the admissibility of an accused’s choice of reading material as evidence under federal rule of...

8/12/2019 The Admissibility of an Accuseds Choice of Reading Material as Evidence Under Federal Rule of Evidence 404(b):

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ALSAHLANIMACRO 3/7/2014 3/7/2014

The Admissibility of an Accuseds Choice

of Reading Material as Evidence Under

Federal Rule of Evidence 404b!" #hat Arethe Constitutional $m%lications of this

Ty%e of Evidence&

Imagine this scenario: o! ha"e #een acc!se$ o% chi&$ mo&estation an$aggra"ate$ so$om'(1 As e"i$ence against 'o!) the *rosec!tion o%%ersco*ies o% se+!a&&',oriente$ maga-ines in 'o!r *ossession( 2.he maga-inesare not !n&a%!&3 the' are a$!&t maga-ines ith a$!&t mo$e&s) an$ nore%erences to or "is!a& images o% chi&$ren(4.he maga-ines are a&most nine

'ears o&$ an$ store$ aa' in 'o!r #asement(

o! ne"er shoe$ themaga-ines to 'o!r chi&$,acc!ser or !se$ them in an' a' to %!rther thea&&ege$ crime( In %act) there is no *roo% that 'o! act!a&&' rea$ themaga-ines(

Ne"erthe&ess) the e"i$ence is a$mitte$ against 'o! to sho moti"egenera&&' an$ state o% min$ an$ &!st%!& $is*osition( 7 o!r co!nse& at

tria& cha&&enges the a$missi#i&it' o% the e"i$ence) arg!ing that it isirre&e"ant) it is ina$missi#&e *ro*ensit' e"i$ence) an$ its *ro#ati"e "a&!e iss!#stantia&&' o!teighe$ #' its *re5!$icia& e%%ect( .hese arg!ments i&&ine"ita#&' %ai&( o!r co!nse& on a**ea& *resents the same arg!ments an$) ina$$ition) states that 'o!r Si+th Amen$ment an$ 6o!rteenth Amen$mentrights ha"e #een "io&ate$ #' the a$mission o% the maga-ines( O% co!rse)neither co!nse& at tria& nor on a**ea& mentions 'o!r 6irst Amen$mentrights or an' 6irst Amen$ment im*&ications o% the e"i$ence(8

1 ( .he %act!a& scenario *resente$ is #ase$ !*on the %acts in Stamey v. Georgia) 380

S(9(2$ 408 ;a( Ct( A**(


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84 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:348S!ch a scenario is i$entica& to the one %ace$ #' Ra' Haro&$ Stame'

hen he as con"icte$ o% chi&$ mo&estation an$ the aggra"ate$ so$om' o%his eight,'ear,o&$ ste*$a!ghter(10His rit o% certiorari as s!#se!ent&'$enie$ #' the S!*reme Co!rt(11@' $en'ing certiorari) the S!*reme Co!rt

misse$ an o**ort!nit' to r!&e on an iss!e o% &a that has tro!#&e$ circ!itan$ state co!rts a&iDe: the a$missi#i&it' o% an acc!se$Es rea$ing materia&( 12

.his Note e+amines hether an in$i"i$!a&Es choice o% rea$ing materia& canan$ sho!&$ #e !se$ as e"i$ence against him at tria&) an$ i% so) to hat e+tent

an$ in hat ca*acit'( Not s!r*rising&') cases ith simi&ar iss!es ha"e #eenr!&e$ !*on since Stamey) #!t !ncertaint' s!rro!n$ing the &a remains(

.he 6irst Amen$ment grants in$i"i$!a&s the %ree$oms o% s*eech an$e+*ression(13.he right o% %ree$om o% s*eech an$ *ress inc&!$es not on&'the right to !tter or *rint #!t the right to rea$ ( ( ( ( 14.hese rights genera&&'tr!m* the e"i$entiar' nee$s o% the *rosec!tion( 6e$era& R!&e o% 9"i$ence

6R9< 404#


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200 READING MATERIAL AND FRE !"#$ 8III $isc!sses recent $ecisions that high&ight the s*&it among an$ ithincirc!it co!rts) an$ "ario!s state co!rt $ecisions( >art IB e+amines a&ternatea's o% #a&ancing the nee$ to a&&o the *rosec!tion an o**ort!nit' to

*resent their case hi&e sti&& *rotecting the constit!tiona& rights o% the

acc!se$( >art IB a&so $isc!sses the hea"' #!r$en !*on *rosec!tors an$their nee$ %or this *oer%!& e"i$ence ith character re"ea&ing !a&ities(A$$itiona&&') >art IB high&ights the mistaDes o% tria& 5!$ges an$ ho their%ai&!res at tria& res!&t in rec!rring $i&emmas( 6ina&&') >art IB $isc!sses hoco!nse& o% the acc!se$ contin!o!s&' %ai& to #ring %orar$ constit!tiona&cha&&enges o% e"i$entiar' !se( A&ternate a's to re%rain %rom an 6R9404#< ana&'sis are $isc!sse$ so as to a&&o tria& 5!$ges to a"oi$ thisconstit!tiona& !agmire(

I( IN.ROG=C.ION

.he right to rea$) tho!gh not e+*&icit&' state$ in the Constit!tion) is a*rotecte$ %orm o% %ree s*eech an$ is th!s grante$ *rotection !n$er the 6irst

Amen$ment(18

As !stice @&acD state$ inMartin v. City o% Str&t'er()theright o% %ree$om o% s*eech an$ *ress has #roa$ sco*e ( ( ( ( .his %ree$omem#races the right to $istri#!te &iterat!re an$ necessari&' *rotects the right

to recei"e it(20 Hoe"er) &iDe a&& constit!tiona& rights) the 6irstAmen$ment rights are not a#so&!te(21.he 6irst Amen$ment) moreo"er)$oes not *rohi#it the e"i$entiar' !se o% s*eech to esta#&ish e&ements o% acrime or to *ro"e moti"e or intent(22

.he rea$ing materia& o% an acc!se$ sho!&$ ne"er #e com)*ete*yo%% &imits

as e"i$ence in a crimina& *rocee$ing( In some cases) an in$i"i$!a&Es choiceo% rea$ing materia& is re&e"ant an$ *ro#ati"e(23 Fhat an in$i"i$!a& rea$sgenera&&' sa's something a#o!t his interests) i% not his character( Hoe"er)6R9 404a< *rohi#its the !se o% a *ersonEs character or a trait o% character

to *ro"e action in con%ormit' thereith on a *artic!&ar occasion(

24

.ro!#&esome iss!es arise hen *rosec!tors seeD to a$mit an acc!se$Esrea$ing materia& as e"i$ence *!rs!ant to 6R9 404#


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8 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:348character e"i$ence r!&e(2 6R9 404#< a&&os e"i$ence o% other crimes)rongs) or acts %or *!r*oses o% shoing *roo% o% moti"e) o**ort!nit')intent) *re*aration) *&an) Dno&e$ge) i$entit') or a#sence o% mistaDe( 2Inman' 5!ris$ictions) it is the most %re!ent&' &itigate$ iss!e an$ ma' #e the

most common gro!n$ %or re"ersa& in crimina& cases(

27

Congressiona&intent c&ear&' in$icates that 6R9 404#< as create$ as an inc&!si"e r!&e o%e"i$ence(2 It a&&os *rosec!tors an o**ort!nit' to o%%er e"i$ence thato!&$ otherise not #e a$missi#&e( >rosec!tors %re!ent&' re&' !*on this

a&&,encom*assing r!&e(28

>rosec!tors carr' the hea"' #!r$en o% esta#&ishing *roo% #e'on$ areasona#&e $o!#t as to each e&ement o% the crime *roscri#e$ #' thestat!te(30 In se"era& sit!ations here *rosec!tors &acD e"i$ence to *ro"es!ch e&ements as moti"e or intent) the' i&& seeD to esta#&ish those e&ements#' $igging into the &i#raries) com*!ters) or *ersona& $igita& assistants

>GA< o% the acc!se$ to %in$ an' sort o% connection or simi&arit' to thea&&ege$ crime(31O%tentimes) *rosec!tors i&& $isco"er rea$ing materia& iththemes resem#&ing the crime committe$(32Ges*ite the %act that the rea$ingmateria& is &a%!& an$ constit!tiona&&' *rotecte$) the *rosec!tion i&& seeDto ha"e s!ch e"i$ence a$mitte$( .he *rosec!tionEs goa& is to &inD the$e%en$ant to the crime thro!gh the rea$ing materia&( .he' are in$irect&'te&&ing the 5!r' that the $e%en$ant ha$ this interest an$ #eca!se o% thisinterest) it is more &iDe&' the $e%en$ant committe$ the crime( Hence) the

*rosec!torEs nee$ %or e"i$ence con%&icts ith the 6irst Amen$ment an$ the*ri"ac' rights o% the $e%en$ant(33 Fitho!t %!rther g!i$ance %rom theS!*reme Co!rt) tria& co!rt 5!$ges ha"e str!gg&e$ to #a&ance the interests o%the acc!se$ hi&e sti&& gi"ing the *rosec!tion a chance to *resent its case

