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The arctic Environment

Background

Imagine a cold, windy place where at times the sun hardly shines and atother times of year barely sets. It is a place with frozen ground, making itvery difficult for trees to grow. Instead of walking through the forest, inthe Arctic tundra, you walk on the forest, as plants may only grow a fewinches to perhaps one foot tall. At certain times of the year a visitor mightthink the tundra appears barren, but during the sunny summers, the landbursts with wildlife and activity.

What is the Arctic region? Literally defined, it is the area within theArctic Circle, including the icy North Pole and the Arctic Ocean. Oneinteresting feature of the Arctic is its many glaciers, rivers of ice formedfrom snow falling over thousands, even millions, of years. Glaciers spreadand move with freezing and thawing temperatures and by the force oftheir own weight and gravity. Glaciers form on land, near lakes, and alongthe coast. When the tip of a glacier reaches the edge of the sea, it breaksoff and forms an iceberg in a process called calving.

The Arctic region also includes the tundra—meaning “treeless plain”—ecosystem. One defining characteristic of the arctic tundra is its

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permafrost, permanently frozenground that occurs from severalinches below the surface todepths of more than 1000 feet.Permafrost, combined with a longseason of cold and high winds,are the primary reasons for anearly treeless zone in the arctic.Trees are unable to spread roots inthe permafrost, and leaves andbranches would catch the windand be blown down.

The northern boundary of thearctic tundra is the northern icecap (ice cover, which includes theNorth Pole). The taiga, alsocalled boreal (meaning northern)forest, is a zone of scattered ever-green trees, and is the southernboundary of the arctic tundra.The imaginary line where thetreeless tundra changes totaiga is called the tree line.

Arctic tundra is found inAsia, North America, andeight northern countrieswithin Europe. Tundraalso occurs in other placesaround the world, wherecold and high windsinhibit or prevent treegrowth. Generally thiskind of tundra is found athigh elevation and is thusknown as alpine tundra.

The arctic is an amazingand unique place. This

activity guide will lead you andyour students through explo-rations of the arctic region, itswildlife, people, and conservationchallenges, focusing on its NorthAmerican component. This guidewill help you explore thefollowing questions:

Where is the arctic?

What is tundra?

What characteristics define it?

What species of wildlife livein the North American arcticregion? What adaptations doarctic wildlife have to survivethe extreme conditions?

What peoples live in theNorth American arctic? Howdo they live?

What are some of the conser-vation challenges facing theNorth American arcticregions? What can be done toaddress them?

Location and ClimateThe arctic tundra is circumpolar,meaning that it is an ecosystemsurrounding the polar region,above roughly 60 degrees northlatitude. The Arctic circle occursat 66 degrees north latitude.

In the arctic tundra, short daysfor much of the year and theharsh cold climate result in a briefgrowing season of 50-60 days. Bycontrast, the growing season intemperate forests is about sixmonths long and in tropicalforests lasts the entire year.

Furthermore, strong winterwinds challenge the stabilityof any plants that growmore than an inch or twoabove ground surface.Below a thin layer of soilthat thaws every summer isground that remains frozenyear-round, calledpermafrost. The permafrostmay be incredibly deep,reaching more than 1000feet thick in some locations.Although the tundra receivesless than ten inches ofprecipitation each year,(which is why it is some-

ARCTIC CIRCLE

times referred to as an arcticdesert), there can be plenty ofstanding water when the upperlayer of soil thaws each summer.During this thaw, water istrapped at the surface by thealways-frozen permafrost below,forming extensive seasonalwetlands. Roads, which trap thesun’s heat, must be specially insu-lated to prevent them frommelting the permafrost, whichcould cause their collapse. Sincebuildings also trap heat, to avoidthis problem, many buildings areconstructed on stilts and insu-lated pipes run above ground.

