and weather, troops and support available, time available, and civil considerations (METT-TC) serve as a standard format for identification of hazards, on-duty or off-duty.

2. Assess hazards to determine riskThis process is systematic in nature and uses charts, codes and numbers to present a methodology to assess probability and severity to obtain a standardized level of risk. Hazards are assessed and risk is assigned in terms of probability and severity of adverse impact of an event/occurrence.

3. Develop controls and make risk decisionsThe process of developing and applying controls and reassessing risk continues until an acceptable level of risk is achieved or until all risks are reduced to a level where benefits outweigh the potential cost.

4. Implement controlsLeaders and staffs ensure that controls are integrated into SOPs, written and verbal orders, mission briefings, and staff estimates.

5. Supervise and evaluate

Composite Risk Management (CRM) is a decisionmaking process used to mitigate risks associated with all hazards that have the potential to injure or kill personnel, damage or destroy equipment, or otherwise impact mission effectiveness.

Composite Risk Management

Ref: FM 5-19, fig. 1-1, p. 1-1.

(Tactical Mission Fundamentals) VI. Combat Orders 1-37

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Tactical Mission Fundamentals

VI. Combat OrdersRef: FM 3-21.8 The Infantry Rifle Platoon and Squad, pp. 5-4 to 5-5 and FM 5-0 Army Planning and Orders Production, app. G. For more complete discussion of plans and orders, see The Battle Staff SMARTbook.

Combat orders are the means by which the small unit leader receives and transmits information from the earliest notification that an operation will occur through the final steps of execution. WARNOs, OPORDs, and FRAGOs are absolutely critical to mis-sion success. In a tactical situation, the small unit leaders work with combat orders on a daily basis, and they must have precise knowledge of the correct format for each type of order. At the same time, they must ensure that every Soldier in the unit understands how to receive and respond to the various types of orders.

Plans and orders are the means by which commanders express their visualization, commander’s intent, and decisions. They focus on results the commander expects to achieve. Plans and orders form the basis commanders use to synchronize military operations. They encourage initiative by providing the “what” and “why” of a mission, and leave the how to accomplish the mission to subordinates. They give subordi-nates the operational and tactical freedom to accomplish the mission by providing the minimum restrictions and details necessary for synchronization and coordination.

The OPORD provides the troops with the essential information required to conduct the operation and to carry out the commander’s intent. This format allows the team to see the big picture and orient on key information. (Photo by Jeong, Hae-jung).

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At a minimum, the WARNO states the situation, the mission, and coordinating instructions--such as the time and place of the OPORD. This allows subordinate leaders to prepare troops and equipment for the mission. (Photo by Jeong, Hae-jung).

A WARNO informs recipients of tasks they must do now or notifies them of possible future tasks. However, a WARNO does not authorize execution other than planning unless specifically stated. A WARNO follows the OPORD format. It may include some or all of the following:

• Series numbers, sheet numbers and names, editions, and scales of maps required (if changed from the current OPORD)

• The enemy situation and significant intelligence events• The higher headquarters’ mission• Mission or tasks of the issuing headquarters• The commander’s intent statement• Orders for preliminary actions, including intelligence, surveillance, and recon-

naissance (ISR) operations• Coordinating instructions (estimated timelines, orders group meetings, and the

time to issue the OPORD)• Service support instructions, any special equipment needed, regrouping of

transport, or preliminary unit movement

II. Operations Order (OPORD)An operation order is a directive issued by a commander to subordinate command-ers for the purpose of effecting the coordinated execution of an operation (JP 1-02). It is the detailed plan of the mission, including the scheme of fire and maneuver, and the commander’s intent. All Soldiers need to understand what is expected of them, what their specific role is in the mission, and how each fits into the “bigger picture.” Rehearsals of actions on the objective allow each troop to see that big picture and where everyone will be physically located.

