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SPECIAL FINISHES TO IMPROVE RESILIENCY

AND HAND-FEEL OF THE NATURALLY COLOURED

COTTON KHADI FABRIC

Thesis submitted to theUniversity of Agricultural Sciences, DharwadIn partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

Degree of

MASTER OF HOME SCIENCE

In

TEXTILES AND APPAREL DESIGNING

By

SUJATA H. MULASAVALAGI

DEPARTMENT OF TEXTILES AND APPAREL DESIGNINGCOLLEGE OF RURAL HOME SCIENCE

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES,DHARWAD 580 005

AUGUST 2005


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ADVISORY COMMITEE

Dharwad (SHAILAJA D. NAIK)

August, 2005 MAJOR ADVISOR

Approved by :

Chairman : ___________________________

SHAILAJA D. NAIK

Members :

1. __________________________

GEETA MAHALE

2. ____________________________

JYOTI V.VASTRAD

3. ____________________________

PUSHPA BHARATI


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CONTENTS

CHAPTERNO.

TITLE PAGENO.

I INTRODUCTION

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE

III MATERIALS AND METHODS

IV RESULTS

V DISCUSSION

VI SUMMARY

VII REFERENCE


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LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title Page No.

1. Effect of crease resistant finish on yarn count (Ne)

2. Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth count (Numericalexpression)

3. Effect of crease resistant finish on mass per unit area (g)

4. Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth thickness (mm)

5. Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth bending length (cm)

6. Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth crease recovery angle(degree)

7. Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth dimensional stability (%)

8. Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth elongation (%)

9. Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth tensile strength (kgf)

10. Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth tear strength (g)

11. Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth abrasion resistance(cycles)

12. Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth drapability (%)

13. Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth pilling (Ratings)

14. Effect of enzymatic finish on yarn count (Ne)

15. Effect of enzymatic finish on cloth count (Numerical expression)

16. Effect of enzymatic finish on mass per unit area (g)

17. Effect of enzymatic finish on cloth thickness (mm)

18. Effect of enzymatic finish on cloth bending length (cm)

19. Effect of enzymatic finish on cloth crease recovery angle (degree)

20. Effect of enzymatic finish on cloth dimensional stability (%)

21. Effect of enzymatic finish on cloth elongation (%)

22. Effect of enzymatic finish on cloth tensile strength (kgf)

23. Effect of enzymatic finish on cloth tear strength (g)

24. Effect of enzymatic finish on cloth abrasion resistance (cycles)


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25. Effect of enzymatic finish on cloth drapability (%)

26. Effect of enzymatic finish on cloth pilling (Ratings)

27. Effect of softener finish on yarn count (Ne)

28. Effect of softener finish on cloth count (Numerical expression)

29. Effect of softener finish on mass per unit area (g)

30. Effect of softener finish on cloth thickness (mm)

31. Effect of softener finish on cloth bending length (cm)

32. Effect of softener finish on cloth crease recovery angle (degree)

33. Effect of softener finish on cloth dimensional stability (%)

34. Effect of softener finish on cloth elongation (%)

35. Effect of softener finish on cloth tensile strength (kgf)

36. Effect of softener finish on cloth tear strength (g)

37. Effect of softener finish on cloth abrasion resistance (cycles)

38. Effect of softener finish on cloth drapability (%)

39. Effect of softener finish on cloth pilling (Ratings)

40. Influence of bending length on crease recovery of specially finishednaturally coloured cotton khadi fabrics

41. Influence of bending length on drapability of specially finishednaturally coloured cotton khadi fabrics


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. TitleBetween

pages

1. Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth count (Numericalexpression)

2. Effect of enzyme treatment on cloth bending length (cm)

3. Effect of softener finish on cloth tear strength (g)

4. Influence of bending length on crease recovery of specially finishednaturally coloured cotton khadi fabrics

5. Influence of bending length on drapability of specially finishednaturally coloured cotton khadi fabrics


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LIST OF PLATES

PlateNo.

TitleBetween

pages

1. Garment processor - Used for application of special finish

2. Hydro machine - Used to extract excess finishing solution afterapplication of finish

3. Drier - Used for drying samples after finishing

LIST OF SPECIMEN

SpecimenNo.

TitleBetween

pages

1. Crease resistant finished naturally coloured cotton khadi fabrics

2. Enzyme treated naturally coloured cotton khadi fabrics

3. Softener treated naturally coloured cotton khadi fabrics


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I. INTRODUCTION

The plant described as natural wonder that bore wool instead of fruit and this woolof course was cotton, which was first mentioned in the writings of the Great historianHerodotus who lived around four hundred and eighty four years before the Christian era. Theword cotton derived from the Arabic dialect and is pronounced as kutun, qutn and qutun.

The naturally coloured cotton is inherently pigmented fibre that grows in the shadesand tints of green and brown. The early records further reported the existence of brownvarieties apart from pink and lavender tints. The shades of colour cotton do vary withseasonal variations and geographical conditions indicating an impact of soil and climaticvariations. In olden days the naturally colour cotton grown was not all that popular hence wasnot preferred much, because of low yields, less encouraging properties and low spinnability.

But, in 1982 Sally Fox, the plant breeder now based in Wickenberg, Arizona (USA)worked intensively on breeding and selection programme to improve length and quality ofnaturally colour cotton fibres. By 1988, she achieved success in developing colour cottonhybrids with fibres long enough to machine spin (Fox, 1987). This success of breeding themachine-spinnable, naturally colour cotton fibre lead Sally Fox to establish Natural ColourInc., who ultimately received a certificate of plant variety protection for her cotton and aregistered trade mark as Fox Fibre.

Presently there are four varieties of Fox Fibre commercially grown viz., Coyte Fox Fibre, a short staple with warm reddish brown linted variety. Buffalo Fox Fibre, a bronze brown fibre. Green Fox Fibre, the original green linted variety. Palo Verde Fox Fibre, a new improved green linted variety(website: http://[email protected])

Of the colour cottons cultivated, brown and green are the most common ones. Thenaturally coloured cotton plant type resembles the normal white cotton except for the specificgene for pigmentation of the fibre. When cotton boll bursts, the white lint appears andgradually changes to brown colour on exposure to sunlight. Whereas, the green varietygradually fades on exposure to ultra violet rays except its inner core (Khadi et al., 1996).

Though the yield of colour linted cotton is comparatively low per acre, the farmers doget better price for their harvest. In 1996, the world market prices for coloured cotton rangedfrom $ 1.80 to $ 5.00 per pound and $ 0.75 to $ 1.15 per pound of conventional white cottons(Dickensen, et al. 1999). Thus, the farmers engaged in the production of naturally colouredcotton did experience a better profit margin over conventional white cotton.

The recent genetic investigations in colour linted cottons highlighted several positivefeatures like higher lint yield, acceptable fibre quality, spinnability, colour stability,enhancement of single yarn strength as well as pigmentation on scouring and mercerization(Khyadi and Naik, 1999, Gandhad and Naik, 1999 and Renuka and Naik, 2003). Duringcultivation the colour cotton crop probably may need few applications of pesticides. However,it was stated that, colour cottons are not only insect and disease resistant but also droughtand salt tolerant (Dickensen, et al. 1999). Further, these varieties can be grown successfullyby organic farming methods.

It is true that shorter staple fibres can be spun into coarser yarn that eventually resultinto coarser fabric. These coarser fabrics, many times are categorized as low-grade textilematerials. The naturally coloured cotton whose staple length ranges from 16mm to 20mm canbe spun to 20s to 30s whose coarser texture, hand-feel and resiliency can be improvedremarkably by applying special finishes. Whether, white or pigmented, all cottons beingcellulosic in nature posses the most advantageous characteristics like good absorbancy,better breathability, graceful drapability and are user friendly. But, low resiliency is its inherentdrawback. Formation of unwanted folds or wrinkles are the result of vulnerability of celluloseto bend and result into creases that inturn ruin the appearance and aesthetic appeal.


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The susceptibility of cellulosic fibres to creases and wrinkles leads to the

phenomenon of creasing. Creases are the result of the distortion of the cellulosic materialwhere the fabric is stretched beyond its power of elastic recovery. Creasing leads anextension of the cellulose on the upper surface and compression on the under surface (Booth,1976). However, by application of crease resisting agents, the textile fabric can be made tocrease resistant.

The most desirable features of crease resisting agents are low formaldehyde content,

excellent handle, minimum loss to cloth tensile strength and cloth abrasion, minimum use ofcross linking agents, better wash fastness and environment friendly. The finish is appliedeither by pad-application or exhaust method.

In pad-application method, the fabric is padded with crease resisting solution to eightyper cent pick up and cured at 150C to 100C for fifteen minutes, whereas in exhaust methodthe fabric is treated by any one of the tumble method and dip method carried out either indrum or tumble or washing machine for 15 to 20 minutes and cured at 150 C to 160 C for10-15 minutes.

In dip method, instead of tumble washing machine, tub is used for finishing where thetreatment is given for 20 minutes to hydro-extract the fabric for 70-85 per cent wet pick up.Curing is done similar to tumble method.

The fabric with crease resistant finish showed better resistance for crease formationwith improved dimensional stability, even after several launderings (Edward, 2001).

It is true that the coarser fabrics fetch meager price. Eventually coloured cottonfabrics which are also coarser in texture and hand-feel need some special finishes to improveits texture and aesthetic. There are several natural and commercial chemicals available in themarket of which softeners and enzymes occupy the top most place in the art of softening asthey impart excellent handling effects with easy handling and eco-friendly nature.