2 ( 69G( R( 9BIG( 404#


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200 READING MATERIAL AND FRE !"#$ 87e%%ecti"e&'(34

.he &acD o% c&arit' regar$ing the iss!e has &e$ to a #roa$ s*ectr!m o%ho&$ings an$ o!tcomes( .he !estion remains: =n$er hich circ!mstancesan$ to hat e+tent) can an in$i"i$!a&Es rea$ing materia& #e !se$ as

e"i$ence against that *erson in a co!rt o% &a

II( .H969G9RALR=L9SO69BIG9NC9ANGCOM>9.IN;CONS.I.=.IONALIN.9R9S.S

A( 6R9 401) 404#resent a Gi%%ic!&t O#stac&e %or anAcc!se$ to O"ercome

@e%ore o%%ering an' e"i$ence) the *rosec!tion m!st esta#&ish itsre&e"ance(3Re&e"ant e"i$enceEis e"i$ence that has an' ten$enc' tomaDe the e+istence o% an' %act ( ( ( more *ro#a#&e ( ( ( than it o!&$ #eitho!t the e"i$ence(3 A&& re&e"ant e"i$ence is a$missi#&e) !n&ess

*rohi#ite$ #' the Constit!tion o% the =nite$ States) an Act o% Congress) orother r!&e *rescri#e$ #' the S!*reme Co!rt *!rs!ant to stat!tor'a!thorit'(37 .he thresho&$ stan$ar$ to meet the re&e"anc' re!irement is&o there%ore) most materia& o%%ere$ #' the *rosec!tion i&& ha"e notro!#&e meeting the re&e"anc' re!irement(

Rea$ing materia& in the *ossession o% the acc!se$ is a&most certain&'re&e"ant( .he %act that a man acc!se$ o% chi&$ mo&estation *ossesses chi&$

*ornogra*h' o!&$ maDe the *ro#a#i&it' that he committe$ the crime more&iDe&' than it o!&$ #e itho!t s!ch e"i$ence( Co!rts !se a reasona#&enessstan$ar$ to $etermine re&e"ance: hether a reasona#&e man might ha"e hisassessment o% *ro#a#i&ities o% a materia& *ro*osition change$ #' a *iece o%e"i$ence so!ght to #e a$mitte$(3=n$er this stan$ar$) the %act that a man

rea$s a *ornogra*hic maga-ine entit&e$ Over 1!o!&$ #e re&e"ant to a casein hich he is acc!se$ o% ra*ing an eight',%i"e,'ear,o&$ oman) %or it has agreater ten$enc' to s!**ort the !&timate %act that he committe$ the crimethan o!&$ #e the case itho!t this in%ormation(38

One e+ce*tion to the re&e"anc' re!irement is 6R9 404a


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8 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:348character rather than his g!i&t(41.he e+ce*tion to the character e"i$encer!&e is 6R9 404#


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200 READING MATERIAL AND FRE !"#$ 88tria& 5!$ge s!ccess%!&&' a"oi$e$ an 6R9 403,#ase$ a**ea&48#' e+c&!$ing13 o% the 140 *ornogra*hic stories %o!n$ on the $e%en$antEs >GA #eca!sethe' ere re$!n$ant) in%&ammator') an$ !n$!&' *re5!$icia&(0

Another #a&ancing metho$ !se$ #' tria& 5!$ges is to gi"e a &imiting

instr!ction(

1

.he 5!$ge instr!cts the 5!r' an$ em*hasi-es that the e"i$encecan on&' #e !se$ %or noncharacter *!r*oses:

o! ma' taDe this Din$ o% e"i$ence on the !estion o% hether the

$e%en$ant act!a&&' *ossesse$ the intent( ( ( ( So) %or those %o!r *!r*oses)

on&') the ;o"ernment is o%%ering to sho that the $e%en$ant *ossesse$

this &iterat!re: intent) metho$) *re*aration) an$ Dno&e$ge( An$ 'o!

ma' on&' taDe it %or that *!r*ose( ( ( ( o! m!st not a&&o this Din$ o%

e"i$ence to #ias 'o!) genera&&') against the $e%en$ant on the !&timate

!estion o% g!i&t or innocence( o! m!st not $o that(2

!$ges are aare) hoe"er) o% the "er' rea& *ossi#i&it' that the 5!r' i&&$ra im*ermissi#&e character in%erences %rom the rea$ing materia& o% theacc!se$ an$ $etermine the g!i&t o% the acc!se$ #ase$ on his se&ection o%

rea$ing materia&(3

In or$er %or a $e%en$ant to cha&&enge the tria& 5!$geEs 6R9 403 r!&ing ona**ea& there m!st #e an a#!se o% $iscretion(4A co!rt o% a**ea& re"ies thetria& co!rtEs r!&ings on o#5ections #ase$ on !n$!e *re5!$ice an$ &acD o%re&e"ance !n$er the same a#!se o% $iscretion stan$ar$( In the e"ent thatthe co!rt %in$s an a#!se o% $iscretion) the $e%en$ant m!st sti&& o"ercome theharm&ess,error test hich states) an' error) $e%ect) irreg!&arit' or "ariancethat $oes not a%%ect s!#stantia& rights m!st #e $isregar$e$( .here is)hoe"er) a $e#ate on hether a "io&ation o% a constit!tiona& right sho!&$e"er #e consi$ere$ a harm&ess error( As !stice Ste"ens state$ in Ro(e v.C*ar2) "io&ations o% certain constit!tiona& rights are not) an$ sho!&$ not#e) s!#5ect to harm&ess,error ana&'sis #eca!se those rights *rotect im*ortant

48 . Id.at 1084 C!rtin $i$ not s*eci%ica&&' an$ $istinct&' maDe a R!&e 403 arg!ment

in his o*ening #rie%(


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100 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:348"a&!es that are !nre&ate$ to the tr!th,seeDing %!nction o% the tria&(7

Ne"erthe&ess) the net res!&t o% the "ario!s r!&es is that rea$ing materia& iseasi&' a$mitte$ at tria& an$ $i%%ic!&t to o"ercome on a**ea&(

@( 6R9 404#< Contains Am#ig!o!s .ermino&og' Fhich) Fitho!t6!rther Instr!ction) Can Lea$ to an O"er,Inc&!sion o% 9"i$ence

1( Other crimes) rongs) or acts o% the acc!se$: Goes*ossession o% rea$ing materia& %it into one o% thesecategories

6R9 404#< a&&os a *rosec!tor to o%%er e"i$ence o% other crimes)rongs) or acts o% the acc!se$(A crime is !n$erstoo$ to #e an act thatthe &a maDes *!nisha#&e the #reach o% a &ega& $!t' treate$ as the s!#5ectmatter o% a crimina& *rocee$ing(8 In the context of FRE 404(b), acrime is less ambiguous than a wrong or act. !re"ious

con"iction for unlawful im!ortation of heroin woul# be a#missible in a

subse$uent case where the #efen#ant is accuse# of smugglingmetham!hetamine #es!ite the fact that the two #rugs are #ifferent.

0

.he other %orms o% 6R9 404#< e"i$ence) rongs an$ acts) are moream#ig!o!s( Are the rongs $escri#e$ in the R!&e inten$e$ to im*&' on&'&ega& in%ractions short o% crimina& "io&ations) or $o rongs encom*asssocia& an$ mora& shortcomings .here are acts hich ma' #e $eeme$re*rehensi#&e or mora&&' re*!gnant #' the norms o% societ') s!ch as

rea$ing *ornogra*hic stories or atten$ing a J! J&!+ J&an ra&&') #!t i% the'are not i&&ega&) sho!&$ the' #e consi$ere$ a rong 6!rthermore) ho$etermines hat a rong is >res!ma#&') the tria& 5!$ge o!&$ #eres*onsi#&e %or $etermining hat constit!tes an 6R9 404#< rong(1

.his *&aces the 5!$ge in a *osition to *ass socia& an$ mora& 5!$gment on the

acc!se$Es #eha"ior an$ actions( Is rea$ing consi$ere$ a rong) or $oesthe characteri-ation o% rea$ing as a rong $e*en$ !*on the s!#5ectmatter #eing rea$ In short) it is !nc&ear hat Congress meant hen the'inc&!$e$ rongs as a$missi#&e 404#< e"i$ence(

Fhat constit!tes an act Fhi&e the acts o% thinDing) &earning) rea$ing)or %antasi-ing a#o!t a crime are not *!nisha#&e) other actions short o% thecom*&ete$ crime) s!ch as cons*irac') are *!nisha#&e( .he !estion %or theco!rt #ecomes: at hat *oint $o the menta& *rocesses mani%est into an actas $e%ine$ #' 404#


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200 READING MATERIAL AND FRE !"#$ 1016!rthermore) in %orm!&ating 6R9 404#