Flora and FaunaDue to its high latitude and thetilt of the earth, the arctic experi-ences light and temperatureextremes throughout the calendaryear. Temperatures range from60°F (50° C) inthe winter to 77° F (25° C) inthe summer. In Barrow, Alaska,on the northerncoast, there is a 67-day-long period ofdarkness beginningNovember 18.May 10 starts an84-day-longperiod of light.The plants andanimals of the

tundra must be adapted to facethese challenges, including notonly extremes of day length andtemperatures, but also harshwinter winds, long periods ofbelow freezing temperatures, andpermanently frozen ground.

Hundreds of plant species haveadaptations allowing them tothrive in the arctic region. Plantsthat grow in the arctic areadapted to grow very quickly inthe short window of primegrowing conditions each summer.Plants with low growing, small,compact forms are the mostsuccessful in the arctic—mossesand lichens, grasses and lowbushes are good examples. Theyare adapted this way not so muchto conserve heat, as animals do,but to conserve water. Whensurface area is lower, water evapo-ration is also lessened. The form

or shape of a plant plays a role inits overall ability to function in itsenvironment; in other words,form follows function. Small,waxy leaves help some tundraplants retain moisture, andvertical leaves (such as a blade ofgrass) help others get more lightwhen the sun is very low on thehorizon. Tundra plant roots tendto spread horizontally throughthe thin soil layer above thepermafrost, rather than vertically.

The form of a plant is one type ofadaptation, but arctic plants havemany others. For example, someplants contain chemicals whichserve as natural antifreeze,enabling them to continue photo-synthesizing in freezing tempera-tures (water is a necessary part ofthe process of photosynthesis).Furthermore, all plants mustreproduce and many cannot rely


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ARCTIC POPPY

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largely on insect pollinatorssince insects’ period ofactivity in the arctic islimited. Many arctic plantstherefore reproduce frompieces of themselves, such asa bulbil or root runnerbelow the ground.

Interestingly, the very condi-tion that challenges the overallsurvival of arctic plants so much,the wind, is essential to many ofthem for spreading their pollen.Sometimes plants have to “coop-erate” with each other to survive.This is called a symbiotic rela-tionship. Lichens are organisms

that are made up of two coex-isting organisms, each helping theother to survive. Each lichen is acombination of a fungus, whichstores water and collects minerals,and an algae, which photosynthe-sizes, providing energy for thelichen using the water collectedby the fungus.

Tundra conditions—especiallypermafrost and high winds —

prevent trees fromgrowing to theheights found natu-rally in many otherparts of the world.This is because theroot system of thetree has limited soil

penetration with the near-surfacepermafrost, and a low growingform is less likely to catch thewind and become uprooted.Only very low-growing dwarfwillows and birches survive onthe tundra, and they may onlyreach a few feet in height.

At the southern edge of the arctictundra, in what is called the tran-sition zone between evergreentaiga forest and the nearly treelessland of the tundra, there are treesgrowing that look like they arewalking across the tundra. Thesekrummholz, or “twisted wood,”are trees that grow on one side,the side away from the wind. Onthis side, they have branches thatreach out and touch the ground,eventually taking root there.Wind hitting the tree on theother side causes it to lean in thedirection of growth. This givesthe krummholz the appearance ofmoving, almost crawling acrossthe tundra. These trees may beonly several inches to a few feettall, (generally not taller than theamount of snow that falls each

FOOD WEB POLLUTION IMPACTS IN THE ARCTIC

Lichens absorb and store radioactive materials very easilybecause these chemicals mimic potassium, a mineral importantfor lichen growth. The Chernobyl nuclear power plant accidentaffected lichens of the Norwegian arctic, which impacted rein-deer that rely on lichens as their main food source. Scientistsfound that these reindeer had radiation levels above governmentsafety levels, and could no longer safely be eaten by people.


ARCTIC LICHEN

KRUMHOLZ

year), but they can live for severalhundred years!

