the aegean in the neolithic, chalcolithic and the early

ANKARA UNIVERSITY RESEARCH CENTER FOR MARITIME ARCHAEOLOGY (ANKÜSAM)

Publication No: 1

Proceedings of the International Symposium

The Aegean in the Neolithic, Chalcolithic and the Early Bronze Age

October 13th – 19th 1997, Urla - İzmir (Turkey)

Edited by

Hayat Erkanal, Harald Hauptmann, Vasıf Şahoğlu, Rıza Tuncel

Ankara • 2008

ANKARA ÜNİVERSİTESİ / ANKARA UNIVERSITY SUALTI ARKEOLOJİK ARAŞTIRMA ve UYGULAMA MERKEZİ (ANKÜSAM)

RESEARCH CENTER FOR MARITIME ARCHAEOLOGY (ANKÜSAM)

Yayın No / Publication No: 1

Ön kapak: İzmir - Höyücek’de ele geçmiş insan yüzü tasvirli bir stel. M.Ö. 3. Bin. Front cover: A stelae depicting a human face from İzmir - Höyücek . 3rd Millennium

BC. Arka kapak: Liman Tepe Erken Tunç Çağı II, Atnalı Biçimli Bastiyon. Back cover: Early Bronze Age II horse-shoe shaped bastion at Liman Tepe.

Kapak Tasarımı / Cover Design : Vasıf Şahoğlu

ISBN: 978-975-482-767-5

Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi / Ankara University Press İncitaşı Sokak No:10 06510 Beşevler / ANKARA

Tel: 0 (312) 213 66 55 Basım Tarihi: 31 / 03 / 2008

CONTENTS

Abbreviations …………………………………………………………………………………............ xi Preface by the Editors ………………………………………………………………………………… xiii Opening speech by the Mayor, Bülent BARATALI …...……………………………………………......... xxiii Opening speech by Prof. Dr. Ekrem AKURGAL ……………………………………............................... xxv Opening speech by Prof. Dr. Christos DOUMAS……………………………………………………….. xxvii LILIAN ACHEILARA

Myrina in Prehistoric Times …..……………………………………………………………. 1 VASSILIKI ADRIMI – SISMANI

Données Récentes Concernant Le Site Prehistorique De Dimini: La Continuité de l’Habitation Littorale depuis le Début du Néolithique Récent jusqu’à la Fin du Bronze Ancien ……………………………………………………………………………… 9

IOANNIS ASLANIS

Frühe Fortifikationssysteme in Griechenland ………………………………………………. 35 PANAGIOTA AYGERINOU

A Flaked-Stone Industry from Mytilene: A Preliminary Report …………………………… 45 ANTHI BATZIOU – EFSTATHIOU

Kastraki: A New Bronze Age Settlement in Achaea Phthiotis …………………………….. 73 MARIO BENZI

A Forgotten Island: Kalymnos in the Late Neolithic Period ……………………………….. 85 ÖNDER BİLGİ

Relations between İkiztepe by the Black Sea Coast and the Aegean World before Iron Age ……………………………………………………………………………... 109

TRISTAN CARTER

Cinnabar and the Cyclades: Body modification and Political Structure in the Late EB I Southern Cyclades ………………………………………………………............. 119

CHRISTOS DOUMAS

The Aegean Islands and their Role in the Developement of Civilisation ………….............. 131 ANTHI DOVA

Prehistoric Topography of Lemnos: The Early Bronze Age ………………………………. 141 NIKOS EFSTRATIOU

The Neolithic of the Aegean Islands: A New Picture Emerging ………………….............. 159 HAYAT ERKANAL

Die Neue Forschungen in Bakla Tepe bei İzmir ..…………………………………………. 165 HAYAT ERKANAL

Liman Tepe: A New Light on the Prehistoric Aegean Cultures …………………………… 179 JEANNETTE FORSÉN

The Asea Valley from the Neolithic Period to the Early Bronze Age …………….............. 191 DAVID H. FRENCH

Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Pottery of Southwest Anatolia ………………............. 197

Contents

viii

NOEL GALE Metal Sources for Early Bronze Age Troy and the Aegean ………………………............. 203

BARTHEL HROUDA

Zur Chronologie Südwestkleinasiens in der 2. Hälfte des 3. Jahrtausends v. Chr ............... 223 HALİME HÜRYILMAZ

1996 Rettungsgrabungen auf dem Yenibademli Höyük, Gökçeada / Imbros …………….. 229

ERGUN KAPTAN Metallurgical Residues from Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Liman Tepe ………………………………………………………………………….......... 243

ANNA KARABATSOLI and LIA KARIMALI

Etude Comparative Des Industries Lithiques Taillées Du Néolithique Final Et Du Bronze Ancien Egéen : Le Cas De Pefkakia ………………………………………….. 251

NECMİ KARUL

Flechtwerkgabäude aus Osttrakien ……………………………………………………….. 263 SİNAN KILIÇ

The Early Bronze Age Pottery from Northwest Turkey in Light of Results of a Survey around the Marmara Sea ………………………………………………………….. 275

OURANIA KOUKA

Zur Struktur der frühbronzezeitlichen insularen Gesellschaften der Nord- und Ostägäis: Ein neues Bild der sogenannten “Trojanischen Kultur”…………….. 285