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102 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:3482( Rea$ing materia& !se$ to esta#&ish intent) moti"e) an$ other

noncharacter *!r*oses are !n%air&' *re5!$icia& to the acc!se$

Fhi&e some noncharacter !ses o% e"i$ence are sim*&e to !n$erstan$)

others are more am#ig!o!s( >ro"ing Dno&e$ge is a %air&' straight%orar$

noncharacter !se o% e"i$ence( .he !se o% a $e%en$antEs rea$ing materia& tosho Dno&e$ge is &ogica& #eca!se a s!#stantia& amo!nt o% Dno&e$ge isac!ire$ thro!gh rea$ing( I% the $e%en$ant a&&eges a &acD o% Dno&e$ge) thea$missi#i&it' o% rea$ing materia& to sho that the $e%en$ant *ossesse$ there!isite Dno&e$ge is #oth re&e"ant an$ *ro#ati"e(70@ooDs or maga-ineshich are instr!cti"e in nat!re o!&$ %a&& into this categor') an$ the*rosec!tion o!&$ sti&& #e &e%t ith the #!r$en o% shoing that the$e%en$ant co!&$ rea$ an$ $i$ rea$ the materia&s(71

Fhen rea$ing materia& is !se$ to sho Dno&e$ge) there is &itt&e) i% an')in%ringement on the $e%en$antEs 6irst Amen$ment rights(72.he *rosec!tionis not te&&ing a 5!r' that #eca!se the $e%en$ant rea$s a *artic!&ar maga-ine)he m!st ha"e acte$ in con%ormit' thereith) or that his act o% rea$ing the

maga-ine has com*e&&e$ him to $o s!ch an act( .he *rosec!tion is sim*&'intro$!cing e"i$ence to sho that the $e%en$ant ha$ s!%%icient Dno&e$geto commit the crime( .he $e%en$ant o!&$ not #e !n%air&' *re5!$ice$ #'the a$mission o% rea$ing materia& that *ro"i$e$ the $e%en$ant ithDno&e$ge) #eca!se there is a &o risD that a 5!r' o!&$ $raim*ermissi#&e character in%erences an$ con"ict him #ase$ on hat hechooses to rea$(73

In +nited State( v. Roger() the $e%en$ant as con"icte$ o% *ossessing a%irearm a si&encer< not registere$ to him( 74.he $e%en$ant a&&ege$ a &acDo% Dno&e$ge o% the $e"iceEs %!nction(7As e"i$ence against the $e%en$ant)the co!rt a$mitte$ a co*' o% the #ooD) T'e Anarc'i(t0( Coo2#oo2(7 .he#ooD ga"e $etai&e$ instr!ctions on ho to #!i&$ a si&encer: he ha$ #!i&t the

si&encer accor$ing to the Coo2#oo20(*&an(77

.he co!rt he&$) there is no70 . E.g.) =nite$ States "( Mo!nt) 8 6(2$ 12) 22 1st Cir( 1880< ho&$ing that

e"i$ence o% historica& $oc!ments %o!n$ in $e%en$antEs resi$ence ith i$enti%'ing marDs

remo"e$ ere a$missi#&e to *ro"e $e%en$antEs Dno&e$ge that simi&ar $oc!ments ere

sto&en


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200 READING MATERIAL AND FRE !"#$ 103*ro#&em) !n$er either the &a o% e"i$ence or the 6irst Amen$ment) in*resenting to the 5!r' ritten materia& in the $e%en$antEs *ossession thatshos ho to commit the crime) %or this maDes it more &iDe&' that the

$e%en$ant rather than someone e&se as c!&*a#&e(7 In cases here

Dno&e$ge is the #asis %or intro$!cing rea$ing materia&) the *rosec!tion isnot !sing the e"i$ence in or$er to *ro"e g!i&t or an' e&ement o% the crime(Rather) the *rosec!tion is !sing the materia& strict&' to re#!t the$e%en$antEs &acD,o%,Dno&e$ge $e%ense(

.he more *ro#&ematic !se o% rea$ing materia& !n$er 6R9 404#< is henthe *!r*ose is to sho intent or moti"e( Intent is $e%ine$ as the state o%min$ accom*an'ing an act ( ( ( ( Fhi&e moti"e is the in$!cement to $osome act) intent is the menta& reso&!tion or $etermination to $o it( Fhen theintent to $o an act that "io&ates the &a e+ists) the moti"e #ecomesimmateria&(78 et) ho can rea$ing a #ooD or a maga-ine sho anin$i"i$!a&Es menta& state or a reso&"e to act !*on a state o% min$ Anin$i"i$!a& ma' rea$ %or %antas') c!riosit') entertainment) or Dno&e$ge(.he 5!r' taDes a giant &ea* in ass!ming that #eca!se an in$i"i$!a& rea$s

certain materia&) he reso&"es to act in a manner consistent ith the materia&(Not on&' is there a threat o% im*ermissi#&e character in%erences) #!t there isa #roa$er 6irst Amen$ment im*&ication( .he 6irst Amen$ment seeDs to*rotect oneEs *ri"ac' an$ %ree$om o% e+*ression) #!t a&so to %oster thee+change o% i$eas %or the greater goo$ o% the comm!nit'( 0 .he 6irstAmen$ment is essentia& %or comm!nication) e$!cation) an$ creati"ethinDing(

Rea$ing materia& as !se$ to sho intent in eo)*e v. Sara#i(1 InSara#i) an !n*!#&ishe$ case) the $e%en$ant) an ice cream tr!cD oner) asacc!se$ o% committing &e$ or &asci"io!s acts !*on a chi&$ !n$er the age o%%o!rteen(2.he tria& co!rt a$mitte$ into e"i$ence co*ies o% a *ornogra*hicmaga-ine entit&e$ 5o&ng Star() hich containe$ se+!a&&' e+*&icit

*hotogra*hs o% n!$e 'o!ng omen $escri#e$ as teenagers(3.o esta#&ishthe crime charge$) the *rosec!tor ha$ to *ro"e that sic $e%en$ant

to!che$ his acc!ser ith the intent to aro!se) a**ea& to or grati%' &!st)*assion) or se+!a& $esire o% the $e%en$ant(4.he Co!rt !&timate&' he&$ thatthe 5!r' co!&$ in%er %rom the maga-ine an$ the *hotogra*hs that $e%en$antha$ a *r!rient interest in a$o&escent gir&s an$ that he inten$e$ to act on that

7 . Id.at 101(78 ( @LACJESLAFGIC.IONAR2 th e$( 2004


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104 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:348interest(An e+cessi"e amo!nt o% a *artic!&ar t'*e o% rea$ing materia&ma' esta#&ish that the rea$er ha$ a *artic!&ar interest) #!t it is $i%%ic!&t tosee ho a 5!$ge or a 5!r' can conc&!$e that the $e%en$ant inten$e$ to acton that interestitho!t %!rther e"i$ence( I% %!rther e"i$ence is a"ai&a#&e)

the *rosec!tion o!&$ not nee$ to intro$!ce the rea$ing materia&(.he iss!e o% intent #ecomes *er*&e+ing hen co!rts #egin to $etermine

a$missi#i&it' #ase$ !*on the $istinction #eteen s*eci%ic intent an$ genera&intent(7 .he terms s*eci%ic intent an$ genera& intent ha"e &ongcon%o!n$e$ co!rts an$ commentators:

.he main $istinction #eteen s*eci%ic an$ genera& intent is the e&ement

o% #a$ or e"i& *!r*ose hich is re!ire$ %or the %ormer( A *erson ho

Dnoing&' commits an act hich the &a maDes a crime ma' #e sai$ to

ha"e genera& intent) hi&e the *erson ho commits the same act ith

#a$ *!r*ose either to $iso#e' or $isregar$ the &a ma' #e sai$ to ha"e

s*eci%ic intent(8

Fhi&e an attem*t to %!rther $isting!ish the to is #e'on$ the sco*e o% this

Note) s*eci%ic intent crimes re!ire the *rosec!tor to carr' a greater #!r$eno% *roo% to sho the *artic!&ar mens rea(80.his greater #!r$en o% *roo%o%ten com*e&s *rosec!tors to reach %or e"i$ence( Co!rts ha"e shon agreater inc&ination to a&&o rea$ing materia& into e"i$ence !n$er 6R9

404#< to *ro"e intent hen the "io&ate$ stat!te in"o&"es s*eci%ic intent( 81

In s!ch cases) 5!$ges are *&acing the nee$s o% the *rosec!tion a#o"e the*rotections o% the $e%en$ant(

.he other t'*es o% noncharacter !ses) inc&!$ing o**ort!nit') *re*aration)*&an) i$entit') an$ a#sence o% mistaDe) are $i%%ic!&t to *ro"e thro!gh

rea$ing materia& an$ genera&&' are not the s!#5ect o% 6R9 404#< casesin"o&"ing the a$missi#i&it' o% rea$ing materia&( Hoe"er) co!rts ha"ea&&oe$ rea$ing materia& into e"i$ence %or other noncharacter !ses not

state$ in 6R9 404#


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200 READING MATERIAL AND FRE !"#$ 10C( S*ecia& >rotections Sho!&$ @e ;rante$ Fhen Constit!tiona&&'