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Traditionally called the five paragraph field order, an OPORD contains, as a mini-mum, descriptions of the following:

• Task organization• Situation• Mission• Execution• Administrative and logistic support• Command and signal for the specified operation• OPORDs always specify an execution date and time

Much of paragraphs 1, 2, 4, and 5 of the OPORD are “cut and paste.” However, that’s not the case for Paragraph 3 – Execution. Paragraph 3a – Concept of the Operation is the very heart of the OPORD because it details the overall scheme of fire and maneuver. It answers the question, “How are we going to achieve this?”

The commander issues the OPORD and orients the OPORD to the terrain. Ideally, the order is given while standing on the terrain. This may be possible in the case of the defense, but is highly unlikely for any other type of combat operation. In those cases, a terrain model (or at least a topographical map) is used.

The commander’s intent is the soul of the operation. The commander’s intent an-swers the questions, “What are we going to do…and why are we doing this?” This is the most critical information of any mission—what, why, and how. Through the com-mander’s intent statement, the commander explains in very concise terms what it is he or she expects to achieve. There is an art to this statement because it includes subtle nuances that must be understood by every troop on the mission.

Note: See pp. 1-18 and 1-20 for further discussion of commander’s intent.

III. Fragmentary Order (FRAGO)The FRAGO is an adjustment to an existing OPORD. There are many reasons an order might need adjusting. Most commonly, a FRAGO is issued due to a significant change in the situation on the ground or for clarifying instructions.It is issued after an OPORD to change or modify that order or to execute a branch or a sequel to that order.FRAGOs differ from OPORDs only in the degree of detail provided. They address only those parts of the original OPORD that have changed. FRAGOs refer to previ-ous orders and provide brief and specific instructions.

FRAGOs include all five OPORD paragraph headings. After each heading, state either new information or “no change.” As such, this information depends on the specifics of the tactical situation. FRAGO may include:

• Updates to the enemy or friendly situation • Changes to the scheme of maneuver • Coordinating and clarifying instructions• Expanding the mission tasks (branches and sequels)


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Techniques for Issuing OrdersRef: FM 5-0 Army Planning and Orders Production, app. G, p. G-7.

There are several techniques for issuing orders: verbal, written, or electronically produced using matrices or overlays. The five-paragraph format is the standard for issuing combat orders. Orders may be generated and disseminated by electronic means to reduce the amount of time needed to gather and brief the orders group. When available preparation time or resources are constrained, commanders may use the matrix method of issuing orders.

At the small unit level, orders are normally issued verbally and supplemented by graphics and other control measures. The order follows the standard five-paragraph format OPORD format. Typically, Army leaders below company level do not issue a commander’s intent. They reiterate the intent of their higher and next higher com-mander.

1. Verbal OrdersVerbal orders are used when operating in an extremely time-constrained environ-ment. They offer the advantage of being passed quickly, but risk important informa-tion being overlooked or misunderstood. Verbal orders are usually followed up by written FRAGOs.

2. GraphicsPlans and orders generally include both text and graphics. Graphics convey informa-tion and instructions through military symbols (see FM 1-02). They complement the written portion of a plan or an order and promote clarity, accuracy, and brevity. The Army prefers depicting information and instructions graphically when possible. How-ever, the mission statement and the commander’s intent are always in writing.

3. OverlaysAn overlay graphically portrays the location, size, and activity (past, current, or planned) of depicted units more consistently and accurately than text alone. An overlay enhances a viewer’s ability to analyze the relationships of units and terrain. A trained viewer can attain a vision of a situation as well as insight into the identification of implied tasks, relationships, and coordination requirements that the written plan or order may not list or readily explain. Overlay graphics may be used on stand-alone overlays or overprinted maps. The issuing headquarters is responsible for the ac-curacy of control measures and for transposing graphics to and from the map scale used by subordinate headquarters.

4. Overlay OrdersAn overlay order is a technique used to issue an order (normally a FRAGO) that has abbreviated instructions written on an overlay. Overlay orders combine a five-paragraph order with an operation overlay. Commanders may issue an overlay order when planning and preparation time is severely constrained and they must get the order to subordinate commanders as soon as possible. Commanders issue overlay orders by any suitable graphic method. An overlay order may consist of more than one overlay. A separate overlay or written annex can contain the service support coordination and organizations.

