the admissible contents of experience intro post - glasgowheart
TRANSCRIPT
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience
FionaMacpherson
Thisessayprovidesanoverviewofthedebateconcerningtheadmissible
contentsofexperience,togetherwithanintroductiontothepapersinthis
volume.Thedebateisonethattakesplaceamongadvocatesofacertainwayof
thinkingofperceptualexperiences:thattheyarestatesthatrepresenttheworld.
Fortosaythatastatehascontentistosaythatitrepresents;anditscontentis
usuallytakentobethatwhichisrepresented.Oneshouldnotbetemptedto
thinkthatthedebateisthereforemarginaloresoteric,forthisviewofperceptual
experiencehasbeenbyfarthedominantviewofperceptualexperienceinrecent
yearsinphilosophy(andinpsychologyandneuroscience).Thedebateisabout
whatanswertogivetoafundamentalquestionaboutthenatureofperceptual
experience,namely:whatobjectsandpropertiescanitrepresent?
Onecanaskthisquestionabouttheadmissiblecontentsofperceptual
experienceaboutperceptualexperienceintotobutonecanalsoaskitaboutthe
perceptualexperiencesassociatedwitheachsensorymodality.Thus,onecanask
whatobjectsandpropertiesvisualorauditoryortactileexperiencescan
represent,andsoon.Onecanalsoaskitofexperiencesthatarenotinanyone
modality(ifindeedtherearesuchexperiences,foritiscontroversialwhether
thereare).Suchexperiencesaresometimescalled“cross‐modal”experiencesor
“amodal”experiences.1Agoodexampleofsuchanallegedexperiencewouldbea
perceptualexperiencethatrepresentedthattheflashoflightthatonesawwas
1Theterm“cross‐modal”experienceisinfactusedtorefertomanydifferentsortsofexperiencebuttheusageinthemaintextisonestandardtype.
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
thecauseofthesoundthatoneheard.Infact,thequestionaboutwhatthe
admissiblecontentsofexperienceareismostfrequentlyaskedaboutthe
experiencesinonemodalityatatime.Somewhatpredictablyamongthese,itis
visionthathasreceivedthemostattention.Inthisintroduction,Iwillfocuson
outliningthedebateconcerningvisualexperience,andonecanextrapolateasto
howthedebatewouldgoinothercases.
1.PerceptualExperienceasaRepresentationalState
Asmentionedabove,manypeopleholdthatperceptualexperiencesare
representationalstates.Whatdoesthismeanandwhydopeopleholdittobe
true?Tosaythatonestaterepresentsanotheristosay,atleastinpart,thatone
stateisaboutanother.Considerexamplesofthingsotherthanexperiencethat
aresaidtorepresent.Someareman‐made.Forexample,photographstypically
representthatwhichwasinfrontofthelenswhentheyweretaken.A
photographofatree,wemightsay,representsatree.Apaintingofaflower
representsaflower.Certainnatural,non‐man‐madestatesoftheworldare
sometimessaidtorepresenttoo.Theangleofacolumnofsmokerepresentsthe
speedofthewind.Thenumberofringsinthetrunkofatreerepresentsitsage.
Anothercase,quitedifferentfromtheothertwo,islanguage.Sentences
representorareaboutthings.Thesentence,‘Thewindblewthroughthe
branchesofthetree’representsthatthewindblewthroughthebranchesofthe
tree.Theparadigmcaseofmentalstatesthatrepresentarethepropositional
attitudes,suchasbeliefanddesire.Propositionalattitudesaresocalledbecause
onetakesanattitude(holdingtrueinthecaseofbelief;wantingtobetrueinthe
caseofdesire)towardsaproposition.Forexample,ifIbelievethatbasking
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
sharksswimintheFirthofClydethenItaketheattitudeofholdingittobetrue
towardsthepropositionthatbaskingsharksswimintheFirthofClyde.IfIdesire
itthenIwantittobetruethatbaskingsharksswimintheFirthofClyde.IfI
believeordesirethatbaskingsharksswimintheFirthofClydethenmymental
stateisaboutorrepresentsthatbaskingsharksswimintheFirthofClyde.
Whydopeoplethinkthatbeliefsarerepresentationalstates?Onereason
isthatbeliefshaveaccuracyorcorrectnessconditions.Thatistosaythatthereis
awaytheworldcouldbethatwouldmakethebelieftrueandawaythatthe
worldcouldbethatwouldmakethebelieffalse.Inthecaseofmybeliefthat
baskingsharksswimintheFirthofClyde,thewaytheworldwouldhavetobein
ordertomakethebelieftrueisifbaskingsharksswimintheFirthofClyde,and
itwouldbefalseotherwise.
Thisfeatureofbeliefs,whichatleastinpartmakesthemrepresentational
states,explainswhysomepeoplethinkthatinorderforastatetobea
representationalstateithastohavethepossibilityofmisrepresentingtheworld.
However,thisclaimisnotobviouslytrue.Thereasonisthatbeliefsabout
necessarystatesofaffairs,particularlylogicallyorconceptuallynecessarystates
ofaffairs,donot,atleastinonesense,havethepossibilityofmisrepresenting.
Forexample,mybeliefsthattwoplustwoequalsfour,thatvixensarefemale
foxesandthatDavidHumeisDavidHumecouldn’tmisrepresentthewaythe
worldisasthesestatesofaffairsnecessarilyobtain.