>rotecte$ Rea$ing Materia& is =se$ as 9"i$ence Against theAcc!se$

=n&iDe other act(!se$ %or noncharacter *!r*oses !n$er 6R9 404#


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10 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:348III( R9C9N.G9CISIONSHI;HLI;H..H9S>[email protected];ANGFI.HIN

[email protected];MA.9RIALAS9BIG9NC9

A( Contro"ersia& Ninth Circ!it Gecisions in S'ymanovit7)A**en) an$C&rtinI&&!strate the =ncertaint' S!rro!n$ing the A$missi#i&it'o% the Acc!se$Es Rea$ing Materia& as 9"i$ence Against Him

.he Ninth Circ!it a$$resse$ the a$missi#i&it' o% rea$ing materia&$irect&' in G&am v. S'ymanovit7(100Ges*ite the co!rtEs goo$ %aith e%%ort to*rotect the acc!se$Es 6irst Amen$ment rights an$ &imit the a$missi#i&it' o%rea$ing materia& e"i$ence !n$er 6R9 404#


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200 READING MATERIAL AND FRE !"#$ 107!n$er the se+!a& contact stat!te) is o#5ecti"e rather than s!#5ecti"e( In short)it is the character o% the to!ching that is at iss!e) not the *!r*ose o% theintentiona& to!cher(111@' taDing intent o!t o% the e!ation) the *rosec!tion

as &e%t itho!t a noncharacter e"i$entiar' !se a$missi#&e !n$er 404#


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10 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:348rights an$ *ri"ac' concerns) #!t %ai&s to e+*&icit&' state the 6irstAmen$ment as a reason %or *re"enting the intro$!ction o% rea$ing materia&(>erha*s this is #eca!se s!ch a constit!tiona& cha&&enge as ne"er raise$ #'Sh'mano"it-Es $e%ense co!nse&) an$ as s!ch) as $eeme$ ai"e$( As a

res!&t o% the $e%ense co!nse&Es omission) the co!rt as not a#&e to $irect&'a$$ress the 6irst Amen$ment im*&ications o% this e"i$entiar' !sage(11

.he co!rt in S'ymanovit7 $isc!sse$ rea$ing as a #a$ act !n$er the 6R9:hi&e certain t'*es o% con$!ct genera&&' con$emne$ #' societ' ma'constit!te #a$ acts) *ossession o% &a%!& rea$ing materia& is sim*&' not thet'*e o% con$!ct contem*&ate$ #' R!&e 404#


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110 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:348crime(138

Rea$ing the ho&$ings o% S'ymanovit7140 an$A**en141 together) it o!&$#e &ogica& to conc&!$e that the a$missi#i&it' o% the acc!se$Es choice o%rea$ing materia& !n$er 6R9 404#< hinges on hether the stat!te "io&ate$

as a s*eci%ic intent or a genera& intent crime( .his $istinction as not the%oca& *oint the S'ymanovit7 co!rt inten$e$ to re&' !*on(142 .he NinthCirc!itEs !se o% the s*eci%ic intent an$ genera& intent $istinction as acon"enient a' o% Dee*ing rea$ing materia& aa' %rom the 5!r' #eca!se o%6irst Amen$ment *ri"ac' concerns an$ the *ossi#i&it' o% !n%air characterin%erences(143Ne"erthe&ess) the A**enco!rt re&ie$ !*on the s*eci%ic intentan$ genera& intent $istinction to $etermine a$missi#i&it' !n$er 6R9404#


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200 READING MATERIAL AND FRE !"#$ 111there(11 6ina&&') on the $a' o% the *ro*ose$ meeting) he arri"e$ at the$esignate$ meeting area #!t $i$ not comm!nicate ith Christ'( 12 Fhi&e&ea"ing the casino) he as $etaine$ #' &a en%orcement o%%icers)

!estione$) searche$) an$ !&timate&' arreste$(13.he *o&ice sei-e$ his >GA

an$ &a*to* com*!ter(

14

.he >GA containe$ o"er 140 stories a#o!t a$!&tsha"ing se+ ith chi&$ren(1

.he ;o"ernment o%%ere$ "ario!s stories %o!n$ on the >GA to shointent) Dno&e$ge) *re*aration or mo$!s o*eran$i(1 .he $e%en$ant

o#5ecte$ to the a$missi#i&it' o% s!ch e"i$ence #' stating that the storiesere high&' *re5!$icia& an$ ere #eing a$mitte$ to sho *ro*ensit'( 17

.he $e%en$ant $i$ not mention the 6irst Amen$ment hen cha&&enging thea$missi#i&it' o% the stories(1

.he ;o"ernment arg!e$ that the &ang!age !se$ in C!rtinEs instantmessaging con"ersations an$ e,mai&s %eat!re$ simi&ar themes as to the

stories %o!n$ on the >GA(186or instance) the stor' Me&anieEs @!s' Ga'$isc!sse$ ora& se+ an$ a chi&$ mast!r#ating #oth ere $isc!sse$ #' C!rtinin the e&ectronic comm!nications(10Another stor') Missing @ig @rother)$isc!sse$ ho the a$!&t in the stor' $i$ not ant to h!rt the chi&$ $!ringse+) something C!rtin a&so ta&De$ a#o!t in his comm!nications( 11@eca!seo% the simi&arities in the &ang!age o% the stories an$ the comm!nications)the ;o"ernment arg!e$ that the stories ere ine+trica#&' intertine$ith the a&&ege$ crime an$ th!s) o!tsi$e the *arameters o% 6R9 404#


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112 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:348an$ th!s) s!#5ect to an 6R9 404#< ana&'sis(1

1( .he C&rtinco!rt %oc!se$ on *ossession o% rea$ing materia& as

an act

.he C&rtinco!rtEs %oc!s as the c&assi%ication o% rea$ing materia& as anact( .he C&rtin co!rt conc&!$e$ that the maga-ine artic&es %ai&e$ toconstit!te an 6R9 404#< #a$ act(17 .he %o!r,*art test esta#&ishe$ #'

+nited State( v. S)i**one) hich as !se$ in C&rtin to $eterminea$missi#i&it' !n$er 6R9 404#< states:

1 there m!st #e s!%%icient e"i$ence to s!**ort the 5!r'Es %in$ing that

the $e%en$ant committe$ the other crime( ( ( ( 2 the other crime m!st

not #e too remote in time( ( ( ( 3 hen a *rior act is a$mitte$ to

*ro"e intent ( ( ( the *rior act m!st #e simi&ar( ( ( ( an$ 4 the *rior act

m!st #e intro$!ce$ in or$er to *ro"e a materia& e&ement o% the case(1

.he co!rt %o!n$ the thir$ criterion) the simi&arit' o% the acts) to #e the

$is*ositi"e iss!e(

18

Fe he&$ in S'ymanovit7 that *ossession o% &a%!&rea$ing materia& as not simi&ar to act!a& crimina& con$!ct) th!s %ai&ing thethir$ criterion o% the S)i**onetest(170In C&rtin) the go"ernment so!ghtto intro$!ce *ossession o% materia& that $escri#es one t'*e o% crimina&con$!ct) name&' incest ith minors) to *ro"e intent to commit another t'*eo% crimina& con$!ct) name&' crossing state #or$ers to ha"e se+ ith aminor(171LiDe the maga-ine artic&es in S'ymanovit7) the stories $isco"ere$on the $e%en$antEs >GA o!&$ ha"e *res!ma#&' %ai&e$ the S)i**onetest an$there%ore #een ina$missi#&e(172

Fhen the act in !estion is more than mere *ossession o% rea$ingmateria&) the $i%%ic!&ties in a**&'ing the %o!r,*art S)i**one test #ecomea**arent( 6rom a &ogica& stan$*oint) mere *ossession o% s!ch materia&o!&$ #e !se&ess itho!t *roo% that the $e%en$ant rea$ it( It is the rea$ingthat esta#&ishes or rein%orces the $e%en$antEs men( rea( I% mere *ossession$oes constit!te an act !n$er 6R9 404#


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114 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:348the act!a& crimina& con$!ct(12A #asic C&rtininter*retation o% the thir$S)i**one criterion o!&$ &ea$ to an o"er&' #roa$ e+c&!sion o% e"i$ence(Mere *ossession o% rea$ing materia& is not crimina& con$!ct an$ can ne"er#e e!ate$ ith crimina& con$!ct( .h!s) a&& rea$ing materia& s!#5ect to an

6R9 404#< ana&'sis o!&$ #e e+c&!$e$( !$ge .rott note$ in his $issentingo*inion in C&rtin) the #rea$th o% s!ch a $istinction #' stating that: hisco&&eag!es ha"e e%%ecti"e&' ma$e re&e"ant &iterat!re categorica&&' o%%,&imitsas a so!rce o% e"i$ence(13