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VII. Preparation & PCI

II. The Pre-Combat Inspection (PCI)Pre-combat checks are detailed final checks that units conduct immediately before and during the execution of training and operations. These checks are usually included in unit SOPs. They are normally conducted as part of troop leading pro-cedures and can be as simple or as complex as the training or operation dictates. Pre-combat checks start in garrison and many are completed in the assembly area or in the training location; for example, applying camouflage, setting radio frequen-cies and distributing ammunition.

Ref: FM 6-0 Mission Command, chap. 6; FM 3-21.8 The Infantry Rifle Platoon and Squad, p. D-23, and FM 7-1 Battle Focused Training, fig. 5-47, p. 5-46.

I. PreparationPreparation is activities by the unit before execution to improve its ability to conduct the operation including, but not limited to, the following: plan refinement, rehearsals, reconnaissance, coordination, inspections, and movement. Preparation occurs when a command is not executing an operation. When not executing operations, com-manders prepare their forces for them. These preparations include such activities as training and maintaining personnel and equipment. Preparation for a specific opera-tion starts with receiving a WARNO and ends when execution begins.Note: See following pages (pp. 1-46 to 1-47) for a listing of preparation activities, all of which involve actions at various levels by units, soldiers and staffs.

Subordinate leaders MUST conduct an inspection of their troops prior to each combat mission. The PCI is an essential part of every mission. The objective of the PCI is to confirm the combat readiness of the unit. (Photo by Jeong, Hae-jung).

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Ref: FM 6-0 Mission Command, pp. 6-13 to 6-18.Preparation Activities

Preparation consists of the following activities, all of which involve actions by staffs, units, and soldiers:

Assessment During PreparationAssessment during preparation involves monitoring the progress of readiness to execute the operation and helps staffs refine plans. It evaluates preparations against criteria of success established during planning to determine variances. It forecasts their signifi-cance for the success of the operation. Commanders continue commander’s visualiza-tion. Staffs continue running estimates begun during planning.

Reconnaissance OperationsDuring preparation, commanders take every opportunity to improve their situational understanding about the enemy and environment. Reconnaissance is often the most im-portant part of this activity, providing data that contribute to answering the CCIR. As such, commanders conduct it with the same care as any other operation. They normally initiate reconnaissance operations before completing the plan.Reconnaissance is not a static, one-time effort that achieves a goal and stops. As recon-naissance forces gather information, the staff modifies the collection plan to account for new information and to redirect ISR efforts. Commanders and staffs continuously review intelligence products and synchronize their reconnaissance efforts within the ISR plan. They focus on the most important remaining gaps, emphasizing the established or revised CCIR.

Security OperationsSecurity operations during preparation prevent surprise and reduce uncertainty through security operations (see FM 3-90), local security, and operations security (OPSEC; see FM 3-13). These are all designed to prevent enemies from discovering the friendly force’s plan and to protect the force from unforeseen enemy actions. Security elements direct their main effort toward preventing the enemy from gathering essential elements of friendly information (EEFI). As with reconnaissance, security is a dynamic effort that anticipates and thwarts enemy collection efforts. When successful, security operations provide the force time and maneuver space to react to enemy attacks.

Force ProtectionForce protection consists of those actions taken to prevent or mitigate hostile actions against DoD personnel (to include family members), resources, facilities, and critical information. These actions conserve the force’s fighting potential so it can be applied at the decisive time and place and incorporates the coordinated and synchronized offensive and defensive measures to enable the effective employment of the joint force while de-grading opportunities for the enemy. Force protection does not include actions to defeat the enemy or protect against accidents, weather, or disease (FM 3-0). Force protection employs a combination of active and passive measures to deter, defeat, or mitigate hos-tile actions against friendly forces. It is not a discrete mission assigned to a single unit, but a continuous process performed by all commands.