Dodeclarativesentencesalsohaveaccuracy‐conditions?Considerthe
sentence,“TherearebaskingsharksintheFirthofClyde”.Justasmybeliefwhich
Iwouldexpressbyutteringthissentencehasaccuracy‐conditions,sotoo,it
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
mightseem,doesthesentence.Onecomplicationhere,however,isthatsome
philosophersthinkthatsomeorallsentencesarecontextsensitive.Thatistosay
thatwhattheymeanchangesaccordingtotheircontext.Forexample,the
sentenceItoldyoutoconsidermightmean(andprobablytypicallymeans)that
therearecetorhinusmaximusintheFirthofClyde.ButinthecontextwhereI
wastellingyouaboutGlasgowgangstersandtheirpenchantforsunbathingon
theWaverley,aboatthatfrequentlysailsdowntheFirthofClyde,thenthe
sentencemightmeanthatthereareloansharksonsunloungersintheFirthof
Clyde.Ifsomesentencesarecontextsensitive,thenitwouldbeaccuratenotto
saythatsentenceshavecorrectnessconditions,full‐stop,butthatsentencesina
particularcontexthavecorrectnessconditions.
Whatofnatural,non‐man‐madestatesoftheworld,suchastheangleof
thecolumnofsmokeortheringsinthetrunkinthetree?Thereisatraditionin
philosophywhichholdsthatthesenaturalindicatorscannotmisrepresent,for
theyareconceivedofasstatesthatcovarywithoutexceptionwiththatwhich
theyrepresent.Thisisbecauseitisclaimedthatitisinvirtueoftheirstrictly
covaryingthattheyarerepresentationalstates.Inotherwords,ifanexceptionto
strictcovariancewasfoundthentheallegednaturalindicatorwouldnotbeheld
torepresentthatwhichitfailedtostrictlycovarywith.2However,onecouldhold
insteadthatnaturalindicatorsrepresentsomethingonlysolongastheyreliably
covarywiththatthing,notperfectlycovary.Forexampleonemightthinkthatas
longasthenumberofringsinthetrunkofatreefrequentlyornormallycovaries
withtheagesofatreethentheyrepresenttheageevenifintheoddyearofbad
2Seeforexample,F.DretskeKnowledgeandtheFlowofInformation(MITPress,1981)
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
growthsometreesdonotlaydownanextraring–inwhichcasethenumberof
ringswouldbemisleadingwithrespectto,orwouldmisrepresent,theageofthe
tree.
Whatofphotographsandpictures?Onemightthinkthattheydon’thave
accuracy‐conditionsforonemightthinkthattheydon’trepresentthattheworld
isacertainway.3Apaintingofachair,forexample,mightrepresentachair,butit
maynotrepresentthatthereissuchachair.Itmightbeapaintingofachairthe
artistmerelyimaginedwhichdoesn’texistorapaintingofachairwhichonce
existedbutdoesnolongerandtheartistmaynotintendtorepresentthatthat
chairexistsbypaintingsuchanimage.Similarly,onemightthinkthata
photographofachairmightrepresentachairbutitdoesnotrepresentthatit
existsnow.Onemightretortherethatphotographsatleastrepresentthata
certainstateofaffairsonceexisted.Forexample,aphotographmightrepresent
thatachairwithacertainlookonceexistedandwasinGeorgeSquare.Andthe
photographmightrepresentthatwhetherornotthatstateofaffairseverexisted,
forthephotographmightbemisleadingincertainrespects.Althoughpeoplesay
thatphotographsdon’tlie,itistruethatiftheyhavebeendigitallyalteredorif
theyaretakenfromamisleadingangletheymightleadyoutobelievetheworld
wasonewaybutitwasreallyanother.Similarly,onemightretortthatpaintings
representthatastateofaffairscouldexist.Andonemightthinkthatwhilemost
pictureswillaccuratelyrepresentthingsthatcouldexist,somemight
misrepresentstatesofaffairsthatcouldn’texist.Forexampleapictureofaflying
3NotethatCrane(inthisvolume)holdsthatpicturescanbeaccurateorinaccuratebutnottrueorfalse.Hethereforeclaimsthatthecontentofpicturesinnotpropositional.
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
pigwouldmisrepresentthatapigcanflywhenthisisnomologicallyimpossible.
M.C.Escherpaintedwhatlooktobespatiallyimpossibleobjects,suchasthe
Penrosetriangle,inthefullknowledgethatsuchanobjectisageometrical
impossibility.Furthermovescouldbemadeinthisdebate.Whatiscertainlytrue
isthatifpicturesorphotographscanmisrepresentonehastogiveadifferent
accountofthisfromthatwhichonegivesofbeliefmisrepresentation.
Anotherreasonthatbeliefsareheldtoberepresentationalstatesisthat
ascribingsuchstatesthatrepresentcertainthingstosubjectshelpsexplainand
predictsubjects’behaviour.Forexample,ifIbelievethatbaskingsharksswimin
theFirthofClydethen,giventhatIhavecertaindesires,suchasthedesireto
spotthem,thismayexplainwhyIfrequentlylookoutforthemintheFirthof
ClydeandmaypredictthatIwillgototheFirth.