Enzymes are the organic compounds of high molecular weight and are chiefcomponents of animal tissue and plant seeds. These enzymes are used in most of thepreparatory processes, since they accelerate the reaction rate, act exclusively on selectivesubstrate, react under mild conditions, safe and easy to use, have capacity to replace harshchemicals and are biodegradable.

Presently, the enzymesviz

., amylase, catalase, cellulase, hemicellulase, lipase,pectinase and protease are predominantly used in most of the textile-wet processes.Amylases are derived from micro-organisms, plants and animals and are specific to starchand used for desizing as it does not harm the support fabric.

Proteolytic or protease enzymes are of animal origin and help in hydrolyzing peptidebonds, degumming and softening the silk fabric.

Commercial cellulase is a crude mixture of multiple enzyme system that helps inhydrolysis of cellulose. It also hydrolysis the surface properties of the fibre, yarn and fabric,thus, imparting the desired hand and feel properties. Cellulase has replaced the use ofpumice stones in Stone washing of denim garments to produce faded and aged effects byremoving fuzz and pills from the fabric surface.

Pectinase is successfully used to separate pectin from jute, ramie and flax. Pectinaseand hemi-cellulase under controlled conditions are found to be very effective in retting flaxfibres. This treatment is proven to be quicker and more environmentally friendly than thetraditional retting process. Pectinases when used along with cellulase, efficiently eliminatesthe impurities in raw cotton and carbonizes the wool.

The clothing articles both garments as well as household textiles need to be soft inhandle, because softness adds to physical comfort and aesthetic appeal. The consumersconsider the hand-feel of the fabric as a major factor in selection of textiles. The removal ofnatural waxes and fats from the fibre/ fabric during the preparatory process makes the fabric


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brittle to some extent. Presently, fabric softeners are used to impart softness to the fibres orfabrics in order to produce desirable handle (Malik et al., 2004).

Thus, main purpose of softener finish is to improve the aesthetic properties such asdesired handle, natural feeling and handling effects of coarse fabric apart from positivelyinfluencing some of the durable properties like abrasion resistance, antistatic, elasticity,hydrophilic behaviour and so on.

The desirable properties, a textile softener as to posses are easy handling,compatibility with other finishing chemicals, low formability, non-toxicity, non-corrosivity,biodegradability and dermatologically safe.

The softeners used popularly for softening are amphoteric, anionic, cationic, non-ionic, reactive, silicone softener and however, new ones are constantly being added to the list(Malik et al., 2004).

As per the Agreement on Textile and Clothing (ATC) the textile quota has beenphased out and textile sector is fully integrated into World Trade Organization (WTO) byJanuary 1, 2005. The liberalized trade regime has resulted into increased International Tradein textiles thus, not only provided greater export opportunities to the Nation but also exposeddomestic industry to import foreign goods in the domestic market. Hence, it is challenge for

textile industry to improve its efficiency and productivity to sustain the WTO policy (Jha,2005).

Among all the textile fabrics cotton garments are most accepted and admiredbecause of their extremely positive image of naturalness and gentleness. Further, ban onhazardous chemical dyes on one side and positive encouragement for natural fibre fabrics onother side probably has thrown light on better production, marketing and utilization of naturalcolour cottons. Thus, the garments made from naturally colour cotton probably have betterplace amongst the other fibre fabrics because of not only being eco-friendly but also userfriendly eventually. The staple length of colour cotton being short necessitates to improvesome of the physical and functional properties, which is possible by subjecting the naturallycolour cotton fabrics to special finishes. Keeping this in view the present study on Specialfinishes to improve resiliency and hand-feel of naturally colour cotton khadi fabric is taken upwith following objectives:

1. To explore, the possibility of improving the resiliency and hand-feel of the naturallycoloured cotton khadi fabric by application of special finishes.

2. To assess the impact of special finishes on the mechanical and functional propertiesof naturally coloured cotton khadi fabric.


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II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter presents the relevant research articles pertaining to the present study onSpecial finishes to improve resiliency and hand feel of the naturally coloured cotton khadifabric are reviewed and presented under the following headings

2.1 History and development of naturally coloured cottons

2.2 Special finishes to improve hand-feel of cotton fabrics and its blended fabrics

2.3 Special finishes to improve physical properties of cotton and its blended fabrics

2.3.1 Mechanical properties

2.3.2 Functional properties

2.1 History and development of naturally coloured cotton

In todays colourful fashionable world, dyeing of yarns, fabrics and garments havebecome mandatory. Dyeing and finishing are the most water intensive processes in anytextile mill. The disposal of effluents after dyeing and finishing processes cause environmentalpollution with unpredictable chain reactions and further some dyeing agent containingcarcinogens cause adverse effect on the health of the workers. It is also true that syntheticfibre and dyed fabric bring health hazards associated with skin. The process of selected orsome of the chemical dyeing and finishing preferably denatures the original properties ofcotton fibre. Any effort to reduce or eliminate pollution caused due to chemical dyeing andfinishing is possible by utilization of naturally coloured cottons. The use of naturally colouredcotton being unique and attractive has tremendous potentiality to become a vital part of thecotton fabric and apparel market.

However, the naturally coloured cottons are inherently inferior to white cottonin one or the other aspects. To mention some, coloured cotton lint is relatively short, weakand coarse, non-uniform natural pigment and the yield being low compared to many whitecottons. However, constant efforts are made to improve the physical characteristics of colour

cottons by intensive research. The following are some of the reviews that provide informationabout history and development of naturally colour cottons.

Sikka and Joshi (1960) and Endrizzi et. al. (1985) reviewed about thegenetics of colour lint. A dominant gene conditioned the colour limitation over white besidesaction of a few to several intensifiers and modifiers, especially in old world cottons. Someauthors have reported a three-factor control of lint colour. In todays world of cottons thenatural colour cotton has a parallel existence. The main lint colour genes are uncommon in G.hirsutumexcept near the centre of diversity, but the species as a whole is at a high level ofmodifying complexes. In G. barbadenseL., the modern slight creamy white Egyptian or Islandcottons posses one main brown colour gene and a strongly suppressing modifier background.In G. hirsutumsome forms of bright green lint are observed that fade on exposure to sunlightto brownish green and is dominant to white.

Fox (1987) in a paper on Naturally coloured cotton highlighted that, lint colour of the

cotton ranges from white to tan brown, red brown or grayish. The majority of wild cottons bearcoloured lint rather than white. This variation though existing to cotton, naturalists and handspinners had an unfortunate draw back i.e., the fibre being too short to be spun, where thelength varied from almost non-existent to 1/3

rdinch. The wild cottons therefore, are a source

of fibre colour rather than lint quality. Over the centuries through plant selection and laterplant breeding the scientists have greatly improved the fibre length that in turn improved thespinning characteristics of colour cottons.

The genus Gossypium comprises of four cultivated and 45 wild and semi wildspecies. Most of these species bear colour lint but are non-spinnable (Anon, 1992).


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A study on Cotton, naturally revealed that Naturally coloured cottons are not newbut were been around for over 5000 years. The availability of inexpensive dyes and the needfor higher output cotton production worldwide caused naturally coloured cottons to almostdisappear about 50 years ago. Moreover, the yield was low and fibre was too short and tooweak to be machine spun. The present day naturally coloured cottons are shorter, weakerand finer than regular upland cottons but can be successfully spun into ring and rotor yarns

for many applications and also be blended with normal white cottons or amongst themselves.Thus, the use of dye could be completely eliminated in textile finishing. In textile finishingnaturally coloured cottons now can be either organically or conventionally grown (Burnett,1994).

Charyulu (1996) in a study on Naturally coloured Asiatic cottons of India reportedthat, colour cotton types created interest among researchers in early 1920s and 1950s forstudy of their inheritance of lint colour genes. Asiatic brown linted cotton varieties i.e.,Cocanadas-1, Cocanadas-2 and Red Northerns were grown on commercial scale in AndhraPradesh during the first half of the century. But due to low productivity and low fibre strengththe cultivation was not continued further. Again in recent past, interest was revived on colourcottons in view of their eco friendly characters and export potentiality. But lot of monitoring isrequired in seed production, ginning, processing, distribution, commercial cultivation and theirmarketing, when high yielding varieties with desirable fibre characters are being developed

and released.

Khadi et. al. (1996) conducted a study on Coloured cotton: Problems and theirprospects. It was reported that sunlight had great influence on the development and fading ofthe colour. When the boll bursts, the white l int appears and changes gradually to brown colourwithin few days. It takes almost a week for the complete development of colour whereas thegreen lint during the time of boll opening starts, fading on exposure to sunlight and was foundto be rapid. The intensity of natural colour on exposure to sunlight is specific for some coloursand therefore cannot be generalized.

Narayana, et. al(1996) performed a study on Fibre quality of certain coloured lintedcotton germplasm of Gossypium hirsutumL. For the experiment, 20 coloured G. hirsutumgermplasm were grown at CSIR, Nagpur (1993-94) during Kharif season in the rainfedconditions for evaluating the technological properties. Only seven germplasm accessionsgave sufficient lint yield to conduct fibre quality evaluation. Results revealed that five brownlinted germplasm possessed inferior fibre quality, but were superior to green linted germplasmin colour expression. The green linted types needed improvement for intensity, uniformity andstrength of color besides fibre strength, while linted germplasm as well as further colourintensified at various shades of brown through appropriate breeding strategies.