Revising and Refining the PlanPlans are not static; commanders adjust them based on new information. During prepara-tion, enemies are also acting and the friendly situation is evolving: Assumptions prove true or false. Reconnaissance confirms or denies enemy actions and dispositions. The status of friendly units changes. As these and other aspects of the situation change, com-manders determine whether the new information invalidates the plan, requires adjust-ments to the plan, or validates the plan with no further changes. They adjust the plan or prepare a new one, if necessary.


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Coordination and LiaisonCoordination is the action necessary to ensure adequately integrated relationships be-tween separate organizations located in the same area. Coordination may include such matters as fire support, emergency defense measures, area intelligence, and other situ-ations in which coordination is considered necessary (Army-Marine Corps). Coordination takes place continuously throughout operations and fall into two categories: external and internal. Available resources and the need for direct contact between sending and receiv-ing headquarters determine when to establish liaison. The earlier liaison is established, the more effective the coordination.

RehearsalsA rehearsal is a session in which a unit or staff practices expected actions to improve performance during execution. Rehearsals occur during preparation. Note: See pp 1-51 to 1-54 for additional information on rehearsals.

Task OrganizingTask organizing is the process of allocating available assets to subordinate commanders and establishing their command and support relationships (FM 3-0). Receiving commands act to integrate units that are assigned, attached, under operational control (OPCON), or placed in direct support under a task organization.

TrainingTraining develops the teamwork, trust, and mutual understanding that commanders need to exercise mission command and forces need to achieve unity of effort. During repeti-tive, challenging training, commanders enhance their tactical skills and learn to develop, articulate, and disseminate their commander’s intent. They hone command skills during rehearsals, which also help to reinforce their command’s common understanding of tac-tics, techniques, and procedures (TTP).

Troop MovementTroop movement is the movement of troops from one place to another by any available means (FM 3-90). Troop movements to position or reposition units for execution occur during preparation. Troop movements include assembly area reconnaissance by advance parties and route reconnaissance.

Pre-operation Checks and InspectionsUnit preparation includes completing pre-combat checks and inspections. These ensure that soldiers, units, and systems are as fully capable and ready to execute as time and resources permit. This preparation includes precombat training that readies soldiers and systems to execute the mission.

Logistic PreparationResupplying, maintaining, and issuing special supplies or equipment occurs during prepa-ration. So does any repositioning of logistic assets. In addition, there are many other pos-sible activities. These may include identifying and preparing forward bases, selecting and improving lines of communications, and identifying resources available in the area and making arrangements to acquire them. Commanders direct OPSEC measures to conceal preparations and friendly intentions.

Integrating New Soldiers and UnitsCommanders and staffs ensure that new soldiers are assimilated into their units and new units into the force in a posture that allows them to contribute effectively. They also pre-pare new units and soldiers to perform their roles in the upcoming operation.

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Fundamentals The pre-combat inspection (PCI), or preoperation checks and inspections as FM 6-0

refers to them, is one of these critical preparation activities. Unit preparation includes completing precombat checks and inspections. These ensure that soldiers, units, and systems are as fully capable and ready to execute as time and resources permit. This preparation includes pre-combat training that readies soldiers and systems to execute the mission.

PCI is essential in that it checks:1. Each troop’s equipment necessary for mission accomplishment2. Each troop’s understanding of the mission purpose (commander’s intent)3. Each troop’s understanding of how their task contributes to the mission

That means the PCI looks at equipment, asks questions regarding the commander’s intent, and asks questions regarding the rehearsal. In this manner, the PCI protects the unit from missing any of critical steps of TLP.The PCI is typically conducted in two stages. First, subordinate leaders conduct a PCI prior to movement to the AA to check equipment. Second, the PL conducts a PCI after the rehearsal to check equipment and mission knowledge.The PCI is best achieved with a checklist. This keeps us from missing important key equipment and situational awareness. Soldiers are inspected for what to bring and what not to bring. This will differ greatly de-pending on their role in the patrol. Every military unit must be able to shoot, move, and communicate. Those are the three basic Soldier skills. The PCI makes sure that each Soldier can do this.