Thesetworeasonsforthinkingthatbeliefsarerepresentationalstates–
thattheyhaveaccuracy‐conditionsandthatattributingthemtosubjectshelpsto
explainandpredicttheirbehaviour–havebeencitedasreasonsthatalso
explainwhyweshouldthinkthatperceptualexperiencesarerepresentational
states.Letusconsidereachinturn.Whythinkthatperceptualexperienceshave
accuracy‐conditions?SupposeIhaveavisualexperienceIwoulddescribeas
beingavisualexperienceasofabaskingsharkontheshore.Onemightthinkthat
thistypeofexperiencecouldbeaccurateorinaccurate.Thisisbecausethere
mayreallybeabaskingsharkontheshoreortheremaynot.Theremaybeaseal
ontheshore,whichImistakeforabaskingshark,ortheremaybenosharkand
noobjectmistakenforashark,forImaybehallucinating.(Notethat
hallucinationsaresuchthatalthough,asamatterofcontingentfact,theytendto
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
beinaccurate,theyneednotbeandcouldbeaccurate–thesearecalledveridical
hallucinations.)IfthisiscorrectthenthetypeofexperiencethatIundergohas
accuracy‐conditionsandcanrepresentaccuratelyorinaccurately(thatis
misrepresent)dependingonwhetherthoseaccuracy‐conditionsobtain.(Note
thatphilosophersusethis“asof”locutionin“asofabaskingshark”asopposed
tojustsaying“ofabaskingshark”simplytosignalthatthereneedbenobasking
sharkintheworldwhichtheexperienceisof–itmaymerelyappeartobeofa
particularbaskingsharkthatexistsintheworld.)
Therearesomedissentingvoices,however.Somephilosophers–
disjunctivists–thinkthatifoneseesabaskingsharkandifonehallucinatesa
baskingsharkthenonehasperceptualexperiencesthatdifferinimportant
mentalrespectstotheextentthatweshouldthinkofthemasbeingdifferent
fundamentaltypesofstate‐thatisasdifferingintheirmostimportantnature.4
Suchphilosophersholddifferentviewsofwhatthementaldifferencesare
betweenthestates.Forexample,somethinkthattheydifferbecauseoneis
involvedinperceptuallyexperiencingabaskingsharkandtheothersimply
cannotbedistinguishedfromthatstatejustbyreflectiononthenatureofthe
experienceitselfbythesubjectoftheexperience;somethinkthattheydifferin
theirphenomenalcharacter;somethinkthattheydifferintheirepistemological
status.Someofthesephilosophersthinkthatyoucanonlyhavethesame
fundamentaltypeofperceptualexperiencethatyouhavewhenyouseeabasking
sharkaccurately,whenyouseeitaccurately.Youcannothavethistypeof
4DisjunctivistsincludeM.G.F.Martin,JohnMcDowell,BillBrewerandWilliamFish.ThevarioustypesofdisjunctivismarediscussedinA.HaddockandF.Macpherson"Introduction:VarietiesofDisjunctivism"inourDisjunctivism:Perception,Action,Knowledge(OxfordUP,2008).
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
experiencewhenyoueithermisperceivethesealasbeingabaskingsharkorif
youjusthaveahallucinationasofabaskingshark.Ibelievethattheyholdthis
becausetheyreasonasfollows:perceptualexperiencesofthefundamentaltype
hadwhenseeingabaskingsharkonthebeachaccuratelyarepartlycomposedof
thebaskingsharkonthebeach.Ifthereisnobaskingsharkonthebeachthenit
cannotpartlycomposewhicheverexperiencethepersonishaving,suchasa
hallucinationofabaskingsharkoranillusoryexperienceasofasharkcasedbya
seal.Thusthepersoncan’tbehavingthesamefundamentaltypeofexperience.
Becausethereisnopossibilityofhavingthatfundamentaltypeofexperiencein
thosecircumstancesthenthereisnopossibilityoftheexperience
misrepresentingonthisview.Andifonethinksthatforastatetobe
representationaltherehastobethepossibilityofitmisrepresentingthenthis
lineofthoughtwouldentailthatthattypeofexperienceisnotrepresentational.
Thejargonsometimesusedtoexpressthisisthattheseexperiences“present“
theworldasbeingacertainway,theydon’trepresentitasbeingthatway.5
However,thisargumenthasrecentlybeenrepliedtobySusannaSiegel.6
Shearguesthatevenifthetypeofperceptualexperienceasofabaskingshark
hadwhenaccuratelyseeingabaskingsharkcouldn’tbehadinaccurately,this
doesn’tmeanthatthattypeofexperiencedoesn’trepresent.Sheclaimsthatthat
typeofexperiencecanstillhaveaccuracy‐conditionsand,invirtueofthatfact
alone,itisrepresentational.Onecanacceptthatoneisunabletohavethissame
5VersionsofviewaredefendedinC.Travis“TheSilenceoftheSenses”,Mind113(2004),pp.57‐94andB.Brewer“PerceptionandContent”,EuropeanJournalofPhilosophy14(2006),pp.165‐81.6S.Siegel“DoVisualExperiencesHaveContents?”,inB.Nanay(ed.),PerceivingtheWorld(OxfordUP,2010),pp.333‐68.
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
fundamentaltypeofmentalstateinaccurately,butnonethelessaccuracy‐
conditionscanbespecifiedbycomparingtheconditionsinwhichonecanhave
theperceptualexperiencewiththeconditionsthatmightexistinotherpossible
worlds.Theexperienceisclearlyaccuratewithrespecttothisworldbutitis
inaccuratewhenwecompareittootherpossibleworldsinwhichtheconditions
requiredinorderforustohavetheexperienceintheactualworlddonotobtain.