I% the co!rt ha$ not $isting!ishe$ #eteen the act o% *ossessing materia&an$ the act o% committing the crime) #!t instea$ ha$ %oc!se$ on thecontents o% the rea$ing materia&) an' simi&arit' %o!n$ #eteen the rea$ingmateria& an$ the a&&ege$ crimina& con$!ct co!&$ *otentia&&' #e a$mitte$(.his o!&$ &ea$ to an o"er,inc&!sion o% e"i$ence( 14 In C&rtin) the co!rt%!rther $isting!ishe$ the acts an$ a"oi$e$ the risD o% o"er,inc&!sion #'

strict&' inter*reting the simi&arit' o% the crime committe$ an$ the contentso% the artic&es(1 S!ch a narro inter*retation o% simi&arit' seemscontrar' to the &as o% re&e"anc'( .he artic&es in the $e%en$antEs *ossessionin"o&"e$ incest!o!s se+ ith minors(1 .he a&&ege$ crime in"o&"e$crossing state #or$ers ith the s*eci%ic intent to engage in se+!a& con$!ctith minors(17.he co!rt $isregar$s the simi&arit' #eteen the crime an$the content o% the artic&es(

In short) the C&rtinco!rt incorrect&' states that there is no simi&arit'#eteen the contents o% the stories an$ the crime committe$( .he co!rt$oes) hoe"er) correct&' $isting!ish the act o% *ossessing s!ch materia& an$the act o% committing the crime( .hat is not to sa') o% co!rse) that a&&rea$ing materia& sho!&$ %ai& the simi&arit' test !n$er S)i**one an$s!#se!ent&' #e !na"ai&a#&e to the *rosec!tion( Rather) the S)i**one testan$ other simi&ar 6R9 404#< a$missi#i&it' tests m!st #e a&tere$ hen

$ea&ing ith the *ossession o% rea$ing materia&a *assi"e)constit!tiona&&',*rotecte$ act(

2( C&rtino"er&ooDs the s*eci%ic intent an$ genera& intent

$istinction

Fhi&e the S'ymanovit7co!rt as sDe*tica& as to hether *ossession o%rea$ing materia& can constit!te a #a$ act) that as not its #asis %or

$etermining ina$missi#i&it'(1 Ina$missi#i&it' in S'ymanovit7 as$etermine$ #' the intent re!ire$ in the *rescri#e$ stat!te) genera& intent or

12 ( =nite$ States "( C!rtin) 443 6(3$ 104) 1081 8th Cir( 200< ma5orit' o*inion


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200 READING MATERIAL AND FRE !"#$ 11s*eci%ic intent(18Intent as the materia& e&ement o% the o%%ense) the %o!rthcriterion in the S)i**one test( !$ge .rottEs $issenting o*inion in C&rtincorrect&' states the #asis %or e+c&!$ing the e"i$ence in S'ymanovit7:

.he ma5orit'Es o"er,genera&i-ation #est i&&!strates the ma5orit'Es

%ai&!re to a**reciate the %act that the o%%ense $escri#e$ inS'ymanovit7 as nota s*eci%ic intent crime( .h!s) #eca!se s*eci%ic

intent as not an iss!e) rea$ing materia& a$mitte$ to sho intent o!&$

ne"er #e re&e"ant( ( ( ( Fhere s*eci%ic intent is at iss!e) rea$ing

materia& can #e re&e"ant(180

.he A**en co!rtEs contin!e$ re&iance !*on this $istinction an$ the&ang!age o% S'ymanovit7 s!ggests that !$ge .rottEs inter*retation o%S'ymanovit7 is acc!rate(181 .he ma5orit' in C&rtin) hoe"er) inter*rete$S'ymanovit7 $i%%erent&'(182.he ma5orit' $i$ not re&' !*on the s*eci%icintent an$ genera& intent $istinction: e"en i% S'ymanovit7in"o&"es s&ight&'$i%%erent %acts) its &ega& r!&e $oes not $isting!ish #eteen s*eci%ic intentcrimes an$ other crimes(183

.he ma5orit' in C&rtina&so e+c&!$e$ the stories %rom e"i$ence %or the*rosec!tionEs re#!tta& o% the $e%en$antEs $e%ense(184 Ge%ense co!nse& %orC!rtin arg!e$ that C!rtin inten$e$ to act o!t an incest!o!s se+!a&%antas' ith Christ') #!t that he e+*ecte$ her to #e an a$!&t ho o!&$*reten$ to #e his innocent !ns*oi&e$ $a!ghter( A&tho!gh he ca&&e$ hisse+!a& %antas' $a$$' $a!ghter)E he $enie$ that the $a!ghterE o!&$ #e aminor(18 !$ge .rott acDno&e$ge$ that) i% tr!e) this intent arg!ment

o!&$ $e%eat the *rosec!tionEs case(18 Ne"erthe&ess) this arg!mentarrants a greater *rosec!toria& nee$ %or the e"i$ence: o#scene &iterat!reten$ing itho!t am#ig!it' to *ro"e that the o#5ect o% his incest %antas' asa chi&$) not an a$!&t(187

Fhen rea$ing materia& is #eing !se$ #' the *rosec!tion to re#!t a &acD

o% intent $e%ense) as o**ose$ to the *rosec!tionEs case,in,chie%) the$'namics o% a$missi#i&it' change(18 In +nited State( v. Vie%'a&() the$e%en$ant) ho ha$ #een con"icte$ o% cons*irac' an$ !se o% a te&e*hone totransmit a #om# threat) cha&&enge$ the a$missi#i&it' o% &iterat!re es*o!sing

18 . Id.180 . C&rtin)4436(3$ at 1104 n( ma5orit' o*inion


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11 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:348hate an$ other Na-i *ro*agan$a(188

Fhen the $e%en$ant o%%ers &acD o% intent as a $e%ense) e"en tho!gh the

go"ernment $oes not ha"e to *ro"e s!#5ecti"e intent as an e&ement o%

the o%%ense) the circ!mstances s!rro!n$ing the maDing o% the ca&&s

#ecome re&e"ant( .he e"i$ence o%%ere$ c&ear&' as *ro#ati"e o% the$e%en$antEs state o% min$ an$ ten$s to co!nter his a&&egation o% #enign

*!r*ose(200

3( On an en #anc rehearing) C!rtinEs con"iction as re"erse$ #!tthe a$missi#i&it' o% rea$ing materia& remains !nsett&e$

On rehearing en #anc) C!rtinEs con"iction as re"erse$ an$ the casereman$e$ on the gro!n$s that the *re5!$icia& e%%ect o% the storiess!#stantia&&' o!teighe$ their *ro#ati"e "a&!e(201 .he co!rt a&soree+amine$ S'ymanovit70(categorica& e+c&!sion as a matter o% &a o%rea$ing materia& %rom the "arieties o% e"i$ence that might otherise %a&&ithin the reach o% R!&e 404#


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200 READING MATERIAL AND FRE !"#$ 117.he ma5orit' %ai&e$ to a**ro*riate&' e+*ress the nee$ %or e+tra

*reca!tions hen the re&e"ant e"i$ence is constit!tiona&&' *rotecte$rea$ing materia&( As !$ge Far$&a *ointe$ o!t in his $issent) the !se

o% &a%!& rea$ing materia& to *ro"e intent is a $angero!s #!siness) an$ an'

$istrict co!rt %ace$ ith s!ch an iss!e m!st a**roach it ca!tio!s&'(

207

!$geJ&ein%e&$ ent %!rther #' stating:

Fe o!ght to #e ar' hen the go"ernment ants to !se hat *eo*&e

rea$ against them( O!r %ree$om to rea$ an$ thinD re!ires a high a&&

restricting o%%icia& scr!tin'( .he go"ernment or others< can smear

*eo*&e #' re"ea&ing hat #ooDs the' #!' an$ #orro %rom the &i#rar')

hat maga-ines the' *!rchase at the nesstan$) hat mo"ies the' rent

at the "i$eo store) an$ hat the' &ooD at on the internet( ( ( ( Rea$ers

sho!&$ not ha"e to hi$e hat the' rea$ to #e sa%e %rom the

go"ernment(20

A&tho!gh the Ninth Circ!itEs *osition on the !se o% rea$ing materia& ase"i$ence to *ro"e intent is not entire&' c&ear) it is a**arent that some 5!$ges

are more ca!tio!s a#o!t in%ringing !*on the 6irst Amen$ment rights o% theacc!se$ than others( .he #iggest $anger) hoe"er) res!&ts %rom the NinthCirc!itEs %ai&!re to *ro"i$e so m!ch as a arning to the $istrict co!rtsagainst the risDs o% a$mitting s!ch e"i$ence(208

@( .he .enth Circ!it A$$resse$ the Iss!e an$ =&timate&' .!rne$ a@&in$ 9'e .oar$s the RisD o% the =se o% Rea$ing Materia& as>ro*ensit' 9"i$ence

oachim Gress&er as %o!n$ g!i&t' o% %irst $egree intentiona& homici$e%or the m!r$er o% ames Ma$$en(210 Gress&er an$ Ma$$en engage$ inhomose+!a& se+ an$ therea%ter) Gress&er m!r$ere$ an$ m!ti&ate$ Ma$$enEs#o$'(211 .he *o&ice searche$ Gress&erEs home an$ $isco"ere$ "i$eota*es)

