TheArtandCraftof

CoffeeAnEnthusiast’sGuidetoSelecting,

Roasting,andBrewingExquisiteCoffee

KevinSinnott

To Larry McManus, 1941–2009, whose encouragement and creativitystartedmyinvolvementintheworldofcoffee.

CONTENTS

Introduction

1TheBeansChapterOne:KnowingYourCoffeeBeans

TheHistoryofCoffeeCoffeePlantsandBotanicalClassificationsCoffeeVarietiesbyGrade(orMarketingScareTactics)WorldwideGuidetoCoffeeAdditionalCoffeeBuyingConsiderations

ChapterTwo:SelectingCoffeeBeansCoffeeCharacteristicsGreenCoffeeBeanBasicsBuyingFreshRoastedBeansTheBasicsofBlendedBeansCupping

ChapterThree:CoffeeRoastsandRoastingCommercialandMicro-RoastingTheScienceofRoastingCoffeeRoastsDefinedHomeRoastingTechniques

2TheBrewChapterFour:GrindingGrindersandGrinding

ChapterFive:BrewingTheWell-EquippedBrewingKitBrewingTemperatureandContactTimeWaterFiltersIllustratedBrewingTechniques

ChapterSix:EspressoTheHistoryandScienceofEspressoEspressoMakerGuideEspressoGrindersandGrindingPullingthePerfectShot

EspressoTroubleshootingGuide

ChapterSeven:CoffeeServingandRecipesCoffeePresentationandServingEquipmentCoffeeandFoodServingTemperatureSugarandMilk:Coffee’sComplementsorNemesesFlavoredCoffeeSteamingandFrothingMilkCoffeeRecipes:Brews,Cocktails,andBeyondOddbutInterestingBrewingMethods

ResourcesIndexAbouttheAuthor

INTRODUCTION

It ispossible to taste thevolcanic lava fromSumatraand tosmellthe spice fieldsof India. I knowofnobetterway to travel theworldthanthroughapassionforcoffee.

Doyourememberyourfirstcupofcoffee?MinewasonthefirstdateIhadwithayoungwomanwhoisnowmywife.WesawRomeoandJulietonecrisp,autumnevening,andheroversizecollegesweaterandthearomafromthechaincoffeeshoparesensualmemoiresIcanstillconjuretoday.

Mynextmostvividcoffeememorycameaftermyfirstsonwasborn.Wehadnomoney,andwedrankHouseofMillarMochaJavafromthegrocerystore.IalsogrounditatthegrocerystorebecauseIdidn’townagrinder.Ibreweditinabasicbrewerwe’dgottenasaweddingpresent.Irememberittastingrichandelegant.

One day, I noticed the House of Millar wasn’t on the neighborhoodstore’sshelvesanymore.Iwasdevastated.Idrovetoanearbystore,andIboughtallofthebagsleftontheirshelves.Istoredallbutoneinthefreezer.

Meanwhile, a dedicated coffee bean store opened nearby. The store’s

owner, Guy, seemed like a laid-back artsy sort, who liked nothing morethan to spendhis days sampling the various coffees. I became a frequentcustomer.

Troublewas,asmuchasIlikedGuy’scoffeeathisshop,Icouldnevergetittotastethesameathome.MywifeevenstartedquestioningwhetherweshouldspendtheextramoneyonGuy’sbeans.WhileIstoodmyground(grounds?)onbuyinggoodbeans,IprivatelyrealizedthecoffeewasbetterwhenGuybreweditinhiscommercialequipment.

I knew it was time to upgrade my home equipment. I bought a burrgrinderonclearanceanddiscoveredaChemexatathriftshop.EachtimeIimproved my brewing equipment, the coffee tasted better. I have neverlooked back, and I have spent decadesmastering the brewing process toensurethebestpossiblecupofcoffeeisbrewedeverytime.

Thisbooktapsintomydecadesofcoffeebrewingexperienceandteachesyou how to make café-quality coffee at home in direct, easy-to-followinstructions—withoutdogma.

Coffee and wine are more alike than coffee and tea. As with grapes,everynuancepossiblecanbeaffectedbytheearthandclimatefromwhichcoffeecomes.Thesedifferencescanlastallthewaytothefinalflavorandaromafromyourcup.

Afewkeythemesareexploredinthesepages:

• Grinding is critical to the brewing process. The job of any coffeegrinder is to divide the beans into same-size pieces. This might seemsimple,butgrindersaretheAchilles’heelofmanyahome-brewingstation.Here,youwilllearnhowbesttoachievepropergroundsathome.

•Brewingcoffee ishalfartandhalfchemistry—oralchemy.Theexactportionsofgroundcoffee towater, thewater temperature and thewater’scontact timewith thegroundsallaffect theflavorof thefinalcoffee. It ispossibletomaketwoverydifferenttastingbeveragesfromthesamebeansusingdifferentbrewingmethodsorusingtwoidenticalbrewersandsimplyalteringthevariableswitheachbrewer.

•Espressosharesmanyqualitieswithbrewedcoffee,buttherearesome

differences that affect the selection of beans, roasting, grinding, and(certainly)brewingthatgrantsititsownchapter.

•We treat coffee botany lightly becuase the topic could fill a book initself. Just note that most coffee in the world comes from three or fouroriginal plants, and there are a number of variations designed mostly toallowcoffeetoflourishinarangeofclimates.Whileconsumershavelittlecontroloverthesevariations,Ipredicttheywillbecomemoreimportantasthey discover the flavor effects each species has on the final cup. Somehigher-qualitycoffeeroastersarestartingtolistthecoffeespecies(suchasbourbon,typica,andcaturra)ontheirpackaging.

Ifthere’sonethoughtIhopeyoucomeawaywithafterreadingthisbook,it is that coffee should be consumed for pleasure. I used to joke that I’dprefertheworstcupofcoffeewithmywifetothebestcupwithhermother.(I no longer say this becausemymother-in-law and I have become veryclose.)

Remember, coffee gives you the chance to travel the world, exploringculture, history, and terroir through a culinary lens. After you read thisbook, your coffeewill taste better than ever and possibly better than youeventhoughtitcould.

PARTONETHEBEANS

1KNOWINGYOURCOFFEEBEANS

COFFEE is like wine—hundreds of varieties line the shelves, theirnamesofferinglittletohelpyoudifferentiatedarkfromlightorgoodfrom bad.Andmuch likewine, the flavor of coffee depends on itssource: thebean.Understandingthisaspectofcoffeeis thefirststepto understanding the whole process. The bean contains the geneticflavor profile of each flavor note. But how do you select the bestbeans?Fromwhatvarietiescanyouchoose?

Many variables define each coffee bean type. This chapter focuses on thedifferencesbetweenunroastedbeans.Inotherwords,thenamesandphrasesyoulikelyknow—Frenchroast,hazelnut,fineground—showupinlaterchapters.Tofindandenjoythebestcoffee,youneedtostartwiththebasics.

Bytheendofthischapter,youwillknowthefollowing:•Whattoaskwhenshoppingforcoffee,whetherataspecialtycoffeeretailstore,atyourlocalgrocer,oronline• The difference between coffee varieties. Some differences meandistinctiveflavorprofiles;othersindicatedifferentcoffeequalities.•Anunderstandingofmanyoftheworld’scoffee-growingregions

< Raw coffee ships in jute or burlap bags. Recently, innovative foil packaging has proven toprotect coffee from outside aromas and moisture that affect beans. Further testing and cost willultimatelydeterminewhetherburlapwillbereplaced,butfornowburlaprules.

TheHistoryofCoffee

To move forward with coffee knowledge, it’s important to look back at

coffee’s history. Little is recorded about its origins, though many (like us)ventureeducatedguesses.

Coffee’sDiscovery

There’s the often-circulated, unproven story of Kaldi, a goat herder whoobserved one of his herd chewing on coffee cherries. Soon, the goat began todance.Kaldi,followinghisanimal’sgoodjudgment,chewedsomecherriesandfound himself similarly energized. Kaldi takes the coffee cherries to a localmonastery,wherethemonkstossthemintoafire.InsteadofdestroyingthistooloftheDevil,thefireaccidentallyroaststhem,creatingthefirstcoffee.

What has been proven is the plant’s likely regional birthplace, either inEthiopia or Yemen. The word sounds similar to Ethiopia’s Kaffa region,promptingwideacceptance that the termcoffeederivedfromthere.Starting inaround 600 CE, men of certain nomadic tribes drank a crushed coffeecherry/ghee (butter)mixture to energize before battles.Muslimmonks (beforeIslamreleasedan“official”statement)usedthecrushedcherriesbeforeall-nightprayervigilstoreapsimilarenergizingbenefits.

ReligionMeetsCoffee

Acceptanceofcoffeewasn’talways sowidespread.Religiousgroupshad tounderstandandallowthisnew,strangedrink.Islamwrestledwithitfirst:Should

thedrinkbetreatedlikealcohol,aforbidden,euphoric,butintoxicatingdrinktoavoid,orrecognizedasagentle,nutritious,refreshingalternativetoalcohol?ThelatterwonoutandcoffeeprevailedthroughouttheIslamicworld.

Its firstuseasaheatedbeverage likelyoccurredaroundthe tenthcentury inTurkey, where other beverages made by brewing toasted herbs and teas firstbecame popular. With its close proximity and active trade with Europeans,TurkeyhelpedcoffeespreadintotheChristian/Europeanworld.

The Catholic Church, which seldom delves officially into dietary matters,becameembroiledinwhetherChristiansshouldpartakeofthisnewdrink.Whenpressed for an answer, the reigning pope, ClementVIII, insisted on a sip.HeinstantlyproclaimedcoffeeagoodtastingandhealthfulbeverageforChristians.Jewishlaw,whichfrequentlydeclaresvariousfoodskosher(inaccordancewiththereligion’srulesandcustoms),deemedcoffeeallowable.

CoffeeGoesPublic

The 1500s brought with them the world’s first coffeehouses in present-daySaudi Arabia.With the go-ahead from the church, peasants could now enjoycoffee without fear of persecution. These public places, known as the KavehKanes, offered Muslim men a sanctuary in which to congregate. Similarly,Europe’s coffeehouses were the province of male bonding, fostering businessandpoliticalactivities.Withcoffee’sincreasedpopularitycameincreasedclout.Inthe1500s,theTurkishplacedsuchimportanceoncoffeethatawomancoulddivorceherhusbandforfailuretoprovideitforher;itwasconsideredasvitalasfoodandshelter.

CoffeeGrowingNoLongerJustforArabia

Bythelate1600s,coffee—allofwhichcamefromYemenandEthiopia—wasEuropeans’ drink of choice. But with the explosion of maritime shipping andcolonialism at its peak, nations wanted to control their own coffee-drinkingdestinybysourcingbeansfromhome.Thiscontrolmeantindependenceandnewindustry.

TheDutch, in themid-1600s, tried first.When theywon control ofCeylon(present-daySriLanka) in 1658, theybegan a full-scale coffee industry there;they finallyhad landonwhichcoffeewouldgrow. In1699,DutchcolonialistsbeganproductioninIndonesia,bringingcoffee-plantcuttingsfromIndiatoJava.Curiously,theDutchdidnotguardtheircoffeeplantcuttingsascarefullyasthey

could have, storing a number in the Amsterdam Botanical Garden andpurportedlygivingsometootherEuropeancountriesasgifts.

<Meettomorrow’scoffeetrees:coffeeseedlings.

IftheDutchshockedhistorianswiththeirgenerosity,evenmorestunningwasthe liberality of France’sKing LouisXIV. Louis distributed cuttings from hissingle cutting (a gift from the Dutch government in 1714) to various Frenchcolonies in the New World. King Louis entrusted infantry officer CaptainGabrielMathieudeClieu to take thecuttings toFrenchcolonies.Thiswasnoeasytask.Achallengingseajourneybecamenearimpossiblewhencoupledwithtrying to keep a plant alive onboard.DeClieu detailed in his log battleswithpirates,aspyonboard,storms,drought,andheat.Butallalong,henurturedtheshoot.Indeed,heclaimedhisplantsurvivedthedifficultvoyageonlybecausehesharedhiswaterrationswithit.

WhentheboatreachedMartinique,thechosenspotforFrance’sfirstplanting,de Clieu had to make the single plant survive and prosper. He succeeded,motivating local farmers to make coffee, not cocoa, their primary crop. KingLouis,whohadpreviouslyfeltlukewarmaboutdeClieu,honoredthemanwithgovernorshipofMartinique.Meanwhile,cuttings fromdeClieu’splant spread.Soon, all neighboringCaribbean islands possessed coffee, and a new industrywasborn.

Brazil’s capture of the precious coffee plant from which to build its ownempire is equally dramatic. In one account, aBrazilian lieutenant seduces thewife of the governor of French Guiana to obtain a coffee plant cuttingsupposedly concealed within a bouquet of flowers. This scheme, in 1827,spawnedtheentireBraziliancoffeeindustry.

CoffeeMeetstheIndustrialRevolution

TheIndustrialRevolution,whichsoughttocentralizeeveryprocess,promptedashiftincoffeemakingfromsmallbatchroasterstotheuseoflargeroastersandapackagingsystemthatallowedadvanceroastingandgrinding—knownasthecoffeecan.CoffeepioneerJohnArbucklecreatedthefirstcannedcoffeein1865.

The new consumer age focused onmaximizing convenience.By the 1920s,mosturbanconsumersinAmericaandEuropewerebuyingroastedandgroundcans of coffee. Technologywas improving,making coffee far easier to churnout.Commercialcoffeeroastersproducedmorecoffeeinlargerbatchesandless

time.Suddenly,afewcouldmeetthemasses’coffeeneeds.

The loser in this new era was the coffee’s freshness. Instant coffee,popularized by Nestle in the 1930s, brought the ultimate flavor loss. Like somany foodsbefore it, coffeebecamea commodity, stressing convenienceovertaste.

FRENCHCOFFEE,ENGLISHTEAFrance has long had a flourishing coffee culture, but England is

knownmoreforitstea.Thismayseemstrange,especiallyconsideringEngland’s early coffeehousedevelopment.The story is complex.BothFrance and England developed colonial coffee agriculture. FranceplantedintheCaribbeanandonAfrica’sIvoryCoast;EnglandplantedinCeylon,(modern-daySriLanka).

Ceylon was, at one time, plush with coffee fields. But leaf rust, afungus that destroys coffee, hit hard. Instead of planting new coffeecrops,Ceylon planted tea—whichwas immune to the leaf rust virus.Back home in England, it became patriotic and fashionable to drinktea. And though France had lower quality coffee than England, thecountryhadplentiful,qualitymilk.Gradually,FrancebecameknownforcoffeeandEngland(andmostofitscolonies)fortea.

Fresh-pickedcoffeecherries,lookingdeliciousenoughtoeat.

Inthe1950sand60s,coffeejoinedtheranksofTVdinners,cannedfruitsandvegetables, and other processed foods. Producing countries startedmixing thebest coffee with all other coffee. Some great coffee stayed separate from themasses,butthatwasanexception.Therefrigerator’spresenceinhomesharmedcoffee just as much, making available soda and juices—competing instantgratificationproducts.

TheSeventiesandBeyond

Inthe1970s,thefocusshiftedfromconveniencebacktotaste.Babyboomers,bornbetween1944and1961,embracedspecialtyfoodsaspartofthereturntonatural, self-absorbeddiets and increased leisure time.Thenew focus touchedoneveryaspectofhomecuisine,includingcoffee.Coupledwiththisconsumertrendwastheinventionoftheair-assistedsmallbatchcoffeeroasters.Now,evenshoppingmallscouldhousefreshroastedcoffeebeans.

Plus, the coffee-shop-alternative-lifestyle-image fitBabyBoomers,who hadgrown up with beatniks reading poetry in urban coffeehouses. Coffeehouseculture emerged in American cities such as Seattle and Boston. Berkeley,California–based Peet’s Coffee and Tea, founded by Dutch immigrant AlfredPeet,ismostoftencreditedforthespecialtycoffeerevolution.

But the rise of specialty coffee meant more than a return of socialcoffeehouses. Small batch roasters began investigating how to find the bestbeans.Duringthenineteenthandmuchofthetwentiethcentury,coffee-growingcountries encouraged selling beans from country to country rather than fromfarmtoroaster.Newrelationshipsformed.Specialtygreencoffeebuyersbeganpurchasing micro-lots and requesting particular farms’ beans. Small farmsstartedearningawardsandhonorsfortheirbeans.

Separating beans from cherries the old-fashioned way. This process can be done using largermachines,butthisonedoesthejobjustaswell,anditisconvenientlyportable.Notetheripecherriesintheforegroundawaitingtheirturn.

Specialty coffee appliances underwent a revolution aswell. Automatic dripbrewingmachinesreplacedtheelectricpercolator,whichwasonceamainstayinmostAmericanhouseholdsandaccusedbymanyconnoisseursofdestroyingthesubtlercoffeetastes.

CommodityversusSpecialtyCoffee

Today’scommercialcoffeeproductionmayseemlikeonebigmassofbeans,butgenerally,itsplitsworldwideintocommodityandspecialtycoffee.

Commodity coffee includes everything fromprice-conscious diner coffee tocoffee produced to add its caffeine extract to aspirin. This coffee’s taste issecondary to its purpose, which is to deliver a brown beverage containingcaffeine. It may seem unromantic perhaps, but understanding this aspect isnecessarytounderstandingcoffeeanditsterminology.

Specialtycoffeeisgrown,processed,shipped,roasted,sold,andbrewedwithtaste as the primary focus. In general, specialty coffee prices vary so muchbecause they consider production cost as well as taste, a subjective variable.Overallcommoditymarketconditionsaffectspecialtycoffee’sprice.

No actual botanical or legal distinctions exist between commodity andspecialtycoffees.In thisbook,wefocusprimarilyonspecialtycoffees—nottobesnobby,butbecauseit’smorepractical.

CoffeePlantsandBotanicalClassifications

Let’sbreakdown thecoffeeplant.Botanically,coffee isa shrub,partof theRubiaceae family.Only threeof the seventy-three classified species—Arabica,Robusta,andLiberica—havecommercialsignificanceintoday’sworldmarket.Theyyield fromthree to twelve tons (2.8 to10.9metric tons)perhectare (2.5acres).Eachcultivarrequiresaspecificnumberoftreestocreatedescendants.

Arabica

Arabica (Coffea arabica), the original plant discovered and cultivated fortoday’s coffee beverage, likely originated in present-day Ethiopia. ThoughArabica naturally contains the least caffeine, it possesses the subtlest, mostdesirableflavors.

Arabica trees typically growbetween twelve and twenty feet (3.7 and 6m)high.Most Arabica coffee picking happens by hand. This is partly due to itsgrowthonmountainouslandusuallyunreachablebymachinebutmostlybecauseahumancoffeepicker,usinga ladderorahook,chooses theripestbeans.Thebestfarmspickmultipletimesaseason—threeiscommon—toensureselection

ofripebeans.

There are two varieties of Arabica: Bourbon and Typica. From these twovarietiesothersubvarieties,knownascultivars,arederived.

Bourbon

ManypeopleconsidercoffeeproducedbythisArabicaheirloomtheworld’sbestquality.TheproblemisthatBourbonrequiressignificantspaceandcare,isdisease-prone, and its trees, which take longer to bear fruit, have a short lifecycle.Bourbonyieldsroughlyone-thirdmorebeansthanTypicaanditscherriesripenfaster,buttheyaremorefragile.Bourbongrowsbestatelevationsbetween3,500and6,500feet(1,067to1,981m).

Typica

Thisvariety,oftenconsidered theoriginalcoffee type,hasaconeshapeandgrowsataslant.Thoughitgrowswell(slightlybetterthanBourbon)andtallerthanmost varietals, ten to thirteen feet (3 to 4m) tall, it tends toward loweryields.Forthescopeofthisbook,considerBourbonandTypicaequals.

Caturra

Thiscultivar,discoveredinBrazilanddevelopedfromBourboncuttings,wasdesignedasahardy,yethigh-maintenanceplant.Itflourishesatelevationsbelow3,500 feet (1,067m)with easy-to-pick cherries that growclose to theground.Manywell-regardedcoffeegrowingcountries,suchasCostaRica,plantalmostentirelyCaturra.

OtherArabicaVarietals

Whichcultivaracoffeefarmplantsdependsonthefarm’sterroir,climate,anddisease resistance first,withproductivity andyield considered second.Qualityfollowslast,ifatall,becauseacoffeethatwon’tgrowisn’tagoodcrop.

A list of the main Arabica cultivars (in addition to Bourbon, Typica, andCaturra)andtheirbasiccharacteristicsfollows:

BlueMountain

TheuniqueBlueMountaincultivar,themajorityofwhichgrowsinJamaica,

likely descends fromTypica, though its exact origins remain unknown. It is along bean, known for its huge flavor and disease-resistance, but it does notflourishinothergeographicregions.BlueMountaindoesbestataltitudesabove5,000feet(1,524m).

Catimor

Catimor,developedinPortugalinthe1950s,comesfromtheTimorcultivar.Itgrows quickly, produces high yields at middle altitudes, and is particularlyresistant to rustdisease,making itattractive tomany farmers. It isahybridofArabiaandRobusta, and it is considered incapableofbeing thebest coffee. Itneedssignificantfertilizationandrainfall.

Catuai

ThisvarietyisacrossbetweenCaturraandtheheartyMundonovo.Itiswind-

resistantandsturdy,makingitsuitableforstormyenvironments.LikeCaturra,itishigh-maintenancebutproducesqualitycoffee.

Maragogype

This Typica descendant, first found in Brazil, grows bigger and taller thanheirloomcultivars.Itdoesn’tproduceahighyield,butitsbeansarelarge.TwodescendantsofMariogypearemorepopular.Pacamara is ahyrbridwithPaca,growninPanama.Itofferslargesizeandprize-winningaromaandtaste.Geishais a hybrid of Maragogype from Ethiopia, first grown in the early twentiethcentury.Itisprizedbyconnoisseursseekingalargebeanandvoluptuousflavor.

PacheComum

ThisGuatemala-discovered cultivar likely descends fromTypica, though itscoffeeisnotconsideredashighquality.Thishardyplantdoeswellatelevationsbetween3,500and6,000feet(1,067and1,827m).

Timor

NamedforanIndonesian islandandknownfor itsparentageof theCatimorcultivar,Timorwasbelieveddiscoveredduring the1860s coffeeblight. It is across betweenArabica and Robusta. Some industrymavens consider Timor asavior, as it seems to offer the best Arabica taste with Robusta’s diseaseresistance.Butitisdreadedbysomeasofferingtoolittletasteandis,bythem,consideredRobustadisguisedasArabica.

Hadaseriousplantdiseasenotspreadthroughoutseveralkeycoffeegrowingregions in the1860s,Arabicamighthaveremained theworld’sonlycultivatedcoffee.Insteadtwoothercoffeegeneradeveloped:RobustaandLiberica.

Robusta

CoffeegrowersoncetoutedRobusta(Coffeacanephora),withtwiceArabica’scaffeine content and a high disease resistance, as Arabica’s best replacement.Robusta coffee trees are shorter, making their fruit easier to pick, and theyrequire less spacebetween trees, allowingmore to fitononeplot. In termsofcareandfeeding,Robustaquicklybecameaworldcommodity.

On the flip side,Robusta offers none ofArabica’s flavor nuance.There aregoodRobustas, but they are comparable inquality to low-gradeArabica.This

coffeetypeissoldandtradedasacommodityintheUnitedStatesandEurope.Thebestissoldalmostexclusivelyasespressoblends.Robusta’sbestattributeisitsbody.

Liberica

In the 1870s, as leaf rust diseases ran amok throughArabica coffee fields,author Francis Thurber predicted that Liberica (Coffea liberica) could replaceArabica.Hispredictionnevercametrue.Liberica’sflavordidn’tmatchthebestArabica coffee, and its per-plant yield disappointed next to Robusta’s.Meanwhile,hardierArabicavariants suchasCaturra replacedmorevulnerableBourbongrowths.

Today,LibericathrivesinSoutheastAsia.Occasionally,asmallgreenamountisavailableonline,butithasnorealmarketpenetrationintheUnitedStatesorEurope.

<Ripecoffeecherries.Thisphotoshowsthecolorthatcoffeeconnoisseursimaginealltheirbeansareatharvesttime.

CoffeeVarietiesbyGrade(orMarketingScareTactics)

Phrasessuchasgrade,fairtrade,andorganicgracemanyacoffeebeanlabel.Anysavvybuyershouldknowtheterms’realmeanings.Forinformationaboutprocessingcoffeebeans,seechapter2,“SelectingCoffeeBeans.”

Grade

In the commercialworld, grade is important.But at the specialty level fewconnoisseursusegradesasflavororqualityindicators.Mostcoffeeregionsusegrading terms to indicate size. SupremogradeColombian beans, for example,arelargerthanExcelscogradeColombianbeans.Also,mostgradevariablesdo

not assess bean ripeness at picking or other taste-related qualities.Marigogipedescribes oversized beans of various origins. Peaberry is not a hybrid but ananomaly, a small, round bean resulting from its twin in the cherry notdeveloping.Somesayapeaberry’sflavorismoreconcentrated.Mostagreethatapeaberrybean’sshaperesultsinitsroastingdifferently,andforthisreasontheyaresought.

Organic

For a product to earn United States’ organic designation, it must meetstandardssetbytheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture:Beansmustbegrownusingnosyntheticpesticidesorotherprohibitedsubstancesforatleastthreeyearsandthefarmmustfollowasustainablecroprotationplan.

Otherplaces around theworldhavedifferent requirements. In theEuropeanUnion,forexample,organicfarmingincludes,ataminimum,croprotation,strictlimits on chemical synthetic pesticide and fertilizer, prohibition of geneticallymodifiedorganisms,andfairtreatmentofanimals.

Theorganiclabelisofsignificantinteresttoasmall,butgrowingsegmentofconsumersandcertainly important for theenvironment.But it’shard for somefarmers. It requires certification, which in the United States costs about 300dollarsayear.Acoffeefarminadevelopingcountrymayearnjust1,000dollarsper year. The cost automatically excludes smaller family farms. Also, farmsdeemed non-organic may use environmentally responsible techniques such ascontouring their land that just won’t earn them organic certification. Organiccertificationaloneisnotafairlitmustest.

SustainableFarming

Sustainablefarmingmeansthefarmerhasabalancedviewtowardchemicals,with an eye on the big picture and the long-term use of the land. It usuallycomprises organic practices, good land contouring, and thoughtful recyclingwheneverpossible.Forexample,asustainablefarminGuatemalasavestherinsewater it uses to process the beans and pours it over the coffee fields to addnutrients back to the soil, conserving water in the process. Sustainability isdifficult to standardize and certify because each farm requires individual,thoughtfulaccommodations.

FairTrade

Fair trade generally means that a third party oversees the agreement andinteractions between seller and buyer to ensure that the seller—farmers, incoffee’s case—earn a fair price. Note that most fair trade organizations onlycertify cooperatives, not individual farms. But that doesn’t mean they don’tpracticefairbusinessortreattheirworkerswell.

<Rawbeans invarious shapesandcolors.Theyareoften sold labeledasorganicor fair trade.Learnwhatthesetermsmean.

DirectTrade

This relatively new concept in the coffee industry implies a personalrelationshipbetween roaster or coffeebuyer (but not consumer) and farmer. Itmeans direct trade coffee roasters must have enough resources to visit farmsregularly.Despiteitslimitations,directtradeisapromisinglabel,increasingthelikelihoodofgoodqualitycoffee.

Bird-Friendly/ShadeGrown

Manybirdswinterinwarmerclimates—manyofwhichhappentobecoffee-producingcountries—nestinginplantationtreesplantedtoshadethecoffeefromtoomuchdirectsunlight.Thesesametreesofferbirdsseasonalhabitat.Sobird-friendlycoffeebenefitscoffeeflavorandbirds.Italsomeanscertificationthatafarmusesnosyntheticchemicals.Thecostof thiscertificationisyield;abird-friendlyfarmyieldsapproximatelyone-thirdlessperyear.

Lackofsuchalabeldoesnotautomaticallymeanthecoffeeisunfriendlytobirds or of poorer quality. There are otherways to shade coffee trees besidestrees.Mountainsidesoffersimilarshadebenefits,andsomegeographicregionsfeature natural cloud cover. So although being bird-friendly is generallyfavorable,it’snotaconclusivequalityindicator.

Q-Grading

Whiletheenvironmentandworkertreatmentarenoblecauses,neitherdirectlyaddresses coffee’s number one attraction: flavor. In the U.S., the SpecialtyCoffeeAssociationofAmerica’sCoffeeQualityInstituteistryingtoestablishadifferentstandardforgradingandtradingcoffee.ThequalitypartofQ-gradingincludesan80pointratingsystem.Q-gradingisastepforwardforcoffeequalityas the industry attempts to find a single label that consumers can use to find

goodqualityandsustainableandfairlaborpracticesintheirbeans.

EstateCoffee

Estatehasreplacedthetermplantation(whichhasanegativeconnotation)inthisphrase,thoughnolegaldefinitionapplies.Atbest,itmeansproductionbyasingle farm. The right farm uses careful, consistent growing, picking, andprocessingmethods.Potentially,someofthebestandmostuniquecoffeescomefromindividual farms.Butuseof this termprovidesnoreal informationaboutwhattoexpectfromtheproduct.

Dry/WetProcessedCoffee

Howbeansgetprocessedmatters to thecoffee’soverall tasteoutcome.Twomethods, dry andwet processing, dominate the coffee industry. For a lengthydiscussionofprocessing,seechapter2.

WorldwideGuidetoCoffee

Now that you know about coffee’s history and process, let’s talk about itsorigin—how most of the top Arabica coffee is sold. Origin refers simply towherethecoffeewasgrown.Inageneralsense,thisprovidesasnapshotofwhatto expect from the beans. A single-origin coffee comes from one particularcountryorregion.Itisnotablend.Eachregionorcountryproducescoffeewitha distinct flavor profile. (The proliferation ofmicro-businesses that link farmsdirectlytoconsumershaschangedthatsomewhat,mostlyforthebetter.)

General conditions such as climate and soil contribute to a region’s distinctflavor profile. Also, a region’s farmers typically use one general farmingmethod. But for all regions, individual farms and microclimates vary. Eachregionhasmanyflavorsacrossitsexpanse.

CentralandSouthAmerica

Central andSouthAmerica producewhatmany consider themodern coffeetaste, despite being the last part of theworld to receive and start growing theplant.Coffeeproducersfromthispartoftheworldinventedorperfectedmany

modernizationtechniques.

Brazil

Javamay have invented industrialized coffee (see “Java” entry), but Braziluppedtheante.Efficient,flatlands,goodclimate,andwateravailabilitymakeittheworld’s coffee king. Though little of its coffee is truly distinctive, there’smuch to like about it. Because of its notoriously low acidity, this coffee isperhapsthemostusefulforblending.