Inthisway,sheargues,wecanclaimthattheexperiencehasaccuracy‐conditions
andinthisminimalsense,atleast,isrepresentationaleventhoughthe
experiencecannotbehadinaccuratelyandsocannotmisrepresent.Philosophers
arecurrentlydebatingwhetherthisminimalsenseofrepresentationisthesense
ofrepresentationthatpeoplecareaboutwhentheyclaimthatexperiences
representandifitisnot,whatexactlythatsenseis.Butrecalltheexample
discussedabove–thatofnecessarilytruebeliefs.Itseemsthatthesebeliefscan’t
befalse,butnonethelesstheyeachrepresentcertainthings(thattwoplustwo
equalsfour,thatvixensarefemalefoxesorthatDavidHumeisDavidHume).If
thatisrightthenitseemsthatthefactthatcertaintypesofexperiencecan’tbe
hadinaccuratelyshouldnottellinfavourofthemnotbeingrepresentational.
Letusturnnowtothesecondreasonforthinkingthatexperiencesare
representational–thatattributingperceptualstateswithrepresentational
contentstosubjectshelpstoexplainandpredicttheirbehaviour.Isthistrue?It
canseemso.IfIhaveavisualexperiencethatrepresentsabaskingshark,itmay
explainwhyIkeeplookinginthedirectionthatIdo(perhapsatitswimmingup
anddownthecoast).ItmayexplainwhyIutter,“Iseeabaskingshark”orwhyI
jumpupanddownwithexcitement.Accordingtothosewhorejectdisjunctivism,
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
andholdthatonecanhavethesamefundamentaltypeofexperiencewhen
accuratelyperceivingtheworldorwheninaccuratelyperceivingtheworldor
whenhallucinating,itisbecausemyexperiencesrepresentsthatthereisa
baskingsharkthatIbehaveasIdoanddosowhetherornotthereisabasking
sharkthere.Youmayalsobeabletoaccuratelypredictmybehaviourbasedon
myhavinganexperiencewiththatrepresentationalcontenttogetherwithother
thingsyouknowaboutme–perhapsmydesiretoswimclosetothesecond
largestlivingsharkinthenorthernhemisphere’smostsoutherlyfjord.
However,thatthisexplanationisavailabletonondisjunctivsitsdoesnot
meanthatasimilarsortofexplanationisnotavailabletoadisjunctivistwho
thinksthatexperiencesdonotrepresenttheworldbutratherpresentit.Heor
shewillexplainandpredictthebehaviourofsubjectsbasedonwhatthe
subject’sexperiencepresentswhentheyareaccuratelyperceiving,andbasedon
whatthesubjectthinksthattheirexperiencespresentswhentheyarenot
accuratelyperceiving.
Itliesbeyondthescopeofthisintroductiontoargueastowhichview–
representationalismorformsofdisjunctivismthatrejectrepresentationalism‐is
therightone.Forourpurposesweneedonlynotethatthedebateaboutthe
admissiblecontentsofexperiencetakesplaceamongthosewhothinkthat
experiencesdorepresenttheworld.However,itseemstomethatasimilar
debatecouldtakeplaceamongthosewhothinkexperiencespresenttheworld
ratherthanrepresentit.Theycoulddebateaboutwhichfeaturesoftheworldare
presentedbyexperience.However,inpracticetherehasbeennosuchdebate,
primarilyIbelieve,becausethosewhoendorsethisviewareveryliberalabout
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
whatexperiencecanpresent,whereasthosewhothinkexperiencesare
representationalhavetendedtofallintotwocamps:thosewhoareliberalwho
believeexperiencescanrepresentlow‐levelandhigh‐levelproperties,andthose
areconservativeandwhobelievethatexperiencescanonlyrepresentlow‐level
properties.Withtheassumptioninplacefortherestofthisintroductionthat
perceptualexperiencesdorepresent,Iwillnowexplainthedebateaboutthe
admissiblecontentsofexperience.
2.IntroducingtheDebate
Letussupposethatvisualexperiencesrepresentobjectsandrepresentthemas
havingcertainproperties.Therangeofpropertiesthatobjectscanhaveisvast.
Thereisthepropertyofbeingacertaincolour,shape,size,temperature,havinga
certainsmellortaste,havingcertaincausalproperties,emittingcertainsounds,
havingacertaintexture.Anobjectmightalsohavethepropertyofbeinga
certainindividualsuchasyourbrother,orthefirstmanonthemoon.Anobject
mightbeoneofacertainman‐madekind,suchasbeingaknifeorachair,orit
mightbeanaturalkindsuchabeingatreeorasycamoretree,orbeingan
amphibianoranatterjacktoad.
Itseemsobviousthatvisualexperiencesrepresentsomeofthese
propertiesandnotothers.Mostpeoplewouldagreethatvisualexperiences
representtheshape,size,colourandpositionofobjects–propertiestodowith
thevisualappearanceofthings(low‐levelproperties).Andmostpeopleare
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
agreedthatvisiondoesnotandcouldnotrepresenteveryproperty.Thereare
tworeasonsforthinkingthis.
Thefirstisthattherearesomepropertiesthatthevisualsystemsimply
isn’tandcouldn’tbesensitiveto.Whichpropertiesthoseareiscontroversialbut
Ispeculate,althoughitisonlyspeculation,thatmostpeoplewouldagreethat
visualexperiencescannotrepresentthefollowing:thepropersensiblesofsenses
otherthanvision–soundsinthecaseofhearing,temperatureinthecaseof
touchandsoon–andpropertiessuchasbeingradioactive,emittinganelectric
field,beingsixhundredyearsold.