A. Uniform and Gear• Check that the troop is wearing the proper uniform and camouflage• Check that boots are serviceable, comfortable, and appropriate• Check that rain and cold weather gear is carried if needed• Check water canteens and bladders are full and the troop is hydrated• Check that first aid kits are present and complete• Check that ID tags are worn, as well as special medical tags (allergies)• Check that all specialty equipment is carried in either the LBE or rucksack• Check all leaders for appropriate maps and compass/GPS• Check all leaders for communication devices• Check for secured gear by having the troop jump up and down

B. Communication Devices• Check that extra batteries, antenna, mic, and basic radio kit are present• Check that the radio is set to the proper channel and/or frequency• Check the SOI/CEOI and ensure that each troop knows the call signs and code• Check that all field phones are serviceable, clean, and in watertight containers• Check for whistles, flares, color panels, and other communication devices

Conducting the PCIRef: FM 3-19 Military Police Leader’s Handbook, appendix E.


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C. Weapon Systems• Check that each weapon system is assigned to the appropriate troop• Check that each weapon is serviceable, clean, and zeroed.• Check that ammunition is serviceable and plentiful for each weapon• Check that lubrication is present, as well as field cleaning kits• Check optical devices (day and night) are serviceable• Check that extra batteries are carried for optical devices

D. Specialty Equipment• Check for first aid kits• Check for protective gear—body armor, eye wear, kneepads, etc• Check for screening smoke canisters• Check for wire breaching/marking equipment if appropriate• Check for mines/explosives if appropriate• Check for anti-armor weapons if appropriate• Check for rappelling/climbing/crossing gear if appropriate• Check for pioneering tools if appropriate

E. Mission KnowledgeSmall unit leaders should conduct a confirmation brief after issuing the oral OPORD to ensure subordinates know the mission, the commander’s intent, the concept of the opera-tion, and their assigned tasks. Confirmation briefs can be conducted face-to-face or by radio, depending on the situation. Face-to face-is the desired method, because all section and squad leaders are together to resolve questions, and it ensures that each leader knows what the adjacent squad is doing.

1. Commander’s Intent• Check that each troop understands the mission purpose• Check that each troop understands the key tasks we must achieve• Check that each troop understands the end state of success

2. Mission Tasks• Check that each troop understands the mission statement• Check that each troop understands their assigned task(s)• Check that each troop knows how to identify the enemy• Check that each troop knows the expected light, weather, and terrain conditions• Check that each troop knows where other friendly troops are located• Check that each troop knows his leader, and SOI/CEOI information

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VIII. RehearsalsTactical Mission Fundamentals

Ref: FM 6-0 Mission Command: Command and Control of Army Forces, app. F. For complete discussion of rehearsals, see The Battle Staff SMARTbook.

A rehearsal is a session in which a staff or unit practices expected actions to improve performance during execution. Rehearsing key combat actions before execution al-lows participants to become familiar with the operation and to translate the relatively dry recitation of the tactical plan into visual impression. This impression helps them orient themselves to their environment and other units when executing the operation. Moreover, the repetition of combat tasks during the rehearsal leaves a lasting mental picture of the sequence of key actions within the operation. This section contains guidelines for conducting rehearsals. It describes rehearsal types and techniques. It lists responsibilities of those involved.

Rehearsals allow staff officers, subordinate commanders, and other leaders to practice executing the course of action (COA) the commander chose at the end of the military decisionmaking process (MDMP). Rehearsals are the commander’s tool. Commanders use them to ensure staffs and subordinates understand the command-er’s intent and the concept of operations. Rehearsals also synchronize operations at times and places critical to successful mission accomplishment.Local standing operating procedures (SOPs) should identify appropriate rehearsal types, techniques, and standards for their execution. Leaders at all levels conduct periodic after-action reviews (AARs) to ensure that units conduct rehearsals to stan-dard and that substandard performance is corrected. AARs also provide opportuni-ties to incorporate lessons learned into existing plans and orders, or into subsequent rehearsals.