Like plants, animal species inhab-iting the arctic tundra havespecial adaptations that enablethem to survive in an ecosystemthat is dramatically different inthe summer than in the winter.Many species have thick layers offat and heavy fur coats. Severalarctic species change color withthe seasons to blend in with thechanging ground cover — arcticfox and rock ptarmigan, whichturn white in winter, for example.Some species hibernate, includingground squirrels and grizzly bears.Insects lay eggs in summer whenthe ground is soft and larvae areadapted to survive freezingtemperatures. During the winter,some insects survive by going intoa dormant state, called diapause.In this state, they can live despitebeing nearly frozen, due to natu-rally occurring antifreeze-likecompounds in their bodies.

Other species, like musk oxen,have developed a compact body

shape to betterconserve bodyheat. Severalmammals,including polarbears, arctic fox,and caribou, havehollow hair thattraps air,providing themwith insulation.For many animals,the coping strategyis tomigrateseasonally, takingadvantage of thetundra’s long summer days andexplosion of food sources in theshort summer season, and findingmore suitable warmer habitats inthe winter. Animal adaptationslike these take thousands of yearsto develop, through naturalselection. Relatively suddenchanges in an animal’s ecosystem,such as increased temperaturescaused by global warming, chal-lenge a species’ ability

to survive.

Plants and animalsof the arctic are

connected to eachother by feeding relation-

ships that transfer energythrough food chains or food

webs. For example, lichensare the major food ofcaribou, which in turn are

eaten by wolves. Anaquatic food chain ofthe Arctic Oceanincludes phyto-plankton eaten bykrill, which are inturn eaten bywhales. Energytransfers are not

confined to eitherland or sea. For

example, polar bearsare land dwellers that

consume sealsfeeding entirelyon oceanic

organisms (such asherring and other fish). It isimportant to remember thatconditions in neighboring ecosys-tems to the arctic, including theArctic Ocean, do have an impacton tundra life via food webs.Pollution introduced into the airand water of far-flung areas of theglobe can eventually reach arcticwildlife as well. Also, becausemigrating species have ranges thatinclude multiple ecosystems,including some far removed fromthe arctic tundra. The tundra canbe affected by changing condi-tions in these ecosystems andtheir respective food webs.


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MUSK OXEN

ARCTIC FOX


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CASE STUDy

Arctic TernSterna paradisaea

Habitat: Coastal islands and beaches throughout North America, Europe and Africa;

also on tundra in summer.

Nesting: 2 spotted olive-buff eggs in a shallow depression in the ground, sometimes lined

with grass or shells. Nests in colonies, usually on islands or protected sand spits.

Range: Breeds from Aleutians, northern Alaska, and northern Canada east to Ellesmere Island and

Newfoundland, and south to northern British Columbia, northern Manitoba, Quebec, and Massachusetts.

Winters at sea in Southern Hemisphere.Also breeds in northern Eurasia.

These terns annually perform spectacular migrations, every fall heading eastward across the Atlantic anddown the west coasts of Europe and Africa to winter in the Antarctic Ocean. In spring they return north,following the East Coast of South and North America, a round-trip that can total 22,000 miles (35,000 kilometers).They see more daylight than any other living creature since they are in both the arctic andAntarctic during the periods of longest days. During the northern winter, this species is more truly oceanicthan its close relatives, feeding chiefly on small seagoing shrimp and other planktonicanimals.The arctic Tern's harsh, rasping, high-pitched cry makes a colony a noisy place.All members assemble to mob an intruder.The nests and eggs left unattended duringan attack are so well camouflaged that a predator is not likely to find them.Theseterns attack so fiercely that human observers haveto protect their heads when walking in a colony.

Threats:Human

disturbance of

breeding habitat,

habitat degradationARCTIC TERN

CASE STUDycaribouRangifer tarandus

Habitat: Tundra and taiga; farther south, where lichens are abundant in coniferous forests

in mountains.

Range: Alaska and much of Canada south through British Columbia to Washington and Idaho; also

Alberta and northern two-thirds of Manitoba and Saskatchewan; in the East, most of Canada south to Lake

Superior and east to Newfoundland.