Throughout the 1800s and into the early twentieth century,Brazil producedmorethanhalfoftheworld’scoffee.Infact,duringthesecondhalfofthe1800s,BrazilconsideredrecruitingworkersfromChinabecauseitsfertilesoilreturnedcrops faster than its own population could harvest them. Eventually, Brazil’sindustrybecame the firstmodernmechanizedvirtual“factory”and invested ininfrastructuresuchasrailroadlinestoshipcoffee.

Brazil’s farmers use a variety of processes (thoughmostBrazilian coffee isprocessedwet)andthecountryhasavarietyofclimates,butanaturallyfertileterroirexiststhroughout.

Colombia

Before1900,Colombiadidn’tgrowcoffee.By1940,ithadstartedtocompetehead-to-headwithBrazil,acoffee-growingfactoryfarmthatdeliveredgoodbutnot great coffee (see “Brazil” entry above). It was as if the developers werethinking that if Brazil’s natural coffee-growing conditions were good,Colombia’swereevenbetter.

Colombiadevelopedastandardizedsystemthatseparatedandgradedcoffeesgrown on individual farms primarily by size. The systemwas great for flavorconsistency—it practically established a single flavor profile known asColombiancoffee—butnearlyeliminatedindividualfarmterroirexperiences.Inotherwords,consumerstooknoticeofthe“100%Colombian”labelbutstoppedtasting what individual farms could produce. A mass marking campaignsurrounding Colombia’s fictional folk hero, Juan Valdez, further pushed thisnotion.

In thepast decade, the country’s industryhas loosenedup. It nowproducesprize-winningvarietiesfromdifferentregions(nomoresingletastestereotype).Today, this country’s coffees are wine-like, balanced with good body, andenjoyedtheworldover.

CostaRica

This country’s coffee crophas a reputation forhavingeverything, includingbalance.The terroir contains richvolcanic soil, theweather is ideal for coffeegrowing, thealtitude ishigh,and theprocessing ismodern.Asof thiswriting,thegovernmentalsoisstable.

WhatCostaRicancoffeecanseemtolackisdistinction.Somecriticsclaimitcantasteblandevenwithallessentialelementspresentandinbalance—despitebeingthemoderncoffeeworld’smodelforspecialtycoffee(meaningitisgrownand processed for flavor). Most of its coffee is Caturra, treated with wetprocessing.

Cuba

NoonesmugglesCubancoffeeliketheydocigars.Cubaisknownforcoffee,but it is for its brewing preparation rather than taste, which is bland, slightlyacidic,andwithlessthanaveragebody.Itisusuallydarkroastedtoincreaseitspower.Whetherimprovedfarmingmethodswillchangethisisanyone’sguess.

ElSalvador

ElSalvadorcoffee,oncelostintheworldcoffeemarket,istodaymuchmoreaccessible due to availability of small farm lots in the country. El Salvador’sfarmersproduceexcellentArabicaBourbon.Thebeanshaveayellowcastandanunusuallysweetsmell.Thiscoffeeisbestusedinblends,thoughthebestElSalvador coffee can hold its own as a single origin. Harvest season in ElSalvadorislatespring,solookforthiscoffeeinJuneandJuly.

Guatemala

GuatemalamightbeconsideredtheSumatraofLatinAmerica,withplentyofvolcanicearthandsun,mountainstopreventoverexposure,andauniquewood-burningdryingmethod.IthasmoreBourbongrowthsthanmanyofthisregion’scountries,and itsbeanscan typicallyroastoverawiderange. Ifbuyinggreen,roastlightandthengodarker.SixGuatemalanregionsproduceuniquecoffees,perhapsthebestknownbeingAntigua,Coban,andHuehuetenango.

Honduras

Honduras produces mostly commodity-grade blend coffees. Honduras’sgenerally low altitude does not preclude good coffee butmakes it less likely.Pestsenjoycoffeegrownatlowerelevations,makingcoffeegrowninHondurasmoresusceptibletoinfestation.

<Abeautifulsighttobehold—thewell-managedcoffeefarm.

Jamaica

JamaicaBlueMountainisamongthemostexpensivebeans,akintoHawaiianKona. Like Kona, it is memorable when it’s good, with the body of a goodSumatran, the bright acidity of the best Kenyan, and the balance of a CostaRicanorColombian.Jamaicaenjoysquitevolcanicsoilandsomefarmsstilluse

traditionalharvestingmethods.

When purchasing Jamaican coffee, ask questions. Avoid blends not cost-competitivewith other coffees.Most Jamaican coffee is roasted fairly light topreserve its acidity and varietal character. If buying green, don’t roast darkerthan Full City (for more on roast type, see chapter 3, “Coffee Roasts andRoasting”).

Mexico

ThemarketplaceundervaluesMexico’scoffee,partiallybecauseithasn’tbeenextensivelymarketed.Mexicohassomefinecoffees,withnuttybrightness,lightbut pleasant body, snappy acidity, and good balance.With less-than-desirablegrowing conditions, Mexican farmers must use superior farming methods.Mexican micro-farms have produced some surprises, such as a dry-processedChiapasfromthesame-namedregion.Coatepec,atowninthestateofVeracruz,producesoneofthebesthigh-grownMexicancoffees.

Nicaragua

PreviouslyunknownorsoldasGuatemalanorCostaRicancoffee,Nicaraguancoffee has only recently gained traction. Due to political differences, it wasunavailable inpartsof theworld forsome time, including theUnitedStates inthe 1980s.Nicaraguan farmers produce some fineBourbonArabica, generallyakintoGuatemalanintasteandappearance,thoughlesssmoky.

Peru

Peru is known for filler coffees of little distinction, but has some emergingfine beans,mostly grown on its small family farms.Most Peruvian beans arevoidofallpetrochemicalfertilizersandpesticides.Expectgoodaciditybutlightbody.

PuertoRico

Untilrecently,onlylocalsconsumedPuertoRicancoffee,minusthecountry’ssmall annualgift to theVatican.PuertoRicohas recently attempted tomarketmore but has not gained much traction, perhaps because its coffee is stillevolving.

Venezuela

Venezuela,onceasignificantcoffeesupplier,hasrecededovertime,startinginthe1980s(possiblyduetopoliticalinstability).SomeintheindustryspeculatethatVenezuelancoffee still finds itsway to theworldmarketplace—under theColombiannameplate.Mostofwhat’savailablehasthetypicalSouthAmericanacidityandmedium-to-lowbody.

Asia

Aside from the two countries profiled, the lack of small, upscale farms andcraft farmers in this region has prevented a fair assessment Asia’s coffeecapabilityoraroughguidetotaste.

China

Inthelate1800s,FrenchJesuitsbroughtBourbontreestoChina.Duringtheadventurous 1920s, Shanghai’s thriving coffeehouse culture, run mostly byforeigners,cateredtoJazzageworldtravelers.Today,Chinaisasleepingcoffeegiant. It’s certainly not currently known for coffee. Yet its climate and soilconditionscouldsupportasignificantbeanoutput.Ithasalargemotivatedworkforceanddemonstratedpatience(crucialforafarmer).Asofpublication,afewmarketexperimentswereintheworks.

>Tasting/cuppingincoffee-producingcountriesisbecomingmorecommon,whichisagoodthing.Thishasnotalwaysbeenthecase.Canyouimagineawinerywherethewineisn’ttastedbeforeshipping?

Todate, tastings have proven good, but short of great or distinctive,with abland Pacific rim taste. It is full-bodied, but with little of the acidity and/orvolcanic richness thatmakes other regional favorites stars. Currently, the bestcomesfromYunnan,insouthwesternChina.

India

NoquestionIndiaisbestknownfortea.Butithasuniqueclimateandfarmingconditions for its relatively low altitude, creating interesting coffee. India hasproduced coffee since 1820 when refugees from the Philippines establishedplantationsinBengal.SomesaytheplantwasplantedearlierinMysore.Indiancoffee became popular because of similarities to once-revered Ceylon coffee.

UnlikeCeylon, India escaped the devastating leaf rust and root disease of thelatenineteenthcentury.

Indiancoffeetypicallyhasgoodbodyandacidityandcantakeawiderangeofroasts.Itisagoodchoiceforsingle-originespressoandthesecretingredientinmorethanoneespressoblend.

Java

Javan coffee used to be the large-scale Asian price alternative to Yemencoffee. Dutch colonists built plantations in the 1700s and transplantedYemenBourbon trees into the rich Java soil. Javawas perfect for growing coffee. Itshigh moisture provided a humidor-like climate that offered a different,complementarytasteprofile.

In the late 1860s, two diseases killed off most of Java’s Arabica. Javanfarmers replanted, mostly with Robusta, and the region has never fullyrecovered.Today,greatJavancoffeesarepossiblebutunlikely. Instead,peoplegotoSumatran(see“Sumatra”entrybelow).

Javan(andSumatran)beansare larger thanaverageandhaveauniquedark,yellowish brown shade. Mocha Java, the original blend, is one-third YemenMochaandtwo-thirdsless-costlyJava(orSumatran,oftenlabeledJava).

SPICEDCOFFEE?Indian coffee is sometimes grown, stored, and shipped alongside

pungentspicessuchascinnamon,cardamom,andcloves.Somebuyersclaim the scents from those crops add flavor notes to the coffees.ThoughIndiahassomegreatcoffees,muchofitscropgoestoblending.

SoutheastAsia

SoutheastAsia,withtheirfocusoncommoditycoffee,hasgoneheadtoheadwith Brazil in an attempt to unseat them as the leader of large-scale coffeefarming.TimewilltellifthespecialtybeanswillgrowhereastheydoinBrazil.

Burma

Burmagrowsatiny,yetsignificantamountofcoffeecalledMyanmar.Sofar,it is only available in northern Europe and Japan, but itmay end up in othermarkets.

Laos

LaosproducesLiberica, a rare commodity coffee said tomake a distinctiveespressocoffee.Itcantakeavarietyofroasts.Laotiancoffeeisdifficulttofind,althoughonoccasion,asmatteringgoestohomeroastersviaonlineauctioneers.

Vietnam

Vietnam produces a huge amount of commodity coffee but no specialtycoffee.ThevastmajorityofitscropisRobusta,nodoubtastrategicdecisiontocapitalizeonitspositionbehindBrazilasthesecondlargestcoffeeproducer.

IndonesiaandOceania

Indonesiancoffeesaregenerallybig-boned,flavorfulcoffeeswithhugebodyandasubtleacidity.Eventhebeansthemselvescanbeoversized.Thesecoffeesmaybebestdefinedasbigbutneverbland.

Hawaii

Hawaii has great volcanic soil, but historically Hawaiians placed moreimportanceonsugarplantations.TotheUnitedStates,sugarcanewasaworthierinvestmentthancoffee.

Sumatracoffeetreesamidsttallershadetrees.

Hawaiihasagoodclimateandvolcanicsoil.Thereissomefinecoffeegrownthere.But,demandissohighthatinthe1990sascandalrockedthecoffeeworldinvolvingcoffeeimportedfromCostaRicathatwassimplyre-labeledKona.

Thereisn’tenoughgreatKona.ItswineflavorrivalsthebestKenyan,anditssubterraneanbodyapproachesthebestJamaicanBlueMountain.

Ifbuyingforroasting,startlightandgojustdeepenoughtoFullCity.Roastany darker and you’ll lose the acidity.Use the same advice for buyingKona,althoughmostpureKonaisroastedfairlylight.

Sumatra

Ahigh-humidityclimate,volcanicsoil,anddatedancientprocessingmethodsmake Sumatra one of the most satisfying coffees. It has historically beenunderrated.SumatrancoffeewasoncesoldasJavan,andthebestJavangradeatthat.MostofthefinestMocha-JavablendswerelikelySumatrancoffeeaswell.The gap widened even further when a leaf rust disease destroyed most goodJavancoffeebutskippedSumatraaltogether.

Expectagoodtocolossalbody.Atitsbest,Sumatrancoffeealsohasamutedspicyaciditythatlingersatthebackofthemouth.MandhelingandLintongaretwo famous districts. The original vintage Sumatra taste depends on dryprocessing,thoughsomewetprocessedcoffeeshavethesameprofile.Ifbuying

greentoroast,don’tover-roast.

SumatraVariant:Kopi

This famous Sumatra coffee is fed to an Indonesianmammal called a civetand retrievedpost-digestion.Despite its source,Kopi coffee isquitegood,butit’sexpensive. Ifyouget thechance, tryKopi.You’llbesurprisedby itsbodyandacidity.

Sulawesi

In a quick taste snapshot, Sulawesi appears a refined Sumatran with moreacidity,lessbody,andacleaner,ifsometimeslessdistinctivetaste.

SulawesiseemsamoreconsistentcoffeethanSumatran.Whetherthisisdueto farming practices, processing, industry, climate, or other conditions isunknown, butmany in the industry say they buy Sulawesi coffeeswithmoreassurance than Sumatrans. A noted coffee shop owner once said, “SulawesicoffeeisSumatracoffeewithallitsproblemsfixed.”

Sulawesi is often labeled Celebes, which is not a region but actually theisland’soriginalname.Reportedly,thebestSulawesicoffeecomesfromToraja,amountainintheisland’scenter.

PapuaNewGuinea

IfSulawesiisarefinedSumatran,PapuaNewGuineamightbeconsideredarefined Sulawesi. It has the highest acidity of the Indonesian coffees. Thebalancedefinitelytiltsupward,meaningmorepronouncedaciditythanbody—ararityforPacificcoffees.Theregiongenerallypracticeswetprocessing,thoughsomefarmsdryprocess.

MOCHADISTINCTIONSMocha is one of the coffeeworld’smost commonly usedwords. It

denotes beans grown in Yemen. Sometimes, neighboring Ethiopian(and even Brazilian) beans receive the Mocha label, an inaccuracydating from coffee’s casual labeling history. Today, the term alsodescribes chocolate, hence its use to describe an espresso beverage

madewithchocolateflavoring,andaEuropeanmildlypressurizeddripmethod.ThelatterisspelledMoka.

Yemen

Yemencoffeecausesendlessargumentsamongcoffeeconnoisseurs.It isoldanditscoffee-growingculturebreaksalltherules,yetitisstillreveredasoneofthebestvarieties.Itisgrownalmostatsealevelandisalmostalldryprocessed,irregularlyandoftensloppily.Thebeansalllookdifferentandhaveadecidedlyraggedappearance.It’spartoftheprocessingandnotnecessarilyindicativeofaqualityproblem.

But amidst the broken beans, insect damage, mold, and other artifacts, thecoffee displays somuch flavor balance and complexity that it is easy to tastewhy Yemen’s coffee business flourishes. If you want perfectly shaped, even-colored beans, don’t try Yemen coffee. But if it’s taste you want, the smallirregularbeansprovidecoffeeunlikeanyother.

Yemen is all Bourbon and almost certainly organic, although it is rarelycertified. Good beans come from all over Yemen, with much of it from thecountry’s cottage industry, grown on small plots behind houses and dried onrooftops.ItblendsperfectlywithJavanorSumatrancoffee.

When buying green, expect less-than-perfect appearance. Resist the urge toover-roast to create a more uniform appearance. If buying roasted, don’t beafraid of a less-than-uniform looks. The best tasting YemenMocha can lookunevenandberoastedlight.Yemenwillalsotakeadarkroastandisoverallaflexiblecoffee.

>Thiscoffeeissortedbyhand,animportantstepinqualitycontrol.

Africa

The African continent’s coffees are definitive; anything else is a variation.African coffees tend tobewine-like,withgoodbutnotoverlypresentbodies.Someof theworld’ssmallestbeanscomefromAfrica,but theyhave intenselyconcentratedflavor.

DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo(DRC)

TheDRC(formerlyZaire)producessomefinecoffees,buttheyarenotwidelyavailablesothecountryhaslittlenamerecognition.

Ethiopia

This widely accepted coffee birthplace has a long, mostly unblemishedhistory.Thecommoditycoffeetradebroughtthebeantoothercountries,wherefactory plantation methods ruined it. But Ethiopia kept its fine growing andprocessingtraditions.

Dryprocessingcreates thebestEthiopiancoffees.Thecoffee, typically full-bodiedwith a light fruitiness, exhibits twomain taste footprints calledHarrarandSidamo/YirgaChefe.Harrarhasacleanertaste,alighterbody,andadecidedblueberry note. Sidamo is spicy. Yirga Chefe, a city within Sidamo province,markets its coffee by its town name (the only noticeable difference betweenYirgaChefeandSidamo).

Ethiopiancoffeeisinconsistent.Labelingproblemsmakeitfrustratingtofindthe same coffee flavor twice. If you come across one you like, grab it. Ifroasting,erronthesideoflightroasts.

Kenya

Kenyanisthemostfamousnon-ArabAfricancoffee.Thecountryalsohasoneoftheworld’smostmoderncoffeeindustries,probablybecauseitplantedcoffeelate. It was the first coffee country to adopt a reasonable grading system thataddresses coffee quality. Kenya AA is the highest. The best Kenyan coffeecomesfromMountKenya.

AllKenyancoffeesarewet-processedandmostlikelyCaturra.Kenyancoffeeiswine-likeandfullbodied,butit’sdistinctivewithuniqueblackberrynotes.

Rwanda

Rwandancoffeehasahighacidityandfullbody.ThoughRwandancoffeeisknownforbeingwashed,itsdry-processedversions(thoughrare)arestellar.

Tanzania

Tanzaniancoffee,whichgrowsonMountsKilimanjaroandMeru,tastesmuchlikeagoodKenyan,withthesameAfricanwine-likefootprint.SomeTanzaniancoffeestastelikeEthiopiancoffee.

Uganda

Uganda has created some great coffee on mountains near Kenya, but thecountrydoesnotproduce largequantities.That itdoesproducegets lost in themainstreamspecialtybusiness.Ifroasting,don’troasttoofar.

Zimbabwe

Zimbabweancoffeehas littlename recognition, though itoffers a richbodyand nice balance. It has the same winey acidity as a Kenyan, without theblackberrynote.Even so,more thanone commercial coffee roasting companyhaslabeledZimbabweancoffeeKenyantosellitatahigherprice.Someofthebest Zimbabwean coffee comes from the town of Chipinge under a Salimbalabel.

AdditionalCoffeeBuyingConsiderations

The coffeeworld is changing. Even themost careful listing of regions andcoffees won’t offer you an exact roadmap. Thanks to direct trade, theWorldWideWeb,andsmallfamilyfarms,wenowhavemuchgreateraccesstohigh-qualitycoffeesthatdefycategorization.

Whenchoosingavariety,askyourselfthesequestions:1.Howdoesitsmell?Ifit’sgreenandforroasting,howfreshisit?2.Whatgenusofbeanisit?3.Isitfromasmallfarm?Doesmycoffeebuyerknowanythingaboutthefarm’smethods?

Pay lessattention towhether it’sorganic,bird-friendly/shadegrown,or fair-traded(unlessit’scommoditycoffee).

The rubber meets the road in the coffee seller’s shop. Use varieties as astarting point. But before simply deciding based on geography, ask questions.It’s better to buy a great coffee from an unknown or underappreciated region(e.g.,Nicaragua)thanamediocrecoffeefromawell-knownone(e.g.,Sumatra).Most regionaldifferencesarewider ranging thanevencoffeebuyersassume. Ihave tasted great coffee from almost every world region and country. If Ihaven’t, I assume it’s because I have not run into it yet. I never rule out newvarieties.Neithershouldyou.

TasteComesFirstIknowImaygetflakfordownplayingenvironmentalsustainabilityand

labor issues. Iagreewith thesegoals in spirit,but I sincerelybelieve thatany product sold primarily for taste must taste good first. With coffee,aromacomesinaclosesecond.Infact,youalmostcan’tseparatecoffee’stasteandaroma.Fortunately,mostenvironmental,sustainability,andlaborissuesleadtogood-flavoredcoffee.

Also, geography isn’t everything. It is important to understandgeographiccoffee-growing regionsbecausesomuchof flavordependsonterroir.Buttheincreaseofmicro-lotsfarmedandprocessedbyindividualscomplicatestheequation.Forexample,afarminHondurasrecentlybeganselling coffee from plant cuttings brought from Ethiopia. Startlingly, thiscoffeetastesmoreEthiopianthanotherHondurancoffees.Istheearthless

importantthanpreviouslyassumed?

Where the bean originated still carries authoritywhen predicting taste.The most important decision when taking a photograph is choosing aworthysubject. In thecaseofcoffeebeans, the first step is findingbeansworthturningintocoffee.

2SELECTINGCOFFEEBEANS

INCHAPTER1welearnedthatalthoughmostcommercialcoffeesellsasbrandedblends from thebeansofmanycountries, upscale coffeetends to have a single country of origin (such as Guatemala orEthiopia). The higher the price and the more unique the taste, thegreaterthelikelihoodofregionswithinacountry(suchasSumatra’sMandheling)or individualestatesor farms (suchasCostaRica’sLaManita)sellingtheirowncoffee.

Thanks to Internet commerce and global shipping, it is conceivable thatsomeoneintheUnitedStatescouldpurchaseonlineasingle-origincoffeegrownonaplotintheGuatemalanmountains.Justashorttimeago,suchpoint-to-pointindividualityandidentitytrackingcouldonlybeimagined.

Forpracticalpurposes,wedevotethischaptertobeanfreshness.Bytheend,youwillknowhowtodothefollowing:

• Identifyandevaluate thebest, freshest coffees, andchoose thebestoneforyou•Tastecoffee•Differentiateblendsandformulateyourownpersonalblend•Hostacoffeecupping

<Top: roastedcoffeebeans;bottom:green,unroasted coffeebeans.Beansgenerally swell in size andloseweightwhenroasted.

CoffeeCharacteristics

Coffeeissuchadelicatefruitthatalmostanydifferenceinwhereandhowit’sgrown, picked, graded, sorted, processed, packaged, and shipped—even itsbotanical DNA—seems tomake amarked difference in how it tastes in yourcup.Understandingthesedifferencesisessentialforlearninghowtochoosethebestbeans,whetheralreadyroastedorthoseyouplantoroastyourself.

Species

Several coffee plant species fall under the Rubiaceae family, genus nameCoffea.Arabicaistheoriginalcultivatedplantspeciesandtheonethatoffersthefinestpotentialflavor.Twoothers,RobustaandLiberica,areusedcommerciallybut primarily in commodity coffee. (See chapter 1, “Knowing Your CoffeeBeans,”page11foracompletelistofspecies,subspecies,anddescriptions.)

Terroir

The earth inwhich the coffee trees are plantedmakes a big difference in abean’s flavor. As gardeners know, soil feeds the plants, so coffee grown indifferentsoilabsorbsdifferentnutrients.(It issimilar tohowgrain-fedchickenor grass-fed cattle produce meat with different flavors than their commercialcounterparts.)Jamaica’srichvolcanicsoilproducesdifferenttastingcoffeethanchalkyorsandyYemensoilsevenifthebeanscomefromthesameparenttrees.

Climate

Rainfall,sunlight,temperature,andotherenvironmentalfactorsallaffecthowbeans grow and taste. A region’s particular climate influences season length,speed of bean-ripening, and water’s role as a nutrient. For example, coffeegrown in thinner mountain air ripens later. Cloudy skies, tall trees, andmountainseachformacanopythatprotectsbeansfromharshsunlight.

FarmingStandards

Anumberoffarmingtechniquesnurturecoffeebeansintorealizingtheirfullpotential. Soil fertilization, pruning, watering, and other tree care change thesoil’s ability to feed the trees. For example, contoured soil ensures equaldistributionofwateramongtrees.

Farmersmustharvestbeansattheirpeakripenesstoensureatop-qualitycrop.Thismeanspickingcoffeeseveraltimesduringthemonthsothatbeansareripe.

Asinglepickingmeanssomebeanswillbeunder-ripe;otherswillbeover-ripe.Harvestingatree’sbeansenmasse—ripe,under-ripe,andall—compromisesthecoffee’squality.Also,coffeetreesonlyproducequalitybeansthroughsomanyharvests,meaningaproperlymanagedfarmreplantsitstreesregularly.

BelovedSumatracherriesandgreenbeans,sidebyside.

Processing

Thefruitofthecoffeetreelooksmuchlikecherries—roundandfleshywithalargeseedpit.Tomakecoffee,theseseedsmustberemovedfromthetreesanddried.Howandhowwellthishappensaffectsflavor.Therearetwomethodsofprocessing:dryandwet.

Dry processing is the original method still practiced in many regionsworldwide, particularly near coffee’s Ethiopian birthplace. In this process,pickedcherriesdryoutonasun-exposedsurface,suchasaflatrooftop,causingtheskinandfruittobecomebrittleandeasytoremove.Layeringbeansisfine,as long as they get turned regularly to avoid scorched top layers and moldybottomlayers.Skinremovalrequiresskillandgoodjudgment;iftoomuchskingetspeeled,thebeanslosealayerofprotection,potentiallyallowingprematurestalenessormold.Most,ifnotall,ofthedryprocesshappensbyhand.

Thedryprocesslikelypresentsthepurestrepresentationofacoffeebeanandits terroir, offering nothing but the bean’s flavor as nature grew it. Dryprocessing also offersmore viscosity, mouth feel, body, depth,muted acidity,

andpotentiallyearthyflavors,anditrequireslesswater—particularlyimportantinclimateswithbarelyenoughforhumanconsumption.Buttheprocessisquitetime-consumingandlabor-intensive.

Inwet processing, coffee cherries soften in large vats of water. Amachinethenmechanicallyremovestheseeds:thesoftfruitpeelsawayandfloatsastheseeds (beans) sink to the bottom.The flesh gets discarded or composted. Theseeds are then dried using either the natural, old-fashioned sun method or inmechanicaldryers.With the latter,beanscandryout toomuch ifnotwatchedcarefully,andthencrackingcanmakethemvulnerabletomoldformation.Oncedried,theyarehulled,mechanicallyorbyhand,andtheskinsremovednotmuchpasttheouterprotectivecoating.

Wet processing offers brighter acidity and an arguably cleaner, less earthytasteduetoquickerskinremoval.Butitinvolveswater,addingtheriskofmoldformation.

StorageandShipping

Coffeebeansarelikespongesthateasilypickupoff-tastesandodors.Climateduring transitandwarehousingalsoaffect flavor.Forexample,beansstored inhigh humidity can ferment or rot. Beans stored in any environment for anextendedperiodloseflavor.

Beans have long been shipped in sacksmade of jute (or burlap),which areeconomical and practical for handling but expose beans to moisture, air, andodors during their shipping. Water shipment, still the standard coffee beantransportmethod,means long sea voyages, exposure tomoisture for extendedperiodsoftime,andstoragenexttoallmannerofproducts,someinertandothersnot.Onceashipmentofcoffeearrivesinport,itcangetdamagedifnotproperlystored.

Roast

Different roasts make otherwise identical beans taste completely different.Roastingissuchanessential,complexcomponentofabean’sflavorthatwe’vedevotedchapter3entirelytoit.

Anassortmentofrawgreencoffeebeansreadyforroasting.

GreenCoffeeBeanBasics

In a perfectworld, the best coffee beans grow in rich earth, protected fromharsh sunlight, and get picked by farmers who choose the exact moment ofripeness, carefully remove thebeans, and then ship them tous.Orwould thatactuallybeperfect?Foreverycommon-senseagricultural rule, there’sacoffeeexampletodefyit.Thoserule-breakingcoffeesareoftenamongthefinest.

TakeYemenMocha,forexample.Often,thecoffeecherriesappearasdryasraisins while growing. They receive far too much sunlight and Yemen’s aridclimate robs themofanybutanoccasionalwatering.Theygrowpracticallyatsea level,a farcryfromchoicehigh-altitudemountains.Theydryonrooftops,mostly because farmers there are far too poor and live in such awater-scarceregion that they cannot consider using even the most primitive water hull-removalequipment.

So are there no rules? The best we have are centuries’ worth of trials anderrors fromeachregion.Thoughnothardandfast, the tips that followat leastprovidesomequalitypredictorstomakeusbetterbuyers.

BuyingBeansinSeason

Coffeeflavorisaconstantlymovingtarget.Likeaflower,coffeecanloseitsscent seemingly in an instant. To make sure the coffee tastes its best, use it

quickly. Thatmeans drinkingwhat’s in season,which requires knowingwhenvariouscoffee-growingregionsplantandharvesttheircrops.

Thinkaboutwhatseasonitisrightnow.Likemostcrops,coffeerequirestimefromitsinitialbuddinguntilthebeansripenforharvesting.SomecountriessuchasGuatemalahavejustoneannualharvestbecauseoftheirdramaticwetanddryseasons.OtherswithmoreconsistentclimatessuchasEthiopiaharvestmultipletimes throughout the year. A country such as Brazil, with its giant, industrialapproach tocoffeeandconsistentweather,harvestsyear-round.Mostcountrieshaveoneortwoharvestsannually.

Withinagivenregion,notallbeansripensimultaneously.Onefarmathigheraltitudethatexperiencesdryconditionsmayharvestitscoffeeamonthlaterthanothers in the area. The beans on a farmwith greater sun exposuremay ripenearlier thanone shadedby treesoramountain.Often, theearlier ripeningandpickedcoffeesarelowerquality.Inthecoffeeindustry,here’stheruleofthumb:Middle-arrivingbeansarethebest.Ofcourse,asinallthingscoffee,there’sanasterisk. Coffee pickers, typically paid by their yield and not for theirdiscernment,maypickunripeorpast-primecherriestoearnmoremoney.Beansaresimplymoreplentifulattheearlyandlatestagesoftheseason.

Greencoffee, likeroastedcoffee,cangostale.Soregardlessofharvest timequalityrange,it’swisetobuygreencoffeessixweeksafterharvesttoallowforprocessing and shipment. Beans available earlier, sometimes called new cropbeans,likelycomefromthelowestelevation.Coffeesboughtlateintheseasonmayhavelostflavor,eitherfromover-ripeness,inadequateorimproperstoragebeforeprocessing,orflavorlossduetowarehousingafterprocessing.Exceptionsto this are the so-called aged coffees, green beans specially stored in climate-controlledconditionssotheycansoften,orloseacidity.

Onceyoupurchasegreenbeans,youhaveasecondroughlysix-weekwindowtoroastthemattheirpeak.

AGAINGRACEFULLYWhen properly controlled and when used in blends or as single

origins,theagedeffectoffersqualitiesprizedbythecoffeeconnoisseur.However, I caution the novicewho attempts to purchase aged coffee.It’s a fine line line between aged and old. The allure of green beanslabeled“aged”hasfooledeventhemostveterancoffeebuyers.

Colombia, Venezuela, Sumatra, Java, and India sometimes offeraged coffees. India’s Monsoon Malabar is named for its storagethrough themonsoon season,which reportedly subjects it to unusualconditionsandcreatesastrongflavoryoueitherloveorhate.

GlobalCoffeeHarvests

This chart lists several coffee-growing regions and their harvest times,followedbyapproximatedatesforshippingeachseason’scoffeecrop.MostoftheNorthernHemisphere’speakharvesttimeisbetweenDecemberandMarch.MostoftheSouthernHemisphere’speakharvesttimeisfromMaythroughSeptember.(6–8weeksshippingtimeimpliesmarketavailability.