Venugopal and Gururajan (1996) mention that genetic expression of colour in the linttakes place only when the boll burst and the lint is exposed to sunlight. It takes about oneweek for the lint to turn into its natural colour. Its interesting to note that sunlight, which isessential for the development of colour is also responsible for the fading due to continuousexposure. Green colour is observed to fade more quickly than the brown. Next to sunlight, theintensity of colour did depend on soil mineral content. The shades may differ geographicallyfrom place to place and season to season.

A study on Naturally hued cotton: it is not new for khadi was conducted by Sinha(1998) and reported that the Andhra fine khadi popularly known as Ponduru means a handcrafted textile material and mechanization of any process would run ponduru of its exclusivecharacters. It was mentioned that as the constituent processes from fibre to cloth productionare manual, there is no chance for fibre rupture and thus possible to produce superfine countsof even upto 120s from short staples. Three verities of coloured cottons used in theproduction of Andhra fine Khadi are Hill cottons, Punasa cottons and Red cottons.

Khadi et.al.,(1999) carried out an experiment at Agricultural Research station (ARS),Dharwad under rainfed condition to gauze the available variation in G. hirsutumgenotypeshaving varying brown shades. The variation observed was very high for characters like yield(243-1296 kg/ha) Ginning Out Turn (GOT) (19.09 40.0%) and fibre length (12.25 30.0


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mm). For these characters the maximum value observed was higher than the white checkAbadhita, there by indicating that some coloured genotypes can also perform on par withwhite. The colour range observed was deep dark brown, medium and long fibre category. Itwas inferred that naturally brown colour cottons are potential to perform on par with whitecottons along with desirable fibre properties.

Murthy, (2001) presented a note on coloured cotton entitled Story of coloured

cottons and revealed that several lint coloursbrown, black, mahogany red, red, khaki, pink,blue, green, dirty white and white were being cultivated in South and Central America as earlyas 2300 B.C. These fibres were mainly used to make fishing nets with an idea that nets madeof dark shades were less visible to the fish. The two strains G. arboreumand G. herbeceumwere cultivated in Africa and Asia respectively about 4200 years ago. The evidence of itscultivation in India was obtained from the remains of Indus Valley civilization and in the middleof the 20

thcentury, coloured cotton species Cocanada 1 and 2 were commercially cultivated

in Andhra Pradesh and exported to Japan. Kumta in Karnataka was the home for G.herbaceumwith dull red lint and the world famous Dacca muslin was made from white andcolour linted G. arboreum. However, coloured cotton lint are short and weak and henceamenable only for hand spinning. The yield of colour cotton is low, with no consistency incolour. Thus, the plant breeders are working intensively to produce superior varieties bycrossing strains with desirable qualities to make coloured cotton more attractive and machinefriendly.

A study on Growth Prospects for coloured cotton was conducted by Gokarneshan,N (2003) and reviewed that 0.02 per cent of the land is used for coloured cotton cultivationglobally. Some of the measures that have to be adopted in India in order to grow colour cottoncommercially are ear marking of non-traditional areas for coloured cotton cultivation in orderto prevent mixing and cross pollinations and a necessity of segregating land for colouredcotton cultivation. Finally the author concluded that, as the naturally coloured cotton isavailable in brown and light green, it has become difficult for them to compete with syntheticdyes that are available in limitless range of colours, and the interest in colour cotton maydecline in course of time owing to unpredictable changes in fashion trends.

2.2 Special finishes to improve hand-feel of the natural fibres

Natural fibres like cotton, wool and jute have small fibre ends called fuzz, projected

from the surface of yarn and give an unpleasant feel to the fabrics. This problem is intensifiedwith the inherent fibre coarseness that cause prickling sensation. Although some degree ofsmoothness is rendered by adopting a suitable spinning technique, the fuzzy nature cannotbe entirely removed. Softness can however, be brought by chemical softeners but without anysignificant reduction in fuzz concentration. In cotton, this problem is overcome by treating thefabrics with cellulase enzyme. The enzymatic treatment followed by softener finish enhancessmoothness and imparts soft hand-feel, there by increasing the wear, comfort and aestheticappeal of the fabric.

Kundu et.al.,(1996) conducted a research on Biopolishing of jute-cotton union fabric.The results revealed that jute-cotton union fabrics finished with enzyme Biocellulase ZKshowed significant improvement in appearance, handle and removal of surface hairs from thefabric and induced improvement in soft feeling.

Chattopadhyay, et.al.,(1997) conducted a study on Enzymatic fading of Denim.Here an attempt was to study the effects of two-cellulase enzymes viz., Fadex 500 andBactasol CA on the colour fading of denim fabric. The results revealed that along with fadingsoftness is also imparted. Of the two enzymes better results were observed with Fadex 500.

Gulrajani et. al. (1998) performed a study on Kawabata evaluation of enzyme treatedcotton knitted fabric. It was reported that industrial trial of the cellulase treatment on cottonknitted fabric under optimized conditions improved the surface smoothness and hand-feelproperties of the fabric.


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Gulrajani et.al.,(1998) carried a research on Enzymatic treatment on cotton Knits.The results showed that treatment with cellulase enzyme on one hand improved the softnessand wettability where as on the other hand decreased the weight loss.

Pai et.al.,(1999) studied on Properties of chemically treated fabrics. It was noticedthat cent per cent cotton and blends of 67:33 P/C fabric finished with softener, creaseresistant and anti-soiling finish showed improvement in crease recovery properties. Softenertreatment enhanced the softness, hand-feel of the all the test samples.

Raje et.al.,(2001) carried out a study on Finishing of cotton fabrics with cellulaseenzyme. The study was carried to find out the effect of cellulase enzyme on cotton fabric atdifferent concentrations. The result revealed that increase in concentration lead to decreasein cloth stiffness.

Kathiervelu (2002) presented a paper on Enzymatic preparatory processes whichhighlighted on the application of enzymes during different preparatory and finishingprocesses. Enzymes were popularly used in the preparatory processes like desizing,degumming, carbonizing of wool, bleaching and other complimentary process. But caution tobe taken with P

Hand temperature of the liquor and quality control of the enzymatic activity

during storage to obtain maximum enzyme efficiency.

A paper on Enzymes in textile wet processing was presented by Verma (2002). The

paper gave some preliminary information on properties and uses of enzymes in wetprocessing of textiles. Chemically enzymes being protein complex are affected by factors liketemperature, P

Hactivators like metallic cations inhibitors like some of the alkalies and

antiseptics. In textile wet processing enzymes were used in desizing, bio-polishing, scouring,denim washing, dyeing and so on. At the end, the author concluded that, inspite of manyadvantages, enzymes are still in limited use and hope that in future use of enzymes mayincrease as they minimize negative environmental effects.

Suman and Khambra (2003) conducted a research on Effect of enzyme treatment onphysical properties of denim. Here an attempt was made to asses the effect of cellulaseenzyme viz., Biodart Acid cellulase on physical properties of cent per cent cotton and blendeddenims. The study revealed that, there was decrease in thickness, bulkiness and stiffness offabric samples treated with enzymes. Better crease recovery and air permeability wasobserved and categorized as lightweight denim.

Bhattacharya et.al.,(2004) carried a study on Finishing and simultaneous dyeing ofcotton fabric. In this research work, an attempt was made to give wash-n-wear, silicone,flame retardant finish as well as dyeing, to cotton fabric individually and simultaneously. Thesoftness, hand feel, crease recovery angle as well as absorbency and shades were improvedby simultaneous wash-n-wear, silicone and dyeing treatment.

A report was made on An overview of softening agents for textiles by Maliket.al.,(2004) and the report highlighted on the properties and types of softeners used atindustrial level. The main purpose of softener is to improve the desired handle andsmoothness of synthetic fabrics. The textile softener need to be non-toxic, sprayable,biodegradable and dermatologically safe. Amphoteric, anionic, cationic and reactive softenersare popularly used as the softening agents in the textile finishes. The author concluded that,textile-softening agents are of great importance in textile finishing and processing to impartbetter hand and feel. Further these softeners are used to influence the functional propertiesviz., antistaticity, hydrophilicity, elasticity, sewability and abrasion resistance.

A study on Bio-softening to improve hand values of cellulosic fabrics was conductedby Thilagavathi, et.al.,(2005). The results showed that enzyme treatment improved the handvalues of cotton fabric in terms of the softness, smoothness and stiffness. It is evident fromthe study that bio-finishing process improved the overall hand value of the fabric.

2.3 Special finishes to improve physical properties of cotton and itsblended fabrics


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2.3.1 Mechanical propertiesThe physical parameters have greater influence and play an important role in

determining the quality of the fabric. The physical and mechanical properties are assessed todetermine the appearance, performance and serviceability of the fabric. The test sampleswere assessed for yarn count, yarn twist, cloth count, mass per unit area, cloth thickness,cloth stiffness, cloth crease recovery and dimensional stability. Cited below are few of therelevant studies conducted to determine the mechanical properties of the fabric.

A study on Cross-Linking of cotton cellulose with triazone and DMDHEU wasperformed by Pandey and Nair (1988). The results showed that cotton samples treated withDMDHEU showed improvement in crease recovery than the samples treated with Traizone byconventional method.