The caribou of North America, now considered to be the same species as the reindeer of Europe and Asia, is

among the most migratory of all mammals. It is the only member of the deer family that lives year-round north

of the tree line in some of the harshest ecosystems in North America.The gregarious caribou usually forms a

homogeneous band of bulls, or of cows with calves and yearlings, but may also gather in groups numbering up

to 100,000 of both sexes and all ages in late winter before the spring migration.As spring proceeds, herds

begin to move northward. Females move more rapidly, and soon some of the juveniles drop back, especially if

the snow is deep; they will join the bulls, who travel more slowly.The cows spread out as they reach the area

for calving, which takes place in mid-May through early July.The

newborn calf is well developed, able to stand in about 30 minutes, run

some distance after 90 minutes, and keep up with the herd within

24 hours. It begins to eat solid foods at two weeks, but may

continue to nurse into the winter.

In October and November, mating begins; the bulls join the cow/juve-

nile groups, where they remain until cows become receptive. Mating occurs

either at that time, in the early stages of the southward migration, which

varies with location, or immediately after fawning.The polygamous

bull chases the female, who flees ahead of him. Pursuit is often

interrupted by fights with other males.A male may rush about

among several cows, thrashing bushes with his antlers and


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battling other bulls. However, a

male actually pursues only one

female at a time.After the rut, the

animals move south to the winter

range; adult bulls often separate at

this time from the cow/juvenile

group. Different herds move in

different ways in order to reach

summer, winter, calving, and

rutting grounds with adequate

food, water, and protection from

predators.The most impressive

migrations are by the caribou

living on the tundra in the north-

west, often called the “Barren

Ground Caribou.”

Especially active in the morning

and the evening, the caribou can

run at speeds of nearly 50 mph

(80 km/h), but cannot maintain

such a pace for very long.The

animal’s spongy footpads provide

traction and good weight distribu-

tion on boggy summer tundra; in

winter, when the pads have

shrunk and hardened, and are

covered with tufts of hair, the

hoof rim bites into ice or crusted

snow to prevent slipping.The

caribou is also a good swimmer. It

swims with nearly a third of its

body above water, the air-filled

hollow hairs of its coat giving it

great buoyancy. In summer, to

avoid heat and insects, the caribou

often lies on snowbanks on the

north side of hills; in winter, it

suns on frozen lakes. In early

spring, the antlers begin to grow;

they are lost shortly after rutting.

The female retains her antlers

through the winter and loses

them about the time the calves

arrive. In summer, the caribou

feeds on lichens, mushrooms,

grasses, sedges, and many other

green plants, twigs of birches and

willows, and fruit; it also competes

with rodents for dropped antlers,

a source of calcium. In winter,

lichens are the chief food, supple-

mented by horsetails, sedges, and

willow and birch twigs. Food

intake is much reduced in winter,

and the animal loses weight then.

The caribou needs high-quality

forage in summer to supply the

energy necessary for reproduc-

tion, growth, and winter survival.

Cows with insufficient energy

reserves will probably not breed,

but will build reserves and breed

the following year. In the fall, the

bull caribou fattens up to sustain

himself through the rigors of the

rut, when he seldom eats. Usually

quiet, the caribou may give a loud

snort, and herds of snorting

animals may sound like pigs. Biting

flies and other insects can be a

major problem for caribou in

some areas. In years of major

outbreaks, the caribou will seek

snowdrifts, windy ridges, water, or

other areas with few insects.

Sometimes there is nothing the

animal can do but run around

wildly in an attempt to avoid

them. Chief predators are humans

and wolves, although grizzly bears,

wolverines, lynx, and golden eagles

may take a few caribou, particu-

larly the young.The caribou has

been a major source of food and

clothing for native people of the

far north.

Threats: Development of

habitat


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People of theArctic

The arctic is one of the mostsparsely populated areas in theworld. Its peoples are thought tobe descendants of people who

migrated north-ward from centralAsia after the IceAge and laterdispersedthroughout Europe and NorthAmerica. There are eleven distinctNative cultures in Alaska, anddozens of sub-cultures. TheNorth American arctic’s nativepeoples include the Tsimshian,

Aleut, Inuit (including theInupiaq/Inupiat and Yupik), andAthabascans (also spelled Atha-paskan), which include theGwich’in (also known as Kutchin,the native language they speak).