BuyingFreshRoastedBeans

Where can you buy green beans? Before the 1990s, consumers couldn’t.Commercialgreenbrokersalmostneversolddirecttoconsumers,andthosewhodid often sold them by 150-pound (68 kg) bags. Consumers who approachedlocal commercial roasting companies met perplexed, even offended, roastmasterswho acted like a restaurant chef asked to sell a steak for someone tocookathome.

TheInternetchangedallofthis,makingitpossibletofindonlinesourcesfor

beansatarangeofpricesandsizes.Notsurewheretostartonline?Searchforaward-winninggreenbeans.Buyafewpounds(enoughtolastawhileandmakeshipping economical but not somuch that you’re stuck if you don’t enjoy it).And remember that youwant to use themwhile they’re still fresh. That’s thewhole idea.Signupforhomeroastcoffeeforumsandbecomeactive.Wordofmouthisagoodwaytofindthegoodstuff.Youknowyou’vearrivedwhenyoufindyourselfsettinganalarmfor2:00AMsoyoucanbidonsomeKenyaAA“Best of Cup” award-winning lots. Then you’ll know the real reason forcaffeine. For specific places to buy green coffee online, see the “Resources”sectioninthebackofthebook,startingonpage168.

When buying already-roasted coffee beans, someone else chose the greenbeansandpresumablyfollowedtheguidelineswejustdiscussed.Makesureyoucheck the roast (whichwe cover in chapter 3, “CoffeeRoasts andRoasting”)becauseacoffee’sroastiscrucialtoitstaste.Soareitsbeanandroastfreshness.

Beansareat their fresh flavorpeakone to fourteendays followingroasting.The first twenty-four hours after roasting is called resting.During this period,coffeestypicallyaretoofreshtobeat theirbest.Acoffeebrewedimmediatelyafterroastingwillfoamupwhenhotwaterhitsthegroundsinthebrewerduetoexcessivecarbondioxideescaping from thebeansand impeding theextractionprocess (see “Brewing,” chapter 5). Truthfully, this is rarely a problem whenbuyingalready-roastedbeans.

Youwantfreshbeanswheneverpossible.Thebestwaytobuyfreshistofindashopthatroastsitsownbeansorroastslocallyandreceivesregulardeliveries.Ifyoubuycoffeeanywhereelse,howit’spackagedbecomesimportant.Herearesomefreshnessguidelines.

•Look at the label.Labels on fresh-roasted coffeebeans should list theirroast date. Beans should be used within two weeks of roasting, so besuspiciousofadatemorethantwoweeksprior.•Askquestions.For coffeebeanspackagedwithout a freshnessdate, askwhen the roasting happened. “Thismorning,” “Yesterday,” or even “Lastweek”aregoodanswers.Youdon’twanttohear“Thispastspring”or“Noidea.”•Bewaryof“Bestby”dates.Somecoffeeroastingcompaniesprojecttheirproducts’freshnesswilllastuptoayear.Trytousethisdatetocalculatethedateofbeanroasting.•Seekoutbeanspackagedinmethodsthatprolongfreshness.Forexample,

one-wayvalvebagsallowairtoexitbutdonotallowairinside.Also,beanspackagedwhilesurroundedbynitrogendon’tstaleasquicklybecauselittleoxygenentersthebag.• Consider aroma (does it smell right?), storage (where and how is thecoffee stored?) and turnover (how quickly does the store sell its stock?)whentryingtofindfreshbeans.

FreezingCoffeeBeans

Freezing coffee beans or grounds is controversial in the coffee industry.Adherentsclaimitprolongsfreshness.Detractorsclaimcoffeeoilsandaromasinsidethebeanscannotliterallybefrozenandthat thecondensationthatformson the beans as they go in and come out of the freezer cancels out anyimprovements.Aftermanyyearsoftestingandanalysis,Ibelievethatfreezingbeansorgroundsworkswelltogivethemadditionalshelflife—aslongastheyareappropriatelypackagedandremoved.

Two innovations appear to greatly slow the green coffee-staling process:airtight containment and bean freezing.Airtight and opaquematerials such asaluminumfoil—not,atfirstglance,innovativebutradicallydifferenttechnologyin the world of coffee—block oxygen,moisture, and competing aromas. Thisallowsforbeanshipmentalongsideotherproductswithoutconcernthatoutsidescents or moisture will damage the coffee. Tests conducted by a major U.S.importer have shown that aluminum barrier packaging results in beans withfeweroff-tastesandlessmoisturedamage.

Also keep roasted beans—those you roast at home or those you purchasealready-roasted—fresh by freezing them. Freeze beans roasted at homeimmediately after cooling. Freeze already-roasted beans immediately afterpurchase.SayyourfavoriteInternetroastingcompanyoffersfreeshippingwithathree-pound(1.4kg)beanpurchase.Here’swhatIwoulddo:

1.Freezeamaximumofone-thirdofthepackage(oroneweek’sworthofbeans)percontainer.Ifseparatedintothree,keepthecoffeeinthepackagesinwhichitcame.Leaveoneatroomtemperatureforuse.2.Covereachbeanbagyouplantofreezewithasecondfreezerbag.3.Squeezeouttheairandsealtightly.Freeze.4.Eachtimeyouremoveacoffeebagfromthefreezer,letitcometoroomtemperaturebeforeopeningitsouterbagororiginalpackage.

5.Onceatroomtemperature,unsealpackageanduseasyouwouldfresh-roastedbeans.Keepittightlyclosedandsetitawayfrombrightlightinacoolplace,awayfromheat.6.Donotrefreeze.

Some hobbyists divide their beans into coffee pot–sized portions beforefreezing. This way, they can remove just enough to brew one pot withoutexposing the other beans to air and humidity. Use two bags per serving fordoubleinsulation.

EvaluatingtheFreshnessofRoastedBeansTotestforfreshness,grindsomeroastedcoffeebeans,placethemin

anopen-dripfilter,andpourfreshlyboiledhotwateroverthegrounds.Fresh-roasted coffeewill swell up from the release of carbon dioxidegas.Stalecoffeewillremainflatthroughoutthebrewcycle.Ofcourse,suchatest,byitsnature,happenstoolate.Wewanttoknowbeforewebuyourbeanswhethertheyarefresh.

Youcanroastgreenbeanstolightordarkroasts.

TheBasicsofBlendedBeans

Beanblendscombinethebestqualitiesofonesingleoriginwiththedifferentbutcomplementaryqualitiesofanother,resultinginaunique,signaturetaste.Ina perfect blend, the result is greater than the individual parts, causing a thirdunique flavor to emerge. Sometimes the word “distinguished” describes thissignaturetaste.

Blending experts typically combine no more than three different coffees.Many commercial blends feature more than three coffee varieties, but this ismostly due to practical considerations such as bean sourcing and availability.Keep inmind, a large roasting companyneeds to distribute a large volumeofcoffeeandonceitpromotesablendneedstomaintainitsflavorconsistencyandcost.

The home aficionado has no such constraints. We can create a one-timeperfect blend thatwe never have to recreate ormass produce.We likely carelittleifthevarietiesweblendareexpensive.Weaimtocreateunique,personalflavors.Leaveconsistencytoothers.

Starting fromscratchonyourownblendcanbeachallenge.Hereare threeexamplesofprovenblendstogiveyouataste:

•Mocha-Java:One-thirdYemenMochatotwo-thirdsSumatraMandheling,allFullCityroast•BlackandTan:One-halfViennaRoast(darkroast)Colombiantoone-halfCityroast(lightroast)Colombian• ProprietaryRoast #1:One-quarterKenyaAA to one-quarterGuatemalaCobantoone-halfBrazil,allFullCityroast

CraftingaPersonalBeanBlend

Tostartcraftingyourpersonalblend,combinetwovarietiesofbrewedcoffeeyou enjoy and see how they taste together. Use a yin/yang approach. Forexample,trypairingabrightColombiancoffeewithalow-acidBraziliancoffee.Many typesof satisfying combinations exist.Checkout chapter1 for a list ofregionaltraits.It’sagoodplacetocreateyourshortlist.(It’sbesttoexperimentusingbrewedcoffee rather thanbeans.Then it becomesamatterof recreatingthatsameratiousingcoffeebeans.)

Tweakyourblendbychangingthepercentagesofeachcoffeevariety,or tryblendinghalflightroastandhalfdarkroastofanytwocoffees,eventwoofthesamevariety.It’satradesecretthatonewell-regardedspecialtyblendisactuallyasingle-originvarietymadefromtworoastsfromtwodifferentColombianbeanregions.

MaterialsBrewedcoffeesamplesofeachpotentialblendcomponent

Coffee brewer (pick your favorite from chapter 5, “Brewing,”andfollowinstructions)

Thermalcarafeforeachbrewedsample,tokeepcoffeehot

8-ounce(240ml)measuringcup(oneforeachcoffee)

Coffeecupsordrinkingvessels

Instructions

1.Breweachcoffeesampleandthenpoureachintoathermostopreserveheat.2.Measure5ounces(150ml)ofeachintoindividualmeasuringcups.Pour3ounces(90ml)ofoneintoacoffeecupandthenadd1ounce(30ml)ofanothertothesamecup.3.Repeat,samplinguntilyoureachyourdesiredratio.4.Whenyougetacupyoulike,noteitsratios.5.Finally,mixroastedbeansinidenticalportions.Thisshouldallowyoutostreamline future production runs of your blend by roasting the beansblended. Note, however, that several industry roast masters claim theirblendsmust be roasted one variety at a time and that size,moisture, andother differences between their blends’ varieties change the flavorswhenroastedtogether.

Cupping

Coffee cupping is the process to evaluate coffee’s taste, the stop-and-smell-the-roses step in your development as a coffee drinker.Have you ever seen awinetasterswirlingavintageCabernetinaglassandsniffingitbeforetakingatinysip?Well,cuppingisthecoffeeworld’sequivalent.

Andithas layersofflavor.Itawakenstastebudsonyour tongueas it flowsaroundyourmouth.Coffeegetsmoreflavorfulasitcools.Wherewinedrinkerscreditwine’srelaxingqualitiesforgivingitsimbibersmoretastetowardtheendofaglass,coffeedrinkerscitecoffee’sstimulatingqualityasaflavorenhancer.Thatmeansthesecondcupisoftentastierthanthefirst.

Aclassiccuppingoperationusestinyceramiccoffeecups,butrocksglasses,

china,orglasswaresuit thetechniqueaswell.Ifcuppingwithothers,youmaywish to prepare separate samples for eachparticipant. If you share, rinseyourspoonasyoucup.Peoplewhocupoftenobtainaspecialcuppingspoonthatiswidelikeasoupspoon,almostroundinshape,withasnubnose.

Ican’twaitanylonger.Let’sgetstarted.

MaterialsTeakettle

16-ounce(180ml)rocksglassforeachcoffeesample

1waterglassperparticipant,forrinsingspoons3to6freshgroundcoffeesamples

Scale,toweighcoffees

1cuppingspoonperparticipant

Logbooktoscoreanddescribethecoffees

1 serving sparkling water for each participant, to cleanse palatebetweencupping,optional

Spittoon,suchasatallglassorbowl,optional

HowtoCupCoffee

Cupping is best done in a relaxed style. It requires a head free of colds orotherbarriers to smell and tastebuds freeof strongcompeting flavors.Ampletimeistheonlypracticalwaytoallowformultipletastingsasthecoffeecools,soitisimportanttoallotenoughtime.Allowaminimumofonehourtocupuptosixcoffees.

KeepingaJournalofHowtoCup

AcoffeebuyerIknowhaskeptacuppingjournalformorethanfortyyears.She has recorded impressions of every Sumatra crop since her start in theindustry (when women were first allowed into the cupping rooms). She can

conjure ingreatdetail the1982Mandhelingcrop.Shecanspotupandcomersandpredictfuturegreatcoffeesbytrackingwhichfarmsareproblemsolvinganddevelopingthebestbeans.Ifyoudon’tkeepalog,asshesays,acupofcoffeelastsonlyminutes.Withalog,yourcoffeelastsaslongastheinkremainsonthepage.

<Acuppingkit iscomprisedofakettle,waterpitcher,smallcupswithgroundcoffee,cuppingspoon,andcuppinglog.

ToSpitorNottoSpit?Thatisaquestionforwhichthereisnoanswer,orrather,theanswer

isapersonalchoice.Professionalcupperskeepaspittoonnearby.Forthem,itisnecessarybecausetheycupmanycoffeesinaday(andstillneed to get a full night’s sleep). If only cupping a few favorites, Irecommend fully enjoying the coffee by drinking it. Always keep aspittoonorotherreceptaclenearbyincaseacoffeedoesn’ttastegood.Consider using a large glass, bowl, or other receptacle that you canemptyandreuse.Also,sparklingwaterdoeswondersforrefreshingthepalate.Keepabottleonhandflorsippingbetweencuppings.

Instructions

1.Fillakettle(youcanneverhavetoomuchhotwater)withfiltered,good-tastingwaterandsetittoboilonthestove.2.Setoutsmallglasses,oneforeachcoffeesample.Placeafewlargewaterglassesatthecenterofthearrangement.3. Place 2 tablespoons (10 g) of fresh finely ground coffee in each rocksglassforeach6-ounce(180ml)sample(a).Thetallwaterglassesshouldnothavecoffeeinthem.4.Oncethewaterboils,turnofftheburnerandwaitfor1minute.5. Pour 6 ounces (180 ml) of hot water into each cup. Do not stir thegrounds.Fillthetallglassestwo-thirdsofthewaywithhotwater(b).You

willrinseyourcuppingspoonsintheseglasses,asneeded.6.Allow thecoffee to steep for fourminutes.Then,witha largecuppingspoon,breakthecrustofgroundsoneachcoffeesample(c).Asyoudothis,placeyournoseascloseaspossible to thesampleand inhale thecoffee’saromas.Inyourcuppinglogoranotepad,recordyourobservations.7.With the spoon, remove and discard the floating pieces of crust fromeachsample.(d)(Thewetgroundsclumptogetherandareeasytoremove.)8.Rinsethespooninahotwaterbath.Dipthecleanspoonintoonesampleandcarefullyslurpitintoyourmouth.Theloudertheslurp,themorelikelyyouaredoing it authentically,as theydo inAmsterdam’scuppinghouses(e).9.Notethevarioustastesensationsinyourcuppinglogornotepad.Rinseyourspoonbeforemovingtoanewsample.

10. Taste all the samples, noting all flavors in your cupping log. I knowprofessionalcupperswhoselogsgobackfortyyearsormore.

11. Repeat the slurping as the coffee cools. You may be surprised at thedifferenceinyourresults.Coffeetastecanchangedramaticallyafteritcools.

12. Once you have sniffed and tasted all coffees hot, warm, and at roomtemperature,youarefinished.

3COFFEEROASTSANDROASTING

ROASTINGisasimple,linearcookingart,yetitisfilledwithvariablesthat canmakedramaticdifferences inyour coffee.Roasting artisanshave the process down pat. If you want to control every aspect ofcoffeeenjoyment,roastingathomeisthewaytogo.

Unless you grow your own coffee, which is impossible for most of us,roasting completes the circle of coffee involvement. It’s also fun, and perhapsevenmore than brewing, allows you to witness the alchemy of turning theselittle fruit seeds called coffee beans into real, sweet-smelling treasure chestsfilledwitharomatic,flavorfuloils.

Roastingathomedoesn’tmeanyou’llneverbuyroastedcoffee.Infact,youjustmaydevelopanewappreciationfortheartisansandtheirroastingprowess.Whether you decide to become your own roast master for life or be just anoccasional roaster who otherwise buys already-roasted coffee beans, you willneverforgetyourfirstroastingexperience.

Bytheendofthischapter,youwillunderstandthefollowing:•Distinguishingcharacteristicsofsixdifferentroasts• Pros and cons of and how to use stovetop roasting, drum roasting, andfluid-airroasting•Theprocessofhomeroastingandhowtodeterminewhetherit’srightforyou

<Hot-air coffee roasters create a hot-air bed that lifts the beans, constantly recirculating them. Thismethodeffectively,quickly,andevenlyroastsallthebeans.

CommercialandMicro-Roasting

Untilthe1970s,largecommercialroasters,thepinnacleofmodernizedroboticindustrialization, roasted most coffee in the United States. Gas-fired drumroasters supplied the coffee for your supermarkets.Anoctopusof pipeshosedfrom large vats of green beans fed the largest machines. Good roasters, evenlarge commercial ones, existed, feeding good quality beans into their goliathroasters. In fact, the majors could (and certainly still can) roast good, high-qualitycoffeebeans.Intermsofconsistencyandabilitytomonitorandrepeataroast,large-batchroastersaresecondtonone.

But as roasters grew larger, the coffee they produced often seemed to lacksomething.Inthe1970s,acoupleofinterestingandsynergisticeventsoccurred.First, as big roasters roasted larger batches and centralized operations, theyrequired huge green bean lots. This left the smaller farmers’ yields unsold.Meanwhile,anewgenerationofsmallormicro-roasters(roastingmachinesthatroastfiveortenpounds[2.3or4.5kg]atatime)cametomarket.Thementalitystarted to change, as better, cheaper, point-to-point transportation and otherfactorsallowedasmall-roasteroperationinCleveland,forexample,topurchasebeansdirectlyfromaGuatemalanfarm.

On top of that, BabyBoomers—people of the “me” generation—were nowadults andwanted special products of all kinds to celebrate their individualityandself-indulgence.Theirparents soughtsimplified,genericproducts for theirpost-war lives, butBoomerswanted andwerewilling to pay for quality. Thatmentality gave birth to the specialty coffee business, with micro-roasting anatural outgrowth of the movement. Small-batch roasters could purchasespecialty beans at bargain prices, roast them fresh, and sell them in their newboutique stores or in supermarkets savvy enough to see a market for thisalternative to centrally roasted large-batch (mostly) canned coffees. Boomers(and even some older consumers) quickly began to appreciate the attention toqualityandfreshnessofthesenewmicro-roasts.

NOTTOOSCIENTIFICAll of thismay sound science-based, yet little of coffee is scientific

compared to other cooking arts.Many people still take into accountintuition,superstition,andurbanmythwhenroastingcoffee.Itmakessense:It’shardtoknowexactlywhathappenstocoffeebeansastheyroast.

Take temperature, for example. To know a bean’s internaltemperature,allyouneedtodoisstickaprobeintoabean,right?Notexactly.Remember thatbeansarehardandbrittle, especiallyas theyroast. The best we can measure bean temperature is by inserting aprobe intoagroupofroastingbeans, togeta temperaturereadingatleast close to the inside temperature. It’s so difficult to know beantemperature that many commercial roasters use visual tryers,removable scoops that catch beans as they roast and allow the roastmastertopullasampletocheckitsstatusagainstavisualcolortile(seephotoatright).

Roasttilesareusedtogaugethecolorofroastedbeans.Withpractice,youcandetermineabean’sroastingdonenessbysight,lookingatitslightness/darknessandcolor,bysound,byitscracklingcharacterandspeed,andbysmellinadditiontotemperature.

TheScienceofRoasting

The heat required to roast coffee equals the heat with which people in theindustryargueabouthowtodoit.Someadherentsuselowheattodrivemoisturefromthebeansuntilpyrolysis,or firstcrack.Then theyfinish thebeans to thedesired roast by increasing heat.Others use high heat early, searing the beanslike a steak, then low heat after first crack, as the beans should have a highenoughinternaltemperaturetofinishbythemselves.

Roasting brings raw, green coffee beans to a state called pyrolysis, whichgenerallyoccursat from400˚F to420˚F(204˚Cto216˚C),and liberatesabout150to200BTUs(158 to211kilojoules)ofheat.Roastinghasbeencalled themomentoftruthbecauseuntilcoffeeisroasted,itstasteremainsunknown.

Ittakestimetogettopyrolysis.Asbeansroast,theyprogressthroughvariousstages.At 220˚F (104˚C), they shrivel up and losemoisture andweight.Theythenswelltotwicetheirsize.At380˚F(197˚C),theyturnpalebrown.At400˚F(204˚C), they turnmediumbrown.During this process, free amino acids reactwith reducing sugars resulting in more than 110 aromatic compounds. Also,duringroasting,thebeanslosethengainsugars,andtheiraciditydecreases,thenreturns to itsstartingpHlevel.Light-roastedcoffeeshave lowerpHlevels.Bythe time coffee finishes roasting, more than 700 identified compounds—cumulativelycalledcoffeeflavor—exist.

CoffeeRoastsDefined

There are several standard popular (commercial) coffee roasts. No matterwhereyoubuyyourbeans,whetherit’salarge,well-knownchainoraboutiquemicro-roastery shop, you should find the same familiar terms.There are someregionalvariationsandsomecompanieshavecreatedtheirownorderandnames.But this list can serve as a useful guide for the roasts you will most likelyencounter.

Cinnamon/NewEngland(1)

Thislight,popularroastdefinescoffeefoundatdonutshopsandinbreakfastnooks.Butbeforeyoudismissitasacommodityorsupermarketroast,consider

that the very best beans from some of the country’s highest-end roasters areroastedlight.Becausethisroastissorevealing,eventheslightestflavordefect—a sour note that a darker roast might smooth out, for example—becomesapparent.

High acidity, slightly less body than the City roast, and no caramel notestypifythisroast,whichallowstheclearestportraitofanorigin’sgeneticflavorfootprint and should sparkle in the cup. Single origins are easiest to identifywhenroastedtothislightroast.Afrequentsideeffectofthisroastislessbodyormouthfeel.

City/FullCity(2)

City and Full City roasts are one or two shades deeper and darker than aCinnamon/New England roast but still have no pronounced roast flavor. Theextraroastingtimedevelopssugarsandprovidescaramelnoteswithlittlelossofacidity in thebest-qualitybeans.Themajorityof specialty coffee is roasted toCityorFullCityroast.

Vienna(3)

NamedforthecoffeehousesinthefamousAustrianmetropolis,ViennaroastisjustashadedarkerthanFullCity.Visually,youshouldstarttoseesweatinginthe form of tiny oil droplets on still-brown beans. In the mouth, the caramelnotesshouldpredominate,thoughnotatthelossofvarietaluniqueness.Inotherwords,aSumatrancoffeeroastedtoaViennashouldstill tastelikeaSumatrancoffeebutaverysyrupyone.

Espresso(4)

Asthenamesuggests,Espressoroast,whichisdarkerthanaViennaroast,isthemostcommonItalianclassicespressoroast.Anylighterroastthanthiswilllikelymakeespresso tastebitterdue to thehigh-pressureextractionmethodanespresso maker uses, which seems to highlight acidity. This roast, for whichbeans are often roasted slightly longer and at lower temperatures, has verybalancedflavors.

Italian(5)

This roast has more pronounced oil and bittersweet notes, which add

complexityat thecostofacidity.Muchof theworldconsidersItalianroast thestandard espresso roast as it’s just slightly darker than the Espresso roast butwithmoreoilspotsonthebeans’surface.

French(6)

TheclassicFrenchroasthasapronouncedroastednote.It’salmostlikesuper-darkbreadbakedwithadarkcrust,whereyoucan taste thedarkness ineverybite.It’sbeyondcaramel.Ithasspicycharcoalnotes,muchlikefoodcookedona grill. Beans roasted French roast are often shiny because their oils havesurfacedandcoatedtheirexterior.

<Theseroastedbeansamplesillustratetherangeofcommonlyavailableroasts.Roast“doneness”isasimportantanelementinyourcoffeecupasanyotherfactor.

HomeRoastingTechniques

Home roasting has the allure of easy entry. All you need is a hot air cornpopper (somethingmany people already have) and the ability to purchase (ortalkyourlocalroastingshopintoproviding)asampleofgreenbeans.Thenit’samatterof tossing theminto thecornpopperandstarting themachine. Just likethat,youcanroastcoffee.

One reason few people roast coffee at home for long is cost. Yes, you canpurchase green beans at lower prices than roasted beans. But any savingsdisappearsthemomentyourealizethatyoulose10percentweightifyouroastlight, more as you go darker. One failed roast batch wipes out any potentialthrift,andeveryhome-roastpractitionerknowstheinevitabilityofsuchfailures.

That said, the thrill of the beans’ aroma as they start to crackle, and thosetimeswhen, after picking exactly the rightmoment to stop the roast, you seebeansyoubrought toperfection…Ah.That’s themomentyouunderstandwhyfewwhotakeuphomeroastingcanstopcompletely.It’shardnottogethooked.It has the long-lasting hobbyist appeal of a pastime that favors constantexperiments. Some will be successful, but there may be more than a fewundrinkabledisasters.Plus,it’salsofun.

Afteryouhavemoreinformationabouthomeroasting,judgeforyourself.

GettingStartedwithHomeRoasting

Ifyouwanttoroastathome,youneedagoodfacility.Considerthefollowing:

Space

Choosea space that allowsyou to spreadout.Roasting requires fast action.Whenthebeansareabouttofinish,youdon’twanttobelookingaroundforyourtools. Cleanup is also a factor. Beans shed their skins, called chaff, duringroasting.Somebeanshaveverylittle,somehavealot.Chooseaspacethatyoucaneasilysweeporvacuum.

PLAYINGWITHFIRE:ROASTINGGUIDETOSAFETY

Althoughroasting isundeniablyfun,keep inmindthatbeansroastat extremely high temperatures. Fires are a problem in the industry.Commercialroastingfacilities,wheremachineryisatleastasruggedasthebesthomeunits, stillhave roasting fires.Keepa fire extinguisherhandy.Ifusingathermometertomeasureinternalbeantemperature,know that it’s difficult to measure these temperatures accurately.Alwayserronthesideofcommonsense,especiallywithdarkerroastsbecausethesebeanscancatchfiremoreeasily.

<Roastingbeansathomeallowsyoutotalcontrolofyourcoffeeprocess,andtherearefewaromasasintoxicatingasthatofjustroastedbeans.

Yield/BatchSize

Every coffee roaster produces the best coffee when you make itsrecommended batch capacity. In other words, follow directions about batchcapability scrupulously. Don’t exceed or halve. If you plan to sample variouscoffees,buyasmallroastersuchasthosebyHearthware.Theyareeasy,capablemachinesthatsmokelessthanlargermachines.

Smoke

Allhomeroastinginvolvessomesmokeandaroma.Homeroastermarketingliterature compares roasting coffee to baking bread. That’s not so. The earlyroastingstagessmelllessthanwonderfulandthelaterstagesaresmoky.Exceptfor theNesco, all roasters exhibit at least enough smoke to requireventilationneartheroastingarea.

Hearthwaremakesaventyoucanprettyeasilyadaptandinstallinyourhome.Some home roasters position their roasting space to feed a bathroom vent oropen a window and drape the vent outside. That could work, though it’s notideal.Thegarageisalsoanoption.However,garagesinmanyplacesgetcoldinthewinter andwarm/hot in the summer.Aside from the temperature affectingour own comfort—and how dedicated are you if you care about that?—itdefinitelyaffectsroastingquality.

Weather

Evenifyouroastinside,youmaynoticethatweatherandclimateaffectyourcoffee. Like bakers, you will become attuned to the weather. And like yourprofessional counterparts, you’ll learn to adjust. Home roasting equipment isnotoriouslytemperature-sensitive.Anaveragecoffeebrewerwillstillheatwaterproperlyifthetemperaturedrops.Notahomeroastingmachine.Iftheweathergets too cold, the roasterwon’t heat up properly.Thismeans youmay not beabletoroastoutdoorsinJanuary.Humidityalsoaffectshomeroastersnegatively,butmore subtly.Yourhome roaster should stillwork if thehumidity changes,butit’ssomethingtowhichyoushouldpayattention.

Voltage

Did you know that your electric company’s voltage fluctuates between 105and125volts?Ifyou’relikeme,youprobablydon’tnormallycare.Butnowyouhave a reason to care. This fluctuation may mean little to most of yourappliances, but to your home electric coffee roaster, it likely means thedifferencebetweenhittingfirstcrackandgettingyourroastrightorruiningyourroastandtossingit(likelyintothecompostheap).

ENDTHEROASTEARLYSome roasting continues beyond the roasting process, for hours or

evenadaylonger.Experiencewill teachyouwhethertoendtheroastslightlyearliertoaccommodatethiseffect.Paradoxically,someroastersactuallyseemtoroastdarkerandthenthebeanslightenafterroasting.Howdoyouknowwhatwillhappen?You’llonlyknowbyexperience.

TheWell-EquippedHomeRoastingKitThe following tools and implements should be part of any home

roastingkit:

Ahomeroastertoroastyourbeans.Yourchoices(amongothers)includeamanualhomeroasterwithacrank,anairpopcornpopper,or

aconsumerelectricdrumorelectricfluidairroaster.(Seepage60foranextensivetutorialaboutselectingahomeroaster.)

Greenwholebeancoffeetoroast

Roasting log tonote time, temperature, and amount and typeofbeansused.Onceyoufindaparticularcoffee’sperfectflavor,youwillwanttoreplicateit.

A thermometer tomeasure thebeans’ temperature.Getadigital,instant-readthermometer(andifnotinstant,onethatworksquitefast)oronewithathin,flexibleprobeattachedtoadigitalconsole.Thetipof the thermometer needs to access the roasting beans’ center.Note,insertingathermometerisfortheexpertroasteronly.

Digital kitchen scale to weigh your beans to ensure that youfollowtheamountrecommendedforyourroaster

Drymeasuring cup to use the amount specified in your electricmodel’sinstructions

Kitchen timer or clock to accurately track how long the beanshavebeenroasting

Asetofsteelcolandersforcoolingthehotroastedbeans

Storage containers with tight-fitting lids to keep the preciousbeansfresh.Masonjarsworkwell.A powerful heating element such as a stovetop (gas) or electric hotplate(notshown)

Heat-safegloves(orprotectiveovenmitts) tosafelyhandlehotbeansAfireextinguisher(notshown)becauseroastingfiresdohappen

ChoosingtheRightHomeRoaster

There are many home coffee roasters on the market, each with its owndistinctivemethodsofheatingbeans.Howmuchdoyouwanttoroasteachtime?Howdark to you like your beans? In the remaining pages of this chapter,weexplore the variousmodels available and offer a practical guide to using eachstyle.

StovetopRoasting

Inastovetoproaster,coffeeisroastedinanopenorspecialclosedpanplacedonagasstoveburner.Thepersonroastingthebeansmanuallystirswithacrankhandletoevenlydistributethebeansduringroasting.Thismethodrequiresdirectcontactbetweenapansurfaceandthebeans.Stovetoproastingtakesadvantageofsomethingyoualreadyhave—aheatsource.Avariationofthismethodusesanovenpanwithperforatedholes.

Pros• Long roast time. Like drum roasters, the stovetop roasters have a longroastcycle(likelythelongestofallroasters),takinguptotwentyminutes.Thisgivesyouanicewindowandmargintostoptheroastatjusttherightbeandoneness.• No noise. The only sounds come from the stove, the crank, and thecracklingbeans,whichmakesiteasytohearthenuancedfirstcrackversusthefastersecondcrack.•Complex flavor.Longer roasts create coffeewithmore complexity.Thestovetoproasterdoesthisaswell,ifnotbetter,thananyotherhomemethod.