Shenai and Desai (1991) conducted a study on Resin finishing of cotton fabric withUrea Formal dehyde pre-condensate using Alkanolamine-phosphoric Acid salt catalyst. Itwas noticed that resin finished cotton fabrics with varied catalysts and concentrations showedincrease in crease recovery angles. Among the different catalysts used diethanolamine-phosphoric acid salt is the effective catalyst and 75 gpl of resin is the most appropriateconcentration with maximum improvement in crease recovery angles.

Singh and Singh (1992) performed a study on Finishing of cotton with acryl amide

and DMDHEU combination finish. The result of the study showed that cotton fabric finishedwith acryl amide and DMDHEU at 10 per cent showed higher wrinkle recovery angle andstiffness compared to control.

Finishing cotton and cotton wool blend fabrics was the study performed by Singhand Chaulkar (1992). Test samples were finished with acryl amide monomer along withformaldehyde at different concentrations. The results revealed that the behaviour of the finishwas similar in cent per cent as well as blended cotton fabrics but at lower concentration therewas improvement in wrinkle recovery. Due to presence of acryl amide monomer, beingthermoplastic in nature gave better appearance.

A study was carried out by Chattopadhyay et.al.,(1997) on Studies on the Enzymaticfading of Denim. Here an attempt was made to study the effects of two-cellulase enzymesviz., Fadex 500 and Bactasol CA on the colour fading of denim fabric. The results revealed

that along with fading crease recovery property also improved.

Gulrajani et.al.,(1998) performed a study on Kawabata evaluation of enzyme treatedcotton knitted fabric. The results revealed that, enzymatic treatment improved the surfacesmoothness and decreased their stiffness and rigidity.

A study on Wrinkle free Technology for shirting materials was done by Felix Robers(2000). The study focused on the two basic methods of Wrinkle-Free Technology for cottonsi.e. Pre-curing and post curing. The pre curing finish is applied at fabric stage and in postcuring for the ready garment (i.e. after cutting, sewing and pressing).

Edward (2001) reported on Permanent press/ wrinkle free finish. It was revealedthat the finish may be applied to cottons either by pad or exhaust method. Where, in lattercase, the garment was machine washed, followed by tumble drying, hot pressing and curing.

In pad application the garment was cured first and then hot pressed. The garments subjectedto wrinkle-free finish maintained the desired crease after repeated use and several washingswith good dimensional stability.

Raje et.al.,(2001) performed a study on Finishing of cotton fabrics with cellulaseenzyme. Here an attempt was made to study the effect of cellulase enzyme on cotton fabricat different concentrations. From the results it was clear that increase in concentration lead togreater weight loss and reduction in cloth bending length of the fabric.

A research on Effect of enzyme treatment on physical properties of denim. wasconducted by Suman and Khambra (2003). Here physical properties of cent per cent cotton


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and blended denims finished with cellulase enzyme viz., Biodart Acid cellulase was studied.The results revealed that there was decrease in thickness, bulkiness and stiffness in fabricsamples treated with enzymes better crease recovery was observed in light weight denim.

A study on Finishing and simultaneous dyeing of cotton fabric was conducted byBhattacharya and Patel (2004). In present work an attempt was made to assess the effect ofwash-n-wear, silicones, flame retardant finishing and dyeing of cotton fabric individually and

simultaneously. In simultaneous dyeing and wash-n-wear finishing the crease recovery angleincreased compared to individual method. The absorbency, shade, crease recovery angleand flame retardency were improved in simultaneous wash-n-wear, silicones and dyingtreatment.

2.3.2 Functional properties

Cloth tensile strength, cloth tear strength, cloth abrasion resistance, cloth drapabilityand cloth pilling are the functional properties that help to assess the durability andserviceability of any fabric. Some of the studies carried out on functional properties arepresented under:

Pandey and Nair (1988) carried out a study on Cross-linking of cotton cellulose withtraizone and DMDHEU. It was concluded that samples treated with DMDHEU showed

several folds higher improvement in abrasion resistance and better strength retention whencompared to samples treated with triazone. From these results it may be informed thatDMDHEU can be used for resin finishing of cotton textiles that add advantage over theconventional method with Triazone.

Shenai and Desai (1991) conducted a study on Resin finishing of cotton fabric withUrea-Formaldehyde precondensate using Alkanolamine- phosphoric Acid salt catalyst. It wasnoticed that resin finished cotton fabrics with varied catalysts and concentration showedincrease in crease recovery angles with minimum loss in tensile strength.

A research on Finishing of cotton with acrylamide and DMDHEU combination finishwas conducted by Singh and Singh (1992). The results revealed that cotton fabric finishedwith acrylamide and DMDHEU at 10 per cent showed higher, breaking strength andelongation compared to control.

Singh and Chaulkar (1992) carried out a study on Finishing of cotton and cotton-woolblend fabrics the results revealed that wool-cotton blended cotton finished with acrylamidemonomer along with formaldehyde at different concentrations showed similar behavior forcent per cent cotton and blended cottons, but at lower concentrations there was betterimprovement in strength retention in case of cent per cent cotton.

A study on Kawabata evaluation of enzyme treated cotton knitted fabric waspreformed by Gulrajani et.al.,(1998). Form the results it is clear that industrial trial of thecellulase enzyme treatment under optimized conditions showed decrease in tensile strengthand compressional energies.

A study on properties of chemically treated fabric was performed by Paiet.al.,(1999). The results of the study concluded that cent per cent cotton and blends of 67:33

P/C fabric finished with softener treatment enhance abrasion resistance and tensile strength.

A study was conducted by Raje et.al.,(2001) on Finishing of cotton fabrics withcellulase enzyme. The study was conducted to know the effect of cellulase enzyme on cottonfabric at different concentration. From the result it is clear that increase in concentration leadto decrease in tensile strength.


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III. MATERIAL AND METHODS

The present research on Special finishes to improve resiliency and hand-feel of thenaturally coloured cotton khadi fabric was carried out at the Department of Textiles andApparel Designing, College of Rural Home Science, University of Agriculture Sciences,Dharwad during the year 2003-2005.

The material and methods and techniques adopted in the study are presented underthe following headings:

3.1 Selection of naturally coloured cotton khadi fabric3.2 Selection of the special finishes3.3 Treating the naturally coloured cotton khadi fabric with selected special finishes3.3.1 Crease resistant finish3.3.2 Enzymatic finish3.3.3 Softener finish3.4 Assessment of physical properties of test samples3.4.1 Assessment of mechanical properties3.4.1.1 Yarn count (Ne)3.4.1.2 Cloth count (Numerical expression)3.4.1.3 Mass per unit area (g)

3.4.1.4 Cloth thickness (mm)3.4.1.5 Cloth crease recovery (degree)3.4.1.6 Cloth stiffness (cm)3.4.1.7 Cloth dimensional stability (%)3.4.2 Assessment of functional properties of test samples3.4.2.1 Cloth elongation (%)3.4.2.2 Cloth tensile strength (kgf)3.4.2.3 Cloth tear strength (g)3.4.2.4 Cloth abrasion resistance (cycles)3.4.2.5 Cloth drapability (%)3.4.2.6 Cloth pilling (rating)3.5 Variables included in the research3.5.1 Independent variables3.5.2 Dependent variables

3.6 Statistical analysis.3.7 Hypothesis set for the study

3.1 Selection of naturally coloured cotton khadi fabric

The naturally coloured cotton khadi fabric of brown variety DDCC-1, Gossypiumarboreum was procured from Khadi Nekar Sahakari Sangh, Niyamita, Uppin Betageri,Dharwad district.

Criteria for the selection of naturally coloured cotton khadi fabric:

The variety DDCC-1 is been released for commercial cultivation. The Khadi Nekar Sahakari Sangh of Uppin Betagiri has taken production of khadi

fabric of DDCC-1. This naturally coloured cotton khadi fabric though eco-friendly is relatively coarser in

texture. The khadi fabric being cellulose is vulnerable to crease and wrinkles.

3.2 Selection of special finishes

The special finishes are given in order to improve the natural properties,attractiveness and serviceability of the fabric, hence termed as special finishes.


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Cotton being cellulosic in nature is more prone to creases and winkles, which couldbe improved by application of heat, pressure and special finishing agent, since theseunwanted folds destroy the beauty of the fabric and the garment.

It is also true that, shorter staple fibres produce coarser yarns that inturn results intocoarser fabrics. In order to overcome all these short comings the naturally coloured cottonfabric need to be finished with special finishes like crease resistant finish, enzymatic finish

and softener finish.

3.3 Treating the naturally coloured cotton fabric with selectedspecial finishes

3.3.1 Crease resistant finish

The test sample was subjected for crease resistant finish, where this special finishwas adopted as per the standard method followed commercially at mill/ factory level bytreating the fabric for 10 minutes and 20 minutes, which were commercially called as mediumand heavy wash respectively.

Material weight : 300gRecipe

MLR : 1:10Ciba KNITTEX FEL : 10g

Ciba Sapamin KL New : 10g

Ciba Ultratex PES : 10gAcetic acid : 35 gTreatment time : 10 and 20 minutes eachDrying temperature : below 120

0C

MethodThe crease resistant finish was given to the fabric samples weighing 300 g by treating

with a mixture of 10g of each Ciba KNITTEX FEL, Ciba Sapamin KL new and Ciba

Ultratex PES for 10 and 20 minutes separately at 55C. The pH was maintained at 5.5 byadding 35g of acetic acid. Further, the treated fabric was dried below 120

0C and cured at

1500

C for 5 minutes.