Since they have inhabitedthe arctic region for thou-sands of years, arcticpeoples have adapted tothe harsh climate throughunique traditions.

Hunting animals that are abun-dant at certain seasons of the year,such as migratory caribou, orgathering and preserving plantsduring the arctic summer are afew of the strategies used by

native peoples to survive in thearctic.

Inuit are one group of peoplesliving in the arctic; their nativeland extends from the north-eastern tip of Russia across Alaskaand northern Canada to parts ofGreenland. Though formerlyknown as Eskimos, they preferthe name Inuit, which means ‘thepeople’ or ‘real people’ and comesfrom the Inuit-Inupiaq language.

As the Inuit moved eastward fromAsia, they adjusted their way oflife in order to survive the harsharctic environment. They caughtfish and hunted seals, walrusesand whales, caribou, musk oxen,


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polar bear and other animals.They used animal skins for tentsand clothes, and made tools andweapons from animal bones,antlers, horns and teeth. Insummer, they traveled in kayaksand in winter, on sleds pulled bydog teams. Most Inuit lived intents in the warmer months andin sod houses during the coldwinters. When traveling inhunting parties in winter, theybuilt snowhouses.

The Gwich’in, one of theAthabascan group of nativepeoples, are North America’snorthern most Indian Nation.They live in 15 small villages scat-tered across Northeast Alaska andNorthwest Canada. There areabout 7,000 Gwich'in peoplewho live on or near the migratoryroute of the Porcupine CaribouHerd, on which they depend.For thousands of years, they haverelied upon the Porcupine RiverCaribou Herd to meet virtuallyall of their needs. Each springthey watch first the pregnantcows, and later the bulls and year-lings leave their winter groundsand head north to the coastalplain of the arctic NationalWildlife Refuge, which is thecaribou birthing place andnursing grounds. Today, as in thepast, the caribou is still vital forfood, clothing, tools, and as a

source of respect and spiritualguidance for the Gwich’in.

The discovery of gold in the late1800s led to an influx of morethan 30,000 prospectors to theAlaskan arctic from far-flungstates and countries. The adventof World War II brought furtherroads, airports, harbors, andtimber, fishing, and mining indus-tries grew up in the years

following World War II.The Cold War broughtincreased military presenceto the area. Oil and gaswere discovered at Prudhoe Bayon Alaska's north slope in1968, and the Trans-Alaska Pipeline wasapproved for construc-tion in 1974, bringingincreasing numbers ofindustry personnel and

with them, “Western” culture andvalues. Today, native peoplesrepresent approximately 16% ofAlaska’s population.

Though many Native traditionsare still practiced today, thetraditional way of life no longerexists for most Native peoples.Most live in wooden homesrather than snowhouses, sodhouses or tents. Most wearmodern clothing instead ofanimal skins. Most now speakEnglish in addition to theirnative language. Traditionally-constructed kayaks and skinboatshave been largely replaced bymotor boats, and the snowmo-bile has largely replaced tradi-tional dog teams. With thearctic's increasing economic andpolitical role in the world, there

has been an influx ofnon-native peopleworking onbuilding and main-

taining roads, mineral


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The discovery of goldin the late 1800s ledto an influx of morethan 30,000 prospec-tors to the Alaskan

arctic from far-flungstates and countries.

CARIBOU

and oil extraction sites, weatherstations, and military installa-tions. This has led to increasinglosses in traditional ways of life.Some Native peoples welcomethe changes the last century hasbrought; others do not.