Thesecondreasonisthatthereisoftenadistinctionbetweenwhatour
visualexperiencesrepresentandthebeliefsthatweformonthebasisofthose
experiences.Thisdistinctionisoftenmaskedbythefactthatweoftenclaimto
seewhatwestrictlyspeaking,onreflection,wouldholdthatweonlybelieveor
know.(PerhapsthisoccursinpartbecauseinEnglishweoftenusetheword‘see’
tomean‘know’.)Hereisanexample.Mymothercomesintothekitcheninthe
morning.Therearemuddyfootprintsonthefloor.Shemightsay‘IseeFiona
camehomelatelastnight.’NowshecertainlybelievesthatIdid.Butdoesshe
strictlyspeakingseethatIcamehomelastnight?Doesshehaveavisual
experiencethatrepresentsmycominghomelate?Iamstronglyinclinedtosay
thatshedoesnot.Sheseesthemuddyfootprints.Whatexactlyshehasavisual
experienceasofisdebatable.Onemightthinkthatitisasofmuddyfootprintsor
thatitisasofdarkobjectsonalightersurfacebackground.Whichever,itseems
obviousthatshedoesnothaveanexperienceasofmecominghomelate.She
merelybelievesthisonthebasisofinferringfromwhatshedoesstrictly
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
speakingdoessee–themuddyfootprints.Onreflectiononsuchcaseswemight
cometothinkthatthepropertiesthatourexperiencesdorepresentissomewhat
restricted.
Therearealargeclassofpropertiesoverwhichthereisalargedispute
concerningwhethervisualexperiencedoorcanrepresentthem.Theseinclude:
beinganartificialkind,beinganaturalkind,beingaspecificindividual,
causation,thenatureofthebacksidesofobjects,thenatureoftheoccludedparts
ofobjects,directionality(high‐levelproperties).
Itwouldbegoodifwecouldclearlydelineatethosepropertiesthat
everyoneagreesvisualexperiencescanrepresentandthosethataresubjectto
debate,andthosethateveryoneisagreedthattheycannot.Unfortunately,thisis
difficulttodoandthereisnoagreedwaytodoit.Listingproperties,asIhave
donethusfar,isthetypicalway.
Weshouldnotethatwhatpeople’sexperiencesrepresentmaydiffer.
Extremeexamplesincludethecolourblindwhoseexperiencesmayrepresent
fewercolourscomparedtothenormallysightedandpeoplewithperfectpitch
whomayrepresentmorespecificinformationaboutpitchthanpeoplewith
relativepitch.Sowhenpeopleaskwhattheadmissiblecontentsofexperience
aretheyaretypicallyeitheraskingaboutwhatthenormalperson’sexperience
representsortheyareaskingwhatitispossibleforanyone’sexperienceto
represent.
Itmightseemodd,onreflection,thatthereisadebateaboutwhatthe
admissiblecontentsofexperienceare,atleastamongpeoplewhohavenormal
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
perceptualexperiences.Onemightthinkthatallweneedtodoistointrospect
andseewhatourexperienceisliketodeterminetheanswer.Ourexperiences
purporttoinformusaboutthewaytheworldis,sowhycan’twejustreporthow
theysoinformusandtherebyreportwhattheyrepresent,andwhydon’twefind
agreement?
Thereareacoupleofreasonswhythismaybethecase.Oneisthatwe
mayourselvesfindithardtotellapartperceptualexperiencefrombelief.So
perhapssomepeoplemistakenlyreportbeliefcontentasbeingthecontentof
experienceorviceversa.Anotherreasonisthatperhapswhatourexperiences
representisnotalwaysavailabletousassubjectsofthoseexperiences.For
example,therearesometheoriesofrepresentationthatclaimthatwhatan
experiencerepresentsdependsonwhatitiscausedbyandcovarieswithinthe
world.Butwhatitcovarieswithmaynotbeamatteravailabletothesubjectof
thatexperience–atleastjustbyintrospection.Anotherexampleisthatsome
philosophersholdthatwhatourexperiencesrepresentisnotwhatwetypically
thinkthattheyrepresent.Forexample,somephilosophersthinkthatour
experiencesdonotrepresentcolours–whicharesurfacepropertiesofobjects,
aswetypicallythink–butcloselyrelatedpropertiessuchascoloursinspecific
illuminationsormentalpropertiesthatourexperienceshavewhenwelookat
objects.
3.ReasonstobeaLowLevelTheorist
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
Low‐leveltheoristsaremotivatedbythethoughtthatiftwoexperiencesare
differentinwhattheyrepresentthentheymusthavedifferentphenomenal
characters.Thatistosaythat“whatitislike”tohavetheexperiencesforthe
subjectmustbedifferent.7Thisseemsplausibleforitisacommonassumption
(althoughnotamongcertaindisjunctivists)thattwoexperiencesaredifferentif
andonlyiftheyhavedifferentphenomenalcharacters.Asecondreasontohold
thisarisesifoneacceptsoneofthemostpopulartheoriesofphenomenal
characterinphilosophyofmindtoday,namelyrepresentationalism.Accordingto
thisview,phenomenalcharactersupervenesonrepresentationalcontentor,
accordingtoastrongerformoftheview,thetwoareidentical.8Infact,aswewill
induecoursesee,manytheoristswhoargueforhigh‐levelcontentalsoaccept
theideathatiftwoexperiencesaredifferentinwhattheyrepresenttheymust
havedifferentphenomenalcharactersandviceversa.Whether
representationalismistrueornotisatopicthatliesoutwiththescopeofthis
introduction.However,itisplausibletothinkthatatleastinaverylargenumber
ofcases,perhapswithinasubjectoversomespecifiedperiodoftime,differences
inphenomenalcharactersuperveneondifferencesinrepresentationalcontent
andviceversa.9
7ThisphrasewasintroducedintothephilosophicallexiconinT.Nagel,“WhatisitLiketoBeaBat?”,PhilosophicalReview,83(1974),pp.435‐50.8ProminentrepresentationalistworksincludeM.Tye,TenProblemsofConsciousness:ARepresentationalTheoryofthePhenomenalMind(MITPress,1995);F.I.DretskeNaturalisingtheMind(MITPress,1995);W.G.Lycan,ConsciousnessandExperience,(MITPress,1996).9SeeF.Macpherson,F.RepresentationalTheoriesofPhenomenalCharacter,Ph.D.Thesis,UniversityofStirling(2000),availableonlineinSTORRE,TheUniversityofStirling’sdigitalRepository:http://hdl.handle.net/1893/25.