NINA KYPARISSI – APOSTOLIKA

Some Finds of Balkan (or Anatolian) Type in the Neolithic Deposit of Theopetra Cave, Thessaly …………………………………………………………………. 301

LAURA LABRIOLA

First Impressions: A Preliminary Account of Matt Impressed Pottery in the Prehistoric Aegean ………………………………………………………………………… 309

ROBERT LAFFINEUR

Aspects of Early Bronze Age Jewellery in the Aegean …………………………………… 323 KYRIAKOS LAMBRIANIDES and NIGEL SPENCER

The Early Bronze Age Sites of Lesbos and the Madra Çay Delta: New Light on a Discrete Regional Centre of Prehistoric Settlement and Society in the Northeast Aegean ……………………………………………………........................ 333

YUNUS LENGERANLI

Metallic Mineral Deposits and Occurences of the Izmir District, Turkey ………………… 355 EFTALIA MAKRI – SKOTINIOTI and VASSILIKI ADRIMI – SISMANI

Les Sites Du Neolithique Recent Dans Le Golfe Pagasetique : La Transformation Des Sites De L’age De Bronze En Sites Urbains (Le Cas De Dimini) ……………………. 369

ELSA NIKOLAOU, VASSO RONDIRI and LIA KARIMALI

Magoula Orgozinos: A Neolithic Site in Western Thessaly, Greece ………………………. 387 EMEL OYBAK and CAHİT DOĞAN

Plant Remains from Liman Tepe and Bakla Tepe in the İzmir Region ……………………. 399

Contents

ix

DEMETRA PAPACONSTANTINOU Looking for ‘Texts’ in the Neolithic Aegean: Space, Place and the Study of Domestic Architecture (Poster summary) ………………………………….......... 407

ATHANASSIOS J. PAPADOPOULOS and SPYRIDOULA KONTORLI – PAPADOPOULOU Some thoughts on the Problem of Relations between the Aegean and Western Greece in the Early Bronze Age …………………………………………………. 411

STRATIS PAPADOPOULOS and DIMITRA MALAMIDOU

Limenaria: A Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Settlement at Thasos ……………………… 427 DANIEL J. PULLEN

Connecting the Early Bronze I and II Periods in the Aegean ……………………………….. 447

JEREMY B. RUTTER Anatolian Roots of Early Helladic III Drinking Behaviour …………………………………. 461

VASIF ŞAHOĞLU

New Evidence for the Relations Between the Izmir Region, the Cyclades and the Greek Mainland during the Third Millennium BC …………………………………. 483

ADAMANTIOS SAMPSON

From the Mesolithic to the Neolithic: New Data on Aegean Prehistory ……………………. 503 EVANGELIA SKAFIDA

Symbols from the Aegean World: The Case of Late Neolithic Figurines and House Models from Thessaly …………………………………………………………... 517

PANAGIOTA SOTIRAKOPOULOU

The Cyclades, The East Aegean Islands and the Western Asia Minor: Their Relations in the Aegean Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age …………………….. 533

GEORGIA STRATOULI

Soziale une ökonomische Aspekte des Chalkolithikums (spätneolithikum II) in der Ägäis aufgrund alter und neuer Angaben …………………………………………….. 559

GEORGE TOUFEXIS

Recent Neolithic Research in the Eastern Thessalian Plain, Greece: A Preliminary Report ……………………………………………………………………….. 569

RIZA TUNCEL

IRERP Survey Program: New Prehistoric Settlements in the Izmir Region ……………….. 581 HANNELORE VANHAVERBEKE, PIERRE M. VERMEERSCH, INGRID BEULS, BEA de CUPERE and MARC WAELKENS

People of the Höyüks versus People of the Mountains ? …………………………………… 593 KOSTAS VOUZAXAKIS

An Alternative Suggestion in Archaeological Data Presentations: Neolithic Culture Through the Finds from Volos Archaeological Museum ……………….. 607

Closing Remarks by Prof. Dr Machteld J. MELLINK ………………………………………………. 611 Symposium Programme ……………………………………………………………………………… 615 Memories from the Symposium……………………………………………………………………… 623

Metallic Mineral Deposits and Occurences of the İzmir District

Yunus LENGERANLI

ABSTRACT: A number of metallic deposits and occurances given below are known in İzmir district. About 10 gold fields, most of them located around Ödemiş and others at Karşıyaka, Seferihisar and Bergama, are recorded. Three antimony deposits near Ödemiş and Menderes are reported. Known lead-zinc (copper) deposits of İzmir are situated around Bayındır, Gümüldür, the Buca-Kemalpaşa area and Bergama. Two iron ore deposits in İzmir are located at Torbalı-Yazıbaşı and Çırpı. Mercury deposits are seen at Karaburun and in the Torbalı-Ödemiş region. A previously unrecorded aluminium deposit is located east of Urla (at Özbek village and Malkaç mount). Apart from known ore deposits and occurances, some mangenese occurances exist. If the subject is examined according to the archaeological periods, three points should be noted: (1) Production activities could have been carried out in some fields which are not feasible under present economic conditions, (2) From an iron-cup of a lead-zinc ore and iron deposit, in which low copper contents are present, copper ore could have been mined, (3) Silver could have been produced from lead-zinc deposits which are not presently accepted as silver deposits.