For units to be effective and efficient in combat, rehearsals need to become habitual in training. All commands at every level should routinely train and practice a variety of rehearsal types and techniques. (Photo by Jeong, Hae-jung).

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Ref: FM 6-0 Mission Command, pp. F-3 to F-7.I. Rehearsal TechniquesGenerally, six techniques are used for executing rehearsals.

A. Full-dress RehearsalA full-dress rehearsal produces the most detailed understanding of the operation. It involves every participating soldier and system. If possible, organizations execute full-dress rehearsals under the same conditions-weather, time of day, terrain, and use of live ammunition-that the force expects to encounter during the actual operation.

• Time. Full-dress rehearsals are the most time consuming of all rehearsal types. For companies and smaller units, the full-dress rehearsal is the most effective tech-nique for ensuring all involved in the operation understand their parts. However, brigade and task force commanders consider the time their subordinates need to plan and prepare when deciding whether to conduct a full-dress rehearsal.

• Echelons involved. A subordinate unit can perform a full-dress rehearsal as part of a larger organization’s reduced-force rehearsal.

• OPSEC. Moving a large part of the force may attract enemy attention. Command-ers develop a plan to protect the rehearsal from enemy surveillance and reconnais-sance. One method is to develop a plan, including graphics and radio frequencies, that rehearses selected actions but does not compromise the actual OPORD. Commanders take care to not confuse subordinates when doing this.

• Terrain. Terrain management for a full-dress rehearsal can be difficult if it is not considered during the initial array of forces. The rehearsal area must be identified, secured, cleared, and maintained throughout the rehearsal.

B. Reduced-force RehearsalA reduced-force rehearsal involves only key leaders of the organization and its subordi-nate units. It normally takes fewer resources than a full-dress rehearsal. The commander first decides the level of leader involvement. The selected leaders then rehearse the plan while traversing the actual or similar terrain. A reduced-force rehearsal may be used to prepare key leaders for a full-dress rehearsal.

• Time. A reduced-force rehearsal normally requires less time than a full-dress rehearsal. Commanders consider the time their subordinates need to plan and prepare when deciding whether to conduct a reduced-force rehearsal.

• Echelons involved. A small unit can perform a full-dress rehearsal as part of a larger organization’s reduced-force rehearsal.

• OPSEC. A reduced-force rehearsal is less likely to present an OPSEC vulnerability than a full-dress rehearsal because the number of participants is smaller. However, the number of radio transmissions required is the same as for a full-dress rehearsal and remains a consideration.

• Terrain. Terrain management for the reduced-force rehearsal can be just as difficult as for the full-dress rehearsal. The rehearsal area must be identified, secured, cleared, and maintained throughout the rehearsal.

C. Terrain-model RehearsalThe terrain-model rehearsal takes less time and fewer resources than a full-dress or reduced-force rehearsal. (A terrain-model rehearsal takes a proficient brigade from one to two hours to execute to standard.) It is the most popular rehearsal technique. An ac-curately constructed terrain model helps subordinate leaders visualize the commander’s intent and concept of operations. When possible, commanders place the terrain model where it overlooks the actual terrain of the area of operations (AO).

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• Time. Often, the most time-consuming part of this technique is constructing the terrain model.

• Echelons involved. Because a terrain model is geared to the echelon conducting the rehearsal, multiechelon rehearsals using this technique are difficult.

• OPSEC. This rehearsal can present an OPSEC vulnerability if the area around the site is not secured. The collection of troops and vehicles can draw enemy attention.

• Terrain. Terrain management is less difficult than with the previous techniques. An optimal location overlooks the terrain where the operation will be executed.

D. Sketch-map RehearsalCommanders can use the sketch-map technique almost anywhere, day or night. The procedures are the same as for a terrain-model rehearsal, except the commander uses a sketch map in place of a terrain model. Effective sketches are large enough for all par-ticipants to see as each participant walks through execution of the operation. Participants move markers on the sketch to represent unit locations and maneuvers.