Oil production

Oil, or petroleum (from theterms “petra” meaning rock and“oleum” meaning oil), comesfrom organic matter, plants andanimals that died millions ofyears ago, their bodies accumu-lating and over time beingcovered and compacted by layersof sand and rock. Oil’s ancientliving origin is why it is one kindof “fossil” fuel (coal is another).We don’t know where all of theoil in the world is located, andbecause known sources are finite,oil companies are always trying tofind new sources, or reserves, tofill the ever-growing needs of theworld’s growing population.Some of these reserves are inAlaska, underneath the arctictundra.

In order to take advantage of oilnear Prudhoe Bay, on what iscalled the “North Slope” ofAlaska (because it is the northerndescent of the Brooks Moun-tains), the Trans-Alaska pipeline

was approved in 1974 andcompleted in 1977. This is an800 mile (1200 km), 4-foot widepipe that transports oil fromnorthwestern Alaska to PrinceWilliam Sound in south centralAlaska. Building the pipeline wasa massive project that took over 3years to complete, and cost nearly$8 billion in 1977. Once oilpasses through the pipeline, it isloaded onto ships that take itsouth for processing. Manyspecial engineering considerationswere necessary to build thepipeline, particularly creating aplan for transporting hot oilwithout melting permafrost andminimizing disturbances towildlife which use the area. Forexample, because caribou tend tostay away from human structures,there was concern that thepipeline would upset cariboumigration or movement. Tomake provisions for caribou andother wildlife, the pipeline waselevated at least 10 feet in 554

places, and buried in 23 places tocreate animal passageways.

Nearly 95 percent of the potentialoil reserve area of the North Slopeis open to exploration and drilling(the Naval Petroleum Reserve andthe coast of Prudhoe Bay). Theremaining 5 percent is foundwithin the arctic National WildlifeRefuge, which was set aside byPresident Eisenhower in 1959 topreserve the unique wildernessand wildlife found there.

Impacts of Oil ExplorationThere is great debate over theimpacts of oil exploration andextraction in Alaska. Many arguethat oil development has signifi-cantly altered Alaska's NorthSlope region. Since drilling wasauthorized in the region morethan 30 years ago, oil operationshave led to an average of 409spills of crude oil, diesel fuel, andother pollutants each year,including a spill of 64 million

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gallons of toxic drilling waste inthe Prudhoe Bay area in 1986. Inaddition, the heavy equipmentnecessary for oil extraction leaveslong-term impact on tundra soiland plants. Recovery and re-growth are especially slow in thecold arctic climate. Wildlife activ-ities are disrupted by the presenceof humans; arctic wildlife aresensitive to the presence ofhuman structures and often needundisturbed areas to meet theirhabitat needs. Furthermore, oilextraction activities have leftabandoned drill sites and wasteareas, and have created hundredsof miles of roads and pipelinesthrough these sensitive areas. The

1989 11-million-gallon Exxon oil spillin Valdez, Alaskaaffected 1,500 milesof shoreline alongPrince WilliamSound, an area asvast as the distancefrom Massachusettsto North Carolina.

However, people allover the world relyon petroleum prod-ucts to heat theirhomes, drive theircars, and producethe many plasticproducts we havecome to rely uponevery day. Oil has

also had a major impact on thepeople who live in the arcticregion. Since oil was discovered in1968, the industry has broughtjobs, modernization andeconomic incentives to the arcticregion’s peoples. Instead of payingstate income tax, all residents of

Alaska receive oil dividend checksyearly from the Alaska PermanentFund, allowing Alaskans to sharethe wealth from publicly ownednatural resources. Oil and gasrevenues provide Alaska with85% of its yearly income andprovide 25% of total U.S.production. The oil industryprovides more than 5,000 jobs indrilling, pipeline operations,cargo transportation and a rangeof other support positions in thePrudhoe Bay region.

In addition to the direct environ-mental impacts of oil exploration,the arctic is considered to beparticularly vulnerable to globalwarming, temperature changescaused in part by carbon dioxideemissions that result from theburning of oil and other fossilfuels. Average surface tempera-tures in Alaska have risen over thepast 30 years, and scientistsproject that the average tempera-ture in the region will continue towarm twice as quickly as the

global average. There is growingscientific evidence that the regionmay already be feeling the effectsof this warming: glaciers areretreating, icebergs are melting,sea level is rising, and vast areas ofpermafrost are thawing.