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
So,startingwiththethoughtthattwoexperienceshavedifferentcontents
onlyiftheyhavedifferentphenomenalcharacters,low‐leveltheoristsmounta
seriesofargumentsonacase‐by‐casebasis.Theytrytoarguethattwo
experiences,whichahigh‐leveltheoristmightclaimhavedifferentcontents,
havethesamephenomenalcharacter,andthereforerepresentthesamething.
Andtheyarguethatthecontentthatbothshareisalow‐levelcontent.For
example,ColinMcGinnarguesthatweshouldrestrictthecontentofvisual
experiencestopropositionswhosecontentcanbespecifiedingeneraltermsand
notparticulars.10Heasksyoutoimagineseeingyourbible.Heclaimsthatthe
experiencethatyouhavecannotrepresentthatyourbibleisinfrontofyou
becauseyouwouldbehavinganexperiencewiththeverysamephenomenal
characterifyouwerenotseeingyourbiblebutabiblethatlookedexactlysimilar
inallrespects.Forexample,ifyourbiblehadadog‐ear,theotherbiblewould
haveonetoo.McGinnisthinkingthatdifferentobjectscanhavethesame
appearanceandthuscancausethesameexperienceinme.ThereforeIcan’t
representthataparticularobjectispresent–Icanonlyrepresentthatthere
existsacertainsortofobjectinfrontofme–onewithacertainlook.Ofcourse,if
Ihaveavisualexperiencethatrepresentsanobjectwithacertainlook–alook
thatmybibleshares–andifIbelievethatmybiblehasthatlookandistheonly
onearoundwiththatlookthennodoubtIwillcometobelievethatmybibleis
presentonaccountoftheexperiencethatIhave.Butaccordingtothelow‐level
theoristthiscontentissolelythecontentofbelief.Itisnotthecontentofthe
experience.
10C.McGinn,TheCharacterofMind,(OxfordUP,1982)pp.38‐39.
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
Onecouldextendthistypeofreasoningtonaturalandartificialkinds.For
example,supposeyouhaveavisualexperiencethatyoumightnaturallydescribe
asbeingoneasofatoadonarock.Perhapsyourexperience,onreflection,
doesn’treallyrepresentatoadonarockforwouldn’tonehaveanexperience
withthesamephenomenalcharacterifonewerenotlookingatatoadonarock
butmerelyatoadskinenclosingasupportivewireframework,orifonewere
lookingatawax‐workofafrogthatwassorealisticonecouldn’ttellitapartby
sightfromarealtoad?Likewise,onemightnaivelythinkthatone’sexperience
couldrepresentthataGeiger‐counterwaspresent.Butcouldn’tonehavethe
verysamevisualexperienceifanobjectwiththemerelookofaGeiger‐counter
waspresentwithoutthatobjecthavingthepropertyofbeingabletodetect
radiation?
Ifoneacceptedthiskindofreasoningthenitwouldbereasonabletohold
thatthecontentsofvisualexperienceshouldberestrictedtogeneralcontents
andobservableproperties–thatispropertiesthatonecantellanobjecthasjust
bylookingsuchasshape,size,colourandposition.
4.ReasonstobeaHighLevelTheorist
Priortothepapersinthisvolumebeingpublished,themainargumentsagainst
thelow‐levelviewweremadebySusannaSiegel.11Sheclaimsthatsomenatural
kindproperties,suchasbeingapinetree,canfeatureinthecontentof
perception.Sheasksustoimaginethatwearenovicesatidentifyingtrees.While
11S.Siegel“WhichPropertiesareRepresentedinPerception?”,inT.S.GendlerandJ.Hawthorne(eds.)PerceptualExperience(OxfordUP,2006),pp.481‐503.
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
anovice,welookataparticulartreethatisinfactapinetreeandhaveavisual
experience.Wethenbecometreeexperts.Wecantellwhatkindoftreeeachtree
isbylooking.Sheclaimsthattheoverallphenomenalcharacterofone’smental
lifewillbedifferentwhenonelooksatapinetreewhenoneisanexpert,andcan
identifythepinetreeassuch,comparedtowhenonelooksatapinetreewhen
oneisanovice,andcan’tidentifythetree.Sheclaimsthatthisdifferenceinthe
overallphenomenologyisduetoadifferenceinthephenomenologyofthevisual
experienceshadineachcase.Shealsoclaimsthatiftwoexperiencesdifferin
phenomenalcharacterthentheydifferinrepresentationalcontent.Finally,she
claimsthatifthereisadifferenceincontentherethenitisbestexplainedbythe
naturalkindpropertybeingapinetreebeingrepresentedinthesecondbutnot
thefirstvisualexperience.Theexampleisofatypenowknownas‘contrast
cases’.