A number of metallic mineral deposits

and occurrences such as gold, antimony, lead-zinc (-copper), copper, mercury, iron, aluminium and manganese are known from the İzmir region:

Three antimony deposits are reported. Two of them are situated near the Ödemiş town centre and the third one to the southeast of Menderes (Cumaovası). One of the Ödemiş deposits is under production.

More than 10 gold deposits and many occurrences in five gold fields are known. Most of them are located at both sides of Küçük Menderes valley and others are located at Karşıyaka, Seferihisar and Bergama. None of them is under production.

One iron ore deposit and some occurrences are reported in İzmir.

Known lead-zinc (-copper) deposits occur at Bayındır, Gümüldür, between Kemalpaşa and İzmir city centre, and Bergama. Although there is no production in these locations today, a considerable amount of ore production was achieved during historic times. In addition to lead-zinc (-copper) deposits, a few copper occurrences can also be seen.

A number of mercury deposits are seen at the Karaburun peninsula and Torbalı-Ödemiş region. After much exploitations, activities have been terminated as a result of the decreasing

importance of metallic mercury in the world due to environmental constraints.

An unrecorded aluminium deposit is located to the east of the Urla town centre.

Apart from the above ore deposits and occurrences, some unimportant manganese occurrences might also be noted.

In historic periods, ore production was carried out in some fields which are not large enough or not economically viable at present. From an iron-cup of a lead-zinc, iron or gold deposit, copper ore could be mined. Silver could have been produced from lead-zinc deposits which are not presently accepted as silver deposits. Gold, antimony, mercury and even iron deposits with high arsenic content were possible arsenic sources. Antimony or mercury deposits or iron cups of antimony, iron, lead-zinc and gold deposits could be potential paint material sources.

Antimony Deposits

Three antimony deposits are recorded in the İzmir District:

Kiraz-Çaylı Antimony Deposit

It is located between Ödemiş and Kiraz town centres (Fig.1). Country rocks are schist

Yunus LENGERANLI

356

and gneiss1. Ore bearing zones are related to the silicified tectonic lines, which can be identified by silicification and limonitisation2. Antimonite and pyrite are the dominant ore minerals. Antimony ocher and limonite are also seen. Gang minerals are quartz and calcite3. Average antimony grade is 7.4% and the reserve (probable/inferred) was calculated about 3,000 tons4. It once was mined but has been abandoned.

Ödemiş (Beydağ)-Emirli-Yağcılar-Yapalak

Antimony Deposits

They are located a few kilometres west of Beydağ, a new town centre (Fig.1). Host rocks are schist and gneiss5. Mineralisation occurs in silicified zones and controlled by a fault6. Dominant ore minerals are antimonite, pyrite marcasite metallic gold and antimony ocher. Arsenopyrite is also present in small amounts. Gang mineral is quartz7. Antimony grades vary between 2 - 5.5% and total reserve (proved/probable) is 1,600,000 tons8. Annual production from the deposit is about 10,000 tons9.

Cumaovası-Sandıköy Antimony Deposit

This deposit is located to the southeast of Menderes town centre (Fig.1). Host rocks are limestone, clayey shale and sandstone. Mineralisation occurs in a black coloured quartz vein. Main ore mineral is antimonite and gang mineral is calcite. Antimony grades vary between 3 - 12%. Reserve (probable) is 100,000 tons10. There were production activities in the past, but now abandoned.

Lead-Zinc (-Copper) Deposits

There are a number of reported lead-zinc (-copper) deposits in the İzmir district. Most of

ith 0.53% opper .

Güm

h of İzmir city centre

1 Yıldırım 1979,4-5. 2 Yıldırım 1979,11-14. 3 Yıldırım 1979,13-17. 4 Yıldırım 1979,18. 5 Yıldırım & Çil 1979,9-12. 6 Yıldırım & Çil 1979,19-22. 7 Yıldırım & Çil 1979,22-25. 8 Yıldırım & Çil 1979,25-31. 9 Seges 1993. 10 Andiç 1981-a, 12,19.

them are located between İzmir city centre and the town centre of Bayındır and others at the south of the city centre and at the northeast of Bergama town centre. According to the archaeological and historical data it can be said that most of them were principal silver source during earlier periods of history. We call them, lead-zinc deposits, but they were accepted as silver deposits in the past. For example, lead-zinc deposits of the Middle Taurus (Niğde-Adana area) were silver deposits during the Byzantine Period and probably Greek to Byzantine Periods11. Actually, most of the lead-zinc deposits of İzmir were mentioned in Ottoman records as silver deposits12 and it can be speculated that the mines of earlier times’, “mines at Spil Mount”13, could be silver mines, too. Apart from these deposits, a number of occurrences can be mentioned. Kapıkaya iron-copper occurrence, Çürükbağ lead occurrence and İncecikler copper-molybdenum occurrence to the north of Bergama14, Cumaovası-Sandıköy small copper occurrence with 0.97-1.21% copper grades and a mineralogical composition of malachite, cuprite and chalcopyrite15 and Karaburun-Eğriliman w

16 c

üldür (Gümüşsu) Lead-Zinc Deposit

It is located to the sout, near Gümüldür (Fig.1).