Cons•Flameguesswork.Atwhat level doyou set the flameon theburner? Itdefinitelytakestrialanderror.Keeptrackofhowlongittakestoroastafullcycle(anywherefromtwelvetotwentyminutes).Don’tcountcoolingtime,whichisnotpartoftheroastcycle.•Crankspeed.Howfastdoyouturnthecrank?Thetrickistofindaspeedthatallowsthebeansenoughcontactwiththehotpanbottombutkeepsallofthebeansmoving.You’llknowtocrankfasterifyougetscorchedbeansorif tippingoccurs, inwhichtheendsofbeansturnblackfromtoomuchhotsurfacecontact.• Inability to check beans’ doneness. Stovetop roasters (or corn poppers

doing double duty) require you to open the top to check on your beans,whichalso letssteamandheatescape. It’sdifficult tosee thebeans,evenwith the hatch open, so it takes trial and error to know when to stoproasting.•Riskofflattaste.Justasstovetoproastersoffertheopportunitytodevelopcomplexity, they also increase the risk of creating coffee that tastes flat.Thishappensafterroastingbeansattoolowofatemperaturefortoolong.

MaterialsThickmetalenclosedcoffeeroastingpanwithcrankhandleon

top

Stovetop

Greencoffeebeans

Digitalscale

Kitchentimerorclock

Roastingnotebook

Heat-safegloves

2steelcolanders

Masonjar(orotherglasscontainer)

Fireextinguisher,incaseofroastingfire

<Astovetoproastertakesadvantageofsomethingyoulikelyalreadyhave:astove.

ExpertNotesonStovetopRoastingHereareafewtipsforstovetoproasting:

•Removethechafffromthebeansduringcooling.Unfortunately,chaffcangetmessy.Considercoolingthebeansoutdoorsoroverasinktocontainthemess.(Chaffmakesexcellentcompost.)• Pull your roast into cooling just before the beans reach their desireddoneness.Thistakespractice,butit’sworthittolearnbecausecoffeebeanswillcontinuetoroastforatleastaminuteintothecoolingstage.•Breakapartaroastedbean.Ifitislighterinsidethanoutside,tryreducingroasting heat. If the interior is darker than the exterior, increase roastingheat.•Roastbeansforlongerthantenminutesandlessthantwentyminutestomaximizeyourbeans’potentialflavordevelopmentandcomplexityandtopreventthemfromgoingflat.

Instructions

1.Placethecoolroastingpanonthestovetop,centeringitovertheburner.2. Weigh the green coffee beans using your digital scale based on theamountthemanufacturerpredeterminedthattheroastercanhandle.3.Openthehingedtophatchonthepan’stopandpourthebeansintotheroaster(a).Immediatelyturnthecranktoevenlydistributethebeans(b).4.Turn theburner tomediumheat.Begin timerasyoumanually turn thecrankslowlyandconstantly.5.After5to10minutes,thebeanswillbeginpopping,indicatingthestartofthefirstcrackstage.Notethetimeinyourroastingnotebook.6.Listenclosely to thebeans.After a coupleofminutes, allof thebeanswillhavepopped,followedbyabriefsilence.Aminuteorsolater,anew,faster crackling sound, akin to logs on a fireplace, will start. It’s oftenaccompaniedbyhissing.Atthispoint,openthehatchandlookatthebeans.Notetheircolorandthetime.7.Usebeancolortodeterminewhentheyaredone.8.Dontheheat-safegloves.Whenyourbeansreachdesireddoneness,openthehatchandimmediatelypourthemintooneheat-safecolander(c).9.Pourthehotbeansfromonecolandertotheotheruntiltheyarecoolto

touch(about5minutes).Thisprocessloosensthechaff,soittendstofloataround.Blow the chaff away from thebeansduring tossing to removeasmuchofitaspossible.

10.Once thebeanscoolenough to touch, transfer them into themason jar (orotherglasscontainer).Leavethejaropenandexposedtoairforafewhours.Capthejarbeforeday’send.Donotleavethejaropenovernight.

StovetopRoastingTutorial

DrumRoasting

Indrumroasting,aperforatedcylinderholdsthebeans,whichgetheatedfrombelowbyradiantheat.Thecylinderconstantly rotates toevenlydistributeheatacross the beans. In addition, a steady stream of hot air blows through thecylinder’scenter,creatingaheatingenvironmentmuchlikeaconvectionoven,encouragingaconsistent,uniformroast.Themajorityofcommercialoperationsuseadrummethodtoroasttheircoffee.

Drumroastersarenowavailabletohomeaficionados.Drumroastersrunquietlyandroastmoreslowly,whichisdesignedtomatchthetraditionalflavordevelopmentofacommercialroaster in smaller home batches. The perforated cylinder on this Behmor drum roasterconstantlyrotatestoevenlydistributeheatacrossthebeans(Seephotosonpage67).

Pros•Long roast time.Drumroastersusually takebetween fifteenand twentyminutestoroast.Thisisgoodingeneral,butitcanbestressfultryingtohitthecoolingcyclebuttonatjustthatmagicmoment.•Perfectyield.Drumroasterstypicallyroastahalf-poundofcoffee,whichmany coffee drinkers consider just the right amount for their use. Moregeneroushobbyistsroastextrasforfriends—increasingtheirsocialstandingconsiderably.• Developed, complex flavor. Many in the coffee industry believe drumroasters offer great complexity of flavors.Whether this is due to longerroast timesor typeofheatcompared to fluid-air roasting is thesubjectofintensedebate.Itcallsformoretastetests.• No noise. Most drum roasters are extremely quiet, allowing the roastmastertolistenforthesubtledistinctionofthefirstandsecondcracks.

Cons•Badvisibility.Manydrumroastersdon’tallowyoutoviewthebeansasthey roast. This is a big disadvantage. Commercial drum roasters featuretryers, catchers that allows the roast master to remove bean samples tocheck their doneness.Butmost consumer drummachines don’t have thisfeature,restrictingyoutolisteningandsmelling.•Slowcooling.Drumroasterstypicallydumpthejustroastedbeansontoaturntable. Commercial machines feature forced air to speed cooling, butmost home machines don’t. Rapid cooling ensures that your beans stoproastingwhenyouchoosetostoproastingthem.Mostexpertsbelieverapidcoolingimprovesflavor.

MaterialsGreenbeans

Digitalscale

Drumroaster

Heat-safegloves

Masonjar(orotherglasscontainer)

Fireextinguisher,incaseofroastingfire

ExpertNotesonDrumRoastingHerearesometipsondrumroasting:

• If your home drum roaster does not offer incylinder cooling, use ovenmitts or heat-safe gloves to carefully pour roasted beans into colanderfollowing the roast. Then pour them into a second colander. Repeat thisback-and-forth process to cool the beans. Some advanced home roasterspreferthismethodtoin-machinecooling,claimingitisfasterandtherefore

betterathaltingtheroastingprocess.• If the roaster offers pre-timed cycles, choose one that will likely roastdarker(longer)thanyouwish.Youcanalwaysstopacycleinthemiddle.•Truebelieversinhomeroastingcangoasfarasmodifyingagasbarbequegrilltoroastuptothreepounds(1.4kg)ofbeansperload.Oneroasterevenguttedhisbackyardgrill andpaida local sheetmetalworker to fashionaproprietary perforated metal drum designed to spin using a rotisserieattachment. His grill roaster has been so successful that he’s become aweeklyattractionathislocalfarmers’markets.

Instructions

1. Measure the recommended amount of green beans using your digitalscaleandpourthemintoopenendofthecylinder.2.Gentlyshakecylindertoevenlydistributethebeans(a).3. Seat the cylinder (drum) into the machine’s track to ensure it turnsproperly.Addthechaffcollector(b).4. Start the drum roaster. Always begin with a cool machine unlessotherwisedirectedbythemanufacturer.5.Waitforthepoppingsoundtobegin,indicatingthefirstcrackstage.6.Oncethebeansfinishpopping,abriefsilencewilloccurbeforethebeansbegin theirsecondcrack,afastersoundreminiscentofcracklingfireplacelogs.Beginthecoolingcycleatanytimefromthispoint.7.Donyourheat-safegloves.Afterthecoolingcycleends,openandemptythechaffcollector(c).8.Carefullyremovethedrumfromthemachine(d)andpourthebeansintoaglassjarforstorage.9.Followingeachroast,blowanyremainingchaffoutofthemachine.

DrumRoastingTutorial

Fluid-AirRoasting

Inthismethod,developedinthemid-1900s,beansroastbyfloatingonabedof hot air. Its commercial predecessor was the Jabez-Burns Thermalo drumroasternoteworthyforusingastreamofheatedfluidairshotthroughthedrum’scenter,producingsimilarresults.Inthefluid-airroastingmethod,hotairliftstheunroasted beans until they float; the suspension of the beans ensures evenroasting.Theprocessissimilartothatofanelectricpopcornpopper,andinfact,canworkusingapopcornpopper.Thenoiseof thecirculatingairoftenmasksthecrucialpoppingsounds,buttheabilitytoseethebeansduringroastingmeansyoumorelikelyknowwhentheyaredone.

Lookfor theairbornebeanson the left, liftedhighby thehotairshootingupwardsfrom

below.

Pros•Ease.Fluid-airroastingismostefficientroastmethodbecauseitroastsinalinearmethodandthusistheeasiestforwhichtodesignamachine.Bestof all, home air roasting requires no fancy gear. A simple air popcornpopperwilldo.•Roastingspeed.Airroastingisfastandheatsbeansevenly,bringingoutthe coffee’s bright acidity and reducing any tipping (or scorching of thebeans)thatfrequentlyhappensindrumroasts.Airroastinggenerallytakesbetweenfiveandtwelveminutes.•Visualpresentation.Mostfluid-airroastersuseglasscanistersforroasting.Notonlydoestheroastmastergetthepleasureofseeingthebeansroastbutalsocanusethistooltowatchthebeansandjudgetheirdoneness.•Quickcooling.Mostairroastersfeaturequick-respondingcoolingcycles.Manyexpertsbelievethatquickcoolingreducesbitterness.

Cons•Speed.Theair roaster’squickroastingspeedmay improveflavor,but itmeansaquickresponsewhenthebeansfinishroasting.Secondscount,andanearlyorlateresponseatthemomentoftruthcanruinthebatch.•Toomuchnoise.Ittakessignificantairmovementtokeepabedofbeansfloating,andthatmeansnoise,oftenenoughtomakeitdifficulttohearfirstandsecondcrack.• Low yield. Most air roasters can roast only a small amount of beans,perhapsenoughforapotortwoofcoffee.• No flavor complexity. Some claim that air roasting, while simple andstraightforward,doesnotdevelopthesamecomplexityandflavordepthofagooddrumroast.Mostwhosharethisviewthinkithassomethingtodowithair’sconvectionheating,althoughsomedirectcontactheatdoesoccurasthebeanstoucheachother.

MaterialsFluid-aircoffeeroaster

Digitalscale

Greencoffeebeans

Kitchentimerorclock

Heat-safegloves

Steelcolander,optional

Masonjar(orotherglasscontainer)

Fireextinguisher,incaseofroastingfire

OverridingtheSystemMany advanced users prefer to decide exactly when to stop the roast

ratherthanletthepreprogrammedappliancedoitforthem.Tooverridethepreset cycles, choose the longest roast cycle, perhaps longer than youexpect. Once the beans achieve their desired roast, simply hit cool tomanuallyendtheprocess.

Instructions

1.Startwithacoolroaster,unlessotherwisespecifiedbythemanufacturer.2. Using your digital scale, measure the manufacturer’s recommendedamount of green beans for the roaster’s capacity (a). Do not exceed therecommendedvolume.3.Pourthebeansintotheroaster(b).Gentlyshaketospreadthemevenly.Pressstart.Startyourtimerhereaswell.4.Observethebeansastheyturnyellow(c).5.Assoonasacracklingsoundbegins,thecoffeehasreachedtheleadingedgeoffirstcrack.Notethetime.Allbeansshouldbeatfirstcrackwithin1

to2minutes(d).Onceallthebeanshavereachedfirstcrack,abriefsilencewill occur, followed by second crack, distinguished by a more rapidcracklingsound.ThebeginningofsecondcrackdeliversaFullCity roast(e).BeyondthistemperaturedarkerroastssuchViennaandFrenchoccur.6.Whenyourbeanshavereachedtheirdesireddoneness,pressthecoolingbutton to override the roaster’s heating (or allow your roaster toautomatically cool when the timer ends). Your roaster will switch to itscoolingcycleandbegincirculatingfresh,coolair.(Ifusingacornpopperthatdoesn’thaveacoolingcycle,wearovenmittsandcarefullyremovetheroaster’scanisterandpourthehotbeansintoaheat-safecolander.)7.Whenthecoolingcycleends,theroasterwillturnitselfoff.Immediatelyremove thebeans from themachineandallow them tocool forat least1hourbeforepackagingforstorage.8. Once they cool completely, transfer to amason jar or another airtightcontainer.9.Cleanthechafffromallroasterpartsaftereachuse(f).

Fluid-AirRoastingTutorial

UsingaThermometerwithYourHomeRoaster

The directions above were purposely written minus any temperatureguidelines.The internalbean temperature isprobably thebestandmostusefuldata for roasting, andyet it is themost difficult information to reliably obtain(evenforcommercialroasters).Installingathermometerwillensurethatyoucangetsometemperaturereadingduringroasting.

Itisimpossibletoactuallystickathermometerinsideacoffeebeantoknowitsexact temperature.Thebestwecando isapproximatebymeasuring theairtemperature directly next to a bean or group of beans. Note, the temperaturereadingisalmostalwaysclosetobutnotexactlythebeans’actualtemperature.Heatfromtheroastingmachineitselfandotherfactorswillinterferewithatruereading.Withthiscaveatinmind,itisstillusefultoinstallathermometer.The

goal is to finda fast-reactingone;youwant toknowthe temperaturenow,notwhatitwasaminuteago.

Thebest place to insert the thermometer probe iswithin a cluster of beans,awayfromdirectroasterheat.Usingathermometerindrumroastersisdifficultbecauseyouneedtokeeptheprobeinthebeans,yetawayfrommovingparts.However, the most challenging roaster design from which to get an accuratereadingisanairroasterbecauseoftheneedtofindalocationawayfrommovingair,wherebeanscluster.

Itistrickytodothiswithjusttwohands,butitispossibletoliftthehatchonastovetoproasterandinsertathermometertocheckbeandoneness.Thisneedstohappenquicklysothebeanswon’tscorchwhilethecrankstandsidle.

MaketheMachineWorkforYouSomeroguehomeroasterswillmodify theirmachinesbydrillingholes

into the body so their thermometers can access the beans from an ideallocation.Naturally, this invasivemethodvoids allmachinewarranties, sodo this only if you accept full responsibility for damage. You also canpurchaseathermometerwithaflexible,narrowprobethatwillwindaroundandintoyourroaster—withnophysicalmodificationnecessary.

QuickHome-RoastingTemperatureGuide

Determiningwhenyourhome-roastedbeansaredonerequiresacombinationof sensorycues from thevisual, aural, andaromatic.Refer to thisquickguidewhenmonitoringyourroastingbatches.

PARTTWOTHEBREW

4GRINDING

GRINDINGbeansandbrewingcoffeearearguably themost importantparts totheartandcraftofcoffee.Nomatterhowgreatthecoffeebeans,howcarefullythey’vebeencaredfor,or theskillwithwhich theywereprocessed,packaged,shipped,androasted,theydon’tbecome“coffee”untilgroundandbrewed.Thegoodnews?Ifyoucanfillacoffeescoop,pressabutton,anduseakitchenscale,youcanmakegreatcoffee.

Bytheendofthischapter,youwillknowhowtodothefollowing:•Differentiategrindertypes•Selectthegrinderthat’sappropriateforyou•Grindcoffeeproperly

<Manualgrindersaren’tjustforantiquebuyers.

GrindersandGrinding

Since you presumably start with beans rather than already-ground coffee,we’llcovergrindingbeforebrewing.Ifyouusepregroundbeans,skiptochapter5,“Brewing,”whichstartsonpage89.

Whycan’tyoujustputcoffeebeansintoafilter,runhotwateroverthem,andbrewcoffee?Theoreticallyyoucan.Thequestion is,whendoes itbecome thefinished, brewed beverage known as coffee? If you simply soak beans in hotwater, eventually the water turns brown. By the time it becomes dark, richcoffee, it will be cold. Someone discoveredmany years ago thatmashing thebeansintosmallerpieces(whatwecallgrinding)speedsupthebrewingprocess.

Hereareaveragecoffeegroundparticlesshowntoscale:Pulverizedaverageparticlesize:100microns

Espressoaverageparticlesize:200micronsFine/vacuumaverageparticlesize:500micronsDripaverageparticlesize:600micronsAutomatic drip average particle size: 800microns in theUnited Statesand580micronsinEuropeCoarsegrindaverageparticlesize:1,000microns

The Turks, who pushed millstones around to grind grain, get credit forinventingthecoffeegrinder.Theyusedonecorrugatedplateandoneflatplate.Onewas stationary; theothermoved.This systemcreatedalmostpowder-like,very fine grinds. Coarser grinds became popular with more modern brewingmethods,asinventorsrealizedtheflavorconnectionbetweengrindingbeanstoacertain size and the finished coffee’s taste. Other coffee-drinking countriesadapted grinds to fit their brewing methods. Today, grinding’s role isstraightforward. The finer ground the beans, the more intense flavor theyproduceandthelesstimeittakestoextractthatflavor.Thisisbecausewithfinergroundcoffee,hotwatertouchesmoresurfaceareaduringbrewing.

A coffee grinder’s only job is to granulize coffee beans into exact and(theoretically)same-sizedparticles.Somecoffee loversmistakenly think thatarangeofparticlesizes,likeamixoflightanddarkroastedbeans,offersavarietyoftastes.Nottrue!Eachbrewingmethodhasitsownperfectparticlesizebasedonhowlong theparticleswill touch thegrounds.The longer thebrewtime is,thelargertheparticlesshouldbe.Smaller-than-idealparticlesaddbitternessduetooverextraction.Larger-than-idealparticlesunderextract, causingweak flavorandwaste.

Investinagoodgrindertoenjoythebestcoffeepossible.Getinthehabitofgrinding just before you brew. This will result in a more pungent aroma andfreshertastingcoffee.Plus,someofthebestavailableroastedcoffeeswillopenuptoyou,assomeofthecharacterswhoroastthesepreciousbeanswon’tevenconsidergrindingthembeforeshipping.Ifyouhomeroast,pregroundcoffeeisobviouslynotaconsideration.

TheCaseforGrindingatHome

Industrialrollersproducethemostconsistentgrindpossible,makingindustrialgrinding, by far, the best method. It exceeds even the best home machine’sabilitytocontroloneofthemostimportantvariables:particlesize.SowhydoI

recommendgrindingat home? It’s freshness.Freshness is an important reasonformostcoffeeloversbecauseit’scriticalforenjoyingthekindofcoffeearomaandflavorweallwant.

Life is a series of tradeoffs; there is just toomuch coffee character lost incoffee ground after roasting, rather than before brewing. This is not a subtledifference.

Mostpregroundcoffeesdon’t stay fresh for long.Pregroundcannedcoffeesare purposefully exposed to air after grinding, which removes much of theirfreshness.Thisprocess,calleddegassing,isdonetopreventcansfrombucklingduringtheirproductlife.

Beans and preground coffees treated with nitrogen flushing as they arepackagedintoone-wayvalvebagsstayfreshforaboutninetydays,muchlongerthan the two weeks of freshness of beans sold in simple fold-over unsealedsacks.One-waybagsfeaturearinglikeindentationwithaholeinthecenterandare clearly visible. Why does this coffee stay longer? Nitrogen flushingminimizes contact with oxygen and protects coffee from elements that hastenstaling.However,bydesign,one-wayvalvesallowcarbondioxidetoescape.Asthe carbondioxidegoes, sodo the smells andaromasyour tastebuds identifywithfreshness.Todate,nocoffeepackagingmethodpreservesaromaandflavororallowsthecoffeetoimproveovertime,aswithsomewines.

BEWAREOFFRESHNESSDATESPackaging companies create freshness dates to try to please large

coffee companies, which understandably want to build in time totransport and warehouse their products. At best, freshness datesreliablyprevent rancidity,but they rarelypredict freshness. Seekoutpackageswithactualroastdates(ratherthanfreshnessdates)andtryto use the product immediately or freeze itwithin ninety days of thedate.

Properlypackagedanddatedpregroundcoffeealsohasaninety-dayfreshnesswindow,butthengoesstalequicklyafterthepackage’ssealisbroken. Freezing after opening adds additional product life. See thesection“FreezingCoffeeBeans”onpage43inchapter2forextensiveinformationaboutfreezinggreenandroastedbeans.

Lookforaroastingdateratherthanafreshnessdatetodeterminecoffee’sfreshness.

GrindingForTheRoast

Doesroastdarknessaffectgrind?Theshortanswerisyes.Darkerroastsneedtobegroundslightlycoarser.Acoffeebean’sbrittlenessincreasesthelongeranddarker it roastsandthemoremoisturedrivenfromit.Theincreasedbrittlenesscausesittofractureintosmallerparticlesthanalighterroast.Thisincreasesthecoffee’sbitternessandstrength.Considersettingyourgrinderanotchcoarserfordarkroastedbeans.

ChoosingaGrinder

The best grinder is one that consistently produces even-sized particles.Thoughitseemsobvious,determiningwhichgrinderdoesthisisnotsosimple.

Testscalledro-taptestsdetermineagrinder’sgrindconsistency.Aro-taptestinvolves placing a grinder’s resulting grounds atop a series of sieves withdifferent-sizedholesandmeasuringtherangeandpercentagesthatseepthrough.One place to look for these test results is my website,www.coffeecompanion.com.

Look for mathematical grounds-distribution results from these screen tests.Youwant thegrinder thatproducesthebiggestpercentageof identicalgroundstheidealsizeforyourbrewer.Inthesection,“DeterminingtheRightGrindforYourBrewer”onpage85,I’vepublishedtherecommendednumbersinmicronsforeachgrind.Note,thelargertheholesinthetestscreenorsieve,thesmaller

itsscreen-sizenumber.Forinstance,asizetwentysievehaslargerscreenholesthanasizefortysieve.

BladeGrinders

Most inexpensive grinders have spinning blades, hence the name bladegrinder.Thesearenotoriouslybadforgrindingcoffee.

FINES:COFFEEGRINDINGBADGUYSThe word “fines” describes 200 to 300micron-size waste particles

produced during grinding. Although all grind specifications allow—andevenbenefitfrom—acertainpercentageofsmallfines,anyamountbeyond30percentharmsthecoffee’sflavor.Therearealsotinier100to200micronsuperfines,whichclogfiltersandaddbitternessinvirtuallyany amount to almost any brew.Calling thembittersmight bemoreaccurate. You can’t do anything to alter the amount of fines yourgrinder produces, but you can seek out a grinder with an industry-acceptedamount.Ifyounoticecoffeeclumpsinyourcontainerofjust-groundcoffee,excludethesefromyourbrewer.

Touseit,pourapremeasuredamountofbeansintothetop,whichcontainsthespinningpropeller.Asyoupushapowerbutton,thebladesbegintospin,cuttingthroughthebeans.Theblade’swhirlingmotionhelpscreateanairvacuumthatdrawsthebeansintothepropeller’spath.

Inpractice,thisrandommethodoftenrequiresshakingthegrindertogetanysemblance of equal grinding. Even as the grounds get finer and appear moreconsistent,microscopicexaminationorascreentestwillrevealawidevariance.Also,usingabladegrindercausesits tinymotor, locatedjustunderthecurvedmetalplate,toheatupthegrounds.Manyofthesegrinderscomewithwarningsnottorunthemotorformorethanoneminuteorriskheataffectingyourgroundsenoughtoactuallyreleasesometasteandaroma.

If you’re not already sold onnot usingoneof these grinders, consider this:They are unpredictable in terms of how fine they grind. One time, it mayproducecoffeefineforadripcoffeemaker.Anothertime,itmaybetoocoarse

ortoofine.Forespresso,theexact200to250microngrindparticlesizeforthethirty-secondextractionissocriticalthatyoureallycan’tconsiderusingabladegrinder.

BurrGrinders

Burrgrinders,sometimescalleddiscormillgrinders,arethekindtouse.Youset thegrinder’s range,which then limitssizeby thedistancebetween the twogrindingpieces.Setthegapbetweenthetwodiscsorconesbyclickstops(stopsonyourgrinder)soyoucansimplydialyourrequiredfinenessandassurebatch-to-batchconsistency.

Howdoesaburrgrinderwork?Arotatingflatmetaldiscorconicalconefitsinside a second, stationary disc or cone.As a chute between the twogrindingpieces feeds the beans, flutes that become progressively finer cut them. Thecoarsesurfaceononeofthediscsthengrindsthem.Thisdesigngrindsthebeansmuchmoreconsistentlythanablade.

Inexpensivebladegrindersdon’tgrindcoffeewell.

Still,burrsarenotperfect.Theyrequirecarefulalignment.Theyweardownthroughuseandastheydo,thegrindmaydriftandbecomelessconsistent.Also,somemodernmarketingtoutsfeaturessuchastheirtimersortheabilityofpartsof thecontainer togo in thedishwasher. Instead, look forhardenedsteeldiscs(whatthebestgrindersuse).

Each of the two types of burr grinders—conical and flat—has inherent

advantages. Typically, conical burrs work better for coarse grinding, whereasdiscburrsarepreferredforfinergrinding.

Chooseaburrgrinderifyoucan.Theyareavailableinseveralstyles.AJerichogrinderisshownherewithitsexposedburr.

Instructions

Touseaburrgrinder,followthesesteps:1.Measurethedesiredcoffeeamountandweighthebeans(a).2.Placethebeansinthegrinderhopper,whichisusuallylocatedattop(b).3. Turn the grinder on.Most electric coffee grinders are loud.Evenwithquietermodels,youcanusuallytellwhenthebeansareground.Tobesure,checkthehopperforstuckbeans.4.Oncethegroundssoundfinished,removethereceptaclethatholdsthem.Check for ground fines clumping. If possible, remove any clumps anddiscard.(Itmakesgreatcompost!).5.Fillyourfilterwithfinishedgrounds(c).

Generallyspeaking,aburrgrinderwill serveyoubest.Someclaim that fastgrindersproducemorefinesandsuperfines,butmyless-than-scientific testsofvarious grinders do not demonstrate any correlation. My own prized hand

grinderdidmostpoorlyinourtestsandmysuperfastDittingelectricgrinderdidbetter than any consumermachine. Of course, theDitting ismore than 1,000dollars,sothebuildqualityshouldbefirstrate.

Coated burrs last longer and maintain grind calibration. Expect to payanywhere from 50 to 1,100 dollars for a good grinder. Cost is not the lonedecidingfactor.Ifyou’rereallyaplayer, investigaterestaurantsuppliers.Someof these grinders are large, however, so keep the SAF (Spouse AcceptanceFactor)inmind.Somedaysomeonewillinventsomethinglikealasercuthomecoffeegrinderthatsimplydoesthequantumphysicsnecessarytogiveyouexact,evenlycutpiecesfromyourbeans.Untilthen,seekoutthebestgrinderyoucanfindtogrindfreshandconsistentlyevencoffee.

BurrGrinderTutorial

ManualGrinders

You may have seen hand-powered manual burr grinders, particularly inantique shops.Zassenhaus inGermany stillmakes a fairlywell-knownmodel.Theseunitsareattractive,probablysoldmoreoftenasconversationpiecesanddecorativeitemsthanworkinggrinders.Butdon’tdismissthem.Thededicatedcoffeeenthusiastmayuseahand-poweredwoodengrinderwhiletraveling.Whygive up fresh ground coffee on vacation? Know that bean hoppers are small,

whichmaymeanfillingandgrindingtwiceforadecent-sizebatch.Butthegrindmechanismin theZassenhaus isa trueconical-discburrgrinder,as is thecaseformostantiquemodels.Somematchthebestelectricgrindersinoverallgrindquality.

Wall-or table-mounted hand grinders are also options. Some of them do anexcellent jobgrinding.Noelectricgrinder reallyusesall thatmuchpower,butit’sanicefeelingknowingyou’renotusingany.Somepeopleevenconsideritamildworkout.

Though probably sold more as decorative items thatn working grinders, some manualgrindersmatchthebestelectricgrindersinoverallgrindquality.

ATTENTIONCOLLECTORSLarge wagon wheel grinders fetch big money at auctions and at

collectors’ shows. If you spot one, you’ll instantly recognize it. Theseareunusuallyeasytousebecauseofthelargewheel(someareactuallytoo large to fit in the average kitchen). They also do a great job ofgrindingcoffee.

GrinderMaintenance

Grindersrequirelittleinthewayofmaintenance,butthereareafewchecksyoushouldmakeregularly,includingthefollowing:

• Check your grinder’s exposed parts from time to time for grindsaccumulation.Useabrush—anoldtoothbrushwilldo—toremovegrounds.Adrybrushtendstoworkmoreeffectivelythanadamporwetone.•Washremovable,dishwasher-safehoppersinthetoprackoncepermonthtoremoveanyoilbuildup. Ifyoufrequentlygrinddarkroastcoffees,youmaywishtoincreasethiswashingtoonceaweek.•Wash the receptaclebetweeneachuse.Aspongeandsomesoapywaterwilldothetrick.Avoidscenteddishwasherdetergents.•Use oats to remove flavor oils from a grinder that has ground flavoredcoffee.Theseflavoroilssticktoyourgrinder’smechanismandwilllikelychangeyournon-flavoredbeans’taste.Oncemywifewasentertainingheraunts, and one of them brought as a housewarming gift some flavoredcoffee, which they ran through the grinder. Horrified, I spent a sleeplessnight considering how to save one of my favorite coffee grinders. Oatsworkedperfectly.Theyaresoftenoughtorunthroughthegrinder,gentleonthe burrs, and absorb the flavor oils. However, letme emphatically statethatyoushouldnotregularlygrindflavoredcoffeeinagrinderdedicatedtonon-flavoredcoffee.•Avoidusingyourcoffeegrinderasaspicemill,unlessyouhaveaseparateunitforthispurpose.Bladegrindersaresupposedlyterrificforthisuse.Youshould still purchase a separate grinder because ground coffee is a flavorandaromasponge.

DeterminingtheRightGrindforYourBrewer

In addition to selecting the right grinder, youneed to select the right grind.The following are basic guidelines for various grinds, moving from finest tocoarsest:

Warning: Most novices grind too fine. Start out grinding coarserthanyouthinkyou’llneed.Thenmoveanotchatatimefineruntilyoureachtheperfectgrindandtaste.

PulverizedGrind

Withthisgrind,coffeeisasfineasflour.IfyoudipyourfingersintoTurkishground coffee, which is typically pulverized, your fingers should come outcoatedwithdust.Bladegrinderscouldlikelyproducethisgrind,butyouwouldlose aromaand flavordue tooverheating.Consumerburr grinders rarelyhavethecalibrationtogrindthisfine.