Therearetwomainrepliesthatonecangivetothisargument.Thefirstis
toquestionwhetherthedifferenceinthephenomenologyofyourconscious
mentallifeisadifferenceinthephenomenologyofexperience.Onecouldclaim
thatthedifferenceliesinotherphenomenalstates.Aplausibleclaimwouldbe
thatwhenyouareanoviceyouconsciouslybelievethatatreeisinfrontofyou.
Whenyouareanexpertyouconsciouslybelievethatapinetreeisinfrontofyou.
Andonecouldclaimthatwhatitisliketohavethesetwodifferentbeliefsisnot
thesame.Thusthedifferenceinphenomenalcharacterisattributabletothe
differentbeliefsyouhave.Thusthephenomenaldifferenceinexperiencerequired
inorderfortheretobeadifferenceinvisualcontentisnotthere.
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
Asecondreplyacceptsthatthereisadifferenceinthephenomenologyof
yourexperiencewhenyouareanoviceandwhenyouareanexpert,butitdoes
notacceptthatsuchadifferenceshowsthatanaturalkindlike‘pinetree’is
representedinyourexperience.Rather,itisargued,acertainoutlineshape
(perhapsoftheleavesorofthewholetree)orpatternonthebarkorcolourof
theleavesorbarkbecomessalienttoyouwhenyouareanexpert,andthisisto
saythatthisfeatureisrepresentedonlywhenyouareanexpertorrepresented
inmoredetailinyourexperiencewhenyouareanexpert.Perhapsthisis
becauseyoupayattentiontothefeaturewhenyouareanexpertorperhapsitis
becauseyoureyesfoveateonthisfeaturewhenyouareanexpertmorethanthey
didwhenyouwereanovice.
Anotherargumentthatonemightgiveforcertainexperienceshaving
high‐levelcontentquestionswhy,whenwethinkthatwehaveidentifiedtwo
visualexperienceswiththesamephenomenalcharacter,weshouldalwaysthink
thatwhattheyrepresentisthatwhichisincommontotheworldinfrontofthe
observeronbothoccasionsthattheyhavetheexperiences.Forexample,take
yourexperienceofatoadandyourexperiencesofthetoadhuskthatlookslikea
toad.Letusagreethatthesetwoobjectscausevisualexperienceswiththesame
phenomenalcharacterinasubject.Thelow‐leveltheoristwillsaythatboth
representanobjectwithcertainshape,sizeandpositionpropertiesandthatthe
propertyofbeingatoadisnotrepresented.Butthehigh‐leveltheoristcould
questionwhythelow‐leveltheoristissoconfidentthattheaccuracy‐conditions
forthisexperiencearesimplythatatoad‐lookingobjectispresentandhence
thatbothexperiencesareaccurate.Rather,theymightclaimthatboth
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
experiencesrepresentthatatoadispresentandthisistheaccuracycondition.
Onthisviewthevisualexperienceofthetoadwouldbeaccuratebutthevisual
experienceofthetoadhuskwouldbeinaccurate.Itwouldmisrepresentthata
toadwastherewhentherewasmerelyatoadhusk.But,theargumentwould
continue,thisreflectsthewayourexperiencestrikesus.Onewouldbesurprised
wereonetofindoutthatthereweremerelyatoadhuskinfrontofone,
Thissecondargumentshowsthatitwilloftenbeverydifficultto
determinewhattheaccuracy‐conditionsofatypeofexperienceis.Andthe
formerargumentshowsthatdeterminingwhetherachangeinthephenomenal
characterofone’smentallifeisachangeinthephenomenalcharacterofan
experienceorofsomeotheraspectofmentallifemaybeverydifficult.In
addition,knowingwhatthechangesinphenomenalcharacterofanexperience
signalaboutthedifferenceinrepresentationistricky.Inshort,determiningwhat
theadmissiblecontentsofexperienceareisahardtask.
5.WhyIstheDebateImportant?
Thedebateastowhattheadmissiblecontentsofexperienceareisimportantfor
manyreasons.Onereasonisthattherearemanydifferenttheoriesofhowan
experiencegetstohavethecontentthatitdoes.Forexampletherearefunctional
roleaccountsthatsaythattheroleoftheexperienceinthesubject’smentallife
determinesitcontentandtherearecausalcovariationaccountswherewhatan
experiencerepresentsisdeterminedbywhatitiscausedbyandcovarieswith
andmanymoreaccounts.Whetheranyofthesetheoriesareplausiblewill
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
dependontheirabilitytoaccountfortheformsofrepresentationthatwethink
canandcannotoccur.Thushavinganindependentgrasponthisissuewillbe
crucial.
Thedebateisalsoimportantforassessingwhetherrepresentationalismis
true.Recallthatthistheoryclaimsthattherecanbenodifferencesin
phenomenalcharacterwithoutdifferencesincontentandviceversa.Whether
thisisplausibleornotmaydependontherepresentationalresourcestowhich
onehasaccess,inordertoexplaindifferencesinphenomenalcharacter.12
Anyissueinphilosophyofmindwherewhatisatstakeiswhethera
personhasabelieforanexperienceofacertainsortwillbeinfluencedbythis
debate.Thisisbecauseitmayhelpdeterminethatabeliefispresentratherthan
anexperienceifthecontentofthestateinquestionisnotonethatanexperience
couldhave.Thus,forexample,itmayhelpindeterminingwhethercognitive
penetrationhasoccurredforitmaydeterminethatcertaincontentscouldnotbe
contentsofexperience.13
Thedebatealsohaslinkstovariousepistemologicalquestions.Thisis
becausewhatthecontentofperceptualexperiencescanbewillaffectwhatwe
shouldthinkconcerningwhetherandhowexperiencesjustifybeliefs–andthus
one’sepistemologicaltheory.