Host rock is limestone in flysch17. Mineralisation in different places occur in limestone as vein type fault infillings and oxidation is effective in depth18. Ore minerals consist of pyrite, galena, sphalerite, smithsonite, cerussite, anglesite, covellite, chalcocite, malachite, limonite, psilomelane and pyrolusite; gang minerals are calcite, dolomite, ankerite, barite and quartz19. From drill cores 1% lead

12 1931,VII & 44; Yorulmaz 1994,154-155,165-

1.A.

Acar 1981,40-43.

11 Yener & Toydemir 1993, 155-159. Refik166.

13 Strabon 1993,214. 14 Andiç at al 1986, Annex15 MTA 1945-a.1. 16 MTA 1945-b, 1. 17 Dilek & Acar 1981,13-17. 18 Dilek & Acar 1981,38-40. 19 Çöteli 1977,41-43; Dilek &


357

and 0.2-1 zinc values were obtained20. Point samples gave results of up to 17.50% lead, 23.40% zinc and as high as 540.6 grams per ton silver values21. Çöteli22 also reported 150-250 grams/ton silver values. A potential reserve of 125,000 tons with total lead-zinc percent smaller than 10 were given to the deposit23. This deposit was mined at the end of the last century24, ceased in 1908, but again mined from time to time until the 1980’s25.

Bayındır-S ead-Zinc

. Mining activities were carried out in 1970’s.

Kemalpa k-yayla

arıyurt-Ilıcadere L(Copper) Deposit

It is located to the northwest of the town centre of Bayındır (Fig.1). Host rock is schist. Two mineralised horizons are identified. Both of them have stratiform ore geometry. Ore minerals consist of galena, sphalerite and very small amounts of chalcopyrite and pyrite. Gang minerals are carbonate minerals. Lead grades are 4% lead and zinc 7.48%. Inferred reserve of the deposit was calculated to be 1,188,000 tons in 197426. But 185,000 tons was determined to be the exploitable reserve in 197527

şa-Yenikurudere and OvacıZinc-Lead Mineralisations

This area is located to the southeast of Kemalpaşa town centre (Fig.1). It was also called Bayındır-Kurudere because of its mid-position between Kemalpaşa and Bayındır town centres. Lithological units cropping out in this field are schist and marble with common quartz strips and lenses28. Stratiform ore bodies have lenticular shapes29. It is quite similar to the deposit located 8 kilometres south, Bayındır-Sarıyurt. In this field, there are a number of undated old workings30. Ore minerals are sphalerite, galena, pyrite and chalcopyrite,

7.

81,88.

,37-38.

ments.

8.

iled inform tion has been obtained about them.

Kemalp an and

n the Gümüldür (Güm su) lead-zinc deposit.

Buca

20 Dilek & Acar 1981,83-821 Dilek & Acar 1922 Çöteli 1977,43. 23 Dilek & Acar 1981,53. 24 Yorulmaz 1994,165-166. 25 Dilek & Acar 198126 Özcan 1974,3-18. 27 MTA 1975,attach28 Özcan 1974,2-6. 29 Alkan & Dayal 1977,6-30 UNDP 1974-b, 11,29.

pyrrhotite, magnetite, cerussite and limonite31. Zinc grade is about 5% and lead grade is 0.5%. the proven reserve of the field was calculated as 18,000 tons32. Old galleries were observed at the field made before 1970’s33, but no deta

a

aşa-Kızılüzüm, GümüşalPınarbaşı-Kavaklıdere

Lead-Zinc-Silver Area

A number of lead-zinc-silver occurrences are situated between Kemalpaşa town centre in the east and Belkahve in the west (Fig.1). UNDP34 reported a number of lead zinc mineralisation and old workings. Host rock is limestone blocks in flysch. UNDP35 recorded galena, barite and malachite as ore minerals. Lengeranlı et al.36 identified galena, cerussite, smithsonite, limonite and barite. According to them, these occurrences were quite similar to the Buca-Maden Tepe lead deposit and Peynirlitaş occurrence and eve

üş

-Kaynaklar-Maden Tepe Lead Deposit

It is located to the southeast of Izmir city centre (Fig.1). Surrounding units are flysch and limestone blocks in it37. Lead deposit occurs in limestone as vein type38. Ore minerals are pyrite, galena, enargite, chalcopyrite, boulangerite, cerussite, covellite and limonite. Barite is also present39. From chemical analyses of samples from the deposit lead, zinc, and copper values were obtained 10.94-14.51%, 0.03-0.28 and 0.01-0.11 respectively40. No silver analyses were performed but, according to the paragenesis, high values of this element may be possible. A total reserve (proven/probable/inferred) was calculated as

1977,6-8.

34 1974-a, Annex Map, 1974-b, 10,26-28, 1974-c,

995-b.

8.

31 Alkan & Dayal 32 Özcan 1974,8. 33 UNDP 1974-a, 10,29.

UNDP 50-56.