Arctic NationalWildlife Refuge

The political spotlight hasrecently shone on the ArcticNational Wildlife Refuge, largelydue to the debate regarding

whether or not to open it up foroil and gas exploration.

The Arctic National WildlifeRefuge is located entirely north of


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1903 President TheodoreRoosevelt establishedthe National WildlifeRefuge System, desig-nating Pelican Island inFlorida as its first unit.

1949 The National ParkService began a recre-ational survey in Alaskato identify areas withspecial natural values.

1954The National ParkService recommendedthat the undisturbedlands in the north-eastern corner of Alaskabe preserved for theirwildlife, wilderness,recreation, scientific, andcultural values.

1957 The Department of Inte-rior announced plans toask Congress to estab-lish an 8,000 square-milewildlife reserve in thearea identified by theNational Park Servicestudy.

1960 After Congress debatedbut failed to create thewildlife reserve, theSecretary of Interiorsigned a Public LandOrder establishing the8.9 million acre arcticNational Wildlife Range.

1964 President LyndonJohnson signed theWilderness Act, estab-lishing the NationalWilderness PreservationSystem and policies forwilderness management.

1968 President LyndonJohnson signed the Wildand Scenic Rivers Act,establishing the NationalWild and Scenic RiversSystem, which protectsdesignated rivers aseither wild, scenic, orrecreational.

1969 The first manager washired for the arcticNational Wildlife Range.

1971 President Richard Nixonsigned the Alaska NativeClaims Settlement Act.The Act gave theKaktovik Inupiat Corpo-ration surface rights to69,000 acres along thearctic coast within theRange.

1980 President Jimmy Cartersigned the AlaskaNational Interest LandsConservation Act.TheAct expanded the arcticRange to 18 millionacres, renamed it thearctic National WildlifeRefuge, designated eightmillion acres as Wilder-ness, designated threerivers as Wild, and calledfor wildlife studies andan oil and gas assess-ment of 1.5 million acresof the Refuge coastalplain.

1983Nearly one million acreswere added to the southside of the Refuge whenthe State of Alaskadecided not to retaincontrol of lands it hadselected under theStatehood Act.

1987 The governments of theUnited States andCanada signed an inter-national agreement formanagement and long-term protection of thePorcupine Caribou herd.

1988Congress added 325,000acres to the south sideof the Refuge, bringingits total size to19.8million acres.

1997 President WilliamClinton signed the“National WildlifeRefuge System Improve-ment Act.” This Actprovides specific guid-ance to the RefugeSystem, and establishesthe mission of theNational Wildlife RefugeSystem “to administer anational network oflands and waters for theconservation, manage-ment, and where appro-priate, restoration offish, wildlife, and plantresources and their habi-tats within the UnitedStates for the benefit ofpresent and futuregenerations of Ameri-cans.”

1997 The U.S. Supreme Courtreaffirmed that thelagoons bounded bybarrier islands along thenortheast coast ofAlaska are within theboundaries of the arcticRefuge.The State ofAlaska had hoped toclaim ownership of theselagoons to make oilleasing available.

Timeline of arctic National WildlifeRefuge Events 1903-1997

The Arctic NationalWildlife Refuge is

located entirely northof the Arctic Circle.The refuge features

rolling foothills,towering mountains,much forest land, anda vast 1.5-million-acre

coastal plain.

Source: US Fish and Wildlife Service

the Arctic Circle. The refugefeatures rolling foothills, toweringmountains, much forest land, anda vast 1.5-million acre coastalplain. Nestled between 9,000-footmountains and the icy ArcticOcean, the coastal plain includeslow lakes and rivers that createthe heart of wildlife activity in theArctic Refuge. The 19.6-millionacre Arctic National WildlifeRefuge is one of the most pristineplaces in the United States.