A friend who’s an archaeology professor uses a mortar and pestle, whichseems to work extraordinarily well. It can crush the beans to the requiredfinenesswithoutheatingthemup.ForTurkishcoffeedevotees,getamortarandpestle,whichiseasytouseandmaintainandcostsfar less thantheother less-likely-to-be-successfulalternatives.Averageparticlesizeis100microns.

EspressoGrind

WedevoteanentirechapterofthisbooktoEspresso,sowe’llonlytouchonithere to present it as a grinding option and so you can seewhere in the fine-coarse continuum it falls. Formore information about espresso, see chapter 6,“Espresso,”whichbeginsonpage127.Averageparticlesizeis200microns.

Fine/VacuumGrind

This finegrind should almost, but notquite, be apowder. If you stickyourfinger inandpull itout,mostof thecoffeeshouldnotcling. It isdesignedforvacuum coffee brewers (discussed in chapter 5, “Brewing,” page 89) thattypicallyfeaturethree-minuteextractiontimes.Italsoisappropriateformanualone-cupMelitta-styleV-shapedconefiltersorhalfbatchesoflargerbrewersthatfeatureathree-tofour-minutecontacttime(alsoseechapter5).Averageparticlesizeis500microns.

DripGrind

Mostmoderncannedcoffeesusethisgrind,whichiscoarserthanvacuum.Itcontains no powder and is designed for four-to six-minute contact times. It iscoarser than table salt, but it should feature table salt’s pouring ability. Thegroundsshouldnotclingtogether.Anybrewingmethodthatusesgravity—suchaswith drip coffee—needs grounds coarse enough to allow thewater to passeasily throughunder its ownweight.Averageparticle size is 500microns andlarger.

AutomaticDripGrind

Thesegroundsstart to resemblekoshersalt.Designedforuse inmetal filterbaskets typically found in electric percolators, this grind stands up to six-toeight-minute contact time. Therefore, it can work for any brewer that takeslongerthansixminutestobreworanymethodinwhichametalfiltercontainingholesallowssmallparticlesthroughandintoyourcup,suchasapresspot(mostoftenusedwithathree-tofour-minutecontact time,regardlessofgrind)orflipdripmaker(seechapter5,“Brewing”).

Ifyourautomaticdripmakerusesanunderpoweredelectricheatingelementandchugsawaybrewingcoffeefor tenor twelveminutes,usecoarsegrounds.Thishelpsthegroundcoffeeendurethe“longhotsummer”ofprolongedcontacttime. Bunn’s flat-bottomed automatic drip uses an uncommonly brief three-minutecontacttime,yetitsmakersrecommendaslightlycoarsergrind,claimingthebrewerusesturbidation(mildwaterpressurefromthesprayhead)toagitatethe grounds and thus achieve more efficient extraction. Of course, your tastebudsmustmicro-managethefinaldeterminantinyourmachine’sgrindfinenesssetting.Average particle size is 800microns (American auto drip). Europeansfavorasmallergrindsizeaveraging580microns.

CoarseGrind

Thisgrind is a catchall for anymethod that takes longer thaneightminutesand/orfeaturesfilterslikelytoleaktinygrindparticlesintothefinalbatch.Giantcommercialcoffeebrewersthatsteepcoffeeinclothsackscalledurnsusecoarsegrinds,asdosuchnoveltybrewsascowboyorcampfirecoffee,wheregroundsare tossed into an open vesselwith boilingwater (see chapter 5, “Brewing”).Averageparticlesizeis1,000microns.

In 1948, a voluntary group of coffee roasting companies agreed on thesestandards,whichtheUnitedStatesDepartmentofCommercethenpublished.

The specs haven’t changed a bit since 1948, and they are credible. Unlikealmosteveryotherareaofcoffee,theindustryfoundconsensusandobjectiveby-the-numbers proof about grinding.Would you buy a car without knowing itsmileagefirst?Hopefully,furtherresearchintogettingthebestgrinderwillcausepeopletostartaskingtherightquestions.Insteadofuselesscircuitry-liketimers,coffee grindermanufacturers will begin publishing specifications that indicatehowcloselytheirproductsmeetthesespecs.

Soisgrindimportant?Yes.Foragreatcoffee,youneedtherightgrind.Thewrongonecanactuallychangeacoffee’staste.

GETTOKNOWYOURAUTODRIPTofigureouthowfinetogrindbeansforyourautodripmaker,time

it. If it takes less than threeminutes to brew, grind finer. If it takesmorethansixminutes,grindcoarser.Finergrindingslowsthecoffee’sgravitationalpulldown through thegrounds,which further increasescontacttimewithhotwaterandspeedstheflavorrelease.

Any change in grind particle sizewill affect drip coffee’s strength,making it themost dependent of any brewingmethod on the correctgrind. Grinding too fine exposes more surface area and slows downdriprate,makingyourcoffeestronger.Conversely,grindingtoocoarseexposes lesssurfaceareaandspeedsupdriprate,resultinginweakercoffee.

5BREWING

NOW thatwe’vegotgroundcoffee, the real funbegins.Learninghow to brew properly can immeasurably improve your coffee’squality.Even themost refined, seasonedexperts acknowledge that aproperly brewed cup of mediocre coffee tastes better than animproperlybrewedcupmadefromthebestbeans.

Allbrewingmethodsmustaccomplishthefollowing:•Exposehotwater todirectcontactwithgroundcoffee foranexact timeperiod,enoughtoextracttheflavorbutnotthebitterness•Extract a percentageof flavors froma given formula. (Most consumerswant 18 to 22 percent extraction by weight. Use the formula of twotablespoons[10g]coffeebeanspersixounces[180ml]ofwater.)•Controlthewatertemperatureat200˚F(93˚C),hotenoughtoextractthefullflavorsbutnotsohotthatitoverextractsbitterness•Removeorfilterthegroundsfromthefinishedbrew

Each coffee brewing method discussed in this chapter accomplishes thesetasks.Therulesmayseemsimple,butbrewingisnotanexactsciencebecausethevariables constantly change. If youdon’t thinkyou’redoing it right, don’tworry.Mostofusdon’tdoitrightinitially.Anautomaticbrewerusuallydoesn’tdoitrighteither.

Thereisnoprocesswithmorepossibilitiesandvariablesthanbrewing.Everymethod allows for seemingly endless tweaks.A fewmoments spent analyzingyourfirstbrewwilloftenoffersomeinstructivechangesforthenextone.Onceyoufinesseatasteformula,useituntilyoufinishthatbatchofbeans.

By theendof thischapter,youwillknowthebasicbrewingparametersandhowtodothefollowing:

•Finetuneyourbrewingformulafordifferentvarietiesandroasts

•Brewcoffeeaswellasanyexpert

<Brewing:Thecoffeelover’smostimportantstage.

TheWell-EquippedBrewingKitIn addition to your brewer and grinder, the following tools and

implementscomposeanygoodbrewingkit.(Amoreextensivetutorialaboutselectingabrewerfollowsonpages95–125.)

Adigital or instant-read thermometer (or if not instant, one thatworksquitefast)oronewithathin,flexibleprobeattachedtoadigitalconsole. For accurate, useful temperature readings, the tip of thethermometer needs to access the spot where the grounds and watermix.

Adigitalkitchenscaletoweighyourbeansensuresthatyouwillkeep your brew formula consistent and allows you to more easilymakemicro-adjustments.Chooseascalethatmeasurestotheounceorgram; most people brew coffee from relatively small groundsquantities.

A timing device like a kitchen timer or clock accurately trackshowlong thehotwaterandcoffeegroundshavebeen incontactandensuresconsistencyinbrewingformulas.

Acoffeescoop.Oftenonecomeswithyourbrewer.Ifnot,foodorspecialtystorescarrythem.Acoffeescoopensuresaccurate,consistentmeasurements.

A teakettle tomake it easier topour scaldingwater formanualbrew methods such as French press. However, a saucepan (ormicrowave-safevessel)willalsodo.

Apowerfulheatingelement suchasa stovetop (electricorgas)orelectrichotplateeithertoheatwaterforpouringortoheatthebreweritself(notshown)

Heat-safeglovesorprotectiveovenmittsforsafelyhandlinghotcoffeebrewersandteakettles

Water(notshown).Bottledspringwateristhebestquality,buttapisfine ifyour localwaterhassuitablequalities. (Formoreaboutwater,seepage92)

Aliquidmeasuringcuptoensureconsistentwateramounts

Freshwholebeancoffee,thefreshestavailable.Grindonlybeforebrewing.(Formoreaboutselectingcoffee,seechapter2.)

Storage containers with tight-fitting lids to keep the preciousbeansasfreshaspossible.(Formoreonstorage,seechapter2.)

BrewingTemperatureandContactTime

Inallbrewingmethods,exposinggroundcoffeetowaterextractsthecoffee’s

flavor.Theoretically,youcouldsoakroastedcoffeebeans inapitcherofwaterand eventually the water would become coffee. But certain temperatures andtimefacilitateextractionofoilscontainedincoffeebeansmorequicklyandinanaromaticandflavorfulmanner.

The recipe formakingexcellent coffee iswell-established:Two tablespoons(10g)persixounces(180ml)ofwater.IthasbeendocumentedthatLudwigvonBeethovenused to count sixty beans for each six-ounce (180ml) cup—whichhappens toequal two tablespoons (10g).Unlessnotedotherwise, this formulaappliestoallbrewingmethods.

This formula is an important starting point, but slight adjustments mayproduce a better batch, one that tastes better to you. Treat this formula as arelatively foolproof guide—guide being the operative word. Different coffeeroasts, different origin coffees, and brewing-temperature variations affectstrengthand flavor.For instance, tobrewa forty-eightounce (1,440ml)batch(eightsix-ounce[180ml]cups),beginwithsixteentablespoons(80g)ofwholebeans.Ifthecoffeeturnsouttoostrong,pullbacktofourteentablespoons(70g);ifit’stooweak,increasethebeanstoeighteentablespoons(90g).(Andhere’satip:Alwaystreatyourfirstbatchofanewcoffeeasatestbatch.)

TAKEITSTEMPERATUREHowdoyouknowwhetheryourautomaticbrewerisperformingto

spec?Simple:Takeitstemperature.Holdafast-actingthermometerinthestreamofbrewingcoffeeas thewateremerges fromthebasketofgrounds.The temperature shouldbemoreor lessat the200˚F (93˚C)mark.

Temperature

Althoughany temperaturewaterwill eventuallybecomecoffee if in contactwithbeans for longenough,hotwater is the fastestmeans to thisend. (Italsoresults in a hot beveragewhich, historically, is thewaymost people prefer todrink coffee.) Water heated to 200˚F (93˚C) plus or minus a few degrees isconsidered the standard benchmark.Water not heated as high is less efficient.

Waterheatedhigherextractsbitterflavors.

Time

The longer the coffee grounds are exposed towater, themore the flavor isextracted.Theshorter thegroundsareexposed, the less theflavor isextracted.The appropriate average time varies by grind; a drip grind takes four to sixminutes, but a coarse grind can take up to eight minutes. If using a manualmachinethatsteepsthecoffeeinareservoir,suchasavacuumorpresspot,youcaneasilyvarythecontacttimebetweenthegroundsandwater.Presspotcoffeewith a finer grind and longer extraction time will taste significantly differentthan one with a coarser grind and shorter extraction time. (See chapter 4,“Grinding,”formoreinformation.)

Water

Thechemicalmakeupof thestrongestcupofcoffee is roughly1.35percentdissolved coffee solids.The rest, approximately98.65percent, iswater.Waterplays two roles incoffee. Itcomplements the tasteandactsas thesolvent thatseducesthecoffeeessencefromthegrounds.

Let’s addresswater’s taste first.Water’s flavor varies quite a bit around theworld. Assuming it is potable, or healthy to drink, its chemical makeup caninclude different amounts of several ingredients. Calcium, which comes fromrocks in the ground, is the largest likely suspect. Have you heard the phrase“hardwater”?Itusuallyreferstothecalciummineralswithinit.Ifthemineralsin hard water are in high enough concentration, they can give the coffee apronouncedmetallictaste.

Somesayhardwaterextractscoffeepoorlyduringbrewing.Actually, this islessthantrue,althoughhardwaterdoespresentproblems.Duringbrewing,thenear-boilingwaterkeepscalciumandothermineralssuspended.Somecling tothe pipes inside of the coffee brewer, clogging it after awhile. At least themineralsdon’taffectactualbrewingability.

Watersoftenedusingsalt—foundinmosthomesandsomemunicipalities—ismoreproblematic.Theresidualsaltfollowingsofteningcanformagelatin-likegoo in thecoffeebrewer’s filter,whichcanpreventextractionorevenhalt the

wholeprocess.

pHLevel

Liquid’s acid-versus-alkaline value, represented by pH, can significantlyaffect coffee’s taste.Water should be 7.1, a neutral pH, for its role in coffeeflavor. Acidic or alkaline water will throw off the finished beverage’s flavorbalance.Alkalinewaterinparticular,whenusedtobrewdarkroasts,cancauseadull,indistincttaste.

WaterChecklist

Waterforbrewingshouldbeasfollows:•Onehundred totaldissolvedsolids (tds)or less.This issoft-tomedium-hardwater. It will taste better and extend the useful product life of yourbrewing equipment without the need to delime (remove the mineralbuildup).• A pH level of 7.1.Watermore acidic can accentuate coffee bean tastedefects.Watermorealkalinecanmakecoffeetastebland.Thatsaid,ifyoucanonlybrewusingalkalinewater,thinklightroasts.Ifyourwaterismoreacidic,considerdarkerroasts.•Chlorine-freewater. Ifyoucan smellor taste anychlorine inwateryouusetobrew,expectthechlorinetoaffectyourcoffee’staste.Getridofthechlorinebyusingacharcoalfilterorlettingthecoffeesitforanhourorsountilthechlorineevaporates.

Does thismeanyoumustusebottledwater? Inmanycases,municipal (tap)water will brew excellent coffee. Most municipalities post their waterspecificationsontheirwebsites.Mostlikely,thewaterwillcontainchlorine,asmany places overchlorinate to prevent contamination. As we mention above,chlorineiseasytoaddress.Excessmineralsandless-than-idealpHlevels,whilelesscommon,areharder tofix.Ifyoucomeacross this,considerusingbottledwater.Keepinmindthatallbottledwatersarenotalike.Justaswithtapwater,verifythepHlevelandtdsofbottledwaterbeforeusing.

Filters

By design, coffee filters separate grounds from brewed coffee followingbrewing.Allcoffeebrewingprocessesinvolvesomesortoffiltration.Eventheearliest (and simplest) brewingmethods—tossing loose grounds into a pot ofboilingwater—used“filtration”bycarefullypouringoffthecoffee,keepingthegroundsseparatefromthefinishedbeverage.

Filters differ in their ability to remove all grounds and sediment from thebrewedcoffee.Thisinfluencestheperceptionofcoffee’staste,body,andtexture.Some people prefer a super-clean, highly filtered beverage; others prefer onerich in sediment.Filtrationmethods that allowparticles topass through to thefinishedbrewwillaffect taste(andbitterness).The tiniestparticlescontinue toextractinthefinishedbeverage.

Your personal taste—and your brewer’s function, of course—affect whichfilteryouchoose.Any timeyouchange filter types, figureout contact time tomakesurethenewfilterdoesnotrequirefinerorcoarsergrinds.Athickerpaperwillprolongcontact;afinemetalmeshonewillaccelerateit.(Theironyofthisis that manufacturers often tout the “full body and rich flavor” metal filtersproduce,butspeedingupthedriprateactuallyreducescontacttimeandweakenscoffeestrength.)

Clockwisefromtop:MetalmeshfilterPercolatermetalfilterEspressoportafilterPaperfilters,bothbleachedandnatural

Most metal mesh filters included with drip makers prevent a significantamount of particles in the finished brew, although they tend to increase flowratesandthusreducewater’scontacttimewiththegrounds.

Glassfilters,usedinsomeoldervacuumbrewermodels,containtinysurfacebumpsthatcreateasieveintheupperbowl’sglasstube,allowingliquidbutnotgrinds topass through.Mostglass filterscreateanexcellentpotofcoffee,buttheybreakeasily.

Someantiquevacuumcoffeemakersuseclothfilters,which,ingeneral,doan excellent filtering job. Also, modern, reusable cloths are an ecologicallysavvychoice.However,theyaredifficulttofindandkeepclean.Clothtendstoaccumulategroundsandoils.Whenusingclothfilters,discardifmoldappears.

Some coffee buffs accuse paper filters of not letting all of the coffee’sflavorsthrough.Moreaccurately,paperholdsbacksedimentandthusresultsinan ultra-clean brew. Some paper filters now intentionally have holes thatresemble mesh filters’ holes, allowing comparable sediment amounts to pass.Paperdoesnotpreventthepassageofoils,themostimportantflavorcomponent.

Somepeopleclaimthatbleachedpaperfiltersgivesthebrewabitterchlorinetaste. Thoughmost paper filters are bleached with hydrogen peroxide, this isflavorlessandodorless.(Whenindoubt,rinseapaperfilterincoldwaterbeforeusingittoremoveanypossibletaste.)Unbleachedpaperfiltersdohaveadistincttaste andodor,which isdifficult to avoid.For all-around flavor,usehydrogenperoxidebleachedpaperfilters.

Each paper filter ends up in the trash after use,which raises some concernabouttheirenvironmentalimpact.Weighthisagainsttheimpactofcleaningandcaring for permanent filters. Paper filters break down in compost along withcoffeegrounds.

IllustratedBrewingTechniques

This section offers step-by-step instructions for several of theworld’smostpopularbrewingmethods, eachofwhichhasbeen thoroughly testedbycoffeeaficionadosandshouldbeagreatstartingpointforthecoffeenewbie.Onceyoumasterthebasics,feelfreetoimproviseonyourown.

Aclassicautomaticdripbrewerinaction.

ManualDrip

To make manual drip coffee, tiny droplets of water flow over the coffeegroundsandallowthecoffeetodripthrough,extractingoilsfromthegroundsastheypass.Gravityandtheamountofgroundscontrolthecontacttimebetweengrounds and water. More grounds take more time through which to pass,increasingthebrew’sstrength.

Drip brewing requires a careful balance of variables. Grind fineness, batchsize, and other factors must work together precisely to ensure that hot waterdrenchesthegroundsforanexactamountoftime.Thisdoesnotmeanyoucan’tmakegreatdripcoffee;itjustrequiresamoreminutegrindorformulachanges.

Materials

Kettle

Stovetop

Freshwater, 6 ounces (180ml) for every 2 tablespoons (10 g)wholebeancoffee

Digitalscale

Freshcoffee,2tablespoons(10g)wholebeanper6ounces(180ml)water

Grindersettomedium-fine

Paperormeshfilter(seepage93forrecommendations)

Dripmaker, one that makes the amount of coffee you like todrink

Thermometer,optional

<Manualdripbrewing’sadvantageisinthehandsofthehotwaterpourer.Youcanliterallysteerthestreamtoensureallthegroundsarethoroughlysubmergedbypipinghotwater.Thefoamingonthefresh-soakedgroundsisasignofroastingfreshness.

ExpertNotesonManualBrewingHerearesometipsforbrewingmanually:

•Timeabatch.Payattentiontothemomentthegroundsgetwetuntil thelast drip of coffee enters the carafe. If the time exceeds seven minutes(including a one-minute break for initial grounds foaming and settling),coarsenyourgrindandrepeat.•Runwaterthroughbleachedfilters(whichIrecommend)beforesettinginthebrewer to remove anypossible chemicals used forwhitening (usuallyhydrogen peroxide, not chlorine). Thiswill prepare the filter for brewingandpreventeventheslightestpossibilitythatitwillabsorbyourfirstcoffeeextracts.

• Watch the temperature. If you use a thermometer, pour water when itreads200˚F(90˚C)insteadofoneminuteofftheboil.•Examinethefilterafterbrewing.Thetopofthegroundsbedshouldlookflat andwet, indicating that all of the grounds participated equally in theextractionprocess.•Stirthedripcoffeebeforeservingthefinishedbrew.Thefirstextractsarestrongerthanthelast.•Composttheusedcoffeegroundsandpaperfilters.

Instructions

1.Setthewaterkettleonhighheattoboil.2.Weighthewholebeansandgrindmedium-fine.Donotgrindtoofine.3. Prewet the paper filter, fold the filter in half, and set it in the basket.Place the double fold (the thicker of the two sides) over the runnel (thechannelonthebrewer).4.Addthegroundstothefilter(a).Shakethebaskettosettlethegrounds,butneverpackthem.5.Removetheboilingwaterfromtheheatandletitstandfor1minuteoruntilthewaterstopsbubbling.6.Slowlypour thewaterover thegrounds inacircularmotion (b).Freshroaster/freshgroundcoffeewill likely foamup (releasingcarbondioxide)andthensettlebackdown.Forbetterflavorextraction,allowthistooccurbeforepouringmorewater.7.Repeatuntilallthecoffeeisbrewed.8.Removethefilteranddiscard.9.Stirthebrewtomixtogetherthestrongestcoffee,whichcomesthroughearliest,withtheweakercoffee,whichcomesatthedripbrew’send.Serve

thecoffee(c).

ManualDripTutorial

AutomaticDrip

Unlike manual drip, automatic drip features onboard water boiling anddeliveryoverthegrounds.Inotherwords,thisbrewerdoestheheatingforyou,decides when the water is hot enough, and then dribbles it over your coffeegrounds.Fromthatpointon,it’snodifferentthanthemanualdrip,withgravitypullingthewaterthroughthegroundcoffeeandthebrewfallingfromthefilterintothecarafebelow.

Despite itsname,automaticdripstill requires theuser tomeasureandgrindcoffee and have knowledge of the overall coffee-making process, particularlyknowinghowtotweakanautomaticdrip(seepages102formoreinformation).Fullyautomaticmachinesareindevelopment,buthaven’tarrivedyet.

Materials

Digitalscale

Freshwholebeancoffee,2tablespoons(10g)per6ounces(180ml)water

Grindersettomedium-fine

Automaticdripbrewer (preferablyone thatbrewsa fullbatchin6minutesorless)

Freshwater, 6 ounces (180ml) for every 2 tablespoons (10 g)wholebeancoffee

Paperormetalfilter(seepage93forrecommendations)

<Automaticdripbrewersofferconvenienceandasleekdesignforthemodernkitchen.

ExpertNotesonAutomaticBrewingHerearesomenotesaboutautomaticbrews:

•Examinethegroundsafterbrewing.Allthegroundsshouldappeardamp,withnodrygroundspresent,andlieflat.Thisindicatesaneven,thoroughsoaking.Ifyouseedrygrounds,grindfinernexttime.•Adjust the batch size until you get it right. For example, if the brewertakeslongerthansixminutesandthegroundsarewetbutdidn’toverflow,makeasmallerbatchnexttime.•Grindcoarserifthegroundsbasketoverflowedduringbrewing.•Addwatertothefinishedbrewifthecoffeeistoostrong.•Uselessgroundcoffeeifthecoffeeretainssomebitternotes.•Checkthebrewer’stemperatureif thecoffeeisweakbutcontact timeissixminutes.Wearinganovenmitt,holdathermometerunderthebrewer’ssprayhead(ifyouhaveaflexiblethermometer,placeitintothebrewbasketand run a full cycle). It should read between 190˚F (88˚C) and 205˚F(96˚C).Ifthetemperatureandtimingarerightandthegroundsaregetting

soaked,butthecoffeestillendsuptoostrongortooweak,adjustthebrewformulaormovethegrindonenotchineitherdirection.

Instructions

1.Weighwholebeanorgroundcoffee.Ifusingwholebean,grindmedium-fine.Donotgrindtoofine.2. Fill themachine’swater compartment, usually up top,with coldwater(a).3.Prewetthefilterandinsertitintotheholder.4.Addthegroundstothefilter.Shakethebaskettosettlethegroundsflat,butneverpackthem(b).5.Close the lidor insert the filter holder into themachine, dependingonyourmodel’sdesign.6.Turnthebrewingswitchon.7.Timefromthefirstdripuntilthelastdripexitsthefilter.Thisshouldtake6minutesmaximum(c).8.Stir the finishedbrew in the carafe tomixearlier, stronger coffeewithlater,weakerextraction.

AutomaticDripTutorial

PressPot/FrenchPress/Melior

Werefertothismethodaspresspot,thoughit’salsocalledtheFrenchpressorthe Melior. A drip coffee brewer (page 101) pours hot water down throughgrounds, and a vacuum brewer (described later in this chapter on page 113)shootshotwaterupthroughgrounds.Thepressworksbykeepingwateraroundthe grounds still—also known as steeping. This seems to produce a differentextractionandflavor.Nooneknowswhetherthestillwatercausesdifferentoilsto come forth or whether it just reacts differently and changes the taste. Butalmosteveryoneagreesthatthepress“justtastesdifferent.”Manywhoevaluatecoffeesforalivingclaimthepresscomesclosestofallmethodstomatchingthecuppingtasteexperience(seechapter2,page47formoreoncupping).

MaterialsKettle

Freshwater, 6 ounces (180ml) for every 2 tablespoons (10 g)wholebeancoffee

Stovetop

Glassorstainless-steelpresspot,includingmetalfilterassembly,usuallyattachedtothelid(theplunger)

Digitalscale

Grindersettocoarse

Freshcoffee,2tablespoons(10g)groundper6ounces(180ml)water

Kitchentimerorclock

Spoon

A press pot’s plunger usually consists of ametal screen over a solidmetalpieceandarodthatscrewsintothem,whichallowsyoutodrivethefilterdownthroughthehotbrewedcoffee.Thisgetsthreadedthroughametalorplasticcapthat fits over the glass cylinder. Most presses come preassembled and withsimpleinstructionsondismantlingandreassembling.

ExpertNotesonPressPotBrewingHereareafewtipsaboutpresspotbrewing:

•Donotstirpresspotcoffeeafterbrewingtoevenoutitsstrength.Instead,evenlydistributethecoffeeacrossservingcups.Pourasmallamount intoonecup, then intoanother, then intoanother.Repeat toputequal-strengthcoffeeineachcup.• Facilitate extraction by plunging the press up and down to agitate thegroundsduringsteeping.•Expectsomegrounds ineverycup. It’spartof thepressexperienceandsomeaficionadoslikeit.Toreducetheamount,pourbrewedcoffeeslowly.

•Brewsmallbatchesofpresspotcoffeeifthepresswilllikelysitoutforatime. The press coffee cools rapidly, and there is noway to preserve theheat(unlessyouhaveaninsulatedmetalmodel).•Keep the filters clean. Instead of rinsing or placing the fully assembledplunger filter into the dishwasher, disassemble it each time.Grounds andhard-to-see oils accumulate quickly, particularly between the mesh filterand thehardmetalplate thatholds it inplace,aswell as inanycrevices.Youdon’twantso-called“seasoning”ofthesemetalparts,sosqueakycleanitis.

Instructions

1.Fillthekettlewithappropriatevolumeofwater.Forexample,forfour6-ounce (180ml) cups, heat 3 cups (720ml) ofwater plus an additional 8ounces (240 ml) for scalding the press pot and evaporation. Heat onmediumheatuntilitreachesaboil.2. In themeantime,assemble thepressplunger (ifyouhavedismantled itforcleaning).3.Grind2tablespoons(10g)wholebeancoffeecoarselyforeach6-ouncecup(180ml)andsetaside.4.Preheatthepresspotbyscaldingitwith4ounces(120ml)hotwater.5.Swirlthewaterandthendiscardit.6.Addthegroundcoffeetotheemptypot(a).7.Pourabouthalfofyourhotwateroverthegrounds(b).Withfreshcoffee,foamwillformandswell.Letthefoamriseandfall(c).8.Setyourtimerto4minutes.Pourtheremaininghotwaterintothepot.9.Placetheplungercaponthecylinder.Depresstheplungerjustenoughsothat the topof thegroundsareheldunder thewater.Start the timer.Onceeachminute,agitatethegrounds(byswirling,pressingtheplungerupanddown,orstirring) topreventclumpingand toensuremaximumextraction(d).10.Atthe4-minutemark,slowlybutfirmlydepresstheplungerfully.11.Pourthecoffeeslowlytokeepsedimentinthecupstoaminimum(e)

andevenlydistributeitamongthecups.

PressPot/FrenchPress/MeliorTutorial

NeapolitanFlip/DripMaker

Thisunitconsistsofawaterreservoir,afilterwithscrewtop,andacarafeallin oneneat, assembledpackage.TheNeapolitan brewer is sometimes called areversible drip, which explains its method. How does it work? Assemble thepieces and place thewater-heating half (with spout upside down) on the heat.Oncethewateralmostreachesboiling,turnthewholebrewerupsidedownsoitcanfunctionasadripbrewer.

Neapolitan brewers are often mistaken for stovetop espresso or Mokamachines (which we discuss in chapter 6), but the only pressure in thesemachines isgravity.Ahole in the side justabove thewater linecountson thefact that boiling water rises. The droplet it spits out signals you to flip. Acombinationof its stainless steelmesh filter andgroundsheld ina tight spacethroughout thebrewgivecoffeebrewed inaNeapolitana richness,withsomesediment,andaflavorprofileakintoapresspot.

MaterialsThree-piece brewer, consisting of water reservoir, coffee filter,

andservingpitcher

Digitalscale

Freshwholebeancoffee,2tablespoons(10g)per6ounces(180ml)water

Grindersettopercolator(coarse)grind

Freshwater, 6 ounces (180ml) for every 2 tablespoons (10 g)wholebeancoffee

Stovetop

Heat-safegloveorovenmitt

<Aflipdripbrewerworksjustlikeitsnamesuggests:byheatingthewatertothestartofboilingandflippingitovertoallowthewatertodripthroughafilterintothepitcherhalf.Itissimple,anditresultsinaveryrich,full-bodiedcoupleofcupsofcoffee.

Flip/Drip,CoarseGroundsTheflipdripmachineoffersapowerfultastingcup,unusualconsidering

itsuseofcoarsegrindsanditsfairlyquickcontacttime.Ifcoffeecomesouttoostrongorhasmorethanacoupleofgrounds,grindevencoarser.Sometextsaboutthismethodspecifyfinegrind,butI’vefoundthatcoarseworksfarbetter.

Instructions

1.Disassemblethebrewer.2.Measure outwhole bean or ground coffee. If usingwhole bean, grindcoarse.

3.Unscrewthecaponthefiltersectionandfillwith2 tablespoons(10g)coarsegroundcoffee (a). Smooth the grounds so they lie flat, but do notpressthemdown.Replacethecap.4.Fillthebrewer’swaterreservoiruptoone-quarterinch(6.35mm)fromthe small hole (b). Allowing this clearance will compensate for waterexpansion.5.Placethefilterinsidethereservoir(c).6.Connectthebrewer’sservingpitcherhalf(thepartwiththespout)totheotherhalf(d).7.Placetheassembledbreweronaburner(e).Onagasstove,don’tallowthe flame to extend beyond the brewer’s width. Instead, compensate bycenteringitonaportionoftheflame.8.When a droplet of water appears at the small hole, turn off the heat.Wearinganovenmitt,grabthehandleandflipovertheunit(f,g,h).Placeitbackonthestove.9.Whenthebottomhalfofthebrewerfills,yourcoffeeisready.