35 UNDP 1974-b, 10. 36 Lengeranlı et al. 137 Acar 1978,7-12. 38 Acar 1978,14-18. 39 Acar 1978,14-140 Acar 1978,18.

Yunus LENGERANLI

358

100,000 tons41. Although short periods of production are known before 1978, it is abandoned at present.

Buca-Kaynaklar-Peynirlitaş Lead

because of the very small reserve possibility.

Bergama-T ead-Zinc-

was mined before 1970, but is now abandoned.

r sources like Bozdağ deposits and occurrences.

Occurrence

It is located a few kilometres to the north of the Maden Tepe deposit (Fig.1). It occurs in limestone related to the faults and consists of a pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite, quartz and barite mineralisation42. It is an unimportant occurrence

uranlı-Katrancı LCopper Deposits

It is located northeast of Bergama town centre (Fig.1). Lithological units of surrounding area are schists, sandstone-conglomerate, limestone and spilitic rocks43. Rhyodacite covers all these units. Mineralisation are related to riodacitic vulcanism and seen along the fault zones as lenses and disseminated ore bodies. Dominant ore minerals are sphalerite, galenite and very little chalcopyrite44. Gang minerals are calcite and quartz45. Zinc values has an arithmetic medium of 2%, and lead 6.5%. Total reserve was calculated as 66,706 tons46. It

Gold Deposits

In İzmir more than ten gold deposits in five gold fields are known. Most of them are located around Ödemiş and others at Karşıyaka, Seferihisar and Bergama. Strabo mentioned the Ödemiş gold field and the Bergama-Ovacık gold deposit47. Bozdağ gold deposits and occurrences can be accepted as the primary source of the well-known Sard gold deposit. Geologically, such deposits formed feed smalle

41 Acar 1978,19.

42 Acar 1978, 15. 43 Özcan 1970,2-5. 44 Özcan 1970,7,8,10. 45 Özcan 1970,7. 46 Özcan 1970,9-10. 47 Strabon 1993,87,132,214.

Ödemiş-Bozdağ Gold Deposits

A number of vein type gold deposits (namely Geyikdağı, Boğazyayla, Yediler Tepe, Zeytinlik/İncilipınar and a number of smaller occurrences) are situated on Bozdağ Mountain to the north of Ödemiş, and both sides of the Küçük Menderes valley (Fig.1). A short list of these occurrences having similar characteristics to the Ödemiş gold fields are: Beydağ-Mutaflar; Tire-Beylerdere, Osmancık, Yenişehir, Saruhanlı; Ödemiş-Hüyük Tepe, Mursallı, Lübbey Yayla, Elmacıkgediği, Akçakmak gediği, Yılanlıkale, Kemer, Küçük Avlucak, Dolaylar; Kiraz-Bucak, Keşkekgediği, İskan, Kırköy etc48. All of them are small occurrences in general, yet they include high gold. As an example, Tire Beylerdere occurrence contains as high as 26.3-grams/ton gold49. Apart from these, mercury and antimony deposits and occurrences of this region should be considered for gold, because of their genetic relation to gold deposits.

Host rocks of Bozdağ gold deposits are schists and ore bodies are seen as sulphide minerals bearing quartz veins50. Arsenopyrite, pyrite, antimonite, chalcopyrite and metallic gold are the most common minerals of primary paragenesis. Dominant gang mineral is quartz51. Reserves (proved and probable) and average gold grades are respectively as follows: Geyikdaği deposit: 1,150,000 tons, 1.493 grams/ton52, Boğazyayla: 214,164 tons, 2.247 grams/ton53, Yediler Tepe: 19,717 tons, 1.042 grams/ton54, Zeytinlik / İncilipinar: 13,028 tons, 10.7 grams/ton55.

Ödemiş-Küre Gold Deposit

It is located to the southeast of Ödemiş, near the new town centre Beydağı (Fig.1). Host rock and paragenesis are quite similar to other northerly-located Ödemiş gold deposits. Gold silver and arsenic grades are between 1.1–8.0

48 Kayhan 1991, annex-1. 49 Molly 1960,18-20. 50 Kayhan 1991,28. 51 Kayhan 1991,113. 52 Kayhan 1991,107. 53 Kayhan 1991,113. 54 Kayhan 1991,113. 55 Kayhan 1991,116.


359

grams/ton, 2 grams/ton and 1% respectively with a reserve (proved and probable) of 96,400 tons. The deposit contents 230 kilos-gold, 250 kilos-silver and 1,540-kilos arsenic56. No production is known from the Ödemiş deposits.

Menderes-Efençukuru Gold (Lead-Zinc,

Copper, Manganese) Deposit

It is situated to the south-west of İzmir city centre (Fig.1). Host rock is flysch which is mainly composed of phyllite and sandstone cut by rhyolitic porphyry dykes. Mineralisations occur in hornfels. Ore bodies are controlled by brecciated silicified zones57. This deposit is also a manganese, lead-zinc and copper deposit. In some veins, lead-zinc is rich but others have copper or manganese. So this deposit group can be accepted to be a polymetallic deposit. Paragenesis consists of pyrite, metallic gold, rhodonite, rhodochrosite, manganite, galenite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, magnetite, arsenopyrite, etc. Gang is quartz and calcite58. In different parts of the field 1-9% copper, 0.5-12% lead, 10-40% zinc, 10-400 gr. per ton silver and 0.1-2.6 gr. per ton gold values were obtained59. This field was evaluated in 1995 for gold,: average gold grade is 0.51 gr./ton and total reserve (proven/probable) is 70,000 tons60. There is no known production activity of Efençukuru gold (-poly-metallic) deposit.