Many scientistsbelieve that therefuge’s combination of sweepinglandscapes and high biologicaldiversity, especially in its sensitivecoastal plain, is unmatchedanywhere in the circumpolarNorth. This diversity is a result ofthe presence of high mountainswhich curve north near the arcticcoast in northeast Alaska,compressing many arctic andsubarctic landscapes and ecosys-tems into close proximity andlending themselves to the exis-tence of diverse wildlife habitatsand niches. According to theU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,the refuge provides home to morethan 180 species of birds, andnumerous mammals includingpolar bears, musk ox, wolves,wolverine, moose, arctic and redfoxes, black bears, brown bears,and the white Dall sheep. It isalso the site where more than

100,000 snow geese prepare fortheir fall migration. The Refugealso supports the northernmostbreeding populations of goldeneagles and arctic peregrinefalcons.

The coastal plain of the ArcticRefuge is also the birthplace andnursery grounds of the Porcupine(River) caribou herd, of morethan 130,000 individuals. Theextensive international migrationsof the Porcupine caribou herdhave caused some to compare thearea to Africa’s fabled Serengeti,or to the now-gone buffalo move-ments across America’s GreatPlains more than 100 years ago.

Other scientists and the oilindustry point to the possibilitythat the Coastal Plain of the arcticRefuge contains one of the bestremaining prospects for significant

oil discovery in the United States.The oil industry points out thatless than 1 percent of the Refuge(12,700 acres on the coastal plain)will be affected by oil drilling andproduction. They also raise thequestion that rising oil importsmay be a threat to US nationalsecurity. Furthermore, new oil

production in therefuge will infuse

revenue(billions of

dollars) into theUS economy and provideincreases in employment nation-wide. The oil industry believesthat oil extraction technology hasimproved since development ofthe North Slope, so that theimpact of new development willbe limited to a small area.

A recent U.S. Geological Surveyreport estimates the technicallyrecoverable oil within the refugearea is between 4.3 and 11.8billion barrels (95- and 5-percentprobability range). This latestgovernment figure is being chal-lenged as overly conservative bythose supporting oil development.

By contrast, conservation organi-zations point out that oil is anon-renewable resource. Once oiland gas is extracted from theland, it is gone. If the govern-ment’s estimates are correct, manywho support protection of the


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14 | BACKGROUND

ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE

refuge believe that the amount ofoil available for extraction willprovide the United States withjust nine months’ supply of oil,and it will not be available for atleast 7 years after explorationbegins. Supporters of the refuge’sprotected status also believe thatif the government's national secu-rity objective is to limit relianceon foreign oil imports and createa sustainable long-range energypolicy, there are better ways ofachieving it—such as improvingthe fuel efficiency of cars andother motor vehicles and imple-menting renewable energy strate-gies. Holding relatively constantthe production of automobiles,they believe that a gradual changein corporate average fueleconomy (CAFE) standards fromthe present average of 27.5 milesper gallon to 40 mpg could

reduce US oil demand by twomillion barrels a day by the year2005 - far more than can beproduced in the same period byextracting oil from the coastalplain of the Arctic Refuge.Furthermore, they argue thatalthough development technologymay have improved, the areatargeted for drilling is the mostsensitive portion of the reserve forwildlife.

Native Alaskan peoples are alsodivided on the value of oil drillingin the refuge. The Gwich’in arehighly concerned about drilling’spotential impact on the caribouherds on which they depend forsubsistence and a large part oftheir culture. The Inupiatpeoples, on the other hand, are

coastal dwellers who stand to gainsubstantially from the leasing oftheir potentially rich coastal landto the oil companies. This split islikely to contribute to heightenedconflicts between those nativegroups who rely on hunting andfishing for their sustenance, andthose who look to oil-generatedemployment as their most impor-tant means of economic liveli-hood.

The issue of whether to drill ornot to drill in the refuge iscontroversial and complicated. Itis likely to be an issue carefullywatched by the entire nation inthe context of broader US energy,environmental, security, andeconomic policies of the early21st century.


BACKGROUND | 15

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