NeopolitanFlip/DripMakerTutorial

VacuumBrewer

The vacuum brewer, which resembles an hourglass, consists of a waterreservoir,afilter,andabrewingupperbowlwithalongstem.Itinvolvesheatingwater in its bottom half, shooting hot water up through the grounds, andagitatinggroundsduringcontacttime.Avacuumcreatedasthewaterbowlcoolsdraws filtered, brewed coffee into the lower bowl. The top half is removedbeforeservingthepotofcoffee.Itisuniqueamongbrewingstylesbecausewaterdoesn’t touch the grounds until it is hot enough to brew adequately.Agitationduringextractionensuresthoroughmixingofgroundsandwater.Thevacuum’spullefficientlydrainsthefinishedbrewfromthegrounds.

Itdoeshaveacoupleoftroublespots.Theglassupperbowlstemsarepronetosnappingwhenhot,whichiswhenyou’remostlikelytoplacestressonthem.Also, vacuum brewing is relatively high-maintenance, is messy, and requiressignificantcleanupandmanualtiming.

Thatsaid, itusesthefinestgrindofanynon-espressomethod.Someancientsupermarketcoffeegrindershavea“glass,”“vacuum,”or“fine”settingdesignedfor thevacuum’s relatively short contact time.Onceyou learnandmaster thismethod, it’s easy to get hooked. Itmay become your favorite, particularly forentertaining.

MaterialsThree-piece vacuum maker, consisting of upper bowl, bottom

bowl,andfilter

Freshwater, 8 ounces (240ml) for every 2 tablespoons (10 g)wholebeancoffee

Digitalscale

Freshwholebeancoffee,2tablespoons(10g)wholebeanper8ounces(240ml)water

Grindersettofine

Stovetoporheatingelement

Spoon

Kitchentimerorclock

Heat-safegloves

ExpertNotesonVacuumBrewing

Herearesometipsforvacuumbrewing

<Theglassvacuumbrewerhasalotgoingforit.Itisbeautifultowatch,doesathoroughjobextractingoils from thegrounds, anddelivers just about ashot a cupof coffeeaspossible. It justmightbecomeafavoritebrewer,ifyou’rewillingtotakethetimeandattention.

Instructions

1.Fillthelowerbowlwithcarefullymeasuredcoldwater.Forthismethod,use8ounces (240ml)ofwaterper2 tablespoons (10g)of finelyground

coffeetomakeupforwaterlostduringbrewing.2.Measure outwhole bean or ground coffee. If usingwhole bean, grindcoarse.3. Insert the filter into the upper bowl (a). Any type of vacuum filters(glass,ceramic,ormetal)willproduceahigh-qualitybrew.4. Add approximately 2 tablespoons (10 g) finely ground coffee per 8ounces(240ml)ofwater(b).5.Placethelowerbowlontheheatsourceonmediumheat.Letthewatercometoaboilandthenplacetheupperbowlsnuglyinsidethelowerbowl(c,d).Steamshoulddevelopinthelowerbowl,whichthenforceswatertorisethroughthetubeandfilterintotheupperbowl,whereitmixeswiththecoffee.Keepaspoonnearbytogentlystirthegroundsandfacilitatemixing(e).6.Whenmostof thewaterhas risen into theupperbowl, starta timer.Asmallamountofboilingwatershouldremaininthelowerbowl(f).7.Lowertheheatjustenoughtokeepthelowerbowlwaterboiling.8.After1minute, remove theentirebrewer from theheat source, ideallyusing heat-safe gloves (g). Place the brewer on a trivet or heat-resistantsurface. The sudden temperature drop in the lower bowl should start thevacuum process, during which the freshly brewed coffee is drawn downthroughthefiltertubeandintothelowerbowl.9.Oncemostofthecoffeehasreturnedtothelowerbowl,listenforagentlebubbling. This indicates that the vacuum has drawn every bit of coffeeflavor fromthegrounds. (Examining thespentgroundsshould reveal thattheyarealmostdry.)10.Carefullyseparate the twobowls.Somevacuumbrewerscomewithacoolingstand(h). Ifyoursdoesnot, lay theupperbowlon its side in thesinkuntilyouarereadytocleanit.11.Stirthecoffeeinthelowerbowlandserve.

VacuumBrewerTutorial

Percolator

Apercolatorconsistsofawaterboilingvesselanda tubed, insertedfilteringdevicethatholdsgroundcoffee.In thismethod,boilingwaterrisesupthroughthe tube and sprays over the grounds. The water travels down through thegroundsandthroughabottomscreenwhereitlandsbackintheboilingvessel.Itisboiledagainandtravelsthesamepath.Thisrepeatsforsixtoeightminutesoruntilyourdesiredstrengthisreached.Manycoffeeaficionados“accept”onlythefirst boil, because all succeeding contact boils the coffee.However, amanualpercolatoroperatedwith agentleboil canproduce strongcoffeewithminimalbitterness.Note, electricmodelsmay ormay not reduce heat during brewing.Modelsthatdonotreduceheatwillcausemorebitterness.

Materials

Percolator

Freshwater, 6 ounces (180ml) for every 2 tablespoons (10 g)wholebeancoffee

Digitalscale

Freshwholebeancoffee,2tablespoons(10g)wholebeanper6ounces(180ml)water

Grindersettocourse

Stovetoporelectricoutlet

Timer

<Thepercolatorisaccusedofviolatingthenumberoneruleofbrewinginthatitboilsthecoffeeduringbrewing.Usingalowflame(onagasrange)andamanualpercolator,itispossibletoachievealowboil,withdeliciouslystrongresults

ExpertNotesonPercolatorHerearesometipsonusingapercolator:

•Use the lowestpossibleheatsettingonce thewaterboils toasimmer toreducebitterness.• Stop heating at eightminutes, otherwise youmay accentuate bitterness.Remember, the coffee will continue heating after you turn off your heatsource.Alittlegoesalongway.• Try light roasted coffees for percolators. Low-acidity coffees such asBrazilian and Sumatran varieties take advantage of the percolator’s high-extraction temperatures. Higher-acidity coffees brewed in percolators canenduptastingtoosharp.

Instructions

1.Disassemblethepercolator.2.Fillthewaterboilingvesselwiththeappropriatevolumeofwater(a).Donotfillabovethebottomoftheinsertedfilter.3.Measure outwhole bean or ground coffee. If usingwhole bean, grindcoarse.4. Remove the top grate of the filter and add to the filter basketapproximately2tablespoons(10g)coarsegroundcoffeeper6ounces(180ml)water(b).Replacethetopgrate(c).5. Place the percolator on medium heat or plug in electric model. Set atimerfor6to8minutes.6.Whenthewaterstartsboiling(perking),lowertheheattojustenoughtomaintainsimmer.7.Startthetimer.Nowthemachinetakesover.Theboilingwaterrisesupthroughthetube,spraysthegrounds,anddripsthroughthegrindsbackintotheboilingvessel.Thisprocessrepeatsforapproximately8minutes.8. After 6 to 8 minutes (depending on your desired taste), remove thepercolatorfromyourheatsource(d).9.Keepitwarmonverylowheat.Servethecoffeeimmediately.

PercolatorTutorial

Ibrik/Turkish/GreekMethod

Theibrikmethod,alsocalledTurkishorGreek,consistsoftossingpulverizedcoffee grounds into a vesselwithwater. Thewater is boiledwith the groundsmultiple times. There is no filter. The grounds settle, so carefully pouring thecoffee is theonlywaytoreduce theamount thatendsup incups.Somein thecoffee industry consider the careful pouringpart of ibrik coffeemaking an artform.Tosome,ibrikrepresentscoffeebrewingatitsoldestandmostbasicform.

Traditionally,ibrikcoffeeisservedsugarlessatfuneralsorunhappyoccasionsand with extra sugar at weddings and other festivities. Also, in some Arabiccountries,servingsomeonethecoffeewithoutanyfoamsignifies“losingface”becausethefoamisconsideredthecoffee’sface.Becareful.Ifyoudon’tdividethefoamequally,youcouldsendthewrongmessage.

MaterialsIbrikcoffeemaker(copper)

Fresh water, 3 ounces (90 ml) for every 2 tablespoons (10 g)wholebeancoffee

Digitalscale

Fresh dark roasted whole bean coffee, 2 tablespoons (10 g)groundsuperfine

Mortar and pestle “grinder” or a true ibrik grinder (whichlookslikeapeppermill)

Sugar

Stovetoporotherheatsource

1-to3-ounce(30to90ml)demitassecups

Spoon

< Ibrik coffee is considered real coffee bymuch of theworld. Properlymade, it can be a powerful,aromatictastesensation.Partofitsartisinitscreation,anditsritualsareasrichasitstaste.

ExpertNotesonIbrikHerearesometipsforibrikbrewing

•Tominimize the grounds in a cup, don’t constantly stir; a little stirringgoesalongway.•Pouribrikcoffeeveryslowly,asmostofthegroundswillhavesunktothebottom. The ibrik coffee pot automatically hangs at a forty-five degreeangle.Trypouringatthatangleaswell.•Addapinchofcardamomforflavoring.Thisisperhapstheearliestknownformofflavoredcoffee.Alsotryorange-blossomwater.Addmoreor lesstoyourpreference.

Instructions

1.Place3ounces(90ml)ofwaterintotheibrik(a).2.Add2tablespoons(10g)ofpowdergroundcoffee(b).3.Add1 tablespoon(12g)ofsugarperdemitasse (c).Never fill an ibrikmorethanhalffull.Itwillfoamupduringboilingandcouldoverflow.4. Put the ibrik onmediumheat and bringmixture to a boil (d).Once itboils, lower the heat so it won’t overflow. Also, gentle heat produces amildercup.Letitsitfor1or2minutes.5.Once the coffee stops boiling, repeat the process, bringing it to a boiltwicemore,reducingheatimmediatelyuponboiling.6.Asitreachesaboilitsthirdandfinaltime(andlikely,asthefoamnearsthe top of the ibrik’s neck, in spite of our precautions), remove the ibrikfromtheheat.7.Pourcarefullyintoprewarmeddemitassecups.Dividethefoambetweenthecupsusingaspoon.

Ibrik/Turkish/GreekMethodTutorial

OpenPot/Cowboy/CampfireCoffee

Openpotcoffeemeansboilingoralmost-boilingwaterandtossingingrounds.Thisiscoffeebrewingatitsmostbasic.Itrequiresnothingbutapan(andcoffeeandwater,ofcourse).It’sgoodformakinglargebatchesofcoffee.Atonetime,achurchthatwantedtomakecoffeeforitssocialusedthismethod.

MaterialsPan, deep enough to hold a decent amount of water with no

overflowrisk

21/2gallons(9.5L)water

Stovetoporotherheatsource

1 pound (455 g)whole bean coffee, 2 tablespoons (10 g) per 6ounces(180ml)water

Grindersettocoarse

Filterbag(madefromanykindoftightweave,suchasasockorasugarsack)

String,totiefilterbagclosed

Timer

CAN’THANDLETHESOCK?Ifthethoughtofusingasockturnsyourstomach,don’tuseone.Instead,

putthegrindsdirectlyintothewaterandattheeight-minutemark,justafterremovingpanfromheat,useastrainertoremovethem.

<Openpotcoffeeisboiledinthestovetopandservedwithaladle.

Instructions

1.Measureandfillopenthepanwithwater.2.Placeonhighheat.Oncethewaterboils,lowertheheattobringitjustunderboiling,recognizablebypea-sizedbubbles.3.Grind the coffee beans.Use 2 tablespoons (10 g) of coffee per 6ounces (180ml) ofwater. For large crowds, use 1 pound (455g) ofcoffeeto21?2gallons(9.5L)ofwater.4.Placethegroundsintoafilter(a).Tieastringaroundthefilterbutleaveplentyofroomforthegroundstoswell(b).5.Shutofftheheat.Dropthegroundsintothewaterandbegintiming.

6.After 10 to 15minutes, remove the filter (c) and serve the coffeewithaladle.

OpenPot/Cowboy/CampfireTutorial

6ESPRESSO

ESPRESSO isahighlyconcentratedcoffeedrink,thebasisofalitanyof beverages found in cafés all around the world. Some peoplemispronounceit“ex-presso”—analmostintuitivemistakeconsideringthequickprocesstomakethedrink.

Making espresso requires a dedicated espresso machine, most of whichconsistofachassiswithaboiler.Oncethewatergetshotenough,apumpallowsit to flow into ametal device called a head or group, which contains packedgrounds. The pressure from the machine then forces the water through thegrounds, extracting the precious coffee oils in seconds. The liquid coffeeexcretesthroughabottomspoutinthehead.

Normally, espresso is served in one-or two-ounce (30 or 60 ml) amountsdependingonthemachine’sheadorgroupsize.Theindustryreferstoespressoinone-ounce(30ml)formasashot.Sowhenacustomerrequestsatriple-shotespresso,assumetheordercallsforthreeounces(90ml)ofespresso.

Although some consider espresso the strongest-tasting coffee (see “Ibrik,”chapter 5, page 121, for a counter-argument), paradoxically, it has the lowestcaffeinecontentbyserving(thoughnotvolume).Peoplewhoclaimtobe“high”onespressoafterdrinkingashotor twomaybeexperiencingwhat’sknownastheplaceboeffect—theythinktheespresso’scaffeinewillaffectthem,soitdoes.Perhaps the fact that it’s easy to drink a high volume of espresso, especiallywhen it’s buried in mounds of froth and made from higher caffeine Robustacoffeebeans,mightofferanexplanation.

Inthischapter,youwilllearnthefollowing:•Whatfactorsgointomakingtheperfectespresso•Howtoselecttheappropriategrindforyourespressomaker•Whatextractiontime,tampingpressure,andespressobitternessmean•Howtodifferentiateandselectanespressomaker

•Howtopulltheperfectespressoshot

<Theespressowasinventedforitsbrevity,buthasstayedduetoitspowerfultasteandversatility.Hereisaperfectespressoshotinthemaking,showingoffitstwin“mouse’stail”drips.

TheHistoryandScienceofEspresso

Italy’scommunistgovernmentoriginallyembracedespressoasanattempttoshorten the world-renowned Italian coffee break. Giovanni Achille Gaggiaactually inventedespresso. InhisMilancoffeeshop,Gaggiapatentedapiston,which he attached to existing coffee brewing machines to try to reduce thecoffee’sbitterness.In1947,aftereightyears,hesucceeded.

Inmanyways,itwasthemostsignificantcoffee-brewingdevelopmentofthemodern age. In the 1960s, espresso took off around the world, as AmericantouriststastedthedrinkinItalyandbroughtithome,andfilmsstartedshowingmoviestarsdrinkingit.

Forhomeaficionados,espressoiscomplexandanythingbutefficient.Buttoits fans, it is the holy grail of coffee preparation, a coffee obsessive’s dreamhobby. It has all the maddening, glorifying manic-depressive experience of agreat love affair. Espressomastery demonstrates the hobbyist’s expertise (andmadness) to friends and relatives. Part of espresso’s allure is, no doubt, itspreparation.With practice and skill, you’ll get better atmaking espresso.Oneday,yourespressomachinemayevenbecomeyourfirstchoice.

Mostcoffee-makingmethodsdependongravityorsteeping,butespressoisahigh-pressureextractionmethod,whichmeansyoucanproduceastrong-tastingbeveragequickly.Small variations in grind fineness, timing, orwater pressureresult in significant flavor differences. Serious espresso hobbyists thoroughlyresearchtheirprocess.Theywanttoknowthepressure(measuredinbars—thehigher the number, the greater the pressure) and water temperature. If a dripmachinetakesthirtysecondstoreachidealbrewtemperature, itwon’truinthecup;thirtysecondsisthetotalbrewingtimeforanespresso.

WhatDefinesaGreatEspresso?

Youmustconsidermanyfactorswhenattemptingtocreateagreatespresso.

Grind

Nearly everythingcomesdown to thegrindwith espresso.No twoespressomachinesorgrindersareperfectlyalike.Icannotstressenoughtheimportanceof matching the correct grind with a given machine. Preground coffee isespeciallyproblematicforhomeespressomaking.Thoughpregroundisusuallyfresh enough for home dripmethods, it will likely never be fresh enough forespresso andwill almost certainly result in a lackluster shot. (See the sectionlater in thechapteronpage136about selecting theappropriategrind foryourespressomachine.)

Eachday,checkandcalibratetheespresso’sgrindbeforemakingconsumableshots.Humidityvariationfromonedaytothenextaffectsespresso.Also,ifthegrindistoocoarse,thewaterwillflowthroughtheheadtooquickly,resultinginaweak,thinshot.Ifit’stoofine,thewaterwillflowtooslowlythroughthehead,andabitter,thickcoffeewillresult.Ateachsession,trydifferentgrindsettingstodiscoverwhichcreatestheperfectgrindconsistencyforyourmachine.

Taste

Espresso tastesdistinct fromothercoffeebrewingmethods. It issodifferentthatitoftenbenefitsfromitsownblendsandroasts.Also,becauseofitson-sitecreationmomentsbefore serving, rather than sitting forhoursonaburner, it’sguaranteedtotastefresh.

A well-made espresso shot should taste almost tangy. It is definitely morebitterthantraditionalfilteredcoffee,soexpectsomebitterness.Mostconsumersdo not drink straight espresso, but they drink latte beverages that containespresso.Thesweetnessofthemilkinthesedrinksnicelyoffsetsanybitterness.

Ifthegrindistoocoarse,theespressoshotflowstoofast.

ConnoisseurswhodohavestraightespressolimittheirbitternessbydrinkingblendedespressosororigincoffeessuchasBrazil’sandcarefullyoptimizingthebrewing process. Of course, you want a little bitterness, but not too much.Espressomavensclaimthattheycandeliversmooth,silky,andevensweetshots.Ifyouonlydrinkproperlymadedripcoffee,yourfirstespressomaybeashock,especiallyifyouexpectsweetness.

Roast is certainly a factor in bitterness. For less bitter espresso, experimentwithlighterroastcoffees.Amiddlegroundexistsbetweena lightroast’ssharpacidity and a dark roast’s bitterness amidst its caramel notes. Someone whodrinksespressostraightmayfindsatisfactionthere.

Foam

Inadditiontoitstaste,asuccessfulespressoshotisjudgedvisually,primarilybythelayerofbrownishfoamontopcalledthecrema(pronouncedKrem-uh)—espresso’s equivalent to a diamond ring’s stone. It should appear strong andbeautiful. The crema also indicates a viscosity, or creaminess, of the entirebeverage,partofitsappeal.

Ifthegrindistoofine,theespressoshotbarelydripsout.

Ifpurchasinganespressomachine,keepinmindthefollowingindustryspecs:•200˚F(93˚C)watertemperature.•Sevengrams(1/4oz)finegroundcoffeeperone-ounce(30ml)serving.Mostmachinescomewiththeirownappropriatelysizedspoons.•Nineatmospherespressure (132poundsper square inch).This indicateshowmuchpressurethemanufacturerofthemachinehasputintothewaterasitgoesthroughthecoffee.•Twenty-fivetothirtysecondsofextractiontime

Asyoubecomemore immersed as an espresso hobbyist, youwill no doubtfindpassionateenthusiastswhopreferdifferentvariablesandmanufacturersthatcatertodifferentexperiences.Somevariables,suchasextractiontime,areuser-controlled.Inotherwords,playwiththemuntiltheysuityourtaste.

Thecremaindicatestheespresso’sstrength,beauty,andcreaminess.

TampingtheGrounds

Propertampingofthegrounds(levelingthemintheheadorgroup)willmakeorbreakashot,evenifyouhavethecorrectgrind.Here’showtodoit:

1.Fillthegroup(orhead)withcoffee.Leveloffthegrindswithyourhand(a).2.Graspthetopofthetamperfirmly(b).Rotateyourarminward(c).3.Begintamping.Applyevenpressuretopackthegrounds.4.Using your finger, polish the edges of the group to remove all excessgrounds(d).5.Inspectthecoffeetomakesureitissmooth(e).6.Placethegroupsidewaysintothemachineandturnthehandletoseatitproperly(f).

TampingtheGroundsTutorial

ExpertNotesfromaBaristaEspresso-making—anditsterminology—canbeconfusing,soweaskeda

baristaatawell-knownretailespressochaintooffersometipsaboutthreeissues:extractiontime,tamping,andbitterness.

Extractiontime:Thisissimplytheamountoftimeittakesforthewaterto filter through the grinds and into the cup. Some take only twentyseconds.Othersrequirethirtyseconds.Experimenttodeterminehowlongworks for each coffee and let your taste buds be your guide. Machine,grind,andbeanqualitywill likelyplayamuch larger role thanextractiontimealone.

Tampingpressure:Tamping is the process of leveling the coffee in thefilter head.To do this, use a tool called a tamper. Some espressomakerssuggesttampingatfortypoundsofpressure.Inotherwords,theforceyouuseputsabout fortypoundsofpressureon thecoffee.Tampingat twentypoundsislow,butitlikelywon’tmakeorbreakyourespressooutcome.Ittakespracticetounderstandtheforcenecessarytotampatcertainpressures.Be consistent with your tamping because identical grinds tamped at twodifferentpressureswilltastedifferent.Trynottoovertamp(e.g.,withfifty

poundsormore).

Espressobitterness: Inaquality shot,very littlebitterness shouldcomethrough(thoughyoudowantsome).Sweetness ismorefrequentlyoneofthemostapparentqualities.Thatsaid,ifashottastestoobitter,itlikelyis.Throwitaway.

EspressoMakerGuide

Once the exclusive province ofwealthy urbanites and bad–credit risk over-reachers, espressomachines are now available atmost price levels. Europeanmanufacturers have been particularly innovative in developing inexpensivemechanisms that deliver brewing pressure without costly industrial-gradepumps.Somenewentry-levelmachinesdoagoodjobofdeliveringapalatableone-ounce(30ml)shotorservingofespresso.Thetroubleisthattheenemyofgood is great, and for great espresso, none but the highest-end consumermachines (somemight even call them “pro-sumer”machines) can deliver theabsolutebestespresso.

The following isanespressomachines roughguide inascendingorder. Idonotendorseanyonebrandormodel,astheychangeoften.

StovetopMoka

This machine is really a hybrid espresso/drip machine. It doesn’t generateenough pressure to develop a crema, but it often rivals low-end espressomachines,atafractionofthecost.Somethingaboutthemsays“artsy”and“non-conformist”andthattheownerisanindividualist.Itevensaysyoudon’tliketopaymoneyforappliancesthatdon’tmakeanybettercoffee.

Advantages:Lowcost,goodflavor,requiredbitterness

Disadvantages:Cleanup,nocrema,nomilkfoam

MaterialsThreepieceMokamaker

1cup(240ml)water

7grams(1/4oz)coarsegroundcoffeefora1-ounce(30ml)singleshotor14grams(1.2oz)foradouble(two1-ounce[30ml]shots)

Stovetoporotherheatsource

Instructions

1.Fill thebottomof themakerwithwater to justunder thesteam-releasehole(a).2.Fillthefilterwithcoarsegroundcoffee(b).3.Withyourhand, smooth the topof thecoffee in the filter.Don’t try topressthecoffeebutsmoothitinstead.Thisiscalledpolishingthedose(c).4.Screwonthetophalfofbrewer.5.Turn the stovetopon lowflameandbrewuntilwatercomesoutof thesteam-releasehole(d).6.ServetheMokaimmediately(e).

StovetopMokaTutorial

< The stovetop Moka is a hybrid brewer that brews coffee that sits somewhere between trueespressoandstrongdripcoffee.Formany,itisanalmostperfectcompromiseinthecup,anditiseasytomake.

StovetopEspressoMachines

What’sthedifferencebetweenaMokaandastovetopespressomachine?Oh,it’s about 30dollars.Sorry for thebad joke, but really, there often isn’tmuch

difference.Awell-designedstovetopespressomachinewillproduceabitmorepressure—andsubsequentlymorecrema—althoughnothinglikethebestshot.

Advantages: Reasonable cost, slightly better espresso character than astovetopMoka

Disadvantages:Cleanup,littleornocrema,nomilkfoam

ElectricSteamEspresso

This machine looks like a home espresso machine should. It has a steamwand,adevicethat’snotusedtobrewcoffeebutrathertosteamandfrothmilk.Because themajority of people drink espresso in cappuccinos and lattes, youmayconsidergettingoneof these ifyou’reonabudget(anddon’treallywantespressoasmuchasastrongmilk-frothedcafélattedrink).Thecoffeecantastequitegood,butasespresso, it lacks the tight foamofawell-madecommercialshot and the creamy tightbubbles associatedwith thebest cappuccinoor latteart.

Advantages: Decent retail price, some companies’ innovations producesurprisinglygoodnear-espresso

Disadvantages:Themajorityof steammachinesoverextract andmakebitterespresso-styledrinks,okaymilkfoam

PumpEspressoMachines

Pumpmachines are the entry point formost home espresso hobbyists. Theinventionof thepump,whichallowspressurization thenheatingofcoldwater,created the commercial espresso industry. Some very fine consumer or “pro-sumer” pump espresso machine models exist out there. Some challenge thefinest commercialmachinesandwill certainlyoutperforma local chain’s café,especiallyifyoubuythebestespressobeans,learntogrind,andmakethecoffeetomaximumpotential.Manyof thesemachines comewith pounds per squareinchratings,whichwill indicatehowmuchpressure themachineuses to forcewaterthroughthegrounds(andwhichresultsincrema).

Advantages: Gives many hobbyists the epiphany moment in their hobby’sgestation(inotherwords,it’sgood)

Disadvantage:Highprice

ManualPistonMachines

Thepistonfeaturesalonghandleontop.Theideaistobuilduppressureandthen very gently release it and using your own intuition and skill tomanuallycontrol theshot’screation. It is theultimatemachine for thecontrol freak. It’snoteasytouseandoftenfeaturesnomilkfrothingorsteamingcapability.Butintherighthands,itcanproduceagreatespresso.

Advantages:Makesgreatespressowhenyouknowhowtouseit,workable

Disadvantages:Notforthefaint-hearted,requiresskill,inconsistentfrothing

AutomaticPistonMachines

This is the type of machine about which most espresso hobbyists dream.Instead of using amanual handle, like themachine described previously, thismachine’spiston lives insideandhasenoughpressure tomakeperfectmilk.Aprofessionalbaristawillhavethistypeofmachineathome.Don’tconfusethesemachineswithfullyautomaticmodels.

Advantages:Withpractice,makesdrinkslikethecafésdo

Disadvantages:Requirestime(tolearnhowtouseit)andmoney(topurchaseit)

PODSEspressopodsaresingleservingpregroundespressocoffeeclothedin

filter paper packets. To use a pod, simply drop it into your espressofilterholder(group)andfireaway.Podsremovetheneedtogrind,anobstacle for many espresso/latte drinkers, and increase the ease ofmakinghomeespresso.Theespressocoffee industry spentmuch timeandmoneyimprovingpackagingtokeeptheproductfresh.Podsdonotequal the best fresh roasted and ground espresso, but they offer adecentoptionwhenconvenienceoutranksperfection.Itisimportanttonote that there are pod brewing methods that aren’t espresso butratheradaptationsofthedripmethod.

Electricsteamespressomachine

Pumpespressomachine

Manualpistonmachine.Inthepiston’slonghandle,pressurebuildsupuntilyoureleaseit

EspressoGrindersandGrinding

Makenomistakeabout it, espresso requiresvery fine,exact, and repeatablegrinds,evensomeoftheforgivingconsumerdesigns.Intestscomparingatop-ratedburrcoffeegrinder,agoodconsumerespressogrinder,andacommercialespresso grinder, the espresso shot flavor differences were profound andunsubtle. Try this yourself. You’ll certainly be able to tell the difference.Conclusion: Expect to put as much or more emphasis and budget into yourespressogrinderasyoudoyourmachine.

Presently,noneof thehomegrinders Ihave tested for regularordripcoffeereallyextendsitsperformancetoincludeespresso.Why?Grindersareoptimizedto a range of grinds, but espresso falls outside of this range. Its thirty-secondcontact time is such a narrowwindow of opportunity that the need for exactparticle-sizedgrounds increases exponentially.Most espressohobbyistshaveadedicatedespressogrinderwithburrsespeciallyoptimizedforfinegrinds.

In termsof roast, technically, you canuse any coffee in an espressomaker.Butmost experts agree that espresso’s pressure seems to overemphasize lightroasted coffee’s acidity. Therefore, darker and less acidic roasts, origins, andblends work best for espresso. Light-roasted Kenya AA, stellar in a vacuumbrewer, may taste harsh in an espresso machine. A Brazilian low-acid darkerroastcoffeethatmaytastedullinapresspotjustmightmakeaterrificespressoshot.

And what kind of grinds work best for which machines? Here’s a quickrundown:

CoarseGrinds

Worksfor:StovetopMokamachines,stovetopespressomachines,andelectricsteammachines

Grind type:Rememberyourchildhoodsandbox?Thesemachines likea finebutgrittiergrindthatstillcontainssomepowder.However,morethanhalfofthegrindshouldbedistinctparticles.You’reoffwithyourgrindifthemachineclogsuporrunstoofast.Beyondthis,finetuneitbytime.

FineGrinds

Worksfor:Commercial,pumpespressomachines,andmanualandautomaticpistons

Grindtype:Coarserthanflour(maybewholegrainflour)andjustababystep

coarserthanTurkishibrik(seechapter5,“Brewing,”formoreabout ibrik)—inotherwords,very finegrinds.Thesehigh-pressuremachines like to force theirwaterthroughthesefinegrinds.

THEHUMIDITYFACTORAshumidityincreases,coarsenupyourgrindtocompensate.During

spring and summer, go a notch coarser to prevent your coffee fromtasting overextracted. Seattle café ownerDavidSchomerwrote inhisbookEspressoCoffee: Professional Techniques of having an espressomachine stop suddenly due to an unexpected humidity increase afterhe’d calibrated his grinder—just minutes before—in drier weather.Thismaybeasubtleordramaticeffect,butitshowstheimportanceofthegrind.Lesson:Preparetomakeadjustmentsforclimatechanges.

Aperfectshotcaneasilybe twoperfectshots.Manyespressoenthusiastsquicklyrealizewith the same effort, they can double their output, either making a larger beverage forthemselvesoronetoshare.

PullingthePerfectShot

Aproperlymade espresso shothas that headofnatural foamwementioned

earlier called crema, what’s considered the shot’s visual signature. Crema iscomposed of tiny carbon dioxide bubbles made from the water forcing itselfthroughthenarrowcrevicesaroundtightlypackedgrounds.

Nowthatyouknowwhat’srequiredforanespressoshot,here’showtomakeone.Youshouldknowthatperfectingtheespressoshot takesa lifetimefor theespresso enthusiast. It is relatively easy to make any old espresso shot, butmaking a great one requires trial and error. Fortunately, the rewards of suchdedicationarequitetasty.

MakingMultipleShots

Home espresso machines feature smaller than commercial-size boilers andusually require recovery time between shots. For one or two people, this isunlikely to be a factor, but youmaydisappoint those half-dozen relatives at aholidaydinner.Knowyourmaker’srequirement.