Seferihisar–Gödence-Poyrazoğlu Tepe Gold

Deposit

It is situated northnortheast of Seferihisar town centre (Fig.1). Host rock is flysch, which is generally formed of phyllite and sandstone. Spilite and diabase is widespread near the mineralised area. Brecciated veins control ore bodies and veinlets related to the faults between flysch and spilite/diabase61. Paragenesis consists of pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, metallic gold, sphalerite, arsenopyrite, galena, hematite, limonite, manganite, pyrolusite and psilomelane. Gang minerals are quartz,

56 Yüce et al. 1979,45-49. 57 Andiç 1981b; Dilek et al. 1995,15-21. 58 Andiç 1981b, 7-9. 59 Andiç 1981b, 11. 60 Dilek et al., 1995,56. 61 Dilek et al. 1995,15-21.

dolomite and calcite62. Gold grade is 1.26 grams/ton and reserve (proved/probable) is 82,249 tons63. No production is recorded in this area.

Bergama–Ovacık Gold Deposit

This is the most famous gold deposit of Turkey because of public pressure environmental problems. It has been well investigated and shown that this deposit is the largest and most important one in Turkey. It is situated between Bergama and Dikili (Fig.1). Host rock is andesite-dacite, dacite-andesite and rhyodacitic lava flows64. Ore minerals are metallic gold, silver, abundant pyrite, rare chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, limonite and hematite and other very rare ore minerals. Gang minerals consist of quartz and chalcedony65. Gold grade is 9 grams/ton and silver is 11 grams/ton. The proven reserve of the deposit is 2, 980, 000 tons. Total gold content is 26.82 tons and silver content is 32.78 tons66. Gold figure shows us that Bergama-Ovacık gold deposit is the largest one in Turkey. Every preparation for mining and extracting gold has been completed, but due to public pressure there has been production yet. Strabo mentioned from Bergama-Ovacık gold deposit as a wealth source for many kings67. This deposit will also be a source for Turkey when financially exploited.

Karşıyaka-Altıntepe and Çilektepe Gold

Field

This field is located to the east of the city centre close to Karşıyaka (Fig.1). The significant surrounding area is completely covered by volcanic rocks. Host rocks are dacidic tuff and lava68. Mineralisation takes place in quartz veins in the eastern portion of the field (Altıntepe) and as disseminated ore bodies in silicified tuff in the western portion

62 Dilek et al. 1995,28-30. 63 Dilek et al. 1995,55. 64 Eurogold 1997, 7. 65 Eurogold 1997, 7-11. 66 Eurogold 1997, 11; 1998, 3. 67 Strabon 1993, 214. 68 Gonca 1990, 18-27.

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(Çilektepe)69. Ore minerals are metallic gold pyrite, arsenopyrite, marcasite, hematite, sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, tennantite, tetrahedrite, etc. Gang consists of quartz, barite and chalcedony70. Reserves of gold and silver and their grades are: Altıntepe sector: a reserve (proven/probable/inferred) of 688,033 tons with about 3.3 grams/ton gold and 43 grams/ton silver; Çilektepe sector: a reserve (proved/probable/inferred) of 3,118,713 tons (proved reserve: 352,625 tons) with 1.3 gram/ton gold71. Exploration activities have been completed in the field, but production has not yet started.

Mercury Deposits

Mercury deposits in the İzmir region are concentrated in the northern part of the Karaburun peninsula, and between Torbalı and Ödemiş town centres (Fig.1). These deposits are the accepted examples of the most important mercury deposits of Turkey. The larger ones of them are Karareis, Dikencik, and Kalecik at Karaburun and Halıköy and Türkönü at Ödemiş. Additionally, a number of mercury deposits in the Ödemiş-Tire-Torbalı region, (Helvacı, Akmescit and Çamlıca) was reported. Apart from these deposits, a number of occurrences, (not examined in this study), such as Uyuzdere, Bademiye, Çaylı, Karaman and Kürdüllü, can be mentioned72.

Total reserves of these deposits are about 5,500 tons (total mercury contents) and grades are between 0.10 – 0.40 % mercury. As at other mercury deposits in Turkey, (Karaburun and Halıköy), mining activities were carried out before the end of the 1970’s. But due to the declining need of mercury in industry depending on the increasing sensibility to the environment in the world, they all ceased production before the end of the 1970’s.

The most important mercury deposits and occurrences of the İzmir area are briefly noted below:

69 Gonca 1990, 28-49. 70 Gonca 1990, 30-43. 71 Gonca 1990,77-79. 72 UNDP 1974c, 10,15,20,22,48.

Karaburun-Kalecik Mercury Deposit

It is located to the south of the Karaburun town centre (Fig.1). Schists, conglomerate, basalt and limestone crop out around the mineralised area. Mineralisation takes place in fault zones as disseminated ore bodies or veins. Ore minerals are metallic mercury and cinnabar with pyrite73. Mercury grades vary from 0.2 to 0.3%. Total reserve (proven / probable / estimated) is 1,670,000 tons. Production began in 1906 at the Kalecik mine74.