• Time. Sketch-map rehearsals take less time than terrain-model rehearsals and more time than map rehearsals.

• Echelons involved. Because a sketch map is geared to the echelon conducting the rehearsal, multiechelon rehearsals using this technique are difficult.


• Terrain. This technique requires less space than a terrain model rehearsal. A good site is easy for participants to find, yet concealed from the enemy. An optimal loca-tion overlooks the terrain where the unit will execute the operation.

E. Map RehearsalA map rehearsal is similar to a sketch-map rehearsal, except the commander uses a map and operation overlay of the same scale used to plan the operation.

• Time. The most time-consuming part is the rehearsal itself. A map rehearsal is normally the easiest technique to set up, since it requires only maps and current operational graphics.

• Echelons involved. Because a map is geared to the echelon conducting the re-hearsal, multiechelon rehearsals using this technique are difficult.


• Terrain. This technique requires the least space. An optimal location overlooks the terrain where the operations will be executed, but is concealed from the enemy.

F. Network Rehearsal (WAN/LAN)Network rehearsals can be executed over wide-area networks (WANs) or local-area networks (LANs). Commanders and staffs execute network rehearsals by talking through critical portions of the operation over communications networks in a sequence the com-mander establishes. Only the critical parts of the operation are rehearsed.

• Time. If the organization does not have a clear SOP and if all units are not up on the net, this technique can be very time consuming.

• Echelons involved. This technique lends itself to multiechelon rehearsals. Partici-pation is limited only by commander’s desires and the availability of INFOSYSs.

• OPSEC. If a network rehearsal is executed from current unit locations, the volume of the communications transmissions and potential compromise of information through enemy monitoring can present an OPSEC vulnerability.

• Terrain. If a network rehearsal is executed from unit locations, terrain consider-ations are minimal.

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Review (AAR)Ref: FM 7-1 Battle Focused Training, app. C and FM 3-21.8 (FM 7-8) The Infantry Rifle Platoon and Squad, pp. 1-34 to 1-35. For more complete discussion of after action reviews, see The Battle Staff SMARTbook or The Leader’s SMARTbook.

IX. The After Action

After action reviews (AARs) are a professional discussion of an event that enables soldiers and units to discover for themselves what happened, and why. They provide candid insights into strengths and weaknesses from various perspectives, and feed-back. They focus directly on the training objectives.

The goal of the AAR is to improve soldier, leader, and unit performance. The result is a more cohesive and proficient fighting force.

Because soldiers and leaders participating in an AAR actively discover what hap-pened and why, they learn and remember more than they would from a critique alone. A critique gives only one viewpoint and frequently provides little opportunity for discussion of events by participants. The climate of the critique-focusing only on what is wrong-prevents candid discussion of training events and stifles learning and team building.

The purpose of the AAR is to provide the feedback essential to correcting training deficiencies. Feedback should be direct and on-the-spot. In collective training, such as an STX, it may not be possible to interrupt the exercise to correct a soldier who is performing an individual task improperly. This is why an AAR should be planned at the completion of each mission or phase to provide immediate feedback to the soldiers being trained.

AARs are a key part of the training process, but they are not cure-alls for unit-training problems. Leaders must still make on-the-spot corrections and take responsibility for training soldiers and units. (Photo by Jeong, Hae-jung).

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The AAR, whether formal or informal, provides feedback for all training. It is a struc-tured review process that allows participating soldiers, leaders, and units to discover for themselves what happened during the training, why it happened, and how it can be done better. The AAR is a professional discussion that requires the active participation of those being trained. The AAR is not a critique and has the following advantages over a critique:

• Focuses directly on key METL derived training objectives• Emphasizes meeting Army standards rather than pronouncing judgment of suc-

cess or failure• Uses “leading questions” to encourage participants to self-discover important les-

sons from the training event• Allows a large number of individuals and leaders to participate so more of the

training can be recalled and more lessons learned can be sharedThe AAR consists of four parts-

1. Review what was supposed to happen (training plans)The evaluator, along with the participants, reviews what was supposed to happen based on the commander’s intent for the training event, unit-training plan, training objectives, and applicable T&EOs.

