The Age of Nation States

Crimean WarItalian and German UnificationFrance, England, Russia 1848-1900Problems in the Habsburg Empire

Crimean War Began as a dispute between Russia and France

as to who should protect holy sites in the Ottoman Empire

Britain and France worried that Russia would become too powerful in the Ottoman region—1853 they declare war on Russia

1st war to be covered by correspondents Florence Nightingale changed nursing War ended in 1885—Peace of Paris

Results:

--Turkey won independence

--Black Sea neutral

--Russians renounced their rights to holy sites within the Ottoman Empire

--Russia’s reputation damaged, lagged behind the rest of Europe in many ways

--England emerges as the strongest European power

--undid what the Congress of Vienna tried to accomplish in the Concert of Europe

Obstacles to Italian Unification Northern Italy is prosperous, Southern Italy

is largely agricultural, poor Pope’s influence and control of papal states Foreign countries ruled over parts of Italy

Unification of Italy

1848—liberals failed to unify Italy Before liberation, Italy was divided into Piedmont-Sardinia,

Lombardy-Venetia, the Papal States, and the Kingdom of Naples

Giuseppe Mazzini– tried to unify Italy in 1848, was a member of the “springtime of the peoples”, hated absolutism and aristocracy, believed unification had to be through the people, not through only one kingdom, formed a secret society, “Young Italy” to mobilize the masses

King Victor Emmanuel II, King of Sardinia appoints Camillo Cavour as Prime Minister in 1854.

Impressed w/England and France’s prosperity and attributed it to aristocratic liberalism

Boosted economy by lowering tariffs, building RRs, strengthening army

Applied civil codes to the clergy, lowered their income, taxed church property

Wanted Italy unified under Piedmont—Sardinia Believed use of force was necessary—get rid of Austria Got Napoleon III to help Sardinia in the case of a war with Austria

(Napoleon offered because Sardinia helped France out in the Crimean War and Sardinia promised them some land in return for help)

Camillo Cavour

War with Austria Marriage arranged between Napoleon III’s cousin and Victor

Emmanuel’s daughter—he will rule the Papal States 1859—Austria invades Sardinia, bringing the French into the

war Due to Sardinia’s military successes and fear for the Pope’s

life, France got nervous Without consulting Cavour, Napoleon arranged for an

armistice w/ Austria. Cavour and Victor Emmanuel felt betrayed

In the armistice, Austria lost Lombardy but kept Venetia in the Treaty of Turin (1860). Sardinia annexed Tuscany, Modena, Parma and Bologna but ceded Savoy and Nice to the French

Giuseppe Garibaldi—

-- an Italian nationalist and member of Young Italy

-- was angered by the armistice because it cut short unification.

--organized an army of volunteers, The Red Shirts

--went to Sicily and liberated the people there from Francis II (Bourbon Monarch)

--then the Red Shirts went to the Peninsula, took Naples. Cavour sent troops to “help” Garibaldi—the combined forces ended papal resistance and kicked out the royal Bourbon family of Naples

Final Steps to Unification

1866 Austro-Prussian War, Venetia becomes part of Italy

1870 Franco-Prussian War, French troops leave Rome

Early Troubles in Italy

Cavour died—bad timing, country needed his administrative abilities

Most people remained loyal to local governments, mafias, church

70% population was illiterate in 1871 Pope refused to recognize Italy’s existence Transformismo system—political opponents were

“transformed” into supporters through bribery, favors, or given seats in the cabinet—very corrupt.

Italia Irredenta

German Unification Did not come through liberal means Upper classes were wary of any change

that would threaten the status quo Unclear who would dominate—Prussia

or Austria? 1850s were repressive—many

democrats/nationalists had fled the country (not enough left to work for unification effectively)

Prussia Takes the Lead--Why? Territory gained in Rhineland after

the Napoleonic Wars Strong economy (Zollverein) Homogeneous population, mostly

German speaking and Protestant Hohenzollerns had an effective

bureaucracy and a supportive noble class (junkers)

Otto von Bismarck“The Iron Chancellor

A junker Germany would be united through “blood

and iron” tactics, practiced realpolitik Parliament didn’t give him the $ he

wanted, so he raised taxes, enlarged the army and passed his own reforms—no one stopped him

War w/Denmark—1864 over Schleswig and Holstein, German victory

Austro-Prussian War—

--enlists Italy’s help by promising them territories--gets France to agree to stay out of it--defeats the Austrians in 7 weeks--makes the peace agreement lenient to keep Austria out of the next conflick--creates the North German Confederation

Franco-Prussian War

--war w/France began because of a dispute over a Hohenzollern taking the Spanish throne--after William I tried to settle it peacefully, Bismarck re-wrote a memo, making it look like William had insulted the French (he really wanted war). He released the memo to the public causing Napoleon III to declare war on Prussia--Prussia defeated the French (Battle of Sedan) and took Alsace-Lorraine

Ramifications of the New German State

Bismarck launched Kulturkampf, an attack on the Catholic Church and Socialists—both backfired as they became more popular—he was fired shortly after

New, strong, military state—made Europe nervous, changed the balance of power

Created a bitter enemy—Francy Rising economic success of the new

Germany created competition w/England, leading to the scramble for colonies

England, France and Russia

1848-1900 England

--Crystal Palace built, symbolizing the potential of industrialization--William Gladstone, prime minister, tries to expand the vote, Disraeli (his successor) does--rise of 2 party system, decline in the power of the monarchy

France--Napoleon III led France to economic

prosperity and made some liberal reforms but he got them into the Franco-Prussian War, was captured and exiled

--Third Republic, challenged by the Paris Commune (20,000 killed) which lasted 2 months

--Third Republic stabilized until the Dreyfus Affair which split France down the middle and made the conservatives seem very anti-semitic. Emile Zola wrote a letter accusing the govt of lying—he was sent to prison

Russia--1861 Alexander II frees the serfs

--created zemstvos (local govts)--Alexander III made great strides in industrializing Russia, constructing RRs and factories