Ifyourespressomachineofferstheoptiontomaketwoshotsatatime,useitwheneverguestsarearound.It’seasieronthemachinebecauseitusesitsheatingcapacitymoreefficiently.Heatingupwatermore frequently takesmorepowerthanheatingalargerquantityofwaterlessfrequently.

MaterialsMakerofyourchoice

Softorsoftenedwater(<100partspermillion)

Espresso-grindcoffee,7grams(1/4oz)fora1-ounce(30ml)singleshotor14grams(1/2oz)foradouble(two1-ounce[30ml]shots)

Espressogrinder

Tamper

Prewarmed1-ounce(30ml)shotglasses

EspressoTroubleshootingGuide

Thisisaquickreferencesheetforespresso-relatedtroubleshooting.

ExpertNotesonPullinganEspressoShot

Herearesometipsforpullingashotofespresso:•Checkyourmachineeveryday(oratleastbeforeeveryuse).Experiencedbaristas daily spend from ten minutes to a half hour setting up theirmachines.•Expecttochangeyourgrind.Baristasknowthattheirgrindswillchangeduetoatmosphericconditionchanges.Groundcoffeeattractsmoistureandcanliterallyswell,whichcansloworevenstoptheespressoextraction.Theonlysolutionistogrindmorecoffeemorecoarsely.• Don’t grind too much espresso at once. Fine ground coffee loses itsfreshness, aroma, and flavor within minutes after grinding. Grind just alittlemorethanyouneed.(Ifyourunyourgrinderempty,thelastgroundswillbetoocoarse.)•Emptyyourgrindereachdayafteruse.Grounds that stay in thegrinderovernightwillgetstale.•Enjoyespressoimmediatelyafterbrewing.Unlikedripcoffee,whichcansitforupto thirtyminutesandstill tastefresh,espressodrinksdependontheir short-lived foam and heat. Even slow-sipping espresso connoisseurswantajust-madeshottostart.Thesameistrueforlattes,cappuccinos,andotherespresso-basedbeverages.•FollowtheItalianristrettomethodbyerringonthesideofslightlyshortershots.Ingeneral,withcoffee,bestresultscomefromunderextractionratherthanoverextraction. I suggest this rather than longer (lungo) pulls,whichresult inwhitish foamandmoreacidity.Lungoespressos savemoney forlarge operations. But for small scale “at home” operations, it doesn’tprovide the same benefit. Use more coffee for strength, not longer pulltimes.•Usemorethansevengramspershotifstrongerespressotemptsyou.

ForWater,ThinkLow—NotNo—Minerals

Usewaterwithlowmineralcontentwhenpossible.Espressomachinesaresopronetomineralbuildupthattheguidelinesforotherbrewersdon’tapply.Tryareverse osmosis water purifier, which removes approximately ninety-eightpercentofmineralsfromwater.Evensalt-softenedwatercanwork.Don’tworry

about minerals prolonging contact time, as in with drip brewing. The forcedpressure of the water through the grounds eliminates this concern. Distilledwater,inmyopinion,isstillnotappropriate.Thinklow,notnominerals.

<Aperfectshotcaneasilybetwoperfectshots.Manyespressoenthusiastsquicklyrealizewiththesameeffort,theycandoubletheiroutput,eithermakingalargerbeverageforthemselvesoronetoshare.

Instructions

1.Fillthetankwithsoftenedwateruptoyourunit’sfillline.2. Turn on to preheat themachine. Espressomachinesmust warm up tofunctionproperly.3.Placemetalscreenedfilter,calledaportafilter,intothemetalreceptaclelocatedunderasillpositionedoverwhereyouplaceyourshotglassorcup(a).This receptacle is calledagroup.Manymachines comewithdouble-size portafilters featuring two exit spouts, designed tomake two shots atonce.Thiscomesinhandy.Manyofusregularlymaketwoshots.Infact,Ialwaysdo,notonlyforamorepowerfulcuporfortwopeoplebutbecauseviewingmultiple shots allowsme to better analyze howwell I’ve set thegrind.4. Make a shot using no coffee, running hot water only through yourportafilterwhileit’sinthemachine.Thisisimportanttobringallthepartsuptotemperature.5.Grindasmallamountofcoffee,abitmore thanyouneed, inagrinderthatfeaturesclickstopsforfineadjustment.6.Removetheheadfromthemachineandplacethegroundsintheespressomachine’sfilter.7. Tamp the grounds firmly (b). Repeat twice more (for a total of threetimes) tomake sure the grounds are tightly packed.Brush loose groundsfrom the group’s lip. This procedure is called polishing the shot. Somehome machines are designed for less-tight tamping, but unless this isspecifiedintheinstructions,useatighttamp.8.Place thefilter into themachineabove thecupwitha twist toensureacorrect,tightfit(c).9.Press the“on”or “brew”button tomakeyour first (or seasoning) shot

using coffee. Discard it immediately without analyzing for grind. It issimplytoseasonthefilter.10.Grindmorecoffeeandrefilltheportafilter.Placeitinthemachine.11.Pressthe“on”or“brew”buttonandtimethisshot.Itshouldtake25to30secondstomakea1-ounce(30ml)shot.Mostespressoshotglasseshavemarksthatsaywhen.Inotherwords,theyshowwhen1ounce(30ml)hascomethrough.Anautomaticmachinemayautomaticallystop.12. Observe the coffee’s drip as it falls into the glass. It should not fallstraightbuthaveaslightcurveandbulge.Baristascallacorrectly fallingshotamouse’stail.Doesyourslooklikeamouse’stail?(d)13.Observetheshot.Itshouldbearichgoldencolorwithnoholesandaniceheadoffoamorcremaontop(e).14.Tasteit.Isitflat?Bitter?Ifittooklessthan20seconds,itwilllikelybethin,weak,andflattasting.Ifittookmorethan30seconds,itwilllikelybethick,strong,andbittertasting.15.Grindsomemorecoffeeandadjustyourshot.Toprolongtheespressoshot’sduration,grindfiner.Tospeeditup,grindcoarser.Expecttorepeatthisprocessseveraltimesbeforeyoumakeashotthatwillimpressafriendoryourowntastebuds.

PullingthePerfectShotTutorial

7COFFEESERVINGANDRECIPES

YOU’VEgone toa tonofeffort tomake thebestcoffeepossible.Nowit’stimetoserve.Therealityisthatpresentationandservingcanadd or detract from taste. There are ideal temperatures at which toserveandenjoycoffeeandplentyofwaystomaximizetaste.Itmeanspaying attention to details and learning different coffee recipes, butit’sworthit.

So much coffee consumption happens before, during, and after food. Butwhich foods go best with which coffees?What’s the best use for cream andsugar?

Bytheendofthischapter,you’llknowhowtodothefollowing:•Pairfoodswithcoffees•Usecreamandsugartoenhanceratherthanmaskcoffee’sflavor•Createalitanyofcoffeecocktailsandafter-dinnercoffeecordials

Andthatwillcompleteyoureducationasacoffeeentertainer.Let’sdrink!

<Coffeeservice:thermalcarafe,coffeemugandsaucer,sugar,andcream.

CoffeePresentationandServingEquipment

Brewed coffee is a volatile liquid; it cools and evaporates quickly. For bestresults,drinkcoffeeimmediatelyafterbrewing.Ifyoucan’tdrinkitrightaway,place it in avessel thatkeeps it hot andpreservesasmuch flavor aspossible.Becausecoffeeflavordeterioratesquickly,givestoragesomethoughtsoyoucanenjoymorethanonecup.

WarmingPlatesandThermalCarafes

The earliest coffee drinkers kept their serving vessels warm by lighting aflame underneath. Modern automatic drip makers feature a heated plate onwhich the serving carafe sits. Thismethod does a credible job of keeping thecoffee hot and preserving its flavor. Heat rises, and usually the carafe’s non-airtightlidallowsforsteamandbrewevaporation—butnotthecoffee’sheat—toescape.Itcanreliablykeepcoffeehotforabouttwentyminutes.Plus,theglassvesselisusuallyeasytocleanafterbrewing.

Thermalcarafescameaboutduringtheearlytwentiethcentury.Theyworkonthetheorythatthesubstancebeingstoredprovidesitsownbestheat.Thevesseldoesn’t add heat but simply insulates the heat already being produced. Theadvantageofthesethermalcarafesisthattheyspreadheatevenlythroughoutthebrew,keepingitwarmforuptoanhourwithnodiscernibleflavorloss.Ontheflipside,theydon’tkeepthecoffeeashotaswheninitiallybrewedandtheyareoftendifficulttoclean.

Recommendation: If you typically drink your coffee within a half hour ofbrewingit,awarmingplateisfineanditscarafemoreeasilykeptclean.If thecoffeewillsitforuptoanhourafterbrewing,athermalcarafeisabetterchoice.

CoffeeToGo

Eventhemostrefinedcoffeedrinkersneedtobuycoffeeonthegosometimes.Keep inmind that thematerial of the to-go cupmayaffect the coffee’s flavorprofile.Coffee to go tastes best in thewax-coated, temperature-resistant papercups.Papercupsoffertheextraadvantageofbeingrecyclable.Styrofoamisthelessdesirable choice.Styrofoam ismadeof amaterial calledpolystyrene.Thestyrene in this compoundmay leachout into thehot coffee, asmuchas0.025percent.Thisisenoughforsomecoffeedrinkerstonoticebothanoffaromaandtaste. Since styrene is fat soluble, even more could leach into beveragescontainingcreamorwholemilk.IfyoumustgetyourcoffeetogoinStyrofoam,nevermicrowave it to re-heat it,as itmaycauseevenmorestyrene tomigrateintothecoffee.

CoffeeandFood

Everwonderwhycafésandcoffeehousesallservehigh-carbohydraterollsanddoughnuts?Thehighfatcontentinbreadyfoodsnicelycountersthehighacidityincoffee.Afterthewidespreadgrowthofdarkroastsinthe1990s,somecoffeeindustry experts claimed that light roasts better matched with food. But therestaurants andcoffee shops that specialize in rolls andcoffeedetermined thatevendarkroastshaveenoughaciditytomakeagoodmatch.

Does the correlation between red and white wine and certain food existbetweenlightanddarkroastcoffeesandcertainfoods?Sweetness,complexity,andbitternotescalledtanninsmostfrequentlyinfluenceawine/foodmatch.Inthisway,coffeeissimilar.Butwhereasredwinesoftencontainmoretanninsandare more complex than white wines, dark roast coffees often contain moretannins but are less complex than light roasts. As with wine, coffee/foodmatchingisanendlessdiscussionwithmyriadpossibilities.

Considerthesetwokeyquestionswhenplanningamenuthatincludescoffee:

Q:Willyouservethecoffeeduringthemealorafterwithdessert?

A:When servedwith ameal, the coffeemust complement themaincourse.Forexample,alightroastwouldpairnicelywithameatcoursesuchassteak.Adarker roastwould pair betterwith lighter fare.Dessert coffees can be lighterbodied (of either dark or light roast), with a weaker flavor, and may includeliqueurs.

Coffee’s a great after-dinner beverage. Some dieticians claim that coldbeveragesinterferewithdigestion—andthathotonesdonot—makingcoffeeagoodchoicetocapoffameal.Ifyoudon’tservedessert,alight-bodiedcoffeeaddsadelicatenoteandcanenhancedigestion.

Q:Willthecoffee’sflavoroverpowerthefoods?

A:Don’tchoosecoffee tocomplementyourfoodandthenbrewitso that itoverpowers, or on the other end of the spectrum, it gets lost amidst the foodflavors.Heavierbodiedcoffeewill standup to foodsmoreeasily.Save lighterbodied,moredelicatecoffeesforservingaloneorwithlightfoods.

Darkerroasts,withtheirtannicflavors,pairwellwithhigher-fatfoods.Lightroasts,apttobecomplex,pairwellwithlighterfoodsbecausetheircomplexitymakes them seem like an added course. Foods containing salt and fat tend toneutralizethecoffee’sacidity,makingharshcoffeesagoodmatchtoacroissantwithbutter.

ServingTemperature

Wineexpertsoftentellusthatpeopledrinkwinesattemperaturestoocoldortoowarmtoenjoyitsfullflavor.Thesamecanbetrueofcoffee.Coffeeislikelyaround180ºF(82ºC)orhotterwhenitreachesyourcup.Expertsoftenwaitafewminutesbeforedrinking,knowing that themouth’sability to recognize thefullflavorpalate increaseswhena liquid isslightlycooler.Mostexpertsagree that140ºF(60ºC)isanidealtemperaturetodiscerncoffee’scomplexity.Thatsaid,itisalwaysgoodformtoservecoffeeassoonaspossibleafterbrewing.

AddCreamtoYourCoffeeorCoffeetoYourCream?Thisageoldcontroversyactuallyhasascientificanswer.Addcream

toyourcupandthenpourinthecoffee.Why?Thecombinedmassofcreamandcoffeetogetherlosesenergytothesurrounds,whichlowersitstemperature.Thehottertheinitialtemperature,thefasterthedrinklosesenergy.Thetemperaturestarts lowerwhenthecreamentersthecup first, so thedrink loses energy slower.Thismeans the coffeewillkeepitsheatlonger.

Coffeeadditions:Creaminapitcher,sugarinabowl,flavorsinshotglasses.Aretheyingredientsoradulterants?Sugarhasbeenaddedtocoffeevirtuallysincethediscovery.MilkhasbeenaddedsinceitsintroductiontoEurope.

SugarandMilk:Coffee’sComplementsorNemeses?

Sugar

Sugar’s popularity in coffee stems from the syrupy viscosity it creates as itmelts.Noartificialsweetenersofferthischange.Naturalcanesugartastesbest.Ithasalowmelting-point,absorbsfewerextraneousandundesirableodors,andblends easily.An oft-cited industry-circulated story aboutU.S. coffee drinkerssuggeststhatsugaruserivalsmilkuseinitspopularityintheUnitedStates.Butcoffeeconnoisseursremaindividedaboutitsuse.

Somesaythatcoffeeitselfissweetenoughandthatsugarsimplyadulterates

thedrink.Othersclaimthatcoffeeshouldbeenjoyedsweetenedandlightenedtotaste,statingthatit’snodifferentthanputtingagoodsauceonfish.Isaydowhatyourtastebudsdesire.Don’tdrinkyourcoffeetopleaseanyonebutyou.

You do have other choices of sweetener besides sugar. In coffee terms, allsweeteners—including sugar—are artificial because coffee itself has somenaturalsugars.Hereareafewofthemostpopularsweeteners:

Aspartame

After a study showedapossible linkbetween sodium saccharin and cancer,aspartamecameonthescene.Itnotonlyseemedcompletelysafe,but itdidn’thave any bitter aftertaste, which some saccharin users reported. This made itidealforcoffee.

Tothisday,itishighlyregardedasasugarsubstitute,althoughsomestudiesclaimthebodycanconvertittoethanol,makingitpotentiallydangerousinhighamounts. (This controversy, as all others, is beyond the scope of this book.)Aspartamedoesn’tworkwellforbakingbecauseitlosesheat—notofconcerntotherelativelyshortheatcycleofbrewedcoffee.

Sucralose

Aftercontroversialresearchpredictedthataspartame,wheningestedinlargequantities, can turn into ethanol, sweetener users sought a more naturalalternative.Sucralose,betterknownasSplenda,cameoutfirst.Ithaswonvastmarketplace acceptance for being “made from sugar,” although it has not yetdisplaced aspartame. It has its own fans and detractors. Critics claim it is nolongernaturalinitsfinalform.

Stevia

Steviahasseeminglyeverythinggoingforit.It isnatural,madefromaleaf,andevenhas roots in ancient third-worldcultures.However,minimal researchhasbeendoneonit,anditcurrentlyhasrelativelysmallmarketpenetration.Toitsfans,itseemsperfect.Itsdetractorsclaimithasn’tbeenscrutinizedenough.As a sweetener, some coffee drinkers claim it does not sweeten coffee as dosugarorotheralternatives.

Sodiumsaccharin

Sodium saccharin has been around since the 1870s. It gained popularityduringWorldWar Iwhen sugarwas in short supply, but it reallyhit its strideduring the1960swhendietingbecameall the rage.Afteradeathblowfromahighlypublicizedstudylinkingsodiumsaccharintocancerinrats,itquicklylostits reputation, was superseded by aspartame, and is now cheap. Interestingly,though,nooneseemstofearitanymore.Asacoffeesweetener,itisnotpopularbecauseofitsbitter,metallicaftertaste.

Milk

There’s a theory that France had a better coffee reputation than Englandpurelyduetoitsmoreplentiful,richermilk.Atleastthatwasthecaseduringthe1700s.Today,theworld’slargestcoffeechainsspendmoremoneyonmilkthanoncoffee.

So which milk complements coffee the best? For brewed, filtered coffee,experts saycreamwithhigher fatcontent, sometimescalled18percentcream,light cream, or coffee cream taste best. Milk—even whole milk—hasconsiderably less fat content, soyouneedmoreof it to deliver the same tastecombination.Soymilkactssimilarlytowholemilk.Non-dairycoffeecreamers,with theirhighsodiumcontent,weredesigned tocounteract the tasteofharsh,cheaperRobustacoffee.

Espresso milk-based beverages, such as cappuccinos and lattes, taste bestwhen made with rich, full-fat milk. In these drinks, choice of milk improvesmorethanjustflavor.Milk’sfatactuallycausesittostretchduringfrothingandallowsittoreachthebestconsistency,agreatvirtueincappuccinosandlattes.

NosodiumcitrateFind 18 percent cream without sodium citrate (examine the

ingredients list). This ingredient neutralizes acid. You may have tocontactalocaldairy—andyouwon’tbelievethetastedifference.

FlavoredCoffee

Sugar, sweeteners, and milk aren’t the only coffee additives. The flavoredcoffee age as we know it began in the 1960s when instant coffees producersbeganaddingartificial flavorssuchasvanillaandhazelnut to theirdrinks.Butactually,flavoringcoffeegoesbackmuchfurtherinhistory.

To stretch coffee quantities, some people blended coffee with a variety ofgrains. The major U.S. coffee port city of New Orleans, for example,popularizedchicory-flavoredcoffee,madebyaddingtothedrinkaslightlybittertreebark.

Roastingcompanieshavesuccessfullyaddedhazelnut,vanilla,andchocolateto their coffees. In the 1980s, many a specialty coffee bean shops smelledpredominantly likehazelnut, not coffee,which showshazelnut’s influence andpopularityasacoffeeflavoradditive.

These flavorings can be natural or artificial. They typically get added afterroastingbytossingthebeansinacylinderwithsyrups.Theflavoringthencoatsthestill-hotbeans,whichcansometimesappearglossyinthefinalproduct.

Irecommendaddingflavorsathome.Ifyouknowyouenjoyjustonetypeofflavoredcoffee, considercoffees flavoredbyyour roaster. Justknow thatyourgrinderandbrewingequipmentwilllikelytakeonthetastesandaromasofthatflavor.Somegrocerystoreshavetwogrinders,oneforflavoredandtheotherforunflavored,toaddressthisissue.

SteamingandFrothingMilk

Perfectlyfrothedandsteamedmilkforespressosisasimportantasaperfectshot. Even the most die-hard purist can’t resist the taste and viscosity of aperfectly made cappuccino. I purposefully separated this section from theespresso because it’s a different art form. I also chose to focus on drinks thatanyonewithagoodhomeespressomachinecouldmake.Thoughacommercialmachinemayfeatureamorepowerfulsteamwand,ahomemachinecanproducefrothedandsteamedmilkthat’sjustasgood.Ifullyexpecttobewowedbythedrinksyoumakeafterjustafewpracticeruns.

LatteSteamingandFrothingTutorial

Alatterequiressteamedmilk,butlittleornofoam.Thegoalistotimeyoursteamwand’srisetothemilk’ssurfacesothatthemilkishot,rich,andcreamyallatthesametime.Withpractice(usingthestepsbelow),youwillachievethiseverytime.

Noteveryonewantsfoam.Toreduceorminimizefoam,rapthemilkpitcheronatabletoporotherhardsurfaceeveryonceinawhileasyoukeepthesteamwandsubmerged.

MaterialsThese materials work for frothing and steaming milk for

cappuccinosandlattes.Wewillnotrepeat theminthecappuccinoor

macchiatotutorials.

Chilledstainlesssteelpitcher

Milk, any kind, from non-fat to half and half, thoughwholemilkoffersthebestresults

Espressomachinesetto“steaming/frothing”setting

Spoon,optional

Damptowel

1-ounce(30ml)shotofespresso

ATTENTION SINGLE BOILER ESPRESSO MACHINEOWNERSIfyouhaveasingleboilermachine,youmaywanttofrothandsteam

milkbefore making your espresso shots. This type of machine has aone-bto two-minutedelaywhenswitching fromcoffeemakingtomilkfrothingtolettheboilercomeuptotemperature.

<Acafélatteisthemostpopularofallmilk-basedespressodrinks.Thesteamedmilkiskey,althoughthefoamontopoffersanimportantvisualimpactandtexture.

AMISTAKETOAVOID

Thisphotodemonstratesacommonmistake.Bobbingthepitcherupand down by steaming/frothingwill result in oversized bubbles. Thisalso happens when the wand comes fully out of the milk and steamshoots down from above. The goal is dense creamy foam, not loosebubbles.

Instructions

1. Fill the pitcher with milk no more than half way to leave room forexpansion(a).2.Placethepitcherunderthesteamwand.Fullysubmergewand’stipandbringitneartopitcher’sbottom.3.Turnsteamonfullpower.4.Lower the pitcher slowly.Stopwhen thewand’s tip sits just under themilk’ssurface (b).Whensteam ison,never remove thewandcompletelyfromthemilk.5.Ifyoudesirefoam,holdthewandtipjustunderthemilk’ssurface.Keepyourhandonthepitcher.Ifthemilktakesalongtimetoheatup,pushthewand’s tip back down near the pitcher’s bottom. This will allow you to

finish heating the milk without excessive frothing. Once the pitcher isalmosttoohottohold,youarefinishedsteaming.6.Aftereachsteaming,immediatelywipethewandwithadampcloth(c).Withtheclothwrappedaroundwand,shootafewsteamjetstothoroughlyexpelanymilkresidue(d).Becarefulnottoburnyourhand.

LatteSteamingandFrothingTutorial

CappuccinoSteamingandFrothingTutorial

A cappuccino is technically one-third frothedmilk, one-third steamedmilk,andone-thirdespresso.But thisequation isalmostnevera reality.Don’t focuson the ratios. Instead, concentrate on getting the milk steamed and creatingenoughfoamtodefineacappuccinobeforethesteampitchergetstoohot.You’llmake some great drinks. With time and practice, you’ll fine tune your ownsignatureratio.

Thematerialsforthisarethesameasthematerialsunderthelattetutorial.

Instructions

Theinstructionsforsteamingandfrothingmilkforcappuccinoareidenticaltothoseforthelatte.Theratioofespressotomilkandcappuccino’suseoffrothedmilkarethemaindifferences.

Tofrothandsteammilkforacappuccino,followthelatteinstructionsthroughstep5andthenjumpinhere.

1.Freepourthesteamedmilkintotheespressousingaspoontoholdbackthefoam(a,b,c).2.Usingthesamespoon,topwithfoam(d,e).

CaféMacchiatoSteamingandFrothingTutorial

The macchiato is perhaps the easiest to make of all milk-based espressodrinks. It is simplyanespresso shot towhichyouadd some frothedmilk.Putanotherway,it’sasuperdrycappuccinowithverylittlefoam.InItaly,theysayitisstainedwithmilk.Itcontainsnosteamedmilk.

Instructions

Tofrothmilkforacafémacchiato,followtheabovelatteinstructionsthroughstep5,thenjumpinhere.Note:Youwillnotusethesteamedmilkbutonlyabitoffoam.

1.Usingaspoon,takeoutasmallamountoffoam,nomorethanadollop.2.Placeitatoptheespresso.

CappuccinoTutorial

Agooddrycappuccinocontainsalmostnosteamedmilk,justfoam.Itiseasytoseethedifferencewhencomparingthisphototothestandardcappuccino.

CoffeeRecipes:Brews,Cocktails,andBeyond

Therearesomanycoffeedrinksouttherethatyoucouldcreateanentirebookofthem.Forthischapter,I’vechosenafewofmyfavorites.

Espresso.Note the brown crema on top: at casual glance itmight appear to be cream, but it’scoffee,purecoffee!

Espresso

As French diplomat Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord once said,“EspressoshouldbeasblackastheDevil,ashotashell,aspureasanangel,andas sweet as love.” See chapter 6, which begins on page 127, for more aboutEspresso.

1ounce(30ml)ofespresso

Sugar,totaste1.Prewarmtheespressocup,saucer,andspoon.2.Placetheespressocupunderthecoffeespout.3.Prepareanespresso.4.Servewithsugar,totaste,ifdesired.

Servingsuggestion:Servewithaglassofstillwater.

Servingsize:1espressoshot

Cappuccino

Acappuccinoistechnicallyone-thirdespresso,one-thirdwarmmilk,andone-thirdmilkfoam,buttheratiooftenchangestomeettheespressomaker’stastes.

ThewordcappuccinolikelyderivesfromtheCapuchinmonks.Thecapofmilkfoamresemblesamonk’shood(capuccio).Thecolorofthemonks’hoodsalsorecallsthebeverage’sbrownhue.1ounce(30ml)espresso1cup(240ml)milkSpoon

1.Prepareanespressoshotandplaceitintoacup.2.Steamandfroththemilk.3.Freepourthemilkontotheespressoshot.4.Usingaspoon,addfoamtothetop.Milkfoamwillseparatetocreatetheperfectcap.

Servingsuggestion:Decoratethecappuccinobydrizzlingchocolatesauceontop,usingawoodenskewertomakedesigns.

Servingsize:1cappuccino

DryCappuccino

A dry cappuccino is composed of espresso with layered milk foam. Theamount of steamed milk, however, is significantly less than in a regularcappuccino.

1ounce(30ml)espresso

Milkfoam,totaste1.Prepareanespressoshotandplaceitintocup.2.Steamthemilk.3.Usingaspoon,addfoamtothetopoftheespresso.

Servingsuggestion:Enjoywithanysortofsweettreatordessert.

Servingsize:1drycappuccino

Cappuccino.Notethewhitecapandthelayersofespressobeneath,clearlyvisiblethoughaglassmug.

CaféLatte

Often served forbreakfast, thiswhitecoffeeconsistsofcoffeeandhotmilkserved with a little milk foam. The Swiss affectionately call it schale, whichliterallytranslatesto“bowl.”

1ounce(30ml)espresso

1cup(240ml)milk1.Prepareanespressoshotandplaceitintoacup.2.Steamandfroththemilk.3.Freepourmilkintoespressoshot.4.Putfoamontopofmilk.Foamshouldbethickandwillseparatetocreatetheperfectlatte.

Serving suggestion: On a hot day, make the iced version of this drink byallowing your 1-ounce (30ml) espresso shot to cool before pouring it over aglassfilledwithice.Add1cup(240ml)ofcoldmilkandstir.

Servingsize:1cafélatte

CaféMocha

Like a latte, the cafémocha is one-third espresso, two-thirdsmilk, butwithcocoa powder or chocolate syrup. Don’t be fooled by the word “mocha”however.ItoriginallydescribedatowninYemen—andhadnothingtodowithchocolate.Todayithas takenonnewmeaning,popularizedtodescribeadrinkthatcontainschocolate.

1ounce(30ml)espresso1tablespoon(6g)sweetcocoapowderor1tablespoon(20g)chocolatesyrup1cup(240ml)milk

1.Prepareanespressoshot.2.Placethecocoapowderorchocolatesyrupincup.3.Pourintheespressoandstir.4.Steamthemilkandaddtothedrink.

Servingsuggestion:Forachocolatyrefreshment,makeuptheicedversionofthis drink. Make a 1-ounce (30 ml) espresso and allow it to cool. Pour 1tablespoon (5 g) cocoa powder or 1 tablespoon (20 g) chocolate syrup into aglassandthenmixwithespresso,ice,and1cup(240ml)coldmilk.

Servingsize:1cafémocha

CaféLatte

CaféMocha

IcedCaféLatte

IcedCaféMocha

Americano

This drink, made by combining espresso with boiling water, is sometimescalledacaféamericano.Switchoutcoldwater forhotwater tocreate the icedversion.

1ounce(30ml)espresso5ounces(140ml)boilingwater

1.Prepareanespressoshotandpourintoacup.2.Addboilingwaterandstir.

Serving suggestion: Pour the hot water in first and then top with espressorather than theotherwayaround. It takes slightlymoreeffort,but itpreserves

thecrema.

Servingsize:1caféamericano

RedEye

Ever wonder what would happen if you combined regular drip coffee withespresso?Theresultistheredeye,namedforitsabilitytokeepyouupatnightandcalledvariousnamesdependingontheregion,including“ShotintheDark”inthePacificnorthwest.

5ounces(150ml)hotblackcoffee,anybrew

1ounce(30ml)espresso1.Make1cupoffreshlybreweddripcoffee.2.Make1espressoshot.3.Combinethemtogetherandstir.

Servingsuggestion:MakeaBlackEyebyaddingasecond,1-ounce(30-ml)espressoshot.Addathird1-ounce(30ml)shottogetaDeadEye.

Servingsize:1redeye

Macchiato

Don’t confuse this with the drink made by some specialty coffee chains.Macchiato, also called spotted espresso, is an espresso crowned with a smalldomeoffoamedmilk.

1ounce(30ml)espresso1tablespoonmilkfoam

1.Prepareanespressoshot.2.Preparethemilkfoaminaseparatereceptacle.3.Add1tablespoonofmilkfoamtothetopoftheespresso.

Servingsuggestion:Thesmallespressocupscoolvery rapidly.Prewarm theespressocup,saucer,andspoontopreservethedrink’sheat.Also,don’tstir.Thevisualofthisdrinkispartofitsallure.

Servingsize:1macchiato

CaramelMacchiato

As its name suggests, this drink is a version of the macchiato with addedcaramel,popularizedbyaspecialtyU.S.coffeechain.

1ounce(30ml)espresso1cup(240ml)milk,steamedVanillasyrup,totaste

Caramelsauce,totaste1.Prepareanespressoshotandsteamthemilk.2.Placevanillasyrupinacup.3.Freepoursteamedmilkoverthesyrup.4.Usingaspoon,topthesteamedmilkwithfoam.5.Pourfreshlybrewedespressothroughfoamintocup.6.Drizzlethetopwithcaramelsauce.

Serving suggestion: In the mood for something cold? Try an iced caramelmacchiato.Prepare two1-ounce(30ml)espressoshotsand let themcool. Inapintoricedteaglass,squeezeinvanillasyruptotaste.Filltheglassthree-fifthsofthewaywithmilk(approximately1cup[240ml]).Addicealmosttothetop.Pourtheespressoshotsovericeandtopwithwhippedcreamandcaramel.