Karaburun-Karareis Mercury Deposit

It is located to the southwest of Karaburun town centre (Fig.1). Surrounding rocks and ore minerals are almost the same as the other Karaburun deposits. Ore deposits occur in the contact zone between schist and limestone75. Mercury grade is 0.3%. Estimated reserve was 50,000 tons in 197476. Production activities were started in 195577. It had caused production before the 1970’s.

Karaburun-Dikencik Mercury Deposit

It is also situated to the south-west of Karaburun town centre (Fig.1). Country ocks and ore minerals are almost same as for the other Karaburun deposits. Uniquely, jasper is present in mineralised places78. Mercury grade is 1%, and proven reserve was calculated as 100,000 tons. 300,000 tons of reserve was also estimated79.

Ödemiş (Beydağ)-Halıköy Mercury Deposit

It is located to the west of Beydağ town centre (Fig.1). Country rocks are mica-schist, gneiss and marble. Mineralisation occurs in a fault zone which forms contact between schist and gneiss. Ore minerals are cinnabar and pyrite80. Reserve and grade were calculated by

73 MTA 1969,31-32. 74 MTA 1969,31. 75 MTA 1969,30. 76 Nar 1974 77 MTA 1969,30. 78 MTA 1969, 34. 79 MTA 1969, 34. 80 MTA 1969, 36.


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Zimmer81 as 231,000 tons and 0.186% of mercury respectively. Later it was reassessed as follows; 0.14% of mercury for the proven reserve of 175,235 tons and additionally there was more 126,000 tons reserve (probable/inferred) with 0.24% of mercury content82. It was mined in 195883, but later abandoned.

Ödemiş-Türkönü Mercury Deposit

It is located towards at the east of Ödemiş town centre on the way to Kiraz town centre (Fig.1). Lithological units in the area are schists, gneiss, quartzite and marble. Mineralisation takes place in the contact zone between schist and gneiss84 related to the fault breccias85. Dominant ore mineral is cinnabar86. Mercury grade vary from 0.3 to 0.4%. 1,000,000 tons potential reserve was estimated87. Production had started before The First World War88. Now it is abandoned.

Torbalı-Helvacı Mercury Deposit

It is situated at the northeast of Torbalı town centre (Fig.1). Surrounding rocks are schists89. Mineralisation occurs in fault zones90. Main ore mineral is cinnabar with pyrite91. Arsenopyrite, hematite and limonite also take place in the paragenesis92. Mercury content is 0.2%. A probable reserve of 42,000 tons was calculated93. Gold values between 3.6 and 63 grams per ton were obtained from mineralisation in quartzite and schist with varying amounts of arsenopyrite, pyrite and limonite94. There is no known mining activities.

.

7 .

81 Zimmer 1955, annexes. 82 MTA 1969, 36. 83 MTA 1969, 36. 84 MTA 1969, 34. 85 UNDP 1974-b, 9. 86 UNDP-b 1974, 9. 87 MTA 1969, 34-35. 88 MTA 1969, 34. 89 Arısay 1976,4-10. 90 Arısay 1976,11. 91 UNDP 1974c, 3. 92 Arısay 1976,12-14. 93 Arısay 1976,26. 94 UNDP 1974c, 7.

Ödemiş-Camlıca Mercury Occurrence

It is situated to the east of Tire town centre (Fig.1). Country rock is schist95. Mercury exposed in fault zone in mica schist96. No grade and reserve information is present. It was defined as a prospective area97 but because of the decline in the demand for mercury in world markets it has not been studied enough

Tire-Akmescit Köyü Mercury Occurrence

It is located to the south of Tire (Fig.1). Surrounding area is completely covered by gneiss, schist and locally marbles. Mineralisation in different places is related to the faults and occurs in silicified limonite bearing zones98. Determined ore mineral is cinnabar and pyrite is normally found99 in ore complex. Calculated reserve (probable) is 3,000 tons and average mercury grade is 1%100. In this field, there are some galleries made before 1966 and a short-term production occurred in 1966-196 101

Iron Deposits

An iron ore deposit and some occurrences, namely Torbalı-Yazıbaşı, Torbalı-Taşkesik, Bayındır - Çırpı, Selçuk - Meryem Ana102 and Bergama - Kapıkaya103 are reported in the İzmir area. Three of them, which are more important than the others, are examined below:

Torbalı-Yazıbaşı Iron Deposit

It is located near Yazıbaşı to the north of Torbalı town centre (Fig.1). Host rocks are schist and marble. Mineralisation occurs in marble and at the contact of marble and schists104. Ore minerals are limonite, hematite, magnetite, arsenopyrite, pyrite, chalcopyrite,

95 MTA 1969,35 96 UNDP 1974-b, 8 97 UNDP 1974-c, 14 98 MTA 1969,38; UNDP 1974-b, 7. 99 UNDP 1974-b, 7. 100 MTA 1969,38. 101 Yıldız et al. 1966,7-12. 102 Üstün 1973. 103 Andıç et al.1986. 104 Durgun 1982, 8-20.