3.3.2 Enzymatic finish

In enzymatic finish the test sample was treated as per the recipe mentioned below,separately at 30 minutes and 60 minutes. These enzyme treated samples were finally treatedwith cationic softer for 10 minutes.

Material weight : 300gmRecipe

MLR : 1:10

Ciba Tinogym 50p : 20gAcetic acid : 35 gTreatment time : 30 and 60 minutes eachAlkamine CWS (Softner) : 300gTreatment time : 10 min

Drying temperature : 500

C

Method

The colour linted cotton khadi fabric sample was treated with 20g of Ciba Tinogym50p and 35g of acetic acid to maintain the pH

at 5.5 for 30 minutes and 60 minutes each,

separately. At the end, enzyme finished samples were treated with cationic softener AlkamineCWS for 10 minutes in order to improve physical and functional properties, effected by the

enzyme treatment and dried at 50C.


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3.3.3 Softener finish

The test sample was subjected for softener finish with two softeners viz., silicone and

cationic softeners Ciba Ultraphil DCW and Ciba alkamine CWS respectively for 30 minutesas per the recipe.

Material weight : 300g

RecipeMLR : 1:10Softener (Cation/Silicone) : each 300gSilica : 50gTreatment time : 30 min

Temperature : 40C

Drying temperature : 120C

MethodThe fabric samples were treated for 30 minutes with 300g of softener i.e. cationic

softener Ciba Alkamine CWS and Silicons softener Cibaultraphil DCW separately along

with 50g of silica to maintain the pH at 6.0 further dried below 120C (Plates 1-3).

3.4 Assessment of physical properties of test samples

The treated samples were subjected to physical testing to determine the qualityparameters of the yarn which inturn affect the quality of fabric. The assessment of yarnparameters was done in the testing laboratory, Department of Textiles and ApparelDesigning, College of Rural Home Science, UAS, Dharwad.

3.4.1 Assessment of mechanical properties

The mechanical properties of any woven fabric are the features that provide basictexture, hand-feel and dimensions to the fabric which inturn determine the functionalproperties of the fabric. In the present study the mechanical properties of Naturally ColouredCotton Khadi fabric was assessed before and after applying special finishes at theDepartment of Textiles and Apparel Designing, College of Rural Home Science and

Demonstration-cum-Technical Service Centre, Central Silk Board, Rayapur, Dharwad.

3.4.1.1 Yarn count (Ne)

The yarn count is a numerical expression, which defines its fineness. Indirect yarnnumbering system is used to express the yarn number of spun yarns i.e., cotton count, whichis defined as number of hanks of 840 yards weighing one pound.

The fabric is cut into a size of 5.5 cm (half cotton count) and 11 X 11 cm (full cottoncount) using the template. The size of the fabric samples indicates the length of the specimento be taken for testing. The warp and weft yarns were drawn separately from the fabric,weighed and cotton count was calculated.

Number of specimen tested : 10 each warp and weft

Type of material sampled : yarn drawn from woven clothName of the instrument : Besleys balance

3.4.1.2 Cloth count (Numerical expression)

Cloth count of the fabric is the number of warp yarns (ends) and filling yarns (picks)per unit area, while the fabric is held under no tension and is free from folds and wrinkles. Thenumber of ends and picks per unit area determined by using a suitable magnifying pick glass.

The number of warp and weft yarns in one square inch of the fabric is counted at tenrandomly selected places across the width and along the length of the test samples, so that a


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Plate 1: Garment processor(Used for application of special finish)

Plate 2: Hydro machine(Used to extract excess finishing solution after application of finish)


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Plate 3: Drier( Used for drying samples after finishing)


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different set is counted each time. Further, the mean values of ends and picks per inch werecalculated.

Number of specimen tested :10 each warp and weftMethod : Direct counting, threads per unit area (1 inch)

Device used : Magnifying counting device, the pick glass.

3.4.1.3 Mass per unit area (g)

Cloth weight is expressed as mass per unit area in g/sq mt. A sample of 5X5 cm iscut and weighed on electronic weighing balance to determine the weight per square meter(g). Further warp and weft threads are separated and weighed to calculate respectivepercentages. The percentage composition of warp and weft is calculated as follows:

Weight of 5X5cm sample : xgWeight of warp yarns : ygWeight of weft yarns : zg

The per cent warp = X Y x 100

X

Per cent weft = X Z x 100X

Number of samples tested : 5 samplesInstrument : Electronic balance

3.4.1.4 Cloth thickness (mm)

Thickness is the distance between one surface to its opposite in textiles, thedistance between the upper and lower surface of the material, measured under a specifiedpressure.

The specimens were tested as directed in ASTM test method D. 1777 1975.

The average thickness of the material is determined by observing the linear distancethat a movable plane is displaced from a parallel surface by the textile material while under aspecified pressure.

The specimen chosen were free from folds, crushings or distortions i.e. abnormal totest material.

Placed the specimen on the anvil of the test apparatus and bring the pressure footinto contact with the opposite side of the material and record the thickness in mm.

Shape of the anvil : RoundArea of the anvil : 1 cm diameterShape of the presser foot : Round

Number of specimen tested : 15Name of the instrument : Shirleys thickness tester

3.4.1.5 Cloth crease recovery angle (degree)

This method determines the crease recovery of the test samples.The specimen were tested as directed in AATCC test method 66-1975.

The test specimen is creased for a definite period of time at a known load and thenallowed to recover or to regain its crease. The recovery is measured in terms of the extent ofangle to which it has been recovered.


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Size of the test sample : 5 x 2.5 cmWeight/load applied : 2 kgCreasing period : 5 minsRecovery period : 5 minsNo. of test sample tested : 5 each warp and weftName of the instrument : Crease recovery tester

Further, cloth crease recovery is determined by using the formula

Cloth crease recovery = warp-way angle x weft-way angle

3.4.1.6 Cloth stiffness (cm)

Cloth stiffness is the resistance of the fabric to bending. Bending length is the lengthof the fabric that bends under its own weight to a definite extent. It equals to half the length ofrectangular strip of fabric that bends under its own weight to an angle of 41.5

0. It is also equal

to the length of a rectangular strip of material that bends under its own weight to an angle of7.1

0. Bending length is expressed in centimeters.

This quantity is one of the factors that determine the manner in which fabric drapesi.e. the cloth having high bending path tends to drape stiffly.

The test samples were tested as directed in BS test methods: 3356-1961.

Placed the test sample on the plat form with the scale on the top of it lengthwise thatthe zero of scale coinciding with the leading edge of the test sample. Pushed the samplealong with the scale slowly and steadily when the leading edge projects beyond the edge ofthe platform. The increased part of the sample overhangs and starts bending on its own

weight. When two inclined lines (inclined plane making an angle of 41.5 with the horizontal)of the tester coincide, the length of the over hanging portion from the scale was recorded.

Four reading from each sample with each side up were taken.

Size of the test sample : 25 X 2.5cmsNumber of samples tested : one with four readings [both warp-way and weft way]Name of the instrument : Shirleys stiffness tester.

Further, the bending length was calculated by using formula:Bending length = L/2 cmWhere L is the mean length of the over hanging portion in cm.

3.4.1.7 Cloth dimensional stability (%)

Dimensional change is measured in terms of shrinkage percentage.

Fabric sample of 20 x 20 sq cm was taken and initial length of 15 cm was markedboth in warp and weft directions. The fabric sample was then soaked in soap solution of 2 gplat room temperature for 1 hour. The sample was then thoroughly rinsed in cold water andshade dried, flat. Finally the dried samples were carefully, ironed without stretching ordistorting the alignment of ends and picks. The final distance was measured and change in

the dimension was expressed in terms of percentage using formula,

S = L0 La X 100L0

Where,L0 : Initial lengthLa : Final lengthSize of the sample : 20 X 20 cmNumber readings : 5 each warp and weft.


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3.4.2 Assessment of functional properties of test samples

Any fabric applied with special finish is expected to improve its serviceability andmeet the expectations of the consumer in terms of comfort, absorbency, durability, easy careand maintenance and additional special quality incorporated which may not be its inherentproperty, satisfactorily i.e. the money spent on clothes is worth when it serves the purposeand gives maximum satisfaction to the consumer. Of the several functional properties,

durability is the most important one that depends on the constructional parameters of thecloth. Following are the most important functional parameters assessed for the durability ofthe test samples.

3.4.2.2 Cloth tensile strength (kgf)

Tensile strength is the ability of the material to resist or rupture induced by externalforce. It is expressed as force/unit cross-sectional area of the specimen at the time ofmaximum load.

The specimens were tested as directed in IS test method: 12676 1989.

The method employed to determine the breaking load of the material is by using theravelled strip test. The specimen is 5 cm wide piece of fabric prepared by initially cutting the

material to a width of about 7 cm and ravelled the threads from both sides until the widthattained 5 cm. The test length is 20 cms in between the jaws and extra length was taken togrip the sample within the jaws.

Size of the test sample : 20X5cmNo. of sample tested : 10Test method : Ravelled strip testGauge length : 20 cmLoad range : 200 kgfExtension range : 30 cmRate of traverse : 50 cmName of the instrument : Hounsfield universal testing machine.

3.4.2.3 Cloth tear strength (g)

Cloth tear strength is the force required to tear the fabric. It is the average forcerequired to continue a tear previously initiated in a fabric by twice the length of tear.