*hotogra*hs) an$ maga-ines $e*icting m!r$er an$ m!ti&ation "ictims) ase&& as homose+!a& *ornogra*h'(212.he tria& co!rt a$mitte$ the e"i$ence*!rs!ant to FisconsinEs other act stat!te ? 804(042


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11 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:348*ro#ati"e o% Gress&erEs homose+!a&it' an$ %ascination ith "io&ence(214

.he $e%en$antEs %ascination ith $eath an$ m!ti&ation as a trait an$this trait is !n$enia#&' *ro#ati"e o% a moti"e) intent) or *&an to commit a"icio!s m!r$er(21

On *ost,con"iction re&ie%) Gress&er cha&&enge$ the a$missi#i&it' o% s!che"i$ence !n$er the stat!te #!t a&so raise$ a 6irst Amen$ment cha&&enge( 21

.he co!rt re5ecte$ the 6irst Amen$ment arg!ment an$ state$:

.he %!n$amenta& %&a in Gress&erEs 6irst Amen$ment arg!ment) an$ the

ma5or $isting!ishing %actor in the string o% #roa$ 6irst Amen$ment

cases he re&ies !*on) is that he as not con"icte$ o% *ossessing)

$istri#!ting) or &ooDing at the "i$eos an$ *ict!res in !estion( A&tho!gh

the' ma' ha"e he&*e$ con"ict Gress&er o% m!r$er) he ne"er e+*&ains

ho his right to *ossess or &ooD at them as a%%ecte$ #' their !se as

e"i$ence against him( An$ Gress&er $ramatica&&' o"erstates the *otentia&

chi&&ing e%%ect o% the e"i$entiar' !se o% these materia&s) as the' %orme$

on&' one &inD in the &ong chain o% e"i$ence that *ro"e$ his g!i&t( ( ( ( I%

Gress&er ere acc!se$ o% ca!sing an e+*&osion) a 5!r' co!&$ &ogica&&'in%er his g!i&t %rom the %act that a #om#,maDing man!a& as %o!n$ at

his home(217

.he co!rt o"er,sim*&i%ies the iss!e an$ e"a&!ates a$missi#i&it' entire&'on the iss!es o% re&e"ance an$ *ro#ati"e "a&!e( In $oing so) the co!rt

com*&ete&' $isregar$s the $anger o% im*ermissi#&e character or *ro*ensit'in%erences that a 5!r' ma' $ra( A *erson o#sesse$ ith "io&ence is more&iDe&' to commit m!r$er an$ there%ore the "i$eos an$ *hotogra*hs arere&e"ant ( ( ( a&tho!gh the "i$eota*es an$ *ict!res ma' a&so *ro"e #a$character or *ro*ensit') the' ere o%%ered%or *ermissi#&e *!r*oses(21

IB( @ALANCIN;.H9COM>9.IN;IN.9R9S.SO6>ROS9C=.ORIALN99GS

ANGCONS.I.=.IONAL>RO.9C.IONSIn crimina& cases here the rea$ing materia& o% the acc!se$ is so!ght to

#e intro$!ce$ into e"i$ence) there are com*eting interests that the tria&5!$ge m!st consi$er( .he *rosec!tion has the hea"' #!r$en o% esta#&ishinga&& the e&ements o% a crime in or$er to o#tain a con"iction(218 .he*rosec!tion i&& nat!ra&&' seeD to a$mit an' an$ a&& e"i$ence that i&& assistits case( More o%ten than not) rea$ing materia& in the $e%en$antEs *ossession

214 . McCa&g'try) 23 6(3$ at 810(21 . Id.at 814(21 . Id. at 81(217 . Id.21 . Id.at 814 citation omitte$


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200 READING MATERIAL AND FRE !"#$ 118can he&* the *rosec!tion &inD the $e%en$ant to the crime(220

Hoe"er) hen the right to rea$ &a%!& materia& is #eing !se$ ase"i$ence against the acc!se$) the constit!tiona& *rotections o% the 6irstAmen$ment are com*romise$: .here is no a"oi$ing the 6irst Amen$ment

im*&ications o% !sing hat *eo*&e rea$ as e"i$ence o% hat the' $i$( .heConstit!tion has &ong *rotecte$ o!r *ri"ate *a*ers an$ tho!ghts) e"en thoseentire&' &acDing socia& "a&!e(221

In$ee$) the right to rea$ sho!&$ not inc&!$e a ca"eat that an'thing 'o!rea$ can an$ i&& #e !se$ against 'o! in a co!rt o% &a( A$$itiona&&') thereare the genera& *ri"ac' rights o% the acc!se$ an$ $!e *rocess concernsarising %rom the !se o% s!ch e"i$ence( 6ina&&') the genera& *!#&ic at &argehas an interest in maintaining 6irst Amen$ment *rotections an$ %ree$omhi&e sti&& ens!ring that crimina&s i&& #e con"icte$ o% the crimes the'commit(

A( O"er-ea&o!s >rosec!tors an$ !$ges) Co!*&e$ ith the Harm&ess9rror .est) Ha"e .ram*&e$ on the Constit!tiona&&' >rotecte$

Rights o% Ge%en$ants

1( Constit!tiona& rights an$ the &as o% e"i$ence *resentsigni%icant cha&&enges %or *rosec!tors seeDing to intro$!cerea$ing materia& into e"i$ence in or$er to o#tain a con"iction

Bigoro!s&' en%orcing the &as o% e"i$ence an$ the constit!tiona&

*rotections o% the acc!se$ ma' create the risD that the $e%en$ant i&& #ea#so&"e$ o% the crime #ase$ on a &acD o% e"i$ence( 222 In +nited State( v.C&rtin) !$ge .rottEs $issenting o*inion e+*resses %r!stration ith the &aso% e"i$ence an$ their *otentia& e%%ects:

Fith the a&&s o% o!r homes #reache$ #' the Internet) o!r ne+t #est

$e%ense is the &a( =n%ort!nate&') this case re"ea&s that the &as an$ the

r!&es o% e"i$ence !*on hich societ' re&ies to *rotect itse&% %rom cr!e&

$e"ianc' are no as *oro!s as the a&&s o% o!r homes) a&&oing

&a#reaDers to *!&& the oo& o"er the e'es o% the 5!rors $e&egate$ to

ens!re that o!r &as are %aith%!&&' im*&emente$( It seems that the &a o%

re&e"anc' is no more concerne$ ith *rotecting a se+!a& *re$atorEs

o#scene man!a&s on hat to $o to chi&$ren than ith *rotecting the rea&

chi&$ren !*on hom the' *ractice their *er"ersions) as this case

220 . See, e.g.) Gress&er "( McCa!ghtr' 23 6(3$ 80 7th Cir( 2001eo*&e "( Harris)

No( 24247) 23337) 200 FL 327) at K Mich( A**( 6e#( 10) 200


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120 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:348i&&!strates(

223

A&tho!gh the &as o% e"i$ence in most cases orD to the $e%en$antEsa$"antage( It is not the &a o% re&e"anc' that *rotects the se+!a&*re$atorEs o#scene man!a&s( It is the 6irst Amen$ment) an$ not the &a o%

re&e"anc') that *rotects the se+!a& *re$atorEs rea$ing materia&) no matterho "!&gar) in s*ite o% its re&e"ance( It is the &as o% re&e"anc') co!*&e$ith 6R9 404#


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200 READING MATERIAL AND FRE !"#$ 121iss!e o% Dno&e$ge the' ere !se$ sim*&' %or character e"i$ence(232.hee"i$ence as erroneo!s&' $eeme$ a$missi#&e) hoe"er) the a**ea&s co!rtconsi$ere$ the error harm&ess(233

.he act!a& #ooDs ere not intro$!ce$ into e"i$ence an$ there%ore an

6R9 404#< ana&'sis as ne"er con$!cte$( Ha$ the *rosec!tion so!ght toa$mit the materia&s into e"i$ence) it o!&$ ha"e s!re&' %ai&e$( .he$e%en$antEs so&e $e%ense as that he &acDe$ Dno&e$ge o% that *artic!&arg!nEs %!&&',a!tomatic ca*a#i&ities(234He $i$ not c&aim to &acD Dno&e$ge as

to ho to con"ert semi,a!tomatic ea*ons into a!tomatic ea*ons or agenera& Dno&e$ge o% a!tomatic ea*ons his $e%ense %oc!se$ e+c&!si"e&'on the character o% that *artic!&ar g!n( 23.estimonia& itnesses) ho erea"ai&a#&e to the *rosec!tion) o!&$ ha"e re#!tte$ his &acD o% Dno&e$ge$e%ense as to the ca*a#i&ities o% that *artic!&ar g!n(23