Servingsize:1caramelmacchiato

Americano

Macchiato

RedEye

CaramelMacchiato

EspressoconPanna

Thisdrink,asingleordoubleshotofespresso,literallytranslatesfromItaliantomean“espressowithcream.”Thesimpleadditionofwhippedcreamcreatesawholenewespressodrink.

Oneortwo1-ounce(30ml)espressoshots

Whippedcream,totaste1.Prepareanespressoshot.2.Pourintoacup.3.Topwithwhippedcream,totaste.

Serving suggestion: This drink is perfect servedwith any flavor ice cream,

thoughvanillaaccentuatesthecoffee’sflavor.Unlikeflavoredcoffee,vanillaicecreamcomplementsratherthancompetesforthecoffee’saroma.

Servingsize:1espressoconpanna

EspressoMartini

This coffee drink is a take on the classic martini cocktail. It’s best whenshaken,notstirred.

1ounce(30ml)espresso,cold

1½ounces(45ml)vodka

1½ounces(45ml)coffeeliqueur

1ounce(30ml)whitecrèmedecacao1.Prepareanespressoandletitcool.2.Oncecool,combinewithotheringredientsinamartinishakerfilledwithice.3.Shakeit(don’tstirit).4. Strain into a chilledmartini glass. The drink should appear somewhatfrothy.

Serving suggestion: For a nice touch, add cocoa power to the rim of yourmartiniglassbeforeserving.

Servingsize:1espressomartini

IrishCoffee

Thisdrinkworksbestifyouhaveadripbrewmachineandanespressomakersoyoucanfroththewhiskeybeforeaddingit tothecoffee.Whiskeygivesthedrinkitsimpliedprovenance.

2teaspoons(8g)rawsugar

1ounce(30ml)Irishwhiskey(alcoholic)

1/2cup(120ml)freshlybrewedcoffee,anybrew

2tablespoons(30g)semi-whippedcream1.Attachthesteamwandtoyourespressomaker.

2.Addthesugarandwhiskeytoaglass.3. Place frothing nozzle into the whiskey and make steam for about 5secondstoheat.4.Preparefreshcoffee.Combineitwiththewarmwhiskey.5.Topthecoffeewithwhippedbutslightlyrunnycream.

Serving suggestion: Don’t mix an Irish coffee. It is intentionally servedwithout a spoon so that the sugar, coffee, andwhiskeymixonlyby tilting theglass.ToenjoyIrishcoffeetheold-fashionedway,sipitthroughthecoldcream.

Servingsize:1Irishcoffee

EspressoconPanna

IrishCoffee

EspressoMartini

CaféMélange

ByDanielHeiniger

Unlike the espresso con panna,which addswhipped cream to espresso, thecafémélangeisameltinglycreamycombinationofbreweddripcoffeeandthiswhippedtreat.

1/2cup(120ml)freshlybrewedcoffee,anybrew

1tablespoon(4g)whippedcream

1teaspoon(3g)gratedchocolateor1teaspoon(2g)cocoapowder1.Preparebrewedcoffee.

2.Topwithwhippedcream.3.Dustwithgratedchocolateorcocoapowder.

Serving suggestion:Make amint cafémélange by addingmint extract or amintleaf.Garnishwithmintleavesforaddedvisualappeal.

Servingsize:1cafémelange

RecipecopyrightJura,www.jura.com

Pepresso

ByDanielHeiniger

Beware: This fiery espresso has kick. As chocolate flavored with pepperfounditswayintothemainstream,sotoohaspepresso,asweetyetspicyblendofchocolate,pepper,andespressosuretobewitchthesenses.

1ounce(30g)chocolatesauce

Mixedpeppercornsinapeppermill,ground,totaste

1ounce(30ml)espresso1.Coatanemptyespressocupwithchocolateuntil thebaseof thecup iswellcovered.2.Seasonthechocolatewithalittlefreshlygroundpepper.3.Placetheespressocupunderthecoffeespout.4.Preparetheespressoshotinthechocolate-peppercup.

Servingsuggestion:Beforeservingyourpepresso,stiritwelltomaximizethepepper-chocolate-espressoflavor.

Servingsize:1pepresso

RecipecopyrightJura,www.jura.com

CaféRoyale

ThisrecipeappearsinaPerryMasonfilmTheVelvetClaws,starringthegreatWarrenWilliam.Thefilmisbizarre,butthedrinkisfascinating.

1/2cup(120ml)freshlybrewedcoffee,anybrew

1teaspoon(4g)granulatedcanesugar

2ounces(60ml)brandy

2ounces(60ml)heavycream1.Pourhot,freshlybrewedcoffeeintoacuporglass.2.Addthegranulatedsugar.Stiruntilitdissolves.3.Addthebrandyandstiragain.4.Overthebackofateaspoon,pourheavycreamoverthetopofthedrinksothatitfloats.Serveimmediately.

Servingsuggestion:Foranon-alcoholicversionofthiscoffee,substitutefruitjuiceorlight-flavoredcoffeesyrupsuchasapricotforthebrandy.

Servingsize:1caféroyale

VienneseCoffee

ByDanielHeiniger

ThissweettemptationwithitsvanillaicecreamandsyrupprobablywontheheartofEmpressElisabethofVienna.

½cup(120ml)freshlybrewedcoffee,anybrew

Vanillaflavoredsyrup,totaste,optional

1scoopvanillaicecream1.Brew thecoffeebutnot too far aheadofmaking thedrink that thepotwillfinishbrewing.2.Addvanillaflavoredsyrup,ifdesired,toataperedglass.3.Shapearoundscoopofvanillaicecreamandaddtotheglass.4.Placetheglassunderthecoffeespout.5.Let the coffee flowdirectly down the edge into the glass, over the icecream.Serveimmediately.

Serving suggestion: Garnish with grated chocolate and serve with a shortstraw.

Servingsize:1Viennesecoffee

RecipecopyrightJura,www.jura.com

IcedCoffee

Youlikelyhavesomebrewedcoffeeleftoverfrombreakfast.Whynotpouritovericeforanafternoontreat?Youcaneitherletitsitoutforafewhoursortakeitoffthewarmingplate,pouritintoapitcher,andputitintothefridge.It’sgoodfortheenvironmenttoobecauseitextendstheproduct’slife.

6ounces(140ml)freshlybreweddarkroastcoffee

Ice

1teaspoonsweetener,totaste,optional

Milk,totaste,optional1.Brewapotofdark-roastedcoffee.2.Let thecoffeestandatroomtemperaturefor3 to5hoursorrefrigerateuntilcold,about1½to3hours.3.Fillatallglasswithicecubes.4.Pourthechilledcoffeeintotheglass,overice.5.Stirthecoffeetoequalizeitstemperature.6.Addmilkandsweetener,ifdesired.

Servingsuggestion:Freezesomeofyourmorning’scoffee in icecube trays.Thatway, thecubeswon’tdilute thecoffee.Also, trycoldcream inyour icedcoffee. It will taste a little bit like amilk shake. Take it one step further andenjoyascoopoficecreamwiththisdrink—notinitbutontheside.

Servingsize:1icedcoffee

IcedCoffee

MexicanCoffee

ThenameforthisdrinkcomesfromtheMexicantraditionofspicingupfoodanddrink(ofteninanattempttopreservefoodandmakeittastedelicious).Theuseofwhitetequilagivesthisdrinksomeflare.

1ounce(30ml)coffeeliqueur1ounce(30ml)whitetequila5ounces(150ml)freshlybrewedhotblackcoffee,anybrew1teaspoon(5g)brownsugar,ortotaste

1½ounces(15g)whippedcreamGratedchocolate,totaste

1.Combinetheliqueur,tequila,andcoffeeinalargecoffeecup.2.Sweetentotastewithbrownsugar.3.Gentlyfloatthewhippedcreamontop.4.Sprinklewithgratedchocolate.

Servingsuggestion:Add1/2teaspoon(1g)groundcinnamonoracinnamonstickforanothertraditionalvariationonthisdrink.

Servingsize:1Mexicancoffee

CaféauLait

CaféaulaitisFrenchfor“coffeeonmilk.”It’satraditionalmorningdrinkinFrance. It became popular elsewhere when tourists visited the country andbroughtbackthedrink.It’soneoftheoriginalfundrinks.

½cup(120ml)FrenchRoastcoffee½cup(120ml)milk

1.BrewFrenchRoastcoffee.2.Steamthemilk.3.Pourequalpartscoffeeandsteamedmilkintoacup.4.Mixandservehot.

Serving suggestion: For a traditional New Orleans–style drink, brew thecoffeewith1tablespoonofchicory.

Servingsize:1caféaulait

OddbutInterestingBrewingMethods

Now that I’ve instructed you on themost popularmethods, here are a fewpreparationmethodsdifficulttofindanywhereelse.FrancisThurber,inhis1880bookCoffee:FromPlantation toCup, records a few notable brewing recipes.Today,theyaremorethanahundredyearsold.Here,theyarereprintedforyourpleasure.IfyouwereawealthyworldtravelerinThurber’stime,thisiswhatyouwould likely drink. (Note, the coffee recipes below appear as Thurber printed

them,meaningtheymaynotbeascompleteastherecipesweprovidedearlierinthischapter.)

FrenchCoffee:CaféNoir

Frenchcoffeepot(author’snote:presumablyamanualdrippot)2tablespoons(10g)coffeeBoilingwaterMilk,optional

1.Grindcoffee.2. Pack grounds solidly in the coffee pot (the regular French filteringpattern).3.Pourboilingwater,passingittwoorthreetimesthroughthecoffeepot.4.Forcaféaulait,addhotmilkina3-to-1ratioofmilktocoffee.

Serving suggestion: For flavor, add ½ tablespoon of powdered chicory togrinds before brewing. Thurber claims that many French families saved theirmorningcoffee’sspentgrounds,ranmorehotwaterthroughthem,andsavedthewaterforcoffeelaterthatday.

Brazil/RioCoffeehousePrep

Inthe1870s,Braziliansroastedmostoftheircoffeeinopenpansandmadeitusingalarger,butnon-specific,grounds-to-waterratio.ThurberclaimsthatthelocalBrazilianepicureanssoughtcoffeekept“fiveorsixyearsinthehull.”Hewrites,“ItisclaimedbygoodjudgesthatthereisnocoffeeintheworldsuperiortooldRiopreserved in thehulluntilmellowedbyage. Itdevelopsa richness,andat thesametimeadelicacyofflavornot foundinanyothervarietyof thebean.”

OldGovernmentJavaRecipe(akaCaféAuLaitàlaHollandaise)

Thurber did not write this recipe but obtained it from an old resident inBatavia, a Javan city. It records the then-outdated coffee preparation methodfavoredbyDutchsettlersinJava.

1.Takecoffeepotcomposedoftwodetachedparts,ametaldripmakerwithanupperfilterusingfineholes(likeasaltshaker).2. Place a flannel cloth filter over theupper section’s bottom, covering itcompletely.3.Addasufficientquantityofwell-groundcoffeeandfirmlytamp.4.Slowlypourcoldwaterontothegroundsandallowittodripcompletelythrough the filter, into the reservoir below. This will likely take 4 or 5hours.Keepthefilterhigh,narrow,andfullypackedtoretardtheflow.5.Mixthefinishedextractwithhotmilkina1-to-3ratioofcoffeeextracttohotmilk.

<MexicanCoffee

Resources

Years ago, most books on coffee would feature a list coffee roasters,manufacturers,andapplianceretailersforbuyingsupplies.Thathasallchangedwiththegrowthoftheonlinemarketplaceandthesheernumberofcraftroasters.To be fair to the various suppliers, I have kept this list short and,with a fewexceptions,limitedittononcommercialwebsitesandorganizations.

OnlineResources

There are now somany consumer review sites that it is a challenge to findcredible, objective information on products. Many reviews are written bynontechnicalconsumerswhoareawedbythenew-carsmellofanewproductorsoured by buyers’ remorse.Beware of putting toomuch credence in a reviewuntil youdiscern a reviewer’s credentials and testingmethodology.Here are afewtopcoffeesitesthatpassinspection.

www.coffeegeek.comAn early forum that has grown into a significant worldwide community of

end-users.Anyonecanpostreviews,sotheyvaryinreliabilityandusefulness.Alotoftheforumisdevotedtoaclose-knitbandofhobbyistsinthecommunity.

www.coffeereview.comFounded by author Kenneth Davids, the Coffee Review focuses chiefly on

reviewingcoffeebeanvarietalsbyawine-testingscale.Davidsishonest,but,ifanything,he’spronetogradingeveryonea“C”orabove.Asinwinetastetests,theyaresubjective,andyoumust learn tocalibratereviewers’ tasteswithyourown.

http://home.planet.nl/~rjeroenv/index.htmThis great website features Mr. Robert Vriesendorp’s reviews and

commentary, as well a small-but-fun treasure chest of photos of coffee gear.

Joerenshasusefultestingmethodology.

www.coffeecompanion.comThis is my website, and it features in-depth technical reviews of brewers,

grinders, and other gear, plus occasional feature articles about coffee orcommentariesoncoffeeissues.

EquipmentandSuppliesHerearejustafewcommercialrecommendations,sincetheyoffergearthatis

difficult to obtain and gear you’re not likely to find in local brick-and-mortarstores.

www.sweetmarias.comThisonline retailer focusesprimarilyonunroasted (green) coffeebeans and

homeroasters,somebrewers,andawholelotofinformation.Naturallyenough,theytendtorecommendwhattheysell,buttheyseemtosellalmosteverything.Their tutorials are very detailed, andmayoverwhelm the newbie home coffeeroasters.

www.greencoffeebuyingclub.comThis informal group doubles as a buyers’ club where small end-users pool

their resources to group buy some top quality green beans. Prices arecompetitive,andtheyhaveagoodreputation.

Magazines

TeaandCoffeeTradeJournal

Monthlymagazineforthetrade,butwithmanyarticlesofaficionadointerestandinternationalperspective.

Books

I have not read every book there is about coffee, only most of them. Thefollowingaresomepersonalfavorites.

Coffee:AGuidetoBuying,Brewing,andEnjoying,FifthEdition(Paperback)byKennethDavidsISBN-13:978-0-31224-665-5

KennethDavidshaswritten severalbooks,but this is the first.Eacheditionhas been substantially updated so if you have the time or resources, considercheckingouteachone.Kenisanaffablehippiewhoranhisowncoffeestoreinthe1960sand1970s.Helikebrewersbuthelovesvarietals.Herunsawebsitecurrently,where he reviews coffee beans (see above).Any book byDavids ishighlyrecommended.

CoffeeFloatsandTeaSinksbyIanBerstenISBN-13:978-0-64609-180-8

Ifyoueverseethisatalibrarysale,grabit.Atlastcheck,itsellsforasmallfortune onAmazon or eBay. It’s a glorious coffee (and tea) book, filledwithopinions,butmostlywiseones.Bersten,whoisAustralian,hasagreatwritingstyleandaglobalfocus.

CoffeeandTeabyPeterQuimmeThis1970sbookisperhapsoutofdate,butithasalotofgoodinformation,

and until I found Ken Davids books, I found it the most useful of the manybooks. It is a tinypocket-sizedbook, and I used to carry itwithme to coffeestores,asaguidetothebeansandroasts.

CoffeebyJoelSchipiraTheSchipirasareacoffee-roastingfamilyinupstateNewYork.Theywritea

very nice testimonial to a business they obviously love, and some of theinformationisveryuseful.(Theywritefromtheperspectiveofpre-espressoandpre-specialty coffee culture.)AswithCoffee andTea, thevarietal descriptionsare limited—this was written before the current transportation methods anddirecttradepractices.

ThePerfectCupbyTimothyCastleTim Castle is a member of the coffee trade, more specifically, he is an

importer.Hisbookiswellwrittenanduseful,especiallyincapturingtheessenceofvariouscoffeevarietals,Castle’sspecialty.

TheCompleteBookofCoffeebyHarryRolnickRolnickwas a tradewriterwho created a nice four-color book about coffee

withgreatphotosandgraphics.It iswrittenwithaspecialnodtoMelitta,whowas obviously very involved with its creation, and it portrays the world ofcoffee,pre-specialty,verywell.

JoyofCoffeebyCorbyKumnerISBN-13:978-0-61830-240-6

Kumner is a senior editor at theAtlantic magazine, and his articles for theAtlanticaboutcoffeeareworld-classandenjoyablereads.

EspressoCoffee:ProfessionalTechniquesbyDavidSchomerSchomer foundedCaféVivace, in Seattle.He is reputed to be an obsessive

taskmaster and all-around perfectionist. In otherwords,my kind of guy. Thisbook is recommended to anyone who wants to open an espresso shop for itspractical information, though it is a great guide for espresso craftspeople andlatteartists.

So,YouWanttoGoIntotheCoffeeBusiness…

SpecialtyCoffeeAssociationofAmerica

www.SCAA.org

IfyouareintheU.S.,theSpecialtyCoffeeAssociationofAmerica(SCAA)isthe leading small business organization dedicated to the trade. They hold ayearlyconferencethatprovidesaclearinghouseofinformation,throughitstradeshowandvariousseminars.

SpecialtyCoffeeAssociationofEuropewww.scae.com

European-basedspecialtycoffeeassociation.

NorwegianCoffeeAssociationwww.kaffe.no/?l=31&ls=32&h=301

They call themselves “Europe’s coffee police.” They set standards, certifygear,andevenclaimtheymakegrocerystorecheckstomonitorcoffeequality.

Index

A

AchilleGaggia,Giovanni,128acidicwater,92Africa,31–32agedcoffee,40alkalinewater,92americano,160Americas,arrivalofcoffeein,14Arabicaspecies,17–19,36Arbuckle,John,14Asia,26–28aspartame,147automaticdripbrewingmethod,101–103grindingfor,86,87

automaticpistonespressomakers,135,136

B

beans.SeeunderselectingcoffeeBeethoven,Ludwigvon,91bird-friendlygrowingmethods,22bitternessbrewingand,91,93,94,102,117,118espresso,55,128–129,131,138,140grindingand,79,81

BlackandTanblend,45bladegrinders,81–82blending,44–45BlueMountaincultivar,17,26bobbingthesteamingpitcher,152bottledwater,92Bourbonvarietal,17,25,26,28,30Brazil,14,23Brazilcoffeehouseprep,167brewingabout,89–95automaticdrip,101–103ibrik/Turkish/Greekmethod,121–123manualdrip,97–99Neapolitanflip/dripmaker,109–111openpot/cowboy/campfire,125percolator,117–119presspot/Frenchpress/melior,105–107unusualmethods,167vacuumbrewer,113–115

Bunnautomaticdripbrewer,86Burma,28burrgrinders,82–83buyingconsiderations.Seeselectingcoffee

C

caféamericano,160caféaulait,166,167caféaulaitàlaHollandaise,167cafélatte,158cafémacchiato,154–155,160cafémélange,164cafémocha,158cafénoir,167caféroyale,164caffeine,16,127calcium,92campfirecoffee,87,125cannedcoffee,14cappuccino,154–155,157Capuchinmonks,157caramelmacchiato,160CatholicChurch,13Catimorcultivar,18Catuaicultivar,18Caturracultivar,17,25,32Celebes,30CentralandSouthAmerica,23–26Ceylon,13,14characteristicsofcoffee,36–38chicory,148,166,167China,26–27chlorinatedwater,92Christianity,13cinnamonroast,55cityroast,55civets,29ClementVIII(pope),13Clieu,GabrielMatthieude,14climate,36clothfilters,94

coarsegrind,87,136Coffee:FromPlantationtoCup(Thurber),167coffeeindustry,early,13–14coffeeplants,typesof,17–19coffeehouses,13,15coffee-to-waterratio,91,128Colombia,23–25commercialroasters,14–15,52commoditycoffee,14–15,16CostaRica,25countries,coffee-growing,23–32cowboycoffee,87,125cream,145creamers,non-dairy,148crema,128,129,137,138Cuba,25cultivars,coffee,17–19cupping,47–49cups,disposable,144

D

degassing,80DemocraticRepublicoftheCongo(DRC),31directtrade,22discgrinders,82–83Dittinggrinders,83dripgrind,86drumroasting,64–67drycappuccino,157dryprocessing,22,37–38Dutchcoffeeindustry,13–14

E

ElSalvador,25electricsteamespressomakers,134,136England,14,148environmentalimpactoffilters,94espressoabout,127–130grindingandbrewing,136–141makers,131–135recipes,157–164

espressoconpanna,162espressogrind,86espressomartini,162espressoroast,55estatecoffee,22Ethiopia,12–13,32extractiontimeforespresso,131

F

fairtrade,21farmingstandards,36filters,93–94finegrind,86,136fines,81firesafety,57firstcrack,52,53flavoredcoffees,148fluid-airroasting,68–71foamespresso(Seecrema)milk,148,149–155

foodpairing,144–145France,14,148freezing,43Frenchcoffee:cafénoir,167Frenchpressbrewing,105–107Frenchroast,55freshness,42–43,80frothingmilk,148,149–155fullcityroast,55

G

Geishacultivar,18glassfilters,94gradesofcoffee,21Greekbrewingmethod,121–123greencoffeebeans,39–41grinders,81–85,136grindingandgrinds,85–87about,77–81espressoand,128,136,139

Guatemala,25

H

hardwater,92,139Harrar,32harvestingtimingandseasons,36,40–41Hawaii,28–29historyofcoffee,12–16Brazil,23China,26Colombia,23espresso,128India,27Java,28

homeroasting.SeeroastingHonduras,25humidity,58,136hydrogenperoxidebleachedfilters,94

I

ibrikmethodbrewing,121–123icedcaramelmacchiato,160icedcoffee,164India,27–28Indonesia,13,28–30industrialrevolution,14–15instructionsbrewing(Seeindividualmethodsunderbrewing)espresso,133,140–141grinding,83roasting,62–63,66–67,70–71steamingandfrothing,151–153,154–155

Irishcoffee,162Islam,13Italianroast,55

J

Jamaica,26Java,28,167journals,47

K

Kaldithegoatherder,12KavehKanes,13Kenya,32Kona,28–29Kopi,29

L

Laos,28latte,151–153,158leafrust,14,19,26,29Libericaspecies,19,28,36logs,cupping,47LouisXIV(king),14

M

macchiato,154–155,160maintenance,grinder,85manualdripbrewing,97–99manualgrinders,84manualpistonespressomakers,134,136Maragogypecultivar,18marketinglabels,21–22martini,espresso,162Martinique,14Meliorbrewing,105–107metalmeshfilters,94Mexicancoffee,166Mexico,26micro-roasting,15,52milk,148,149–155millgrinders,82–83mineralsinwater,92,139mocha(beverage),30,158Mocha(Yemen),30,39Mocha-Java,28,29,45Mokaespressomaker,30,133monks,Capuchin,157MonsoonMalabar,40mortarandpestle,85mousetaildrips,126,140Muslims,13Myanmar,28

N

Neapolitanflip/dripbrewing,109–111NewEnglandroast,55NewWorld,arrivalofcoffeein,14Nicaragua,26nitrogenflushing,80non-dairycreamers,148

O

OldGovernmentJavarecipe,167openpotbrewing,125organiccoffee,21originsofcoffeehistorical,12–13regional,23–32

P

Pacamaracultivar,18PacheComumcultivar,18pairingcoffee,144–145papercups,144paperfilters,94PapuaNewGuinea,30pepresso,164percolatorbrewing,117–119PerryMason,164Peru,26pHlevels,92pistonespressomakers,134–135,136pods,espresso,135popcornpoppers,roastingwith,68,69presentation,144presspotbrewing,105–107processing,37–38ProprietaryRoast#1blend,45PuertoRico,26pullingespressoshots,137–141pulverizedgrind,85pumpespressomakers,134,136pyrolysis,52

Q

Q-grading,22

R

recipes,91,156–166redeye,160regions,coffee-growing,23–32,33religion,13resources,168–169reversibledripbrewing,109–111Riocoffeehouseprep,167roasttiles,53roasters,small-batch,15,52roastingabout,51–53drum,64–67fluid-air,68–71home-,about,57–58stovetop,60–63temperature,72–73

roasts(types),38defined,55espressoand,136grindsand,81pairingwithfood,144–145waterand,92

Robustaspecies,19,28,36,148ro-taptest,81Rwanda,32

S

safety,roasting,57Salimba,32SaudiArabia,13schale,158scienceofroasting,52,53seasons,36,40–41selectingcoffee,33,35blends,44–45characteristics,36–38cupping,47–49geographicalorigins,23–32,33greenbeans,39–41roastedbeans,42–43

servingequipment,144shade-growncoffee,22shotinthedark,160shots,espresso,127,137–141Sidamo,32smoke,58sodiumcitrate,148sodiumsaccharin,147softenedwater,92,139SouthandCentralAmerica,23–26SoutheastAsia,28soymilk,148spacerequirements,home-roasting,57specialtycoffeerevolution,15–16speciesofcoffeeplants,17–19,36spicesandcoffee,28spitting,48Splenda,147steamingmilk,149–155stevia,147storageandshipping,38,43stovetopespressomakers,133–134,136

stovetoproasting,60–63Styrofoamcups,144sucralose,147sugar,147Sulawesi,30Sumatra,29sustainablefarming,21sweeteners,147

T

Talleyrand-Périgord,Charles-Mauricede,157tamping,130,131Tanzania,32tapwater,92,139tasting,47–49tea,14temperaturebrewing,91,129roasting,52,53,58,72–73serving,145

terroir,36thermalcarafes,144thermometers,72–73Thurber,Francis(Coffee:FromPlantationtoCup),167time,brewing,91Timorcultivar,18troubleshootingespresso,138Turkey,13,79Turkishcoffee,85,121–123tutorials.SeeinstructionsTypicavarietal,17

U

Uganda,32

V

vacuumbrewing,113–115vacuumgrind,86varietals,coffee,17–19VelvetClaws,The,164Venezuela,26ventilation,58Viennaroast,55Viennesecoffee,164Vietnam,28voltagerequirementsforhomeroasting,58

W

wagonwheelgrinders,84warmingplates,144water,92,139weather,58,136wetprocessing,22,37,38

Y

Yemen,12–13,30YemenMocha,30,39YirgeChefe,32

Z

Zassenhausgrinders,84Zimbabwe,32

Acknowledgments

The following people have been so helpful and selfless in giving me theirtime,knowledge,andtalentstocreatethisbook.

Ken Stevenson—Who sent a passionate enthusiast a plane ticket andintroducedmetoanindustry.

OrenBloosteinofOren’sDailyRoast—Myfriendformanyyears,Istillcan’ttraveltoManhattanwithoutvisitinghimandhisChemex.

CharlieSarinofCoffeeExpress—Forhisinsightsandsharedenthusiasmforcollectibles.

JimReynoldsofPeet’sCoffeeandTea—Eitherdoesn’tknowhowtosayno,orcan’t.

ErnaKnutsenandJohnRapinchuk—Forinventingthetermspecialtycoffee.

DonaldSchoenholtofGilliesCoffee—Phonefriendandcoffeehistorian.

ChristyThornsofAllegroCoffee—ThebestcoffeetastedetectiveI’vemet.

BobHeniken—Whomademethefirstcupofcoffeethattastedasgoodasitsmelled.

IanBersten,author,CoffeeFloatsandTeaSinks—Historianparexcellence

LizGrassyofChemex—Forkeepingthebreweralive.

KenDavids,author,Coffee—Forprovingcoffeeisaviabletopicforbooks.

GeoffWattsof IntelligentsiaCoffee—Foradvancing thecauseof selling in-seasoncoffeesandsharinghisextensivephotolibrary.

Mark Johnson of Intelligentsia Coffee—For his kind assistance during ourphotographyshoot.

FrankChambers—Forhisinsightsintocoffeeasanoilproduct,fortestingmytheories,andforgivingmetheammototakethempublic.

ScottMarquardtofOpenSkyCoffee—Forhispassionforhomeroasting.

DanEphraimofModernProcess—Forbeingthereigningexpertongrinding.

Rasmy Buparat, Modern Process Lab Manager—For their countless grindtests.

GerySmittofTechnivorm—FormakingtheVolvoofbrewers.

AimeeMarkelz,GregFisher,RandyPope,Bunn-O-Matic—Forbeingamodelcompany,andforyourno-strings-attachedhelp.

JoeBehmofBehmorRoasting—Aninventorandkindredspirit.

GeorgeHowellofGHCoffeeCompany—Coffeevisionary,fellowENTP.

DavidSchomerofCaféVivace—Formakingespressoanengineeringart.

JimCunninghamofCunninghamProductions—Forturningmeontoespresso.

Carmen Cribari of Rancilio—For loaning the Rocky and Silvia, Chicago-style.

Angelo Forzano—For the loan of the wonderful La Pavoni piston espressomachine.

LindaFieldofCapresso—IfIevercanaffordaPRperson,you’reit.

Randy Layton, Mike Johnson and David Boyd, of Boyds Coffee—Forsuperiorcoffeepackaging(whichalmostobviatedthegrindingchapter).

JoeBean—Foralittlebitofeverything.

PatriciaSinnott—Fortastingallmyexperimentsandforallowingmetotakeoverthehousewithcoffeegear(andpersonalities)overtheyears.

Edmund Preston Sinnott—For his espresso chapter expertise anddemonstrations.

ShaunandCameronSinnott—Fortheircontinuedindulgenceintheirfather’seccentricity.

MarvinHobbs—Forkeepingmesane.

Dr.RobertoLangandAnnRyan—Forkeepingmealive.

RochelleBourgault—Foryoursaintlypatiencewithmeduringthewritingofthisbook.

Regina Grenier, Tom Petroff, Mary Studebaker and Michele Wilson—Foryourmanyhoursworkingontheartandfactchecking.

MargaretSwallow—Forvaluableinsightsregardingcoffeebotanythathelpedimmeasurably.

AbouttheAuthor

KevinSinnott,hostofthehow-tovideoCoffeeBrewingSecretsandcuratorofthe coffeecompanion.com website, is the U.S.’s foremost consumer coffeeauthority.HisgroundsbreakingCoffeeCompanionnewsletter,whichachievedareadershipmore than 10,000 strong,was the first publication to teach readershow to brewgreat tasting coffee, fromwater filters to coffee beangrinders tobrewers.His latest project ismissioncoffeecan, aweb series following collegestudentsdeterminedtowinanationalcompetitionmarketingtheirownbrandofGuatemalacoffee.

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Digitaledition:978-1-61058-094-6Hardcoveredition:978-1-59253-563-7

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataSinnott,Kevin. Theartandcraftofcoffee :anenthusiast’sguide toselecting, roasting,andbrewingexquisitecoffee/KevinSinnott.p.cm.ISBN-13:978-1-59253-563-7ISBN-10:1-59253-563-11.Coffee2.Coffeebrewing.I.Title.TX415.S5262010641.3’373—dc222009052418

ISBN-13:978-1-59253-563-7

ISBN-10:1-59253-563-1

10987654321

CoverDesign:RockportPublishersCoverImage:PetroffPhotographyDesignandLayout:VisibleLogic,Inc.Photography:PetroffPhotography,exceptpages12,15,16,18,24,27,29,31,and37byGeoffWattsofIntelligentsiaCoffeeTherecipesonpage168arecopyrightJura,www.jura.com.

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