2. Establish what happenedThe evaluator and the participants determine what actually happened during perfor-mance of the training task. A factual and indisputable account is vital to the effective-ness of the discussion that follows. For force-on-force training, OPFOR members assist in describing the flow of the training event and discuss training outcomes from their points of view.

3. Determine what was right or wrong with what happenedThe participants establish the strong and weak points of their performance. The evaluator plays a critical role in guiding the discussions so conclusions reached by participants are doctrinally sound, consistent with Army standards, and relevant to the wartime mission.

4. Determine how the task should be done differently the next timeThe evaluator assists the chain of command undergoing the training to lead the group in determining exactly how participants will perform differently the next time the task is performed.

Leaders understand that not all tasks will be performed to standard and in their initial planning, allocate time and other resources for retraining. Retraining allows the par-ticipants to apply the lessons learned during the AAR and implement corrective action. Retraining should be conducted at the earliest opportunity to translate observation and evaluation into training to standard. Commanders must ensure that units understand that training is incomplete until the Army standard is achieved.

The AAR is often “tiered” as a multiechelon leader development technique. Following an AAR with all participants, senior trainers may use the AAR for an extended profes-sional discussion with selected leaders. These discussions usually include a more specific AAR of leader contributions to the observed training results.

II. Steps in the After Action Review (AAR)Ref: FM 7-0 Training the Force, pp. 6-4 to 6-5.

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On PointLeaders are responsible for training their units and making their units adapt. The AAR is one of the primary tools used to accomplish this. It does this by providing feedback, which should be direct and on the spot. Each time an incorrect perfor-mance is observed, it should be immediately corrected so it does not interfere with future tasks. During major events or activities, it is not always easy to notice incor-rect performances. An AAR should be planned at the end of each activity or event. In doing so, feedback can be provided, lessons can be learned, and ideas and sugges-tions can be generated to ensure the next project or activity will be an improved one.To maximize the effectiveness of AARs, leaders should plan and rehearse before training begins. After-action review planning is a routine part of unit near-term plan-ning (six to eight weeks out). During planning, leaders assign OC responsibilities and identify tentative times and locations for AARs. This ensures the allocation of time and resources to conduct AARs and reinforces the important role AARs play in realizing the full benefit of training.Because soldiers and leaders participating in an AAR actively discover what hap-pened and why, they learn and remember more than they would from a critique alone. A critique only gives one viewpoint and frequently provides little opportunity for discussion of events by participants. Soldier observations and comments may not be encouraged. The climate of the critique, focusing only on what is wrong, prevents candid discussion of training events and stifles learning and team building. The art of an AAR is in obtaining mutual trust so people will speak freely. Problem solving should be practical and Soldiers should not be preoccupied with status, ter-ritory, or second guessing “what the leader will think.” There is a fine line between keeping the meeting from falling into chaos where little is accomplished, to people treating each other in a formal and polite manner that masks issues (especially with the leader).The AAR facilitator should—

• Remain unbiased throughout the review• Ask open-ended questions to draw out comments from all• Do not allow personal attacks• Focus on learning and continuous improvement• Strive to allow others to offer solutions rather than offering them yourself• Find solutions and recommendations to make the unit better

To avoid turning an AAR into a critique or lecture—

• Ask why certain actions were taken• Ask how Soldiers reacted to certain situations• Ask when actions were initiated• Ask leading and thought-provoking questions• Exchange “war stories” (lessons learned)• Ask Soldiers to provide their own point of view on what happened• Relate events to subsequent results• Explore alternative courses of actions that might have been more effective• Handle complaints positively• When the discussion turns to errors made, emphasize the positive and point

out the difficulties of making tough decisions• Summarize• Allow junior leaders to discuss the events with their Soldiers in private• Follow up on needed actions

the art of tactics

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