.he *rosec!tionEs so&e o#5ecti"e in !estioning the itness a#o!t the

#ooDs an$ *am*h&ets as to smear the image o% the $e%en$ant) !estion his&a,a#i$ingness) an$ a&&o the 5!r' an o**ort!nit' to $ra im*ro*ercharacter in%erences(237.he co!rt note$ the %act that the sa&e o% s!ch #ooDsis &a%!&) an$ that s!ch #ooDs are common at g!n sho*s(23 .hego"ernmentEs attem*t to !se Ho&tEs e+ercise o% that &a%!& right as e"i$encethat he is not a &a,a#i$ing *erson is im*ro*er(238.he tria& 5!$ge erre$ ina&&oing the *rosec!tion to maDe re*eate$ re%erences to the #ooDs an$ theircontents) *artic!&ar&' since the' ere not a$mitte$ into e"i$ence !n$er

6R9 404#< or otherise(240

Ges*ite the tria& 5!$geEs error in a$mitting the e"i$ence) the a**ea&sco!rt he&$ that the error as harm&ess(241 .he go"ernmentEs !estionsa$$e$ &itt&e to the o"era&& im*act(242 Fhi&e this ma' or ma' not #e tr!e)ho $oes s!ch a r!&ing g!i$e tria& 5!$ges on ho to han$&e s!che"i$entiar' !ses in the %!t!re Sho!&$ mistaDes ma$e #' the tria& 5!$ge

sim*&' #e g&osse$ o"er on a**ea&) to the $etriment o% the $e%ense MistaDeso"er&ooDe$ at tria& an$ not recti%ie$ on a**ea& are #o!n$ to arise again( Asimi&ar iss!e arose to 'ears &ater in +nited State( v. Roger() another

232 . Id.at 702 .he recor$ is $e"oi$ o% an' e"i$ence that Ho&t e"er rea$ an' o% the

#ooDs he so&$) an$ there%ore the testimon' co!&$ not $emonstrate his Dno&e$ge(


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122 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:348Se"enth Circ!it $ecision) in"o&"ing T'e Anarc'i(t0( Coo2#oo2(243.he tria&5!$ge a&&oe$ !estioning to *rocee$ an$ the a**ea&s co!rt note$:

.he 5!$ge ha$ an o#&igation to Dee* the *rosec!tor %rom s!ggesting

that Rogers sho!&$ #e con"icte$ #eca!se he one$ se$itio!s &iterat!re)

that an'one ho o!&$ rea$ a #ooD ca&&e$ T'e Anarc'i(t0( Coo2#oo2m!st ho&$ his &ega& o#&igations in contem*t) or that *ossession o% the

#ooD im*&ie$ that Rogers ante$ to #ecome a sni*er(244

At tria&) Rogers $i$ not o#5ect to the *rosec!tor rea$ing *assages o% the

#ooD to the 5!r'(24On a**ea&) Rogers conten$e$ the intro$!ction o% the*assages %rom the #ooD as in *&ain error(24.he a**ea&s co!rt re5ecte$ the*&ain,error arg!ment an$ !*he&$ the con"iction(247

It as the %ai&!re o% the a**ea&s co!rt in 9o*t) to set *rece$ent an$ gi"etria& co!rts g!i$ance on the !se o% constit!tiona&&' *rotecte$ materia& ase"i$ence) that create$ this *ro#&em in Roger((24 Ho can constit!tiona&

rights #e *rotecte$ i% tria& 5!$ges an$ *rosec!tors are gi"en the %ree$om totram*&e !*on them itho!t reco!rse A&tho!gh most i&& arg!e that &etting

a g!i&t' man go %ree on a harm&ess error or a technica&it' is not $esira#&e)hen those harm&ess errors in"o&"e constit!tiona&&' *rotecte$ rights) thestaDes are higher(

.he #roa$er !estion #ecomes) can the harm&ess,error test e"er #ea**&ie$ hen constit!tiona& rights are at staDe One commentator hass!ggeste$ that Congress sho!&$ amen$ the harm&ess error stat!te 2=(S(C ? 2111< to *rohi#it an a**e&&ate co!rt %rom e"er %in$ing anin%ringement o% a constit!tiona& right harm&ess(248 .o $e&"e into the!estion o% the constit!tiona&it' o% the harm&ess error test an' %!rther o!&$#e #e'on$ the sco*e o% this Note(20 Hoe"er) it is c&ear that more*rotection m!st #e gi"en to the &a%!& rea$ing materia& o% an acc!se$)

243 ( =nite$ States "( Rogers) 270 6(3$ 107) 100 7th Cir( 2001( 2#< stating a *&ain error is an error that a%%ects

s!#stantia& rights an$ ma' #e consi$ere$ e"en tho!gh it as not #ro!ght to the co!rtEs

attention=@( L( 73 1887< %or a

%!rther $isc!ssion on the iss!e(


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200 READING MATERIAL AND FRE !"#$ 123$es*ite its re&e"ance) e"en i% that e+tra *rotection res!&ts in a&&oing theg!i&t' to a&D %ree(

@( Is the A$mission o% the Acc!se$Es Rea$ing Materia& into 9"i$encethe @'*ro$!ct o% >oor La'ering

In the ma5orit' o% re*orte$ cases in hich a crimina& $e%en$antEs rea$ingha#its are intro$!ce$ at tria&) a 6irst Amen$ment cha&&enge is not raise$( 21

Fhen the a$missi#i&it' o% the acc!se$Es rea$ing materia& is cha&&enge$)co!nse& %or the $e%ense i&& o%ten arg!e a &acD o% re&e"ance or !n$!e*re5!$ice against the $e%en$ant(22.hese cha&&enges are !s!a&&' ins!%%icient

to o"ercome a$mission) gi"en a tria& co!rtEs i$e $iscretion in s!che"i$entiar' matters(23 Gamaging rea$ing materia& a$mitte$ at tria& is$i%%ic!&t to o"ercome on a**ea&(24

It is not entire&' c&ear h' co!nse& %or $e%en$ants in s!ch sit!ationscontin!a&&' %ai& to raise a 6irst Amen$ment cha&&enge( One commentatorhas s!ggeste$ that *oor &a'ering ma' $etermine hether a 6irst

Amen$ment cha&&enge is raise$:.he ma5orit' o% crimina& $e%en$ants are in$igent) re*resente$ #'

a**ointe$ co!nse& ho are "er' o%ten o"erorDe$ an$ !n$er*ai$( .he

&ength' $isc!ssions o% the 6irst Amen$ment in s!its against *ro$!cers

are *ro#a#&' $!e to e+tensi"e #rie%ing o% the iss!es) hi&e the 6irst

Amen$ment is rare&' raise$ in the %irst *&ace #' crimina& $e%en$ants

cha&&enging cons!m*tion e"i$ence ( ( ( #etter &a'ering) #eginning ith

time&' an$ acc!rate o#5ections) co!&$ go %ar toar$ changing the

o!tcome ith res*ect to cons!m*tion e"i$ence in crimina& tria&s(2

A&tho!gh there ma' #e some tr!th to the theor' that the %ai&!re to raise a6irst Amen$ment cha&&enge is a $irect res!&t o% a &acD o% reso!rces) it isim*ortant to note that these same attorne's ho %ai& to mention the 6irst

Amen$ment o%ten raise other constit!tiona& cha&&enges(2 .his in$icatesthat these attorne's are not com*&ete&' inattenti"e to or !nac!ainte$ ith

21 ( He&en A( An$erson) T'e Freedom to S)ea2 and t'e Freedom to Li(ten6 T'e

Admi((i#i*ity o% t'e Crimina* De%endant0( Ta(te in Entertainment) 3 OR( L( R9B( 88) 817,

1 2004


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124 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:348constit!tiona& matters( .here is no in$ication that a 6irst Amen$mentcha&&enge) re!ires more time or reso!rces than other constit!tiona&cha&&enges nor is it more $i%%ic!&t to o"ercome on a**ea&(

!$ge >remo o% Ca&i%ornia has s!ggeste$ that a 6irst Amen$ment

cha&&enge to the intro$!ction o% rea$ing materia& into e"i$ence o!&$ #e%!ti&e(27 Fhereas ci"i& attorne's are restraine$ #' the 6e$era& R!&es o%Ci"i& >roce$!re) s*eci%ica&&' R!&e 11)2crimina& $e%ense attorne's are not*re"ente$ %rom raising an' an$ a&& co&ora#&e arg!ments) $es*ite theirremote &iDe&ihoo$ o% s!ccess( La'ers %or $e%en$ants in sit!ations heree"i$ence an$ acts *rotecte$ !n$er the 6irst Amen$ment are #eing #ro!ghtinto e"i$ence m!st raise the 6irst Amen$ment cha&&enge imme$iate&'( Asmore attorne's #egin to $o so) more g!i$ance i&& #e gi"en %rom higherco!rts) an$ the !ncertaint' s!rro!n$ing the &a i&& $isso&"e(

C( Co!rts an$ >rosec!tors Sho!&$ SeeD to A$mit Rea$ing Materia&into 9"i$ence #' Re&'ing Less on 6e$era& R!&e o% 9"i$ence404#rotecte$ Rea$ing Materia&

Fhen 6irst Amen$ment rights are in"o&"e$) the state or other *art'seeDing to a$mit e"i$ence to o"ercome those rights) !s!a&&' carries a hea"'