12Seeforexample,Macpherson,"AmbiguousFiguresandtheContentofExperience",Noûs,40(2006),pp.82‐117.13SeeMacpherson,"CognitivePenetrationofColourExperience:RethinkingtheIssueinLightofanIndirectMechanism",PhilosophyandPhenomenologicalResearch(forthcoming).
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
6.Thepapersinthisvolume
Eachofthepapersinthisvolumeaddressoneormoreoftheissuesdiscussed
above.
TimBaynearguesthathigh‐levelcontentscanfeatureinperceptual
experience.Hefocusesonassociativeagnosia,adeficitinwhichsubjects’form
perceptionisintactbuttheydonnotrecogniseobjectsasbelongingtokindsthat
theyarefamiliarwith.Heclaimsthatthebestexplanationofsuchsubjectsisthat
theyaremissinghigh‐levelphenomenology.
StephenButterfill,relyingonMichotte’spsychologicalexperiments,which
provideinterestingcasesofcontrastcases,arguesthatwecanperceive
causation.Heclaimsthatperceptionofcausationisoneinstanceofcategorical
perception.Atthesametime,heholdsthatcausationisnotrepresentedin
perceptualexperience.
AlexByrnespendssometimeinhispaperarguingthatperception
involvesrepresentationalcontent.Buthedoesnotthinkthatitinvolveshaving
perceptualexperienceswithrepresentationalcontentforheeschewsthevery
ideaofexperienceasphilosophersconceiveofit.Hethusopposestheviewthat
perceptiondoesnotinvolverepresentation,butendorsestheviewthatitdoes
notinvolveexperience.Hethenclaimsthatthecontentofperceptionisnotvery
richandthatthisfactvindicatesoneclaimofthosewhobelievethatnocontent
atallisinvolvedinperception.Theclaimisthatperceptualerrorsaredueto
falsebeliefsnotfalseexperience.
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
Inhiscontribution,TimCranearguesthatperceptualexperienceshave
contentbutthatthiscontentisofaspecifickind.Itisnotpropositionalandthus
notlikethecontentofbelief,eventhoughithasaccuracy‐conditions.Herelates
theseclaimstohislong‐standingviewthatthecontentofperceptualexperience
isnonconceptual.
Theideathatthereareelementsofexperiencebeyondthefacingsurfaces
ofun‐occludedpartsofobjects,suchasthebacksidesandoccludedpartsof
objectsisexploredbyAlvaNoë.Thesephenomenally“presentasabsent”
elements,heclaims,arerepresentedinexperienceinvirtueofdeploymentof
knowledgeofthewaysinwhichmymovementsproducesensorychange.Noë
goesontocompareandcontrastperceptualexperienceandbelief.Theyareboth
methodsofaccesstoobjectsandpropertiesbutonesthatinvolvethe
employmentofdifferentaccessskills.
AdamPautz’schapteridentifiesthreeconceptionsofexperientialcontent.
Adebateaboutwhetherexperienceshavecontentmustconcerntheidentity
conception,heargues,foronlythismakesthedebatenon‐trivial.Accordingto
thisconception,anexperiencehascontentwhenitssubjectstandsinaspecial
relation,'sensorilyentertaining',toaproposition.Hearguesexperiencesdohave
thiskindofcontentasitbestexplainscertainexperientialfeatures.Heclaims
thesecontentsaregeneral,notsingular,mainlyongroundsofsimplicity.Finally,
hediscusseswhichpropertiesfeatureinthecontentsofexperience,usingwhich
beliefsourexperiencescangroundasaguide.
RichardPricearguesinfavourofalow‐levelview.Heclaimsthatseveral
contrastcaseswhicharecitedintheliteratureasbeingonethatshowthathigh‐
Forthcoming(2011)inK.HawleyandF.Macpherson(eds.)TheAdmissibleContentsofExperience,Wiley‐Blackwell.
levelpropertiesmustberepresentedareunconvincingand,attheveryleast,
naturalkindpropertiesneednotbepositedaspartofthecontentofexperience.
LikeButterfill,SusannaSiegelalsofocusesonwhethercausationcan
featureinthecontentofvisualexperience.ShearguesthattheMichotte
experimentsaresuggestivebutnotconclusive.Shethendevelopsinteresting
contrastcasestosupportherclaimthatcausationcanberepresentedin
experience.Finally,Siegeldefendstheideathatexperiencemaynonetheless
remainsilentabout,thatisnotrepresent,certainpropertiesofcausation.
Intheconcludingpaperinthisvolume,MichaelTyediscusseswhether
experienceshaveexistentialcontents,singularcontents,gappycontentsor
multiplecontents.AccordingtoTye,contenthasastructurewithaplaceforan
objecttofill.Inveridicalperceptionitisfilledandwegetasingularcontent.In
hallucinationitisunfilledandwegetagappycontent.
Thesepapersformanexcitingbodyofwork.Diverseopinionsare
forcefullyarguedfor.Thepaperssuggestnewandexcitingdirectionsfor
researchandfromwhichIbelievefutureworkontheadmissiblecontentsof
experiencewillflow.14
14ThankstoMichaelBradyforhishelpfulcomments.