The sample was tested as directed in IS test method 6489-1971.

This method covers the procedure to determine the average force required topropagate a single-rip tongue type tear, starting from a cut in a fabric by means of Elemendorftear tester.

The average force required to continue a tongue type tear in a fabric is determined bymeasuring the work done in tearing it through a fixed distance. The tester consisted of asector-shaped pendulum carrying a clamp, which is in alignment with a fixed clamp. When thependulum is in the raised starting position with maximum potential energy, the sample ismounted in the clamps and the tear is initiated by a slit in the sample between the clamps.

The pendulum is then released and the specimen is torn as the moving jaw swings away fromthe fixed one. The scale attached to the pendulum is so graduated as to read directly thetearing force in grams.

The selected capacity of apparatus is such that the specimen shall tear between 20and 60 per cent of the scale value.

The falling pendulum (Elemendorf) type tester has three capacities ranging from 0 to1600g, 0 to 3200g and 0 to 6400g and a scale reading directly in hectogram (100g unit) foreach capacity, so as to provide for a wide range of fabrics convenience in reading results.


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The cutting die provide the basic rectangular test specimen 100 2 mm long by 63 0.15 mm wide along with additional fabric at the top edge of the specimen to ensure the lastyarns being torn during the test by preventing or minimizing their ravelling. The critical

dimension of the test specimen is a distance of 43 0.15 mm, which is torn during the test.

The improved die model has two new structures namely a cut out for the bottom ofthe specimen to aid in centering it in the clamps and provision for cutting the 20.0mm slit (the

initial cut) prior to inserting the specimen in the clamps.

Size of the specimen : 10 cm long X 7.5 cm wideCritical length of the test specimen : 4.5 cmNumber of specimen tested : 5 each, warp and weftTearing force : 3.200g.Name of the instrument : Elemendorf tear tester.

Further, tear strength (g) is calculated by using formula,Mean tearing strength (g) = K X mean value of scale reading,

Where the value of K is,16 = without any augmenting weight.32 = with augmenting weight for 3200g.

64 = with both augmenting weights.

3.4.2.4 Cloth abrasion resistance (cycles)

Cloth abrasion is the wearing away of any part of material by rubbing against anothersurface. The specimen is abraded by rubbing multidirectionally against an abradant havingspecified surface characteristics held in a fixed position without any crease. The pills ofmatted fibres interfering with proper contact between the specimen and abradant during testwere removed, as they would cause marked vibration of the abradant plate.

The specimen was abraded until a hole was formed and the number of cycles tocreate a hole were noted. Further, the estimation of degree of wear is determined by loss inmass as well as thickness of the fabric.

Size of the specimen : 13.5 cm diameterNumber of the specimen tested : 4Type of abradant : Silicone carbide waterproof paper, 180FType of abrasion : MultidirectionalDetermination of end point : Formation of holeName of the instrument : Martindale abrasion tester.

3.4.2.5 Cloth drapability (%)

Drape is one of the subjective characteristics of the fabric that contributes to aestheticappearance. Fabric drape may be explained as the extent to which a fabric deforms when it isallowed to hang under its own weight.

Drape co-efficient is the area covered by the shadow of the draped specimen

expressed as percentages of the area of the annular ring of the fabric.

A specimen is cut by means of a circular template (size) which is sand witchedbetween two horizontal discs of smaller diameter (size) and the unsupported annual ring offabric is allowed to hang down. On switching the lamp, it gives a circular parallel beam of lightand falls on the cloth. Place the ammonia sheet (printing paper) of known dimension (size) onthe base plate absolutely flat with sensitive side up. The line of vision was kept along thebaseboard and the height of the lower fringe of specimen was adjusted, so that it was about 2inches above the ammonia paper. Time setting knob was adjusted to 4 min. After fixing thespeed time the green pilot lamp lits up, and the buzzer alarm rings, then the ammonia paper


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is removed, rolled and placed in the developing box where strong ammonia solution was kept.The lid was shut airtight and after 4 minutes the drape pattern was ready for assessing.

Further, drape co-efficient is calculated applying the formula:

F = AS- AdAD Ad

Where, AD : Area of speciman (25 cm diameter)Ad : Area of supporting discAC : Actual projected area of specimenSize of the specimen : 25 cm diameterSize of the printing paper : 29X29 cmName of the instrument : ATC drape meter.

3.4.2.6 Cloth pilling (Rating)

Pills are the balls or bunches of tangled fibres that are held on to the surface of afabric by one or more fibres. Pilling resistance is the resistance to form pills on a textile fabric.This method covers the determination of resistance to the formation of pills and other relatedsurface changes on textile fabrics.

The specimen were tested as directed in IS test method : 10971-1984

The fabric sample measuring 5X5sq inch was sewn so as to fit firmly when placedaround a rubber tube of 5 inch length, 1 inch outside and 1/8 inch thick, which was thenrotated for 5 hours to complete 18,000 revolutions at the rate of 60 revolutions/min.

After tumbling, the extent of pilling was assessed visually by comparing with thearbitrary standards 1,2,3,4 and 5.

Rating Scale1 No pilling2 Slight pilling3 Moderate pilling

4 severe pilling5 Very sever pilling

Size of the specimen : 12.5 X 12.5 sq inchNumber of the speciman tested : 5Name of the instrument : ATC Pilling tester

3.5 Variables included for the study3.5.1 Independent Variables

1. Yarn count (Ne)2. Cloth count (Numerical expression)3. Mass per unit area (g)4. Cloth thickness (mm)

5. Cloth bending length (cm)6. Cloth crease recovery angle (degree)7. Cloth dimensional stability (%)

3.5.2 Dependent variables

1. Cloth elongation (%)2. Cloth tensile strength (kgf)3. Cloth tear strength (g)4. Cloth abrasion resistance (cycles)


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5. Cloth drapability (%)6. Cloth pilling (ratings)

3.6 Statistical analysis

The data was analyzed by using frequency table and percentages were calculated.The statistical analysis was done by using completely randomized design (one way ANOVA).

Further, co-efficient of determination (R2) was calculated to know the effect of mechanicalproperties on functional properties using the formula,

R2

= Sum of squares due to multiple regressionTotal sum of squares

To know the individual effect of all the independent variables of the physicalparameters on the corresponding dependent variable, multiple regression was carried outusing the formula,

Y = a+b1x1+b2x2+.bnxn+Eiji = 1..n and j = 1n

Where Eij are the error independently normally distributed with mean 0 and common

variance.x1.x2xn = Independent variableb1.b2 bn = Regression co-efficient

3.7 Hypothesis set for the study

The following were the hypothesis set for the study,

There is no effect of cloth stiffness on crease recovery angle. There is no effect of cloth bending length on drapability.


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IV. RESULTS

The results of the present study on Special finishes to improve resiliency and hand-feel of the naturally coloured cotton Khadi fabric are presented under the following headings:

4.1 Physical properties of naturally coloured cotton khadi fabric treated with creaseresistant finish

4.1.1 Mechanical properties4.1.2 Functional properties

4.2 Physical properties of naturally coloured cotton khadi fabric treated with enzymefinish.


4.3 Physical properties of naturally coloured cotton khadi fabric treated with softenerfinish


4.1 Physical properties of naturally coloured cotton khadi fabrictreated with crease resistant finish4.1.1 Mechanical properties4.1.1.1 Yarn count (Ne)

From Table 1 it is clear that, compared to control, crease resistant finish enhancedthe warp-way yarn count by 4.76 per cent (22s) and 9.52 per cent (23s) for treatment time 10minutes and 20 minutes respectively. Where as, the weft-way yarn count of crease resistanttreated samples for 10 minutes remained unchanged (25s) but increased slightly (26s, 4.00%)with increase in treatment time i.e. 20 minutes compared to control i.e. 25s.

Table 1: Effect of crease resistant finish on yarn count (Ne)

Yarn Count (Ne)Sl.

No. Sample

Treatment time

(Min) Warp Weft1. Control -- 21 25

10 22(4.76)

25(0.00)

2. Crease resistant finishedfabrics

20 23(9.52)

26(4.00)

Figures in parenthesis indicate percentage

CDParticulars SEm

1% 5%CV (%)

Warp 0.64 2.75 1.96 6.50

Weft 0.70 3.01 2.14 6.24SEm Standard Error of mean

CD Critical DifferenceCV Coefficient of Variation

The CRD test presented indicated that the naturally coloured cotton khadi fabrictreated with crease resistant finish at 20 minutes treatment time showed significant increasein the wrap and weft yarn court at 5 per cent level. Whereas, test samples with creaseresistant finish at 10 minutes treatment showed slight increase in warp yarn count and weftyarn count, which was found to be nonsignificant compared to control.


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Cloth count in woven textile is the number of ends and picks per unit area and isdetermined by the yarn count and compactness of the weave. From Table 2 (Fig. 1) it is learntthat, warp and weft density of treated samples increased. The warp way cloth density isincreased by 4.76 per cent (44) and 9.52 per cent (46) when treated for 10minutesand20minutesrespectively compared to control (42); similarly weft-way yarn count showed

greater picks per unit area 3.33 per cent (31) and 10.00 per cent (33) when compared tocontrol (30) for 10 minutes and 20 minutes treatment time.

The simple CRD test indicated that no significant increase in warp-way and weft-waycloth count was observed in crease resistant finished samples with treatment time 10minutes. On the other hand, 20 minutes treated samples showed significant increase in bothwarp-way and weft-way cloth count at 1 per cent level of significance corresponding to itscontrol.