#!r$en o% 5!sti%ication(282 .he constit!tiona& stat!s o% &a%!& rea$ingmateria& arrants the greatest consi$eration hen it is #eing o%%ere$ ase"i$ence( It o!&$ #e *ro#&ematic i% this #!r$en co!&$ easi&' #e o"ercome#' a &acD o% a&ternati"e e"i$ence #' the *rosec!tion( I% the constit!tiona&iss!e is co&&a*se$ into an or$inar' e"i$entiar' $etermination o% rights) theacc!se$Es 6irst Amen$ment rights are not a$e!ate&' sa%eg!ar$e$283an$ ana&ternati"e a**roach is re!ire$(

=*on the intro$!ction o% rea$ing materia& into e"i$ence) 5!$ges sho!&$*er%orm an initia& 6irst Amen$ment #a&ancing test in con5!nction ith the

6R9 401 re&e"anc' test(284

.he re&e"anc') or *otentia& re&e"anc') o% therea$ing materia& sho!&$ o!teigh the 6irst Amen$ment *rotections( .hetra$itiona& 6R9 401 re&e"anc' test m!st #e $iscar$e$ in these &imite$sit!ations an$ re*&ace$ ith a more rigi$ test that meas!res the re&e"anc'o% the rea$ing materia& against the $e%en$antEs %ree$om o% s*eech an$

e+*ression) right to $!e *rocess) an$ *ri"ac' rights(

.he tria& 5!$ge sho!&$ consi$er se"era& %actors in the 6irst Amen$ment#a&ancing test) s!ch as) hether the rea$ing materia& is &a%!& or!n&a%!&(28 La%!& rea$ing materia& i&& a&a's 5!sti%' the higher 6irstAmen$ment &e"e& o% *rotection(28.he 5!$ge sho!&$ a&so consi$er hetherthe $e%en$antEs 6irst Amen$ment rights are #eing com*romise$ an$ to

hat e+tent(

.he tria& 5!$ge sho!&$ consi$er ho c&ose&' the rea$ing materia& isre&ate$ to the crime committe$( I% the materia& as *art o% the crime) %ore+am*&e ine+trica#&' intertine$) the e"i$ence i&& #e a$missi#&e an$ an

meet) an$ at the meeting attem*te$ to engage in se+!a& acti"it' #' *ers!asion an$

coercion


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200 READING MATERIAL AND FRE !"#$ 1286R9 404#< test ma' #e #'*asse$(287 In sit!ations here the &inD is!ntena#&e) the 5!$ge sho!&$ e+c&!$e the a$missi#&e e"i$ence a&together)regar$&ess o% the minima& risD o% !n%air *re5!$ice( .he %acts an$

circ!mstances o% the crime) the nat!re o% the rea$ing materia&) an$ the

&ength o% time #eteen rea$ing the materia& an$ committing the crime arethe essentia& characteristics one m!st consi$er in $etermining the strengtho% the &inD( As the co!rt state$ in State v. Mi**ar) not on&' as thee"i$ence remote in terms o% time) #!t the &inD #eteen *ossession o% themaga-ine an$ $e%en$antEs *ro*ensit' to commit se+!a& o%%enses againstchi&$ren is ten!o!s) i% not none+istent(28

.his a&ternati"e 6R9 401 re&e"anc' test o!&$ genera&&' orD toe+c&!$e on&' those sit!ations here the intr!sion !*on the 6irstAmen$ment right to rea$ an$ its negati"e cons!ences are great an$ itsre&e"anc' s&ight( An e+am*&e o% s!ch a sit!ation can #e %o!n$ in Stamey v.Georgia(288 .here) a more rigi$ 6R9 401 re&e"anc' test o!&$ ha"ecertain&' *rohi#ite$ the a$mission o% s!ch e"i$ence #e%ore an 6R9 404#(2$ 47 Or( 18


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130 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:348more a**ro*riate %oc!s o% the co!rt sho!&$ #e the *ro#ati"e "a&!e o% thee"i$ence( I% the *ro#ati"e "a&!e is &o) the e"i$ence sho!&$ #e he&$ina$missi#&e) regar$&ess o% its *re5!$icia& e%%ect( @' e&iminating thes!#stantia& re!irement o% 6R9 403) the co!rt i&& e&iminate those

sit!ations in hich the e"i$ence has &itt&e *ro#ati"e "a&!e an$ e"en thes&ightest risD o% *re5!$icia& e%%ect) there#' ens!ring %!rther *rotection o% the6irst Amen$ment rights o% the acc!se$(

.he constit!tiona& rights o% the acc!se$ can #e %!rther sa%eg!ar$e$ #' a&ess $e%erentia& stan$ar$ on a**ea&( A &oer stan$ar$ on a**ea& isa#so&!te&' necessar' hen the constit!tiona& rights o% the acc!se$ are atiss!e( .he c!rrent a#!se o% $iscretion stan$ar$ is too $i%%ic!&t too"ercome on a**ea& an$ m!st #e re*&ace$ #' an erroneo!s stan$ar$( Fhena tria& 5!$ge maDes an erroneo!s r!&ing that a%%ects the s!#stantia& rights o%a *art') that case m!st #e re"erse$( .his not on&' ass!res a $e%en$ant

a$$itiona& constit!tiona& *rotections) #!t a&so gi"es more g!i$ance to the&oer co!rts on ho to $ea& ith s!ch e"i$entiar' matters as the' a**&' tothe Constit!tion( 9rrors ma$e at tria& that are sim*&' g&osse$ o"er on a**ea&$o not *ro"i$e the *rece$entia& "a&!e necessar' to e&!ci$ate the &a(A$$itiona&&') the harm&ess,error test sho!&$ no &onger #e a**&ie$ hen thematter *ertains to a constit!tiona& "io&ation(

B( CONCL=SION

In Dre((*er the co!rt $enie$ $e%ense co!nse&Es 6irst Amen$mentarg!ment an$ state$ that the 6irst Amen$ment $i$ not *rec&!$e thea$mission o% rea$ing materia& #eca!se the $e%en$ant as not on tria& %orhat he rea$ or hat he *ossesse$) e"en tho!gh it ma' !&timate&' he&*con"ict him(302 .he co!rt is correct in asserting that in cases here therea$ing materia& o% the acc!se$ is intro$!ce$ as e"i$ence) the $e%en$ant is

not #eing con"icte$ %or rea$ing or *ossessing the materia&( Ne"erthe&ess)the co!rt inDre((*eracDno&e$ge$ that the e+ercise o% those rights ma' #e

!se$ as e"i$ence against the in$i"i$!a& an$ ma' he&* con"ict him( It is*recise&' those sit!ationshere the rea$ing materia& is #eing !se$ to he&*con"ict the in$i"i$!a&that m!st #e strict&' scr!tini-e$ an$ &imite$(

.he e"i$entiar' !sage o% a &a%!& e+ercise o% a constit!tiona& right is a$anger an$ &imitation !*on that right( A constit!tiona& right) s!ch as the

%ree$om to rea$ &a%!& materia&) sho!&$ not #e s!#5ect to the o*en,en$e$*ossi#i&it' that the materia& ma' #e !se$ against the in$i"i$!a& in a crimina&*rocee$ing( .o gi"e a co!rt the !n%ettere$ $iscretion o% !sing an' t'*e o%rea$ing materia& remote&' re&ate$ to a crime o!&$ re*resent a ma5orconstraint on 6irst Amen$ment rights( S!ch a constraint on this right o!&$com*&ete&' !n$ermine the core %ree$om that o!r societ' har#ors( Fhi&e theS!*reme Co!rt has sai$ the 6irst Amen$ment $oes not erect a #arrier to the

302 . Gress&er "( McCa!ghtr') 23 6(3$ 80) 81 7th Cir( 2001


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200 READING MATERIAL AND FRE !"#$ 131a$mission o% e"i$ence)303 it has not s*eci%ie$ the o!ter #o!n$s o% this#arrier) i% one in$ee$ e+ists( .he &acD o% g!i$ance %rom the S!*reme Co!rthas &e%t &oer co!rts to gra**&e ith this iss!e(

;enera&&') the 6R9 an$ simi&ar state r!&es< *rohi#it the !se o% character

e"i$ence(

304

.he materia& that one rea$s or *ossesses is character e"i$enceas it o%ten re%&ects oneEs interests) %antasies) #e&ie%s) an$ o#sessions( Fhatan in$i"i$!a& rea$s s*eaDs "o&!mes a#o!t their characterthis is *recise&'hat 6R9 404a< as $esigne$ to *re"ent(

Notithstan$ing 6R9 404a


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132 CRIMINAL AND CIVIL CONFINEMENT Bo&( 34:348test) an$ a &oer) &ess $e%erentia& stan$ar$ on a**ea&( It is this a!thorEs ho*ethat a ne a**roach is taDen an$ the constit!tiona& rights o% the acc!se$contin!e to #e sa%eg!ar$e$ to the highest $egree(

M&t'ena A*(a'*ani

the admissibility of an accused’s choice of reading material as evidence under federal rule of...

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