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galena, sphalerite and marcasite. Gang minerals are quartz, amorphous silica and calcite105. Chemical analysis proved 45.80% iron, 17.61% silica, 1.7% arsenic, 0.30% lead, and 0.53% zinc values. A total reserve (proven/probable) of 2,152,000 tons has been calculated106. Analyses of systematically collected samples averaged 0.76% lead, 0.81% zinc, 22.5 grams/ton silver, 0.4 gram/ton gold, and 0.3-1% arsenic values107.

The Torbalı-Yazıbaşı deposit is accepted as an iron deposit. When chemical analyses and paragenesis are examined, it can easily be said that this is also a poly-metallic deposit with high contents of gold and silver. Because of the impurities, it is not good quality for iron metallurgy. However even production for the cement industry has been carried out from time to time.

Torbalı-Taşkesik Iron Occurrence

It is situated to the east-northeast of Torbalı (Fig.1). Country rocks are schist and marble. Mineralisation occurs in tectonic boundary between schist and marble108. Mineralisation consists of limonite, siderite, sphalerite, arsenopyrite, pyrite and jamesonite. It was mined for limonite to be used in the cement industry before 1974109. According to Andıç110, it is also rich in rhodochrosite. This deposit, not well studied, is quite similar to Torbalı-Yazıbaşı and Çırpı deposits taking into account the host rock relation, the limonite mineralisation and primary paragenesis.

Bayındır-Çırpı (Arıkbaşı) Iron Occurrence

It is located at the north of Çırpı between Torbalı and Bayındır town centres (Fig.1). According to the field observations by the writer in 1995, it has almost the same characteristics with Taşkesik occurrence. There was iron ore production from the deposit for cement industry at that time.

105 UNDP 1974c, 61-71; Durgun 1982, 5-7. 106 Durgun 1982, 20-21. 107 UNDP 1974c, 70. 108 Andıç 1998. 109 UNDP 1974c, 5. 110 Andiç 1998.

Aluminium Deposit

There is an unrecorded aluminium deposit in the İzmir district:

Urla-Özbek and Malkaç Aluminium Field

An unrecorded aluminium field is located east of the Urla town centre between Özbek village and Malkaç Mountain (Fig.1). Host rock is limestone. It is stratigraphicaly controlled and spreads out about two kilometres to the east of Özbek village and about one kilometre to Malkaç mount111. Four samples taken from Özbek deposit gave results between 20.50-47.60% aluminium oxide, 33.10-58.70% iron oxide and 8.20-16.90% silicium oxide; and one sample gave the following results 43.60%, 34.15% and 11.65% respectively. No reserve study has been done for this field.

Manganese Occurrences

There are unimportant manganese occurrences in İzmir: Near Karaburun town centre112, Menderes-Bulgurca113, Ödemiş-Adagide114, etc.

Speculative Interpretations on Metallic Ore Deposits of İzmir as Metal Sources in

Historical Periods

Present economic conditions surely weren’t the same as in historic periods. Small occurrences, which are not economic today, could have been mined before. Bozdağ gold deposits are good examples for this situation. They had been mined during Strabo’s time115. Similarly, very small copper occurrences like Cumaovası-Sandıköy116 could have been a copper source for earlier civilisations. It is possible giving many other examples for lead (silver) or iron, too.

Changing technology makes some deposits economic which were not economic before. Bergama-Ovacık gold deposit

111 Lengeranlı et al. 1995a. 112 Nebioğlu 1969, 8. 113 MTA 1945c. 114 MTA 1945d. 115 Strabon 1993, 87. 116 MTA 1945a, 1.


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represents this group very well. It was a source of wealth for many kings before Strabon, and then abandoned117. At present, it has become a feasible gold source as a result of changing technology in mining and exploitation after about two thousand years.

In addition to copper deposits, copper oxide minerals in iron cups of lead-zinc, gold, iron, etc. deposits could have been copper sources for early man. In this respect, most of the iron, lead-zinc and gold deposits and occurrences of the İzmir region may be considered as potential copper sources.

According to the historical record118 silver was obtained from deposits which we now call lead-zinc deposits.

Gold, antimony, mercury and even iron ore deposits and occurrences of the Torbalı-Ödemiş region and Cumaovası - Sandıköy deposit, which include high arsenic values, were possible arsenic sources.

Antimony or mercury deposits and occurrences, or iron cups of antimony, iron, lead-zinc and gold deposits could have been sources for paint material.

YUNUS LENGERANLI General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration (MTA), İnönü Cad. 06520 Ankara, TURKEY

117 Strabon 1993, 214. 118 Strabon1993, 214; Refik 1931, VII and 44; Yorulmaz

1994, 154-155, 165-166.

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Unpublished. List of Illustrations: Fig. 1: Location map of metallic mineral deposits of İzmir Fig. 2: A general view of Ödemiş (Beydağ) Antimony Mine. Fig. 2: A general view of Bozdağ Mountain from southwest, where a lot of gold deposits and occurrences are present. Fig. 4: A General view of Karaburun – Kalecik mercury Mine.

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the aegean in the neolithic, chalcolithic and the early

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