Table 2: Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth count (Numerical expression)

Cloth Count (Numerical expression)Sl.No.

SampleTreatment time

(Min) Warp-way Weft-way1. Control -- 42 30

10 44(4.76)

31(3.33)


20 46(9.52)

33(10.00)


CDParticulars SEm

1% 5%CV (%)

Warp-way 0.88 3.78 2.70 4.50Weft-way 0.70 3.01 2.14 5.04


The weight of the fabric depends on the yarn twist, yarn type, threads per inch,method of construction, mechanical finish and deposition of finishing material on the fabricsurface.

From Table 3 it is learnt that, naturally coloured cotton khadi fabrics treated withcrease resistant finish showed greater weight (13.16g, 0.53% and 13.73g, 4.88%) comparedto control (13.09g). Further it is evident from this table that warp percentages are alsoincreased by 2.10 per cent (61.60) and 2.20 per cent (61.66) for treatment time 10 minutesand 20 minutes respectively compared to control i.e. 61.03 per cent. Whereas, weftpercentages showed descending values. Maximum weft per cent (39.67) is noticed at controlwhere fabrics with crease resistant treatment showed decrease in the values by 3.20 per cent(38.40) and 3.45 per cent (38.30) for 10 minutes and 20 minutes treatment time, respectively.

The simple one-way ANOVA test indicated that, there was significant increase in thecloth weight of fabrics when treated for 10 minutes and 20 minutes at 1 per cent level wascompared to control.

4.1.1.4 Cloth thickness (mm)It is generally expected that thicker the fabric, longer it takes to wear. Thick fabrics,

however are not always convenient because of their bulkiness and stiffness.Table 4 illustrates the values of cloth thickness of test samples treated with crease

resistant finish.


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Fig.1. Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth (Numerical expression)

It is observed from this table that the test samples with 10 minutes treatment timeshowed decrease in thickness of 1.43 per cent (0.69 mm), whereas the thickness increasedby 8.57 per cent (0.76 mm) compared to control (0.70 mm).

Table 3: Effect of crease resistant finish on mass per unit area (g)

DirectionSl.No.

SampleTreatmenttime (Min)

Totalweight

(g/sq.mt.)Warp-way

(%)Weft-way (%)

1. Control -- 13.09 61.03 38.9710 13.16

(0.53)61.60(2.10)

34.40(-3.20)

2. Crease resistantfinished fabrics

20 13.73(4.88)

61.66(2.20)

38.34(-3.45)


CDParticulars SEm

1% 5%CV (%)

Total weight 0.087 0.37 0.26 1.46

Warp Weft

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Clothcount(Numericalexpression)

Direction

Fig. 1. Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth count (Numerical expression)

Control

Crease resistant finish (10 minutes)

Crease resistant finish (20 minutes)


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The simple CRD test indicated that sample treated with crease resistant finish attreatment time 10 minutes showed slight decrease in thickness while increase in thicknesswas noticed when samples treated for 20 minutes treatment time but both the values werefound to be non-significant.

4.1.1.5 Cloth bending length (cm)

The bending length is the property of the fabric that depends on the energy requiredto produce a given bending deformation under its own weight. The stiffness of a fabric isdefined as its resistance to bending. The constructional features affecting the stiffness of acloth is mainly its nature of the fibre, yarn type, compactness of weave, weight and thickness.Fabrics made from fibres that have a high resistance to extension such as cellulose tend tobe stiffer than fabrics made from protein fibres, which can be easily extended. Plain-wovenfabrics have better resistance than fabrics with longer floats.

Table 4: Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth thickness (mm)

Sl.No.

Sample Treatment time (Min) Thickness (mm)

1. Control -- 0.7010 0.69

(-1.43)2. Crease resistant finished

fabrics20 0.76

(8.57)


CDParticulars SEm

1% 5%CV (%)

Cloth thickness 0.024 0.1 0.07 7.60

Table 5: Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth bending length (cm)

Bending length (cm)Sl.No.


(Min) Warp-way Weft-way1. Control -- 2.68 2.50

10 2.69(0.37)

2.56(2.40)


20 2.75(2.61)

2.68(7.20)


CDParticulars Sem

1% 5%CV (%)

Warp-way 0.040 0.17 0.122 3.36

Weft-way 0.056 0.24 0.17 4.90


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Table 5 depicts the bending length of warp-way and weft-way samples. The warp-way bending path is noticed to be higher by 0.37 per cent (2.69 cm) and 2.61 per cent (2.75cm) for treatment time 10 and 20 minutes, respectively compared to control values (2.68 cm).A trend of similar results are observed in the weft-way bending length. Higher bending lengthis observed in naturally coloured cotton khadi fabric treated with crease resistant finish (2.68cm; 7.20 per cent) treated for 20 minutes followed by 2.56 cm (2.40 %) with treatment time of10 minutes compared to control i.e., 2.50 cm.

The CRD test presented indicated that, there was no significant increase in the warp-way bending path of the samples with crease resistant finish for 10 minutes treatment time,but 20 minutes treated samples showed slight increase in warp bending length. Howeverthere was significant increase in weft bending path at 5 per cent level.

4.1.1.6 Cloth crease recovery angle (degree)

The crease resistance is that property of the fabric, which causes the fabric to recoverfrom folding deformation that normally occur during its use. The recovery depends on time,varying for different fabrics from an instantaneous recovery to slow disappearance of thecreases. All textile fabrics used in clothing must be flexible and capable of being creased andfolded to conform to the figure and be comfortable to the wearer.

Crease and its resistance can be explained on molecular theory, where the crosslinks that break within the molecules and reform a new position and there will be no recoveryon removal of the load. Alternatively, the cross-links may be strained without breaking andshow a recovery on deloading. Cellulose materials are highly prone to creasing. The featuremore accepted in fabric is, it can be deformed but need to recover rapidly from thedeformation. There must be resilience, which includes some resistance to creasing, but also apowerful and quick recovery. Among the commonly used textile materials the order ofdiminishing crease resistance is wool, silk, viscose rayon, cotton and flax.

Table 6 narrates on the crease recovery angle of the test samples. In general weft-way recovery was found to be higher than warp-way. The samples with crease resistant finish

treated for 10 minutes and 20 minutes showed gradual increase in warp recovery i.e., 100.50

and 107.25 respectively compared to its corresponding control (95.25), so also there was

increase in weft-way crease recovery angles i.e. 107 (2.88%) and 113 (8.65%) for treatmenttime 10 minutes and 20 minutes.

Table 6: Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth crease recovery angle (degree)

Crease recovery angle (degree)Sl.No.

SampleTreatmenttime (Min) Warp-way Weft-way

Clothrecovery

(%)

1. Control -- 95.25 104.00 99.53

10 100.50(5.51)

107.00(2.88)

103.69(4.18)


20 107.25(12.59)

113.00(8.65)

110.08(10.59)


CDParticulars Sem

1% 5%CV (%)

Warp-way 0.52 2.23 1.59 1.17Weft-way 0.52 2.23 1.59 1.08

Cloth recovery 0.37 1.59 1.13 0.79


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A trend of increasing values were observed in cloth creased recovery per cent whensamples were treated with crease resistant finish. The recovery per cent (99.53%) was lowestat control.

The one way ANOVA indicated that the both samples treated with crease resistantfinish at 10minutesand 20minutesshowed significant increase in warp-way and weft-waycrease recovery at 1 per cent level and also its corresponding cloth crease recovery.

4.1.1.7 Cloth dimensional stability (%)

Table 7 shows the effect of crease resistant treatment on the dimensions of naturallycolour linted cotton khadi samples. The per cent shrinkage of the treated sample is found tobe lower than their control. There was absolutely no change in the warp-way dimensions onfinishing (3.17%). However change in weft-way dimension was observed i.e., 0.56 per cent for10 minutes and 0.41 per cent for 20 minutes treatment time whereas, control value was 0.89per cent.

In general it may be stated that on application of crease resistant finish the samplesshowed no change in warp-way dimension with slight change in weft way.

The simple CRD test indicated that there was slight shrinkage in samples treated withcrease resistant finish at 10 minutes and 20 minutes in weft direction, which was found to benon-significant, compared to its control.

4.1.2 Functional properties4.1.2.1 Cloth elongation (%)

Table 8 depicts the elongation per cent of test samples. In general, the warp-wayelongation was higher than weft-way. However, there was decrease in the warp-wayelongation with increase in treatment time (15.38%, 10 min and 15.13%, 20 min) compared tocontrol (16.07%).

Table 7: Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth dimensional stability (%)

Cloth shrinkage (%)Sl.No.

Sample Treatment time(Min) Warp-way Weft-way

1. Control -- 3.17 0.8910 0.00 0.562. Crease resistant finished

fabrics 20 0.00 0.41

CDParticulars SEm

1% 5%CV (%)

Warp-way 0.23 0.98 0.70 36.49Weft-way 0.19 0.81 0.58 61.39

Table 8: Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth elongation (%)

Cloth elongation (%)Sl.No.


1. Control -- 16.07 9.1310 15.38 8.862. Crease resistant finished

fabrics 20 15.13 8.52

CDParticulars SEm

1% 5%CV (%)

Warp-way 0.54 2.32 1.65 7.85Weft-way 0.34 1.46 1.04 8.69


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Similarly a descending trend of cloth elongation (%) was found in weft direction(8.86% for 10min and 8.52% for 20min) of treated samples compared to its control, 9.13 percent.

The simple CRD test indicated that there was meager decrease in elongation percentin warp and weft direction of samples treated at 10 minutes and 20 minutes, which werefound to be non-significant.

4.1.2.2 Cloth tensile strength (kgf)

Table 9 reflects on tensile strength of control and sample treated with crease resistantfinish. Among all the test samples greater tensile strength in warp-way observed at control(36.62 kgf). Whereas, samples with crease resistant finish showed reduction in warp-waytensile strength by 1.78 per cent (35.98kgf) and 4.24 per cent (35.13kgf) for 10 minutes and20 minutes, respectively.

Similar trend of results were observed in weft-way tensile strength i.e. the valueswere greater at control 26.46 kgf and gradually decreased by 3.72 per cent for 10 minutes(25.51kgf) and 7.65 per cent (24.51kgf) for 20 minutes treatment time when applied withcrease resistant finish.

From simple CRD test it is clear that, there is a slight decrease in the tensile strength

of the crease resistant finished naturally coloured cotton khadi fabric at 10 minutes and 20minutes and was found to be non-significant.

4.1.2.3 Cloth tear strength (g)

It is evident from Table 10 that the control sample showed greater tear strength thanthe treated samples i.e., on treatment with crease resisting agents, the fabric showeddecrease in warp-way tear strength, 0.25 per cent (2713g) and 0.58 per cent (2704g) whentreated for 10 minutes and 20 minutes respectively, compared to control (2720g). The weft-way tensile strength in treated samples also showed s trend of decrease in values.

Table 9: Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth tensile strength (kgf)

Cloth tensile strength (kgf)Sl.

No.

Sample Treatment time

(Min) Warp-way Weft-way1. Control -- 36.62 26.46

10 35.98(-1.78)

25.51(-3.72)


20 35.13(-4.24)

24.58(-7.65)

Figures and parenthesis indicate percentage

CDParticulars SEm

1% 5%CV (%)

Warp-way 1.86 7.99 5.71 11.57Weft-way 1.53 6.57 4.69 13.13

However, per cent loss in tear strength was more in weft direction (0.32%, 10 min

0.58%, 20 min) than warp (0.25%, 10 min and 0.58%, 20 min) on application of creaseresistant finish.

The simple CRD test indicated that decrease in tear strength was observed in all thetest samples treated with crease resistant finish both in warp and weft direction however thisdecrease was found to be non-significant.


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4.1.2.4 Cloth abrasion resistance (cycles)

Table 11 reveals about cloth abrasion resistance of the selected naturally colourlinted khadi samples. Higher resistance to abrasion (267 cycles) was observed at control (267cycles) followed by 243 cycles and 219 cycles for the samples treated at 10 minutes and 20minutes respectively.

Further, it is noticed that loss in thickness (%) of abraded samples was found greaterwhen resin (crease resistant agent) treated (17.96%, 10 min and 19.21%, 20 min) comparedto control (13.62%). Reduction in mass on crease resistant, increased with increase intreatment time i.e. 2.57 per cent for 10minutesand 2.68 per cent for 20 minutes.

From simple CRD test it is clear that, there is a significant increase in the loss inthickness of treated sample at 1 per cent level, but loss in mass was found to be non-significant when crease resistant treatment is given for 10 minutes and increased significantlyat 5 per cent level when treatment is given for 20 minutes.

Table 10: Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth tear strength (g)

Cloth tear strength (g)Sl.No.


1. Control -- 2720 3070

10 2713(-0.25)

3060(-0.32)


20 2704(-0.58)

3052(-0.58)


CDParticulars SEm

1% 5%CV (%)

Warp-way 129.71 557.75 398.20 9.44Weft-way 35.65 153.29 109.44 2.67

Table 11: Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth abrasion resistance (cycles)

Sl.No.

SampleTreatmenttime (Min)

No. of cyclesLoss in

thickness(%)

Loss in mass(%)

1. Control -- 267 13.62 2.4410 243 17.96 2.262. Crease resistant finished

fabrics 20 219 19.21 2.79

CDParticulars SEm

1% 5%CV (%)

Loss in thickness 0.28 1.20 0.85 5.49Loss in mass 0.11 0.47 0.33 11.14

From simple one-way ANOVA it is clear that crease resistant finished samplesshowed increase in drape coefficient but it was found to be non-significant.

4.1.2.5 Cloth drapability (%)

Table 12 narrates on the drape quality of the control and enzyme finished testsamples. It is noticed from this table that naturally colour linted cotton khadi fabric treated withcrease resistant finish showed poor drapability with relatively higher drape co-efficient(79.83%, 10 min and 80.25%, 20 min) compared to its control i.e. 79.00 per cent. The drapequality of the fabric can also be expressed in term of nodes i.e. greater the number of nodes


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better is the drapability. From this table it is evident that, number of nodes unaltered after thecrease resistant finish though there was slight increase in the drape coefficient value. Fromthese percentage values it may be stated that crease resistant finish slightly altered the drapequalities of the naturally colour linted cotton khadi fabrics.

4.1.2.6 Cloth pilling (Ratings)

Table 13 shows the resistance of test samples for pilling. Among the test samples,control and crease resistant fabric samples with treatment time of 10 minutesexhibited slight pilling with rating 2 moderate pilling with rating 3, whereas the treated samplefor 30 minutes showed relatively low pilling i.e., slight but tolerate pilling with rating 2.

Table 12: Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth drapability (%)

Sl.No.


(Min)No. of nodes

Drapeco-efficient (%)

1. Control -- 5 79.0010 5 79.832. Crease resistant finished

fabrics 20 5 80.25

CDParticulars SEm 1% 5% CV (%)

Drapeco-efficient

1.56 6.70 4.78 4.34

The simple CRD test indicated that, there is no change in pilling ratings of creaseresistant finished test samples at 10 minutes treatment time, while significant decrease inpilling ratings was observed at 1 per cent level when treated for 20 minutes compared to itscontrol.

4.2 Physical properties of naturally coloured cotton khadi fabrictreated with enzymatic finish

4.2.1 Mechanical properties4.2.1.1 Yarn count (Ne)

Table 14 represents the yarn count of the samples treated with enzymatic treatment.In general weft was relative finer then warp enzyme treated samples was relative finer that is24s (14.28%) and 25s (19.04%) for 30 minutes and 60 minutes respectively, compared tocontrol (21s).

On the other hand there was slight increase in the weft yarn count by 8.00 per cent(27s) and 10.71 per cent (28s) for 30 minutes and 60 minutes, respectively with respect tocorresponding control values (25s).

The CRD test indicated that the naturally coloured cotton khadi fabric treated withenzymatic finish at 30 minutes and 60 minutes showed significant increase in warp yarn count

at 1 per cent level, but weft yarn count slightly increased when treated for 30 minutes. Furtherthe values were highly significant (1%) level when enzymatic treatment was given for 60minutes.


Table 15 reveals about the cloth count of enzyme treated test samples. Theenzymatic treatment enhanced the density of the warp and weft, however this enhancementwas more in warp direction when enzymatically treated for 60 minutes (47) compared to 30minutes (44) treatment time, where the control was 43.


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Table 13: Effect of crease resistant finish on cloth pilling (Ratings)

Sl.

No.Sample Treatment time (Min) Cloth pilling (Ratings)

1. Control -- 3

10 32. Crease resistant finished

fabrics 20 2

CDParticulars SEm

1% 5%CV (%)

Cloth pilling 0.22 0.94 0.67 20.72

Ratings

1 No Pilling

2 Slight but tolerable pilling

3 Moderate pilling of borderline line accepted

4 Severe pilling

5 Extremely high pilling

On contrary, there was not much increase in weft density of enzyme treated samples (30 minand 60 min) i.e. the increase was 31 and 32 respectively compared to control, 30.

The simple CRD test indicated that no significant increase in warp-way and weft-waycloth count in enzyme treated samples at 30 minutes was noticed, while sample for 60minutes treatment time showed slight but non-significant increase in warp-way cloth countand significant increase at 5 per cent level in weft-way cloth count.


Table 16 depicts about the cloth weight of control and enzymatically finishedsamples. Test samples showed decrease in cloth weight 12.62g and 12.22g when enzymatictreatment was given for 30 minutes and 60 minutes respectively.

Further, it was observed from the same table that warp percentage of all the samples

was higher than weft. Maximum warp percentage was observed in control (61.035) sampleand minimum when the sample finished for 30 minutes.

From simple on way ANOVA it is clear that significant decrease in cloth weight wasobserved in naturally colour linted khadi fabric samples treated with enzymatic finish attreatment time 30 minutes and 60 minutes compared to its control.


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Naturally coloured cotton khadi fabric (Control)

Crease resistant finished naturally colored cotton khadi fabric (10min)

Crease resistant finished naturally colored cotton khadi fabric (20min)


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Table 14: Effect of enzymatic finish on yarn count (Ne)

Yarn count (Ne)Sl.No.


(Min) Warp Weft1. Control -- 21s 25s

30 24s(14.28)

27s(8.00)

2. Enzyme finished fabrics

60 25s(19.04)

28s(10.71)


CDParticulars SEm

1% 5%CV (%)

Warp 0.63 2.70 1.93 5.9Weft 0.70 3.01 2.14 5.9

Table 15: Effect

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